THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
vingObvi
ift bldlt).
THE POPULAR AND CRITICAL
Bible Encyclopedia
AND
SCRIPTURAL DICTIONARY
FULLY DEFINING AND EXPLAINING ALL RELIGIOUS TERMS
INCLUDING
Biographical, Geographical, Historical
Archaeological and Doctrinal Themes
Superbly III ustr tied with Over 600 Maps and Engravings
EDITED BY
RT. REV. SAMUEL FALLOWS, A. M., D. D., LL. D.
VOLUME J I
CHICAGO
THE HOWARD-SEVERANCE COMPANY
Copyright, 1901,
BY
J. Mitchell Howard
Copyright, 1904,
BY
J. Mitchell Howard
THIS WORK IS SUPPLIED ONLY THROUGH AmHORIZED CANVASSERS.
BOOKSELLERS CANNOT OBTAIN IT.
FABLE
646
FAIRS
FABLE (fa'b'l), (Gr, iiieos, moo'thos ; Lat./a6u/a)
parable.
Fable is a form of narrative in which plants
and animals, or even lifeless objects, are repre-
sented as endowed with some of the attributes of
man, as the gift of speech and rational action.
Sometimes the fable is designed to teach moral
and practical truths, and sometimes only to in-
terest and entertain. Neandcr, Life of Christ,
thus distinguishes between the parable and fable:
"The parable is distinguished from the fable by
this, that in the latter qualities or acts of a higher
class of beings may be attributed to a lower, e. g.,
those of men to brutes ; while in the former the
lower sphere is kept perfectly distinct from that
which it seems to illustrate. The beings and pow-
ers thus introduced always follow the law of their
nature, but their acts, according to this law, are
used to figure those of a higher race."
To illustrate: What the fable relates is not
real and cannot occur, as trees speaking (Judg. i.x :
8) ; while that which the parable relates may and
does take place, as the sower sowing seed in soil
of various degrees of productiveness (Matt, xiii:
3). The fable was often used in ancient heathen
as in modern Christian literature. In the Bible
there is only one fable (Judg. ix:7-i5), where
Jotham represents the trees as seeking a king and
asking, one by one, the olive and others to reign
over them, till the bramble finally consents. This
is often erroneously called a parable.
Fables are referred to in the New Testament as
inventions, falsehoods (2 Pet. i:i6); and in
I Tim. i :4, etc., as "cunningly devised " or foolish
systems and opinions, etc.
FACE (fas),(Heb. ^'^f.paw-neem').
(1) Face, in Scripture, is often used to denote
presence in the general sense, and, when applied
to the Almighty, denotes such a complete mani-
festation of the divine presence, by sound or
sight, as was equivalent, in the vividness of the
impression, to the seeing of a fellow-creature
'face to face.' The 'face of God' therefore denotes
in Scripture any thing or manner by which God
is wont to manifest himself to man. Thus, when
it is said that Adam and Eve hid themselves from
'the face of Jehovah,' we understand that they
hid themselves from his presence, however mani-
fested ; for pauiiecm not only signifies presence,
as well as (literally) face, but is the very word for
presence, however manifested. There is no other
word to denote presence in the Hebrew language.
Whenever 'presence' occurs in our translation,
the word in the original is the same which is ren-
dered 'face' in other places.
(2) It was a very ancient and common opinion
that our mortal frame could not survive the
more sensible manifestations of the Divine pres-
ence, or 'see God face to face and live' (Gen.
xxxii:3o), hence, in this passage, the gratitude
and astonishment of Jacob that he still lived
after God had manifested himself to him more
sensibly than by dreams and visions. This im-
pression was confirmed to Moses, who was told,
'Thou canst not see my face : no man can see
my face and live' (Exod. xxxiii:20); which
clearly signifies that no one can in this present
state of being endure the view of that glory which
belongs to Him (I Cor. xiii:i2; i Pet. iii:i2; Rev.
xxll:4).
(3) The physical manifestations of the Divine
presence appear to have been made through the
.•\ngel of whom it is said "My name is in him"
(Exod. xxiii:2i; xiv:i9). We are to bear in
mind that God is usually represented to us in
Scripture under a human form ; and it is indeed
difficult for even more spirituali;;cd minds than
those of the Hebrews to conceive of Him apart
from the form and attributes of the highest na-
ture actually known to us. The Scripture sanc-
tions this concession to the weakness of our in-
tellect, and hence arise the anthropomorphous
phrases which speak of the face, the eyes, the arm
of God. The appearances of the angels in the Old
Testament times were generally in the human
form (Judg. xiii :6, etc) ; and from this cause
alone it would have been natural, in the imagina-
tion, to transfer the form of the messengers to
Him by whom they were sent. (See Anthro-
pomorphism.)
("1) God's "face" is used to express his favor
and love, and the gracious displays thereof: this is
always meant when his face is said to "shine,"
or it is represented as a mercy to behold and
enjoy it or a misery to be deprived of it (2 Cluon.
XXX :9; Ps. xxxi:l6; lxx.x:7; Dan. ix:l7).
It is used also to denote wrath, and the prov-
idential display thereof (Ps. xxxiv:i6).
(5) Christ's "face" denotes : (l) His person and
office as the image of the invisible God (2 Cor
iv:6). (2) His gracious, glorious, or terrible
appearances (Rev. xx:il).
FACES. BBEAD OF (fas'Sz, brgd 6v), is the
shewbread which was always in the presence of
God. (See Shekinah.)
FAIN (fan), (Gr. iin6v)Uia, ep-ee-thoo-meh'o, from
Bviiiw, to breathe hard), to have earnest longings,
hence to set the heart upon, desire (Luke xv:i6).
It thus properly means glad or gladly, as John
xii:2i; Tyndale, "\Ve wolde faync se Jesus." But
the commonest meaning has always been 'glad
under the circumstances," and that is its meaning
in A. v.; Job xxvii:22 'he would fain flee out of
his hand.' (Hastings' Bib. Did.)
YAIR (far), (Heb. "^''i, taw'horc, Zech. iii:5),
pure; clean in a physical, ceremonial or moral
sense.
It also is used for beautiful (Acts vii:2o) and
for plausible (Gal. vi:I2).
FAIK HAVENS (fSr ha'v'nz), (Gr. KoXol
\iiUw, kal-oy' lee-men'es, good harbors), a harbor
or roadstead of Crete, the unsafeness of which to
winter in occasioned that attempt to make for
Phenicc, on the other side of the island, which led
to the eventual loss of the vessel in which Paul
sailed for Rome (.\cts xxvii:8).
.■\s the name of Kaloi Limenes is still preserved,
there is no difficulty in fixing the situation to a
small b.ny a little to llio northeast of Cape Leon,
the present Cape Matala. (Smith, Voyage and
.9/ii/.:.r,-fi(.- of St. I'aul. ?d /:"(/.. pp. So ff . ; Cony-
luare and Howson, Life and llpistles of St. Paul,
ii :.^20).
FAIRS (farz), (Heb. C^'^ty^ is-zeh-bowneem',
Ezek. xxvii:i2, 33).
57XOoO.««*
FAITH
646
FAITH
This word is found only in Ezekiel, and does
not mean fairs, but wares, as tlie R. V. renders it,
and as the A. V. has it in verse 33-
lAITH (taih),(t^T.irl<rTis, pis'/is), belief, trust-
especially in a higher power.
"(1) General. Faith in every language, spoken
by Christian, Jew, or Mohammedan, seems every-
where to convey the fundamental ideas of 'fixed-
ness, stability, steadfastness, reliability.' What
the ultimate conception is which underlies these
ideas remains somewhat doubtful, but it would
appear to be rather that of 'holding' than that of
'supporting' (although this last is the sense
adopted in Oxf. Hch. Lex.).
(2) Old Testament. The extreme rarity of the
noun 'faith' in the Old Testament may prepare us
to note that even the verb 'to believe' is far from
common in it. In a religious application it occurs
in only some thirteen Old Testament books, and
less than a score and a half times. But the prin-
was a religion of faith in a far more specific sense
than this, and that not merely because faith was
more consciously its foundation, but because its
very essence consisted in faith, and this faith
was the same radical self-commitment to God,
not merely as the highest good of the holy soul,
but as the gracious Savior of the sinner, which
meets us as the characteristic feature of the re-
ligion of the New Testament. Between the faith
of the two Testaments there exists, indeed, no fur-
ther difference than that which the progress of
the historical working out of redemption brought
with it.
(3) New Testament. The word in the New
Testament denotes: (i) The truth of the gospel
of Christ and the kingdom of God (Acts vi:7;
xxiv :24 ; Rom. i:5; Gal. i :23 ; Phil. i:27; I Tim.
iii:9; Jude, ver. 3), "the faith which was once de-
livered to the saints," for the truth and faithful-
ness of God (Rom. iii:3), and for the persuasion
Fair Havens of Crete.
ciple is there designated by other terms, such as
to "look" to God (Is. xlv:22), to "wait on" him
(Ps. xxvii:i4), and to "trust" in him (Nah.
17).
Abraham is "the father of the faithful," because
unbounded trust in God was the very essence
of his piety. (Comp. Rom. iv:i). Paul derives
the theme of his Epistle to the Romans from the
passage of Habakkuk: "The just shall live by
faith" (Rom. i:l7; comp. Hab. ii:4). The Epistle
to the Hebrews gives a bright catalogue of the
heroes of faith under the old dispensation (xi:
■ «)• . .
To believe in God, in the Old Testament sense,
is thus not merely to assent to his word, but
with firm and unwavering confidence to rest in
security and trustfulness upon him.
Despite the in frequency of the occurrence on its
pages of the terms 'faith,' 'to believe,' the religion
of the Old Testament is thus obviously as funda-
mentally a religion of faith as is that of the New
Testament. There is a sense, to be sure, in which
all religion presupposes faith (Heb. .xi:6), and in
this broad sense the religion of Israel, too, neces-
sarily rested on faith. But the religion of Israel
of the mind as to the lawfulness of things in-
different (Rom. xiv:22, 23).
(2) The act by which we lay hold of and ap-
propriate the truths of the gospel and Jesus
Christ, and rely for salvation upon the work
done by him in our stead. This is the prevailing
sense of the word (Matt. viii:ro; John iii:i6;
Rom. i:i6, etc.; and all through John and the
Pauline Epistles).
(4) Saving Faith, (i) In the breadth of its
idea, faith is thus the going out of the heart from
itself and its resting on God in confident trust
for all good. But the scriptural revelation has
to do with, and is directed to the needs of, not
man in the abstract, but sinful man; and for sin-
ful man this hearty reliance on God necessarily
becomes humble trust in him for the fundamental
need of the sinner — forgiveness of sins and re-
ception into favor. In response to the revelations
of his grace and the provisions of his mercy
it commits itself without reserve and with ab-
negation of all self-dependence to him as its
sole and sufficient Savior, and thus, in one act,
empties itself of all claim on God and casts it-
self uiion his grace alone for salvation.
FAITHFULNESS
647
FALCON
(2) This appears to be the plain scriptural
representation of this doctrine ; and we may infer
from it (a) that the faith by which we are jus-
tified is not a mere assent to the doctrines of
the gospel, which leaves the heart unmoved and
unaffected by a sense of the evil and danger of
sin and the desire of salvation, although it sup-
poses this assent; nor (b) is it that more lively
and cordial assent to, and belief in, the doc-
trine of the gospel, touching our sinful and lost
condition, which is wrought in the heart by the
Spirit of God, and from which springelh re-
pentance, although this must precede it ; nor (c)
is it only the assent of the mind to the method
by which God justifies the ungodly by faith in
the sacrifice of his Son, although this is an ele-
ment of it ; but it is (d) a hearty concurrence of the
will and affections with this plan of salvation,
which implies a renunciation of every other ref-
uge, and an actual trust in the Savior, and
personal appropriation of his merit; such a belief
of the gospel by the power of the Spirit of God
as leads us to come to Christ, to receive Christ,
to trust in Christ, and to commit the keeping
of our souls into his hands, in humble confidence
of his ability and his willingness to save us.
Faith therefore apprehends Christ, and takes
actual hold of him and all his benefits. Hence
he who believes in Christ has already eternal life
(John iii:36).
(3) By faith we "put on" Christ. It is by faith
that we are justified, and not by works. The
work of salvation was all accomplished when the
Savior uttered the words. "It is finished."
The saving potuen of faith resides thus not in
itself, but in the Almighty Savior on whom it
rests. It is never on account of its formal nature
as a psychic act that faith is conceived in Scrip-
ture to be saving — as if this frame of mind or
attitude of heart were itself a virtue with claims
on God for reward, or at least especially pleasing
to him (either in its nature or as an act of
obedience), and thus predisposing him to favor,
or as if it brought the soul into an attitude of
receptivity or of sympathy with God, or opened
a channel of communication from him. It is
not faith that saves, but faith in Jesus Christ ;
faith in any other savior, or in this or that phil-
osophy or human conceit (Col, ii:i6. 18: I Tim.
iv:i), or in any other gospel than that of Jesus
Christ and him as crucified (Gal. i :8, 9), brings
not salvation, but a curse. It is not, strictly speak-
ing, even faith in Christ that saves, but Christ
that saves through faith. The saving power re-
sides exclusively, not in the act of faith or the
attitude of faith, or the nature of faith, but in
the object of faith; and in this the whole biblical
representation centers, so that we could not more
radically misconceive it than by transferring to
faith even the smallest fraction of that saving
energy which is attributed in the Scriptures solely
to Christ himself.
(4) But a living faith will be accompanied by
works, as much as a rose must diffuse perfume,
and a good tree bring forth good fruit. As our
Lord said, "Thy faith hath made thee whole,"
so Paul says, "By grace are ye saved through
faith ; and that not of yourselves ; it is the gift
of God" (Eph. ii:8).
But "faith without works is dead" (James ii :
26). Faith is operative in love (Gal. v:6).
B. B. Warfield. Hastings' Bib. Diet.; Schaff,
Rib. Diet. Sec works on systematic theology.
FAITHFTTLNESS (fa h'ful-nfs), (Heb. '^j"''^?^'
em-oo-nanv' , faithfulness, stability).
(1) Faithfulness is a divine attribute, and de-
notes the certainty of the accomplishment of all
that the Divine Being has declared, in the promises
which he has made to his people, (i) In re-
spect to temporal blessings (l Tim. iv:8; Ps.
lxxxiv:ii; Is. xxxiii:i6>. (2) To spiritual bless-
ings (I Cor. i :9) : In supporting them in tempta-
tion (i Cor. x: 13) ; encouraging them under perse-
cution (i Pet. iv:l2, 13; Is. xli:io); sanctifying
affliclions (Heb. xii:4-l2); directing Ihcm in
difficulties (i Thess. v:24); enabling them to
persevere (Jer. xxxi:40); bringing them to
glory (I John ii:25). (Buck, Theolug. Diet.)
(2) Faithfulness is also used regarding men:
"He was a faithful man" (Hebrew, trustworthy,
reliable (Neh. vii:2); "who then is that faithful
(trusty) and wise steward?" (Luke xii 142, etc.)
"The Faithful" was the general and favorite
name in the early Church to denote baptized per-
sons and specifically applied to them, as distin-
guished from the clergy, catechumens, penitents,
and sinners.
FAITHLESS (fath'lfis), (Or. tnrros, apis-tos.
Matt. xvii:i7; John xx:27), disbelieving, or \ ith-
out Christian faith, with special reference to the
heathen.
FAITH, BTTIiE OF (fath. rul 6v). In the
early Church the summary of doctrines taught to
catechumens, and to which they were obliged to
subscribe before baptism. It was afterward ap-
plied to the Apostles Creed.
(1) Protestant Doctrine. One of the chief
doctrinal elements of the Reformation was the
sufficiency of the Scriptures for faith and salva-
tion.
(2) Roman Catholic. The teaching of the
Roman Catholic Church is contained in the Cate-
chism of the Council of Trent, which, in the
Preface, declares that "all the doctrines of Chris-
tianity in which the faithful are to be instructed
are derived from the word of God, which includes
Scriptures and tradition."
FAITH, THE CHRISTIAN. To those who
receive the light, in the sense of not refusing
it, revelation is one whole, and all its glorious
system of truth is received and surely believed.
To them it is both objectively and subjectively
the faith ; and, inasmuch as Christianity has
brought it in all fullness into the world, it is
to them the Christian faith. This phrase has
therefore a larger meaning. It signifies that it is
not their philosophy simply, the glory of their
reason, the tradition they have derived from
their fathers, but the rich inheritance which the
Holy Spirit has given to that one supreme faculty
of their souls, the faith which is the evidence of
things not seen. It is a body of truth which, as
reason did not give it, so reason cannot fake it
away. It is a region in which they walk by faith,
which their faith habitually visits, in which their
faith lives, and moves, and has its being" (Pope.
Compend. Christian Theol., p. 45). (Quoted in
Barnes' Bib. Cyc.)
FALCON (fa'kn).
A diurnal bird of prey Other than a vulture.
The family includes among its genera falcons
strictly so called, hawks, kites, eagles. The word
is used in R. V. to render the Hebrew '.-fvvd/i
(Job xxviii 7 ; in A. V. vulture), an unclean
bird (Lev. xi:i4; Deut. xiv:i3; in A. V. kite).
Several varieties are mentioned by Tristram as
occurring in Palestine; the hobby hawk (Faico
subbulco). the red-legged hobby (F. vesferlinus),
the Eleanora falcon (A eleanorce). (See Vul-
ture.)
FALL OF MAN
648
FAMILY
ITAT.T. OF MAN (fal 6v man). A theological
term which denotes the loss of those perfections
and that happiness which his Maker bestowed on
him at his creation, through transgression of a posi-
tive command, given fur the trial of man's obedi-
ence, and as a token of his holding everything of
God, as lord paramount of the creation, with the
use of everything in it, exclusive of the fruit of
one tree.
(1) Account in Genesis. The account in
Genesis is that a garden having been planted by
the Creator, for the use of man, he was placed
in it, "to dress it, and to keep it ;' that in this
garden two trees were specially distinguished,
one as "the tree of life," the other as "the tree of
the knowledge of good and evil ;" that from
eating of the latter Adam was restrained by posi-
tive interdict, and by the penalty, "In the day
thou eatest thereof, thou shaft surely die;" that
the serpent, who was more subtle than any beast
of the field, tempted the woman to eat, by denying
that death would be the consequence, and by as-
surmg her that her eyes and her husband's eyes
"would be opened," and that they would "be as
gods, knowmg good and evil ;" that the woman
took of the fruit, gave of it to her husband, who
also ate ; that for this act of disobedience they
were expelled from the garden, made subject
to death, and laid under other maledictions.
(2) Varied Interpretations. The character
of the primitive record in Genesis has been the
subject of much discussion. Some have contended
that the account is purely literal ; others, that it
is figurative, poetic, or allegorical ; still others,
rationalistic or semirationalistic, relegate the
whole matter to the realm of the mythical. This
last view, of course, cannot be consistently held
by anyone who accepts the Scriptures as of divine
authority.
It must be admitted that the account leaves
room for many questions both as to its forrn and
its meaning in relation to incidental details. But
still the great, underlying, essential facts are
sufificiently clear, especially when the account is
taken in connection with other Scriptures. They
are as follows (Barnes' Bib. Diet.) :
Those holding the orthodox view maintain that
the account of Moses is to be taken as a matter
of real history, and according to its literal im-
port.
It is claimed that this is established by two
considerations, against which, as being facts,
nothing can successfully be urged, (i) The
first is that the account of the fall of the first
pair is a part of a continuous history. Either,
then, the account of the fall must be taken as
history, or the historical character of the whole
five books of Moses must be unsettled. (2) The
second consideration, as establishing the literal
sense of the history, is that, as such, it is re-
ferred to and reasoned upon in various parts of
Scripture (Job xx.4. 5; xxxi 133 ; xv:i4).
"Eden" and "the garden of the Lord" are also
frequently referred to in the prophets. We have
the "tree of life" mentioned several times in the
Proverbs and in the Revelation. "God." says
Solomon, "made man upright." The enemies of
Christ and his church are spoken of, both in
the Old and New Testaments, under the names
of "the serpent," and "the dragon ;" and the habit
of the serpent to lick the dust is also referred to
liy Isaiah.
If the history of the fall, as recorded by Moses,
were an allegory, or anything but a literal history,
several of the above allusions would have no
meaning; but the matter is put beyond all possi-
ble doubt in the New Testament, unless the same
culpable liberties be taken with the interpretation
of the words of our Lord and of St. Paul as
with those of the Jewish lawgiver (Matt. xix:4;
5; I Cor. xv:22; 2 Cor. xi:3; i Tim. ii:i3, 14;
Rom. v:i2-i9). (3) When, therefore, it is con-
sidered that these passages are introduced, not
for rhetorical illustration, or in the way of classi-
cal quotation, but are made the basis of grave and
important reasonings, which embody some of the
most important doctrines of the Christian revela-
tion, and of important social duties and points
of Christian order and decorum, it would be to
charge the writers of the New Testament with
the grossest absurdity, nay, with even culpable
and unworthy trifling, to suppose them to argue
from the history of the fall as a narrative, when
they knew it to be an allegory. (4) By the act
of disobedience of our first parents "sin entered
into the world and death by sin." Shame and
alienation from God were the first visible conse-
quences. The image of God, which contained
among its features "righteousness and true holi-
ness," was marred and broken, though not com-
pletely lost. (See Image of God.) Expulsion
from Eden followed. The ground was cursed on
account of sin. Sorrow and toil and struggle
with the evil in human nature became the lot of
mankind. (For a full presentation of the subject
see Adam. For distinctively doctrinal, Calvinis-
tic and Arminian views, see Predestination.)
FALLOW DEER (fal'16 der), a wrong render-
ing of Heb. ''''^'yi, yai/i-pioor' , Deut. xiv:5; i Kings
iv:23), which is correctly rendered by R. V. "roe-
buck." (See Roebuck.)
FALLOW GBOXTND (fal'16 ground), (Heb. I'P.
fleer), a field plowed up and left for seeding; as
summer fallow, intelligently carried on, is a sure
methodof destroying weeds (Jer. iv;3; Hos. x;l2).
FALLOW YEAB (yer). See Sabbath.
FALSE CHRISTS (fals krists), (Gr. ^<rei/S<x-
piffToi, psyoo-dokh' ris-toi), those who falsely claim
to be Messiah: foretold by Jesus (Matt. xxiv;24;
Mark xiii:22).
FALSE PROPHET (fals prof et), a pseudo-
prophet pretending to be sent from God, a false
teacher (Matt. vii:i5; xxiv:i I, 24, etc.) "The false
prophet" (Rev. xvi:i3) is used for the second
"beast," the mythological system of paganism.
FAMILIAR SPIRIT (fa-mn'yer spir'it), (Heb.
D'iX, obe).
The spirit of a dead person which professed
mediums claimed to summon to consultation
(Deut. ,xviii:ll), and which appeared to speak
from the earth (Is. xxix:4), or to dwell in
the controlling medium (Lev. xx 127, in Hebrew).
The medium was called the possessor or lord
of a spirit (I Sam. xxviii 7, in Hebrew). (See
Divination.)
FAMILY (family).
(1) The idea of the family in Greece was that
of the nucleus of society or of the state. The
idea of the Christian family, on the contrary
(Eph. iii:l5), is a communion resting on an
ethico-religious foundation, and forming the
closest of all human relationships. It is a copy
of the highest and most perfect union, that of
the church with Christ, its head. (McC. and Str.
Bih. Cyc.)
(2) The influence of the Christian religion upon
the customs and habits of family life was vep'
considerable, even from the first ; although it did
not aim at making any abrupt or sudden changes,
except in those things which were necessarily
sinful.
FAMILY
649
FAMINE
l.'he great Christian doctrines which so power-
fully affect the feelings, hopes, and whole inner
life of those who heartily receive them, led at
once to the renunciation of idolatry in all its
forms, and of the excesses and licentiousnesses
then so common and so little thought of; and
inculcated ndw principles of thought and action,
which operated more or less powerfully in every
direction. But the ordinary usages of domestic
life, which were not directly connected with the
religious and moral obliquities of the old poly-
theism, were apparently left untouched by any
positive interference or command. Christianity
proved itself the salt of the earth by gradually
interpenetrating the surrounding mass of pagan
civilization, and not by shrinking from all con-
tact with it.
The elevation of the female sex was one of the
most conspicuous of the indirect results which
rapidly followed the reception of the new reli-
gion. The position of women among the Jews,
and the manner in which Jesus had received them
as his disciples and friends, must have taught the
apostles, if they needed any such teaching, what
place women were entitled to hold in the social
economy of the church. And accordingly,
wherever Christ was proclaimed, women were
invited and welcomed into the Christian commu-
nities, and were admitted equally with men to all
Christian privileges. Hence in a Christian family
the wife and mother held an honorable place ;
and the conjugal union, the source of all other
family relationships, being thus honored, com-
municated a happy influence throughout the
household.
(3) Before Christianity became the prevailing
and established religion, families were in continual
danger of being molested by popular violence,
and of being utterly broken up in times of legal-
ized persecution. But, besides these dangers and
troubles, there were sometimes others hardly less
painful within the family itself, when only a part
of the household had become Christians. The
antagonism and consequent discomfort, if not pos-
itive misery, must then have been almost per-
petual ; and the difficulty of maintaining religious
faithfulness, without losing family affection or
breaking family ties, must have been very great.
Jesus himself had warned his disciples before-
hand that "a man's foes might be those of his own
household;" and that his religion, in such a case,
might bring "not peace but a sword." St. Paul,
while desirous that this difference of religion
should not actually separate a husband and wife,
admitted that it would and must sometimes have
this effect. Tertullian (ad Uxor, ii 14) describes
in detail the sort of hindrances, opposition and
ridicule which a Christian woman must expect if
she married a husband who was an unbeliever;
and how impossible she would find it to fulfill in
peace, if siie could fulfill at all, her Christian du-
ties— even if nothing worse occurred. But in
times of persecution, or of any strong excitement
of anti-Christian feeling, it was not merely diffi-
culties and discomforts that had to be encoun-
tered. The strongest words of Christ weri then
often literally realized, when the most powerful
natural affections were shattered, and Christians
were betrayed and denounced by their nearest rel-
atives and given up to the persecutor's sword.
See an early instance of this in Justin Martyr,
^/>o/. ii :2.
(4) Parental obligations include the mainte-
nance of children (i Tim. 5:8) and their educa-
tion in its fullest sense (Exod. xii :26, 27; Deut.
vi:6. 7; Eph. vi :4).
The filial obligations are obedience (Luke 11:51 ;
Eph. vi:i; Col. iii:20). reverence (Exod. xx:i^,
comp. Eph. vi:i, 2), and grateful requital (i Tim.
v :4 ; comp. John .xix:26).
(5) The entire life of the Christian family is a
continuous act of worship in the more extended
sense of the term. Hence the importance of fam-
ily worship.
FAMINE (f4n>'rn\ (Heb. 3f' 5, raw-aw6'). We
have an account of at least eight families in Pales-
tine and the neighboring countries.
They were among the judgments of God for na-
tional sins, and were often prophetically an-
nounced. Two famines occurred in the lifetimes
of Abraham and Isaac (Gen. xii:io; xxvi:i);
another in Jacob's time (Gen. xli:56).
The first mention of a famine which occurs in
Scripture is in Gen. xii: 10, where we read that so
early as the days of the patriarch Abraham 'there
was a famine in the land,' which is described as
so grievous as to compel the father of the faithful
to quit Canaan. The country to which he resorted
was, as we might expect, the land of Egypt, the
early and lasting fertility of which is a well-
known historical fact. In Gen. xxvi:i this famine
is designated as 'the first,' that is, the first known,
or of which there was any record. The same
passage informs us of another famine, as stated
above, which afflicted 'the land' in the days of
Isaac, who seems to have contemplated a descent
into Egypt ; but who, being instructed of God, re-
moved to a part of Arabia Petraea (Gen. xxvi :I7),
named Gerar, a city of the Philistines, whose mon-
arch's name was Abimelech.
The famine in Egypt while Joseph was gov-
ernor lasted seven years. The ordinary cause of
dearth in Egypt is connected with the annual
overflow of the Nile. If the rise of the waters is
in any year below a certain standard, the country
affords scanty supplies of food, and may for the
greater part remain a desert. But more than lo-
cal causes must have been in operation in the case
before us ; for we are told that 'the famine was
sore in all lands,' that 'the famine was over all
the face of the earth.' By the foresight and wis-
dom of Joseph, however, provision against the
evil had been made in Egj'pt, while other coun-
tries were left to suffer the unmitigated conse-
quences of their neglect. The provision made by
Joseph must have been of a most abundant na-
ture, since the period during which the dearth
lasted was no less than seven years, and the peo-
ple of other parts sought and received supplies in
Egypt — 'all countries came in to Egypt to buy
corn.' Among other lands, Canaan suffered from
the famine ; which was the immediate occasion of
Jacob sending his sons down into Egypt, of the
discovery which they made of their lost brother,
and of the settlement in that land of the descend-
ants of Abraham, an event of the highest conse-
quence in the sequel, and serving to illustrate the
benignity and wisdom of Divine Providence in the
evils with which, under its influence, the world is
afflicted.
This famine was made by Joseph the occasion
of one of the greatest social revolutions which
history records. The details may be found in the
book of Genesis; and it is enough to say here
that, as the special administrator of the affairs of
the country, Joseph got into his hands all the
property of the kingdom, including the land, ex-
cepting that which belonged to the priests, and
gave the same back to the people as tenants at
will, on condition of their paying to the king 'the
fifth,' probably of the annual produce. (See Jo-
seph.)
Famines are mentioned in the time of the
FAN
650
FASTS, FASTING
judges (Ruth i:i), and in the time of King David
(2 Sam. xxi:i), but it is not until the time of
Elijah that any account is given of the failure of
the pasturage and springs. 'There shall not be
dew nor rain these years, but according to my
word' (l Kings xvii:i). 'And Ahab said unto
Obadiah: Go through the land, unto all the foun-
tains of water, and unto all the brooks; perad-
venture we may find grass and save the horses and
mules alive, that we lose not all the beasts'
(xviii.'S).
Several causes of famine are given: (i) God's
blessing withheld (Hos. ii;8, 9; Hag. i:6); (2) want
of seasonable rain (i Kings xvii:i; Jer. xiv:i-4;
Amos iv:7, s^.)
The most terrible results of famine related in
the Bible are due to the hand of man, and this
was well recognized by King David. 'And David
said unto Gad, I am in a great strait ; let us fall
now into the hand of the Lord, for his mercies
are great ; and let me not fall into the hand of
man' (2 Sam. xxiv:i4). 'And he shall eat the
fruit of thy cattle, and the fruit of thy ground,
until thou be destroyed; which also shall not leave
thee corn, wine or oil, the increase of thy kine, or
the young of thy flock, until he have caused thee
to perish' (Deut. xxviii:5i). 'And thou shall
eat the fruit of thine own body, the flesh of thy
sons, and of thy daughters, which the Lord thy
God hath given thee, in the siege, and in the
straitness, wherewith thine enemies shall straiten
thee' (verse 53). 'And there was a great famine
in Samaria, and, behold, they besieged it, until an
ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver,
and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for
five pieces of silver' (2 Kings vi:25). 'And she
answered. This woman said unto me. Give thy
son, that we may eat him to-day, and we will eat
my son to-morrow' (verse 28)-
Figurative. The prophets and our Lord him-
self use highly figurative language regarding fam-
ine, in their righteous endeavors to turn wicked
men and wicked nations from the evil of their
ways (Ezek. vi:n; Matt. xxiv:7). In Amos
viii:ii sq., a heavier woe than even the want of
bread is appropriately spoken of under the ap-
pellation of a famine : 'Behold, the days come,
saith the Lord God, that I will send a famine in
the land ; not a famine of bread nor a thirst for
water, but of hearing the word of the Lord ; and
they shall wander from sea to sea, and from the
north even to the east, they shall run to and fro
to seek the word of the Lord, and shall not find
it ; in that day shall the fair virgins and the young
men faint for thirst.' In Zeph. ii:ll it is sym-
bolical of the destruction of idols.
FAN (fan), (Heb. '"'^, zaw-raw' , to toss about;
•"1^?!?, miz-reh ; Or. itriav, ptoo'oti).
An instrument used in the East for winnowing
corn. Fans are. of two kinds — one a sort of fork,
having teeth, with which they throw up the corn
to the wind, that the chafif may be blown away;
the other is formed to produce wind when the air
is calm (Is. xxx:24; Luke iii:i7).
Figurative, (i) God's judgments are com-
pared to a fan; by these he turns up persons and
nations to the winds of his retributive provi-
dences, and scatters and disperses them for their
sins, and his thus scattering and overturning them
is called his fanning of them (Jer. xv:/; comp.
Is. XXX :24). (2) The Medes, Persians and
others, by whose means he executed his scatter-
ing and overturning judgments, are called fan-
ners (Jer. li:2). (3) Christ's fan is in his hand,
with which he a/z'// thoroughly purge his floor ;
by the gospel dispensation and spiritual influence
which he introduced, men were or shall be put
to the trial, and the evil be separated from the
good (Matt. iii:i2j.
FANNERS (fan'ners), (Heb. "lit, zoor, strangers),
rendering in the A. V. (Jer. li:2); but properly
"strangers," and so translated in the R. V.
FAKE (far), (Heb. Cib^_ shaw-lome', I Sam.
xvii:i8, welfare, prosperity; Gr. €i<pfialva, yoo-
frah-ee'no, Luke xvi:lg, to make glad, to make
merry).
FAKId. See Agriculture.
FARTHING (far'thing). Two names of coins in
the New Testament are thus translated: (i) Gr.
KoSpdi/TTjs, kod-raii'tace. Matt. v:26; Mark xii:42.
It was equivalent to two lepta (A. V. "mites").
Its value was about 3.8 mills. (2) Gr. do-irdpiov, as-
sar'ee-on. Matt. x:29; Luke xii:6. Its value is
estimated at three-fourths of a penny English
money, or one and a half cents of American. (See
Money.)
FASHION, FASHIONING (Gr. «5os, i'dos,
Luke ix:29). "The fashion of his countenance
was changed."
(1) Appearance. The appearance of a thing,
as Jas. i :24, Tyndale, 'For assone as he hath loked
on him silfe, he goeth his waye, and forgetteth
immediattlie what his fassion was.' So in A. V.,
Luke ix :29, as he prayed, the fashion of his counte-
nance was altered.' Especially denoting outward
visible appearance in contrast with inner reality,
as Shaks. Merch. of Venice, iv:i, 18 —
'Shylock, the world thinks, and I think so too,
That thou but leadst this fashion of thy malice
To the last hour of act; and then 'tis thought
Thou'lt show thy mercy and remorse more strange
Than is thy strange apparent cruelty.'
(2) Form, etc. And being found in fashion
as a man, he humbled himself, etc. (Phil. ii:8).
Fashion has here its original sense of make,
shape, form — a wider meaning than that which it
now bears.
FASTS, FASTING (fasts, fast'ing), (Heb. CIS,
tsoom,Xo cover \.\ie \noviXh; Gr. vriarevw, nace-tyoo'o,
to abstain), has, in all ages and among all nations,
been practiced in times of mourning, sorrow and
affliction.
It is in some sort inspired by nature, which,
under these circumstances, refuses nourishment,
and suspends the cravings of hunger. We see no
example of fasting, properly so called, before
Moses; whether the patriarchs had not observed
it, which yet is difficult to believe, since there
were great mournings among them, which are par-
ticularly described, as that of Abraham for Sarah,
and that of Jacob for Joseph, or whether he did
not think it necessary to mention it expressly, is
uncertain.
(1) Among the Israelites. It appears by the
law that devotional fasts for expiation of sins
were common among the Israelites. There seems,
however, no reason to doubt that 'to afflict the
soul' bore with it the meaning of fasting. To a
mere English reader the phrase seems to comprise
all kinds of voluntary mortifications, but 'soul' in
Hebrew not seldom denotes the 'appetite' (Prov.
xxvii:7). Accordingly the words regard imme-
diately abstinence from food, and most probably
(so far as they go) nothing more.
The sole fast required by Moses was on the
great day of annual atonement. This observance
seems always to have retained some prominence
as 'the fast' (Acts xxvii:9), but what the ob-
servance of the enjoined duty involved we are no-
where expressly informed.
FASTS, FASTING
661
FASTS. FASTING
(2) Other General Fasts. Other general fasts,
however, were in course of ages introduced, which
were celebrated at fixed times every successive
year. In the reign of Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar
besieged and captured Jerusalem, which calamity
led to the establishment of a fast on the seven-
teenth day of the fourth month (Thammuz, July)
(Jer. lii :6, 7; Zech. viiiriQ). In the last pass.ige
other fasts are enumerated, namely, 'the fast of
the fifth, and the fast of the seventh, and the fast
of the tenth.' That of the fifth month (Ab, .Au-
gust) was held on the ninth day, in mournful
commemoration of the burning of the city by Ne-
buzar-adan, a servant of the king of Babylon,
who 'burnt the house of the Lord, and the king's
house, and all the houses of Jerusalem, and every
great man's house' (2 Kings xxv:8, sg.; jer. lii;
12; Zech. vii:3-5; viiirig). The fast of the sev-
enth month (Tishri, October) was established to
bewail the murder of Gedaliah at Mizpah (Jer.
xli:i, sg.; 2 Kings xxv:25). That of the tenth
month ("Tebeth, January) was held on the tenth
day to commemorate the commencement of the
siege of Jerusalem on the part of Nebuchadnezzar
(2 Kings XXV :i; Zech. viiinp; see also Hieron.
ad. Zech. c. viii., and Hieros. Taanith, 68; Rc-
land, p. 471).
(3) Particular Occasions. On particular and
signal occasions extraordinary fasts were ap-
pointed. Thus when Naboth was condemned for
blasphemy because he would not give up the in-
heritance of his fathers to Ahab, Jezebel, as a part
of her plan for gratifying the evil desires of her
royal husband, ordered a fast to be proclaimed
(i Kings xxi:9; comp. Jer. xxxvi:9; 2 Chron.
XX :3). So in Judges xx :26, the children of
Israel 'came unto the house of God and wept, and
sat there before the Lord and fasted until even,
and offered burnt-offerings and peace-offerings
before the Lord,' when they had suffered a
calamitous defeat at the hands of the Benjamites.
Other instances of fasting on occasion of loss in
battle may be found in i Sam. xxxi:ii-i3;
Baruch i:s. In Joel i-ii a fast is enjoined with
a view to turn away the wrath of God as displayed
In the terrible consequences of the invasion of the
land of Judjea by an army of devastating locusts
(Credner's Joel). The idea also prevailed that a
special fast might have the effect of averting the
divine displeasure and securing the divine co-
operation in any great undertaking (Jonah iii:S;
I Sam. vii:5, 6, 8, lo, 12; i Mace. iii:47; 2 Mace.
xiii:i2; Judith iv:ii; virip). Local fasts were
at a later period sometimes held in order to avert
calamity or procure a favor from heaven ; and
the Sanhedrim ordered general fasts when the
nation was threatened with jny great evil, such as
drought or famine (Joseph. Vit. sec. 56; Taanith,
i:5), as was usnal with the Romans in their sup-
plications ( Liv. iii :7 ; x 123 ; Smith's Diet, of Greek
and Roman Anliq.)
(4) Private Fasts. There were also private
fasts, though the Mosaic law did not require them.
They were held in connection with individual or
family incidents, and agreed in aim and tendency
with fasts of a general and public nature. Ex-
amples may be found in i Sam. i:7; xx:34; I
Kings xxi:9; Ezra x:6; Nch. i :4.
After the exile private fasts became very fre-
quent (Lightfoot, p. 318), awaiting the call of
no special occasion, but entering as a regular part
of the current religious worship (Suet. Aug. 76;
Tacit. Hi.<:t. v :4, 3).
The parable of the Pharisee and Publican
(Luke xviii:o: comp. Malt iN::i4) shows how
much the Pharisees were given to voluntary and
private fasts — 'I fast twice a week.' The first was
on the fifth day of the week, on which Moses as-
scended to the top of Mount Sinai ; the second
was on the second day, on which he came down
(Taantth, w.g; Hieros. Megillah, 75, i). The
Essenes and the Therapeutas also were much
given to such observances (Philo, Ki7. Contempt.
p. 613; Euscb. frap. Evan. ix:3).
Fasts were considered as a useful exercise in
preparing the mind for special religious impres-
sions. Thus Dan. x :2, sq.. 'In those days I
Daniel was mourning three full weeks.. I ate no
pleasant bread, neither came Hesh nor wine m my
mouth. Then I lifted up my eyes and looked, and
behold a certain man,' etc. (see also Acts xiii;3;
xiv;23). From Matt. xvii:2i, 'Howbeit this kind
(of demons) goeth not out but by prayer and
fasting,' it would appear that the practice under
consideration was considered in the days of
Christ to act in certain special cases as an exor-
cism.
(6) Kourning. Fasting was accompanied by
the ordinary signs of grief among the Israelites,
as may be seen in I Mace, iii :47, 'Then they fasted
that day and put on sackcloth, and cast ashes upon
their heads and rent their clothes.' The fast ordi-
narily lasted from evening to evening, but was not
observed on the sabbath or on festival days (Jo-
seph. Antiq. iii:io, 3; Judith viii:6; Mischn.
Taanith, ii:io). The abstinence was either partial
or total. In the case of the latter food was en-
tirely foregone, but this ordinarily took place
only in fasts of short duration; and abstinence
from food in eastern climes is more easy and less
detrimental (if not in some cases positively use-
ful) than keeping from food would be with us in
these cold, damp, northern regions (Esther iv:i6).
In the case of partia) abstinence the time was
longer, the denial in degree less. When Daniel
(x:2) was 'mourning three full weeks,' he ate no
'f'leasant bread, neither came flesh nor zcine in my
mouth.'
(6) Duration. There does not appear to have
been any fixed and recognized periods during
which these fasts endured. From one day to
forty days fasts were observed. The latter period
appears to have been regarded with feelings of
peculiar sanctity, owing doubtless to certain
events in Jewish history. Thus Moses 'was with
the Lord on Mount Sinai forty days and forty
nights, he did neither eat bread, nor drink watei^
(Exod. xxxiv:28). So, also, Elijah (i Kings xix:
8) 'arose and did eat and drink, and went
in the strength of that meat forty days and
forty nights unto Horeb the mount of God.' The
same was the number of days that our Lord
fasted in the desert in connection with his tempta-
tion (Matt. iv:i-ii; Mark i:i2, 13; Luke iv:
1-13). In the latter case the abstinence appears
to have been entire, for Luke expressly declares
he ate nothing, »tal ovu fcpaytv oiSff, and he did
not eat aiiythmf;. fn Oan. i:io, 16, a passage is
found which shows that abstaining from meat
and wine did not imply total abstinence, for
Daniel and his friends had 'pulse to eat and water
to drink' (Wetstcin, p. 270; De Wette, Kritik der
Mos. Gcs. p. 245).
(7) Abuses. We have already seen how quali-
fied the sanction was which Moses gave to the
observance of fasting as a religious duty. In
the same spirit which actuated him, the prophets
bore testimony against the lamentable abuses to
which the practice was turned in the lapse of
time and with the increase of social corruption
(Is. Iviii :4. sq.: Jer. xiv:i2; Zech. viits). Con-
tinuing the same species of influence and per-
fecting that spirituality in religion which Moses
began, our Lord rebuked the Pharisees sternly
FAT
652
FATHER
for their outward and hypocritical pretences in
the fasts which they observed (Matt. vi:i6, sg.),
and actually abstained from appointing any fast
whatever as a part of his own religion (Matt.
ix:i4).
From the passages referred to it is at least
clear that Jesus ascribed to fasts no essential
worth, nor required any such observance from
his followers. Whether and how far he allowed
fasting as a means of religious improvement is
a question which our space does not permit us
to discuss (Neander, Leben Jesu).
(8) Early Christians. That the early Chris-
tians observed the ordinary fasts which the public
practice of their day sanctioned is clear from
more than one passage in the New Testament
Scriptures (Acts xiii:2; xiv :23 ; 2 Cor. virs);
but in this they probably did nothing more than
yield obedience, as in general they thought them-
selves bound to do, to the law of their fathers
so long as the Mosaic institutions remained entire.
And though the great body of the Christian
Church held themselves free from all ritual and
ceremonial observances when God in his provi-
dence had brought Judaism to a termination in
the rasure of the Holy City and the closing of the
Temple, j'et the practice of fasting thus originated
might have easily and unobservedly been trans-
mitted 'rom year to year and from age to age.
On fasting in the Christian Church consult
Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. xxi, chap, i-iii ; Coleman,
Ancient Christianity, p. 552 ff.).
FAT (fat), (1) (Heb. -Hv, yeh'keb, Joel ii:24; iii:
13), elsewhere rendered wine press. A. S. foet, a
t^essel. In Coleridge, Gloss., it is found as "fet."
Fat, meaning a large vessel for holding liquids,
has been displaced by 'vat' in literary English.
The difference between the spellings, says Skeat
[Etytnol. Diet. s. v.), is one of dialect only, 'faf
iseing northern and 'vat' southern. Fat occurs in
A. V. (Joel ii:24), 'the fats shall overflow with wine
and oil,' and Joel iii;l3; in the compound 'winefat'
in Is. lxiii:2; Mark xii:l (A. V. 1611 'wine fat' as
two words); and 'pressfat' (1611 'presse-fat'), Hag.
ii:i6.
(2) (Heb. 3..n, khay'leb). In Lev. iii there are
minute details of the parts of victims which
were to be specially appropriated to the altar.
Among these all the internal fat is minutely
specified, particularly the fat of the kidneys ; and
of external parts the tail of the sheep, which,
in the common species of Western Asia, is a
mass of fat (iii:4. 9. 10. IS) ; and the whole con-
cludes with 'All the fat is the Lord's; ye shall
eat neither fat nor blood' (iii:i7)- The reason
assigned, namely, that the fat was consecrated
to the altar, could only apply with respect to that
of animals used in sacrihce, wliich were also
usually employed for food. One point seems to
have been very generally overlooked, which is,
that not fat absolutelv but particular fat parts
only are interdicted. They might eat the fat in-
volved in the muscular tissue— in short, fat meat;
and w- know that animals were actually fattened
for food (I Kings iv;23; Jer. xlvi:2i; Luke xv:
23). This was, however, not a usual practice;
and even at this day in the East domestic cattle
seldom undergo any preparatory feeding or fat-
tening before being killed. Hence there is little
fat in the carcass, except that belonging to the
parts specified in the prohibition, which is all
more or less of the nature of suet.
Various reasons have been assigned for this
somewhat remarkable restriction. Tlie secondary
cause, that the fat was consecrated tc the altar
and therefore was to be abstained from, is not all,
for it is usually considered that it was thus con-
secrated to give a religious sanction to a pro-
hibition expedient on other grounds.
The truth probably is that this suet or suet-
like fat is not particularly wholesome or digesti-
ble in warm climates, if anywhere, and is par-
ticularly unsuitable for persons subject to cuta-
neous diseases, as the Israelites appear to have
been at the time of their leaving Egypt.
Figurative. (1) The Hebrews used the word
which we render fat to signify the best of any-
thing, and, ne.xt to blood, it was the sign of health-
fulness and vigor; hence we read of the fat
of wheat ; the fat of the land ; the fat of the
flock (Ps. Ixxxi:i6 and cxlvii;8, 9; Gen. xlvii;6;
iv:4). (2) Wicked men are represented as fat;
as fallings; as enclosed in their own fat, when
they abound in honor, power and wealth (Deut.
xxxii:i4, 15; Ezek. xxxix:i8; Ps. xviirio). (3)
Their heart is fat, or gross, when men are self-
conceited, stupid, careless, and unteachable (Ps.
cxix70; Is. vi:io). (4) They perish as the fat
of lambs when they are easily and quickly wasted
and destroyed (Ps. xxxvii:2o). (5) Great men
are represented as fat ones, because of their large
possessions, joy and pleasure (Is. v:i7 and x:
16; Ezek. xxxiv:i6, 20; Ps. xxii:29). (6) Saints
are fat when they abound much in spiritual
graces and comfort (Ps. xcii:i4; Prov. xi:25;
xiii :4 ; XV :30 and xxviii :25). (7) The sword of
the Lord is fat with fatness when his judgments
cut off multitudes of men, great and wealthy
(Is. xxxiv:6).
FATHER (fa'ther), (Heb. ^^, awb, ancestor,
source, inventor), this word, besides its obvious and
primary sense, bears, in Scripture, a number of
other applications, most of which have, through the
use of the Bible, become more or less common in
all Christian countries.
(1) The Divine Father. The term Father is
very often applied to God himself (Gen. xliviig,
20; Deut. xxxii:6; 2 Sam. vii:i4; Ps. Ixxxix :27,
28; Is. Ixiii:i6; Ixiv:8). The New Testament
leaves little room to question that it is the
intention of the sacred record to set God before
us as the Father of all men, in the general sense
of creator and preserver of all men, but more
especially of believers, whether Jews or Christians.
To the same effect is also a passage in Josephus's
paraphrase of the law (Deut. xxi:i8-2i), re-
specting rebellious sons, 'because he (God) is
himself the father of the whole human race'
{Antiq. iv :8, 24).
Without doubt, however, God is in a more espe-
cial and intimate manner, even as by covenant,
the Father of the Jews (Jer. xxxirg; Is. Ixiii:
16; lxiv:8; John viii:4i ; v:45; 2 Cor. vi:i8);
and also of Christians, or rather of all pious and
believing persons, who are called 'sons of God'
(John i:i2; Rom. viii:l6, etc.). Thus Jesus, in
speaking to his disciples, calls God their Father
(Matt. vi:4, 8, 15, 18; x :20, 29; xiii:43, etc.).
"The Apostles, also, for themselves and other
Christians, call him 'Father' (Rom. i:7; i Cor.
1:3; 2 Cor. i:2; Gal. i:4; and many other places).
(2) Ancestors. Father is applied to any an-
cestor near or remote, or to ancestors ('fathers')
in general. The progenitor, or founder, or patri-
arch of a tribe or nation, was also pre-eminently
its father, as Abraham of the Jews. Examples of
this abound. See. for instance, Deut. i:li; 1
Kings xi:i2; Matt. iii:9; xxiii:30; Mark xi:io;
Luke i :32, yi; vi 123, 26; John vii :22, etc.
FATHER. COD THE
653
FEASTS
(3) Chief or Buler. Father is also anplied as
a title of respect to any head, chief, ruler, or
elder, and especially to kings, prophets, and
priests (Judg. xvii:io; xviiiiig; I Sam. x:i2;
2 Kings ii:i2; v:i3; vi :2i ; xiii:i4; Prov. iv:i;
Matt. xxiiiiQ; Acts vii:2; xxii:i; i Cor. iv;is,
etc.).
(4) Author or Source. The author, source,
or beginner of anything is also called the Father
of tlie same, or of those who follow him. Thus
Jabal is called 'the father of those who dwell in
tents, and have cattle'; and Jubal, 'the father of
all such as handle the harp and the organ'
((ien. iv:2i, 22; comp. Job xxxviii:28; John
viii:44; Rom. iv:i2). This use of the word
is exceedingly common in the East to this day,
especially as applied in tlie formation of proper
names, in which, also, the most curious Hebrew
examples of this usage occur. (See Ab.)
(5) The Father's Authority. The authority
of a father was very great in patriarchal times;
and although the power of life and death was
virtually taken from the parent by the law of
Moses, which required him to bring his cause of
complaint to the public tribunals (Deut. xxi:i8-
21 ), all the more real jjowers of the paternal
character were not only left unimpaired, but were
made in a great degree the basis of the judicial
polity which that law established. The children
and even the grandchildren continued under the
roof of the father and grandfather; they labored
on his account, and were the most submissive of
his servants. The property of the soil, the power
of judgment, the civil rights, belonged to him
only, and his sons were merely his instruments
and assistants.
(6) Filial Duty. Filial duty and obedience
were, indeed, in the eyes of the Jewish legislator,
of such high importance that great care was
taken that the paternal authority should not be
weakened by the withdrawal of a power so
liable to fatal and barbarous abuse as that of
capital punishment. Any outrage against a
parent — a blow, a curse, or incorrigible profli-
gacy— was made a capital crime (Exod. xxi:i3,
17; Lev. XX :9). If the oflfense was public it
was taken up by the witnesses as a crime against
Jehovah, and the jrulprit was brought before the
magistrates, whether the parent consented or
not; and if the offense was hidden within the
paternal walls, it devolved on the parents to de-
nounce him and to require his punishment.
It is a beautiful circumstance in the law of
Moses that this filial respect is exacted for the
mother as well as for the father. The threats
and i)romises of the legislator distinguish not the
one from the other; and the fifth commandment
associates the father and mother in a precisely
equal claim to honor from their children. The
development of this interesting feature of the
Mosaical law belongs, however, to another head
(see Woman). (Lane, .\fod. Egypt, i:84; .Atkin-
son, Travels in Siberia, p. 559.)
FATHER, GOD THE (fa'ther, g6d the). See
Father, i.
FATHEB-IN-LAW (fa'ther-In-la'). 1. Khawm
(Heb. on, from '^tP. khaiv-maw'), to join in
affinity (Gen. xxxviii:i3, 25).
2. Khaw-than' (Heb. V^P. to marry), one giving
a daughter in marriage (Exod. iii:i; iv:l8; xviii:
1-27, Num. x:29, etc.).
3. Pen-ther-os' (Gr. ircvflepij), strictly one related
by affinity, a wife's father (John xviii:i3).
FATHER'S BROTHER (fii'ther's briSth'er),
Heb Til, dode), strictly one beloved (Is. v:i); an
uncle (Num. xxxviili; 2 Kings xxiv:i7); in
Exiid vi:Jo used in the feminine as a father's
lister, or aunt.
FATHER'S HOUSE (f,Vthcr's hous), the name
denoting families among the Israelites (Josh.
xxii:i4; comp. vii:i4; xvi:i8). (Sec Isr.\el. Con-
stitution OF.)
FATHOM (fath'iim). See Table of Weights
and Measures, p. 42, .'\ppcndix.
FATLINa (fat'llng). 1. An animal fatted for
slaughter (Heb. '*"!?, mer-ee', 2 Sam. vi :i3).
2. -V marro'wy sheep, particularly of the fat-
tailed variety (Heb. ntj^ »ia>''aA-/i, Ps. Ixvi:i5).
3. A wrong rendering oi Mish-nch' (Heb. '^it-'
repetition, i Sam. xv:9). These were '"animals of
the seeonil birth, w^hich were considered superior
to the others" (K. and D. Com., in loco).
FATTED FOWI< (Heb. D'^glSK. D""!?")?, bar-
bflo-reem' ay-hoo-seem'), are referred to among
the daily |)rovisions for Solomon's table (I Kings
iv:23).
The meaning of bar-hoo-rccm' is uncertain.
The earlier translators render it birds or fowls,
others 'geese" (from the Heb. "Ci^, baw-rar',
"to be pure." because of their white feathers).
A special variety of fowl may be meant.
FEAR (fer) (Old Engi...h Itr, leer, fere, Anglo-
Saxon fa^r).
(1) In general a painfid emotion or passion
excited by an expectation of evil or the apprehen-
sion of impending danger. It embraces anxiety,
solicitude, alarm and dread.
(2) Religiously it implies profound respect,
due regard or reverence for men of authority or
worth. (Rom. xiii:?) "Render.. ..fear to whom
fear." It includes further the object of fear (Gen.
xxxi:42). "Except. . . the fear of Isaac had beep
with me;" also the worship of God (Ps. xxxiv:ii).
"I will teach you the fear of the Lord;" and also
the law and word of God; (Ps. xixtg). "The
fear of the Lord is clean," etc. Filial fear (Ps.
cxi:io) is the "fear of the Lord which is the be-
ginning of wisdom." It hates and avoids what-
ever is sinful. (Jer. xxxii:4o; Gen. xxii:i2; Ecc.
xii:i3; Neh. v:is; Heb. v:;.) This fear of the
Lord is a common expression in the O. T. (See
Job xxviii:28; compare Acts ix:3i.) It thus
refers to awe and piety rather than the dread of
God, and is consistent with the fidl assurance of
f.-'.ith and with love for God as our Father. (I John
iv:i8). "Perfect love casteth out fear." Slavish
fear is a dread of danger and punishment. (Acts
xxiv:25.) "Felix trembled." Selfish fear makes
nun CI 'Wards by caiising them to lose spirit. (See
I Kings x:5.) Compare Deut. xx:8; Judges vii:3.)
FEASTS (tests), (Heb. "''??'?. mish'teh). The
root idea of the word is to be found in what we
she add term the pleasures of the table, the exer-
cise of hospitality.
(1) Early Hospitality. To what an early
date the practices of hospitality are referable may
be seen in Gen. xix:3, where we find Lot inviting
the two angels; 'and they entered into his house;
and he made them a feast;' which was obviously
(if a leligious nature, since it is added, 'and did
bake unleavened bread, and they did eat' (Judg.
vi:i9). It was usual not only thus to receive
persons with choice viands, but al.so to dismiss
them in a similar manner; accordingly Laban,
when he had overtaken the fleeing Jacob, com-
plains (Gen. xxxi:27), 'Wherefore didst thou
steal awav from me and didst not tell me. that
FEASTS
I might have sent thee away with mirh and with
SOJIKS and with tabret. and with harp? bee
lho2 Sam. iii:20; 2 Kings v,:23; i Mace, xv.-
IS This practice explains the reason why tlie
prodigal on his return was vyelcomed by a feast
(Lukf xv:23). Occasions of domestic. ,oy were
hailed with feasting; thus in Gen. xx, 8 Abra-
ham 'made a great f ea=^_ the same day that Isaac
waT weaned.' Birthdays were thus celebrated
(Gen xl-20). 'Pharaoh, on his birthday, made
a fea^t unto all his servants' (Job i:4; Matt, xiv:
6; comp. Herod. i:i33). Marriage feasts were
also common. Samson (Judg. x.v:io) on such
an occasion 'made a feast,' and it >s added,
•for so used the young men to do. bo Laban,
when he gave his daughter Leah to Jacob (Gen
xxix-22), 'gathered together all the men of the
place, and made a feast.' These festive occasions
seem originally to have answered the important
purpose of serving as evidence and attestation of
the events which they celebrated, on which ac-
count relatives and neighbors were invited to be
present (Ruth iv:io; John n:')- ,
(2) Harvest Celebrations. Those processes
in rural occupations by which the Divine bounties
are gathered into the hands of man have in all
ages been made seasons of festivity ; accordingly,
in 2 Sam. xiii :23, Absalom invites all the king s
sons and even David himself, to a sheep-shearmg
feast, on which occasion the guests became merry
with wine' (I Sam. xxv :2,_ ^g.). . The vintage
was also celebrated with festive eating and drmk-
ing (judg. ix:27). ,
(3) Funeral leasts. Feasting at funerals
existed among the Jews (2 Sam. 111 :33)- /" J*^f-
xvi 7, among other funeral customs, rne"tion is
made of 'the cup of consolation, to drink for their
father or their mother,' which brings to mind
he indulgence in spirituous liquors to which our
ancestors^•ere given at ^^'^^T^'^^^^-^ZL^'m^
has not yet entirely disappeared (Carleton s Insl
pLsantry, England in the Nmeteentn Century.
voT h To what an extent expense was some_
Thnes ckrried on these occasions may be learned
?m Josephus {Dc Bell. Jud. iv, 1 I ) . who having
remarked that Arche aus 'mourned for his tattier
e^en days and had given _a very^ expensive
funeral fea t to the multitude,' states, which cus-
tomTs the occasion of poverty ^o,^iy°\^^.
Tews,' adding, 'Because they are .^orwd'o least
the multitude, for if any one omits it he is not
esteemed a holy person
r4-> Sacrificial Feasts. As among heathen
„a ions, so also among the Hebrews feasting
made a part of the °b=e^^a"«l^,'^r!,=,'it "tb 7
on occasion of animal sacrifices <.Def . xii .0, 7 .
T <;am ixio- xvin, s; 2 Sam. viiip;- inese
LcrXia mtais were enjoyed in connection with
Deace offeTings. whether euchanstic or votive
^he kidneys, and all the inward fat, and the tail
If the lamb were burnt in the daily sacrifice :
the breast a^d right shoulder fell to the priest
and the rest was to be eaten by the offerer and
h"s friends, on the same day if the offering were
euchahstic on that and. the "^''t ^ay if it w re
votive (Lev iii:l-l7; vn:n-2i; 29-30. xix.S-0.
xx.r29, 30); To th^ feast at the second tithe
of the produce of the land, which w^s to be made
every year and eaten at the annual festivals be-
fore Jehovah, not only friends, but strangers wid-
ows, orphans, and Levites, were to be invited as
well as the slaves. If the tabernacles were so
distant as to make it inconvenient to carry thither
the tithe it was to be turned into money which
was Jo te spent at the place at which the festiyds
wwe held in providing feasts (Deut. xiv .22-27,
654 FELIX
xii-i4- Tobit i:6). Charitable entertainments
were also provided, at the end of three years, from
tlie tithe of the increase. The Levite, the stranger,
the fatherless, and the widow were to be present
(Deut. xii:l7-i9; xiv 128, 29; xxvi:i2-i5). At
the feast of Pentecost the command is very ex-
press (Deut. xvi: II), 'Thou shalt rejoice before
the Lord thy God, thou, and thy son, and thy
daughter, and thy man servant, and thy maid-
servant, and the Levite that is within thy gates,
and the stranger, and the fatherless, and the
widow, that are among you.' The Israelites were
forbidden to partake of food offered in sacnhce
to idols (Exod. xxxiv:i5), lest they should be
thereby enticed into idolatry or appear to give
a sanction to idolatrous observances (i Cor. x:
■^8) (See Agape; Festivals; Riddle f/"-u(iaH
'Antiquities, p. 648; Bingham, Ortg. Eecles.hV.
XX ) J-
JEEBIiE KNEES (Gr. ra Tapa.\e\vnha yhvara),
a term employed to express the results of over-
exertion, as in an athletic contest, and. figurative-
ly, of weariness of mind, depression, low sptrtti
(iieb. xii:l2). . t ui
Men are said to have weak hands, 3.najecbie
knees, when they have small courage and vigor
(Is. XXXV :3).
FEEBIiE-MINDED (mind'ed), (Gr. iXnh^vxot,
ol-ig-op'soo-kos. little spirited), a term frequently
used in the Bible, and signifies one who is labor-
ing under such trouble that his heart sinks within
him (I Thess. v:i4, R- V. "fainthearted ).
FEELING(£el'ing).(l)InEph.iv:i9we find this
-who being past feeling ^^^^ 1^!.^ Vr^'k word
over to lasciviousness.'*^ etc. The Greek wora
d^aX7^a>. aP-u/j,r-eA o, means "to become insensible
to pall, caUout. and SO indifferent to truth, honor,
"'in^the 'epistle to the Hebrews we are told 'Ve
have not a high-priest which cannot be touched
wilh the feeling of our infirmities' (Heb. ly:
ic -The Greek term ^uM^raWu,, sum-patii-eh o,
to feci for, to have compassion on, is employed.
(2) Religious feelings are those sensations or
emotions of the mind produced by the views we
have of religion which consist of contrition, re-
pentance and devotion. Contrition is a feeling of
sorrow for sin. Repentance is a feeling of hatred
for sin Devotion is a feeling of love to God and
^"('^rTrsfw^Sr^eep God's cornmandments
feel no evil. The heathen eel after God when
erop^g to know him. Those are past feehng
fvS consciences are seared as with a hot iron.
(Eph. iviig)
FEET (fet). See FOOT.
FELIX (le'llx), (Gr. ^'/X'f, fa/^ix, happy), a
Roman procurator of Judea, before whom Paul
so 'reasoned of righteousness teniperance, and
judgment to come,' that the judge trembled say-
ing 'Go thy way for this time ; when I have a con-
venient season I will call f°yl?.^e ( V'nTted^^a
The context states that Felix had expected a
bribe from Paul; and, in order to prMure this
b be, he Appears to have had .severa interviews
with the Apostle. The depravity which such an
expectation implies is m agreement with the
fdea which the historical fragments P/ferved re-
specting Felix would lead the student to form of
"^TlTe^'year in which Felix entered on his office
cannot 'be strictly determined. From the word
of losephus (.'Intiq. xx 7, O. 't appears that his
appoin m.^U took place before the twelfth year of
the Emperor Claudius. Eusebms fixes the time
FELIX
055
FENCE
of his actually undertaking his duties in the
eleventh year of that monarch.
(1) Elevation and Crimes. Felix was a re-
markable instance of the elevation to distinguished
station of persons born and bred in the lowest
condition. Originally a slave, he rose to little
less than kingly power. For some unknown, but
probably not very creditable services, he was man-
umitted by Claudius Caesar (Sueton. Claud. 28;
Tacit. Hist, v .g) ; on which account he is said
to have taken the praenomen of ClStidius. In
Tacitus, however (_loc. cit.), he is surnamed An-
tonius, probably because he was also a freedman
of Antonia, the emperor's mother. The character
which the ancients have left of Feli.x is of a very
dark complexion. The country was ready for re-
bellion, and the unsuitable remedies which Felix
applied served only to inflame the passions and
to incite to crime. Josephus (Atitiq. xx :8, 5) re-
ports that under Felix the affairs of the country
grew worse and worse. The land was filled with
robbers and impostors who deluded the multitude.
Feli.x used his power to repress these disorders to
little purpose, since his own example gave no
sanction to justice. Thus, having got one Dineas,
leader of a band of assassins, into his hands, by
a promise of impunity, he sent him to Rome
to receive his punishment. Having a grudge
against Jonathan the high-priest, who had expos-
tulated with him on his misrule, he made use of
Doras, an intimate friend of Jonathan, in order
to get him assassinated by a gang of villains, who
joined the crowds that were going up to the tem-
ple-worship—-a crime which led subsequently to
countless evils, by the encouragement which it
gave to the Sicarii, or leagued assassins of the
day, to whose excesses Josephus ascribes, under
Providence, the overthrow of the Jewish state.
(2) Marriage. While in his office, being in-
flamed by a passion for the beautiful Drusilla, a
daughter of King Herod Agrippa, who was mar-
ried to Azizus, king of Emesa, he employed one
Simon, a magician, to use his arts in order to
persuade her to forsake her husband and marry
hirn, promising that if she would comply with his
suft, he would make her a happy woman. Drusilla,
partly impelled by a desire to avoid the envy of
her sister, Berenice, was prevailed on to transgress
the laws of her forefathers, and consented to a
union with Feli.x. In this marriage a son was
born, who was named Agrippa ; both mother and
son perished in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius,
which took place in the days of Titus Caesar.
(See Drusill.\.)
(3) Hears Paul. Paul, being apprehended in
Jerusalem, was sent by a letter from Claudius
Lysias to Felix at Caesarea, where he was at first
confined in Herod's judgment hall till his accusers
came. They arrived. Tertullus appeared as their
spokesman, and had the audacity, in order to con-
ciliate the good will of Felix, to express gratitude
on the part of the Jews, 'seeing that by thee we
enjoy great quietness, and that very worthy
deeds are done unto this nation by thy provi-
dence" (Acts xxiii; xxiv). Paul pleaded his
cause in a worthy speech; and Felix, consigning
the Apostle to the custody of a centurion, ordered
that he should have such liberty as the circum-
stances admitted, with permission that his ac-
quaintance might see him and minister to his
wants. This imprisonment the Apostle suffered
for a period of two years (Acts xxiv:27).
{^l) Summoned to Bome. Felix was recalled
to Rome, A. D. 60, -and Festus was sent in his room.
To do the Jews a pleasure, he left Paul bound ;
this, however, did him no service; numbers of
them followed him to Rome, and complained of
his extortion and violence. He would have been
punished with death, had not his brother Pallas,
by his credit at court, preserved his life (Acts
xxiii and xxiv).
FELLER (f.;rier), (Heb. f'l!?, ka-rath , to cut
off, to fell), a cutter of wood.
This is an old Anglo-Saxon word and is used
in Is. xiv:8, where David represents the cedars
of Lebanon as rejoicing over the fall of Sennach-
erib, who had been their great destroyer.
FELLOES (f«ri6s), {yniti.'^'^p.khish-shook' fxia-
joined spokes of a wheel, i Kings vii:33), prob-
ably means 'spokes' that connect the hub and rim
rather than the rim itself. It is kindred to the
word translated "dWet," joinings (Ex. xxvii;lo).
FELLOW (til'lt).
1. A term of contempt denoted by the Heb.
^^,ees/t, (I Sam. xxix:4), and Gr. av-qp, an-ayr',
words for 7nan.
2. The translation of ray' ah (Heb. ^I. '^l'^.,friend,
associate, etc., Exod. 11:13; Judg. vii;i3, etc.), and
of khaw-bare' (Heb. "'i^P, Eccles. iv;lo).
3. The translation of aw-meeth' (Heb. ^'^^,
neighbor) in that peculiar passage, "Awake, O
sword, against my shepherd, and against the man
that is my fellow ' (Zech. xiii7).
FELLOWSHIP.
1. The translation of the Hebrew tes-oo-meth' ,
n515r.'l_ deposit (Lev. vi;2); something handed over
as a pledge.
2. Joint interest (Heb. "??, khaw-bar' , to be
joined, Ps. xciv;2o; Gr. (toituWo, koy-nohn-ee'ah,
fellowship, communion. Acts ii:42 et al.; Aierox'i,
met-okh-ay', partnership, 2 Cor. vi:I4).
(i) The saints have fellowship with God; they
are interested in whatever he is and has, and are
allowed intimate familiarity with him (l John
i:7; Eph. ii:i8). (2) They have fellowship with
Christ in his sufferings; he suffered in their
room ; these sufferings are imputed to them, and
the virtue thereof experienced by their hearts
(Phil. iii:io). (3) The fellowship of the gospel
is the mutual interest and intercourse of saints
and ministers, in the profession of the truths,
experience of the blessings, and observance of the
rules and ordinances of the gospel (Phil. i:5).
(4) There is no communion or fellowship be-
tween Christ and Belial, sin and holiness; i. e.,
neither mutual interest nor friendly intercourse
(2 Cor. vi:i4, 15). The bread and wine in the
Lord's supper are the communion of the body
and blood of Christ; they signify, seal, and apply
the same ; and are means of our partaking of
Christ's oerson, righteousness, and fullness, for
the nourishment of our souls and for promoting
the fellowsilip of believers (i Cor. x:i6).
FENCE (Heb. "Ti^, gaw-dare' , an inclosure).
The Hebrew fences were of two kinds. One
was the outer thorny fence of the vineyard ; and
the other, the inner wall of stones surrounding it
'^Prov. xv:i9; xxivt^l). The Phoenicians called
a-iy enclosed place yuddir, and particularly gave
this name to their settlement in the southwestern
coast of Spain, which the Greeks from them
called Gadcira, the Romans Cades, and the
moderns. Cadis. In Ezek. xiii :5 ; xxii :30 gadc'r
appears to denote the fortifications of a city.
Figurative. The wicked are as a tottering
fence, and bowing zvalt; their ruin comes on them
very suddenly (Ps. lxii:3).
FENCED CITIES
65G
FESTIVALS
FENCED CITIES. See Fort, Fortifica-
riONS, ETC.
Walls of Aolioch.
FEBBET (fer'rdt), (Heb. '"'iv^^l, an-aw-kaw' , liz-
ard, K. v., Lev. xi:30, for A. V. "ferret").
This lizard is named from the sound which it
emits. Its scientific name is Ptyodactylus Hassel-
quUtii. It is frequently found in houses. It is
not very probable that the Hebrew original of
this word signifies the ferret, which is so called
with us. (See Lizard.)
FEBBYBOAT [iit'i^ hot), (Heb. ^W-., ab-aw
ra-U'', crossing), mentioned only in 2 Sam. xix:l8,
"A ferryboat for the king's house."
FESTIVALS (fes'tl-vals), (Heb. ^^, khag, from
the verb signifying to dance, and '^^^"^, mo-ade' , a
set lime or assembly, place of assembling), were
occasions of public religious observances, recur-
ring at certain set and somewhat distant intervals.
1. Divine Institutions. Those which owe
their existence to the authority of God are, the
seventh day of the week, or the Sabbath ; the
Passover ; Pentecost ; the Feast of Trumpets ;
the Day of Atonement ; the Feast of Tabernacles ;
the New Moon. Festivals which arose under
purely human influences are, the Feast of Lots,
or Purim ; the Death of Holofernes; the Dedi-
cation; the Sacred Fire; the Death of Nicanor.
At the daily service two lambs of the first year
were to be offered at the donr of the labernacle ;
one in the morning, the other in the evening, a
continual burnt-ofifering. With each lamb was
to be offered one-tenth of an ephah of flour, min-
gled with one-fourth of a bin of fresh oil, for a
meat-offering, and one-fnurth of a bin of wine
for a drink-ofTcring. Frankincense was to be
placed on the meat-offering, a handful of which,
with the frankincense, was to be burnt, and the
remainder was to be eaten by the priest in the
holy |)lace, without leaven. The priests were to
offer daily the tenth of an ephah of fine flour, half
in the morning and half in the evening, for
themselves. The high-priest was to dress the
lamps in the tabernacle every morning, and light
them every evening; and at the same time burn
incense on the altar of incense. The people
provided oil for the lamps which were to burn
from evening to morning : the ashes were re-
moved by a priest, dressed in his linen garment
and his linen drawers, and then carried by him
out of the camp, in his common dress. Great
stress was laid on the regular observance of these
requirements (Num. xxviii:l-8; Exod. xxix :38-
42; Lev. vi:8-23; Exod. xxx:7-9; xxvii:20; Lev.
xxiv:i-4; Num. viii:2).
(1) The Sabbath. Labor was to last not
longer than six days. The seventh was a Sab-
bath, a day of rest, of holy convocation, on which
no one, not even strangers or cattle, was allowed
to do any servile work. The offender was liable
to stoning.
On the Sabbath two lambs of the first year,
without blemish, were to be offered for a burnt-
offering, morning and evening, with two-tenths
of an ephah of flour, mingled with oil, for a
meat-offering, and one-half of a bin of wine for a
drink-offering, thus doubling the offering for
ordinary days. Twelve cakes of fine flour were
to be placed every Sabbath upon the table in the
tabernacle, in two piles, and pure frankincense
laid on the uppermost of each pile. These were
to be furnished by the people; two were offered
to Jehovah, the rest were eaten by the priests in
the holy place (Exod. xvi :23 ; Lev. xxiii:3; xxvi :
2 ; Num. xxviii :g, 10).
(2) New Moon (Heb. ^7^ ^^^'', roshe kho'desh,
beginning of month. Num. x:io; xxviii:ii).
At the New Moon festival, in the beginning of
the month, in addition to the daily sacrifice, two
heifers, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year,
were to be offered as burnt-offerings, with three-
tenths of an ephah of flour, mingled with oil, for
each heifer; two-tenths of an ephah of flour, min-
gled with oil, for the ram ; and one-tenth of an
ephah of flour, iningled with oil. for every lamb,
and a drink offering of half of a hin of wine for a
heifer, one-third of a bin for the ram, and one-
fourth of a hin for every lamb. One kid of the
goats was also to be offered as a sin-offering.
(3) The Seventh New Moon, or Feast of
Trumpets (Heb. '"'?"''•? ^", yome ter-oo-aw' , day
of blowing).
The first day of the seventh month was to be a
Sabbath, a holy convocation, accompanied by the
blowing of trumpets. In addition to the daily and
monthly sacrifices, one ram and seven lambs \yere
to be offered as burnt-offerings, with their respect-
ive meat-offerings, as at the usual New Moon
festival (Num. xxviii :ii-is; xxix:i:6; Lev.
xxiii :23-25).
Three times in the year — at the Feast of Uij-
leavened Bread, in the month Abib; at the Feast
of Harvest, or of Weeks; and at the Feast of In-
gathering, or of Tabernacles — all the males were
to appear before Jehovah, at the place which he
should choose. None were to come empty-handed,
but every one was to give according as Jehovah
had blessed him ; and there before Jehovah was
every one to rejoice with his family, the Levite, the
stranger, the fatherless, and the widow (Exod.
xxiii :I4-I7; xxxiv:22-24; Deut. xvi;i6-l7).
(4) The Passover. The Hebrew word '^?5'
peh'sakh (from '^?r, paw-sakk', to leap over,
figuratively, to spare, show mercy) denotes: (l)
•1» overstepping: (2) The paschal sacrifice by
virtue of which the passing over was effected
FESTIVALS
657
FESTIVALS
(Exod. xii:2l, 27, 48; 2 Chron. xxx:is). The
first of these three great festivals, that of Un-
leavened Bread, called alip the Passover, was kept
in the month Abib, in commemoration of the
rescue of the Israelites by Jehovah out of Egypt,
which took place in that month. (See Passover).
In order to make the season more remarkable, it
was ordained that henceforward the month in
which it took place should be reckoned the first
of the national religious year (Exod. xii:2).
From this time, accordingly, the year began in the
month Abib, or Nisan (March — April), while the
civil year continued to be reckoned from Tishri
(September — October) (Exod. xii 13, 14, 27; 43-
49; Lev. xxiii:5; Num. xxviii:l6; Deut. xvi:l-7).
The Passover lasted one week, including two Sab-
baths (De W'ette, Archaol, p. 214). The first day
and the last were holy, that is, devoted to the ol>-
servances in the public temple, and to rest from all
labor (Exod. xii:i6; Lev. xxiii :6; Num. xxviii:i8;
Deut. xvi:8).
On the day after the Sabbath, on the Feast of
Passover, a sheaf of the first fruits of the barley
harvest was to be brought to the priest to be
waved before Jehovah, accompanied by a burnt-
oflFering. Till this sheaf was presented, neither
bread nor parched corn, nor full ripe ears of the
harvest, could be eaten (Exod. xii:i5-2o; xiii:6-
10; Lev. xxiii :6-8; Deut. xvi:2-8; Num. xxviii:i7-
25).
(5) Pentecost. (Gr. Ilemjicoo-Ti}, pen-tay-kos-
toy', fiftieth, i. e., day). The Feast of Pentecost
or of Weeks was kept to Jehovah at the end of
seven weeks from the day of the Festival of Un-
leavened Bread, on which the sheaf was presented.
On the morrow after the seventh complete week,
or on the fiftieth day, two wave loaves were pre-
sented as first fruits of the wheat-harvest, to-
gether with a burnt-oflfering, a sin-ofTering, and a
peace-offering, etc. The day was a holy convoca-
tion, in which no servile work was done. The fes-
tival lasted but one day. It is said to have been
designed to commemorate the giving of the law on
Mount Sinai (Brown's Antiquities of the Jews,
vol. i, p. 494; Deut. xvi 19-16 ; Num. xxviii :20-3i ;
xv:i7-2i).
(6) Tabernacles, Feast of, the third of the
great annual feasts, the other two being the Pass-
over and Pentecost. These were :
1. ne Fes/iva/ 0/ T£>iis {Heh.^'^^^ ^D. khag
has-sook-kohth' , A. V. "Feast of Tabernacles, 2
Cliron. viii:i3; Ezra iii:4; Zech. vii:io, 20, 21; Gr.
aKi)vaTrr(yla, skay-iiop-ayg-ee' ah, Ji)hn vii:2, be-
cause the Israelites were commanded to live in
booths during its continuance (comp. Lev. x.xiii :
43).
2. The Feast of Ingathering (Heb. T^?? ^!^'
khag haiu-aw-scef ; Exod. xxiii:l6; xxxiv:22), be-
cause it was held after the ingathering of the
harvest and fruits.
3. The Festival of fehovah (Heb. '^;'^' '^^<
khag yeh-ho-vaw' . Lev. xxiii :39), or simply
the festii'al (i Kings viii:2; 2 Chron. v:3), be-
cause it was the most important or well known.
This Feast of Ingathering or of Tabernacles
began on the fifteenth day of the seventh month,
and continued eight days, the first and last
being Sabbaths. During the feast all native
Israelites dwelt in booths made of the shoots of
beautiful trees, palm-branches, boughs of thick-
leaved trees, and of the willows of the brook,
when they rejoiced with their families, with the
Lcvile, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow,
before Jehovah. Various offerings were made. At
the end of seven years, in the year of release, at
42
the Feast of Tabemaclee, the law was required to
be read by the priests in the hearing of all the
Israelites (Deut. xvi:i3-i5; xxxi:io-i3; Lev.
xxiii :39-43; 33-36; Num. xxix: 12-38, 40).
The Feast of Tabernacles was appointed partly
to be an occasion of annual thanksgiving after
the ingathering of the harvest (Exod. xxxiv:22;
Lev. xxiii :3g; Deut. xvi:i3), and partly to remind
the Israelites that their fathers had lived in tents
in the wilderness (Lev. xxiii 140-43). This feast
took place in the end of the year, September or
October.
(7) Day of Atonement. (Heb. ="11??^ =i\
yome hak-kip-poor-cem) . The tenth day of the
seventh month was the Day of Atonement — a day
of abstinence, a day of holy convocation, in which
all were to afflict themselves. Special offerings
were made. (See Atonement, D.w of.) (Lev.
xxiii :26-32; xvi:l, 31; Num. xxix 7-11; Exod.
XXX :io.)
On these solemn occasions food came partly
from hospitality (a splendid instance of which
may be found in 2 Chron. XXXV7-9), partly from
the feasts which accompanied the sacrifices in the
temple, and partly also from provision expressly
made by the travelers themselves. Lodging, too,
was afiforded by friends, or found in tents erected
for the purpose in and around Jerusalem (Helen's
Pilgrimage ; Brown's Antiquiiics, p. 520 ff).
The three great festivals have corresponding
events (but of far greater importance) in the new
dispensation. The Feast of Tabernacles was the
time when our Savior was born, some suppose;
he was crucified at the Passover; while at Pente-
cost the effusion of the Holy Spirit took place.
The rest and recreation would be the more
pleasant, salutary, and beneficial, because of the
joyous nature of the religious services in which
tlicy were, for the greater part, engagecj. These
solemn festivals were not only commemorations of
great national events, but they were occasions for
the reunion of friends, for the enjoyment of hospi-
tality, and for the interchange of kindness. The
feasts which accompanied the sacrifices opened the
heart of the entire family to joy, and gave a wel-
come which bore a religious sanction, even to the
stranger, the fatherless, and the widow (MicliacHs,
Mas. Recht, art. 199).
How much, too, would these gatherings tend to
foster and sustain a spirit of nationality ! By in-
tercourse the feelings of tribe and clan would be
worn away ; men from different parts became ac-
quainted with and attached to each other; par-
tial interests were found to be more imaginary
than real ; while the predominant idea of a com-
mon faith and a common rallying-placc at Jeru-
salem, could not fail to fuse into one strong and
overpowering emotion of national and brotherly
love, all the higher, nay, even the lower feelings,
of each Hebrew heart.
'If.' says Michaelis (Mos. Recht. art. 198,
Smith's Transl.). 'any of the tribes happened to
be jealous of each other or involved in civil war,
their meeting together in one place for the put-
poses of religion and sociality, had a tendency to
prevent their being totally alienated: and even
though this had happened, it gave them an oppor-
tunity of reuniting.' He adds that 'the separation
of the ten tribes from the tribes of Judah under
Rehoboam and Jeroboam could never have been
permanent, had not the latter abrogated one part
of the law of Moses relative to festivals. In order
to perpetuate the separation, he prohibited the an-
nual pilgrimages to Jerusalem, and appointed two
places for divine service within his own territories'
(l Kings xii:27-3o). 'lie also,' adds Michaelis,
FESTIVALS
658
FETTERS
'transferred the celebration of the Feast of Taber-
nacles, and probably the other two festivals like-
wise, to a different season fixam that appointed by
Moses' (i Kings xii:33).
Another effect of these festivals Michaelis has
found in the furtherance of internal commerce.
They would give rise to something resembling our
modern fairs. Among the Mahometans similar
festivals have had this effect.
These festivals, in their origin, had an obvious
connection with agriculture. Passover saw the
harvest upon the soil ; at Pentecost it was ripe ;
and Tabernacles was the festival of gratitude for
the fruitage and vintage (Michaelis, art. 197).
The first was a natural pause after the labors of
the field were completed; the second, after the
first-fruits were gathered ; and the third, a time of
rejoicing in the feeling that the Divine bounty
had crowned the year with its goodness.
2. Human Institutions. {De Feriarum
Hebraorum origitie ac ratione, a.\ic\.ore H. Ewald;
Gottingae, 1841; and Creuzer. Sy7nbol. ii:597.)
(1) Purim. (Heb. 0*116, poo-reem', lots).
The Feast of Purim or of Lots originated
in the gratitude of the Jews in escaping the plot
of Haman, designed for their destruction. It
took its name from the lots which were cast be-
fore Haman by the astrologers, who knew his
hatred against Mordecai and his wish to destroy
his family and nation (Esther iii:7; ix:2, 5).
The feast was suggested by Esther and Mordecai,
and was celebrated on the 13th, 14th and 15th
days of the twelfth month (Adar). The 13th was
a fast, being the day on which the Jews were to
have been destroyed; and on the 14th and 15th
were a feast held in commemoration of their de-
liverance. The fast is called the Fast of Esther,
and the feast still holds the name of Purim.
Prideaux (Coniiex.) styles it the Bacchanalia of
the Jews. (Brown, ^w//^. i:575.)
(2) Death of Holofernes. The killing of
Holofernes by the hand of Judith, the consequent
defeat of the Assyrians, and the liberation of the
Jews, were commemorated by the institution of
a festival (Jydith xiv: xv).
(3) Feast of Dedication. The Feast of Dedi-
cation was appointed by Judas Maccabaeus, on
occasion of the purification of the temple, and
reconstruction of the altar, after they had been
polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes (i Mace, i; a
Mace, v; Prideaux, sub A. C. 167-8, 170).
The new dedication took place on the 25th
day of the ninth month, called Chislev, in the
year before Christ, 170. This would be in Decem-
ber. The day was chosen as being that on which
Antiochus, three years before, had polluted the
altar by heathen sacrifices.
In John X :22 this festival is alluded to when
our Lord is said to have been present at the Feast
of Dedication. The historian marks the time by
stating 'it was winter.'
(4) Festival of Fire. The festival 'of the Fire'
was instituted by Nehemiah, to commemorate the
miraculous rekindling of the altar-fire. The cir-
cumstances are narrated in 2 Mace, i :l8.
(5) Defeat of Nicanor. The defeat by Judas
Maccabaeus of the Greeks when the Jews 'smote
off Nicanor's head and his right hand which he
stretched out so proudly,' caused the people to
'rejoice greatly, and they kept that day a day of
great gladness ; moreover, they ordained to keep
yearly this day, being the thirteenth day of Adar'
—February or March (i Mace. vii:47).
Some other minor fasts and festivals may be
found noticed in Brown's AnIiqtMcs, i:586; and
in Simon's Dictionnaire de la Bible, art. Fetes ;
Biihr, Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus, bk. iv;
Raphall, Festivals of the Lord).
FESTUS, POBCIUS (fes'tus p6r'shi-us), (Gr.
nipKios ^'/cTTos, por' kee-os face' tos).
Porcius Festus was the successor of Felix as
the Roman governor of Judea, to the duties of
which office he was appointed by the emperor
Nero (Joseph. Antiq. xx:8, 9; De Bell. Jud. ii;
I, i), in the first year of his reign. One of his
first official acts was hearing the case of the
apostle Paul, who had been left in prison by his
predecessor. He was at least not a thoroughly
corrupt judge; for when the Jewish hierarchy
begged him to send for Paul to Jerusalem, and
thus afford an opportunity for his being assas-
sinated on the road, he gave a refusal, promising
to investigate the facts at Cassarea, where Paul
was in custody, alleging to them, 'it is not the
manner of the Romans to deliver any man to
die before that he which is accused have the ac-
cusers face to face, and have license to answer
for himself concerning the crime laid against him'
(Acts XXV : 16). On reaching Caesarea he sent
for Paul, heard what he had to say, and, finding
that the matters which 'his accusers had against
I'.im' were 'questions of their own superstition,
and of one Jesus which was dead, whom Paul
affirmed to be alive,' he asked the apostle whether
he was willing to go to Jerusalem, and there be
tried, since Festus did not feel himself skilled in
such an affair. Paul, doubtless because he was
unwilling to put himself into the hands of his
implacable (enemies, requested 'to be ireserved
unto the hearing of Augustus,' and was in con-
sequence kept in custody till Festus had an op-
portunity to send him to Caesar. Agrippa, how-
ever, with his wife Bernice, having come to
salute Festus on his new appointment, expressed
a desire to see and 'hear the man.' Accordingly
Paul was brought before Festus, Agrippa and
Bernice, made a famous speech, and was declared
innocent. But having appealed to Caesar, he was
sent to Rome.
Festus. on coming into Judea. found the
country infested with robbers, who plundered the
villages and set them on fire ; the Sicarii also
were numerous. Many of both classes were cap-
tured, and put to death by Festus.
King Agrippa had built himself a splendid
dining-room, which was so placed that, as he
reclined at his meals, he commanded a view of
what was done in the Temple. The priests, being
displeased, erected a wall so as to exclude the
monarch's eye. On which Festus took part with
Agrippa against the priests, and ordered the wall
to be pulled down. The priests appealed to
Nero, who suffered the wall to remain, being
influenced by his wife Poppaea, 'who was a re-
ligious woman' (Joseph. /i»/i(7 xx:8, ll). Festus
died shortly afterwards. The manner in which
Josephus speaks is favorable to his character as
a governor {De Belt. Jud iv:!/|. 1).
FETTERS (fSt'ters). Three Hebrews words are
thus translated:
1. JVei/i-o's/iel/i.^W^^, exprtsses the material of
which they are made, brass; and also from the
dual number, that they were made in pairs (Judg.
xvi :2T ; 2 Sam. iii:34; 2 Kings xxv:7; 2 Chron.
xxxiii:ii; xxxvi:6; Jer. xxxix7; Iii:i i).
2. J^ede/, ■?? Ps. cv:i8; cxlix:8) may apply
to the link connecting the fetters.
3. Zikkim, ^T', frequently translated chains
(Ps. cxlix:8; Is. xlv:i4; Nah. iii;lo), but it refers
to the "contraction" of the feet by a chain (Gesen.
FEVER
659
1-lG TKEF,
Thes. p. 424J. Iron fetters are doubtless meant in
Mark v:4; Luke viii:29. (Wilkinson, Ancient
E,opl, i:4'0)
FEVEB (£e'ver),(Heb. ^^'yr^.ka'i-'iach-ath' ,h\xm-
ing heat). Both the Hebrew, kaililachath, and tht
Greek, wptT6i, pu-ree-los' , burning lire, are derived
from the association of burning heat, the ordinary
symptom of a febrile attack (Deut. xxviii:22; Matt.
viii:i4; Mark 1:30; Luke iv:38; John iv;52. Acts
xxviii:8).
FIDELITT (fi-deri-ty), (Gr. iri<rTtt,/w7M, strict
adherence to one's promise or trust).
Thus our Lord says, 'Who then is that faithful
and wise steward,' etc (Luke xii:42). Paul gives
the description of the faithful servant as 'show-
ing all good fidelity' (Tit. ii:lo).
FIELD (Heb. '"'T?, generally saw-iUh' , smooth-
ness).
The English word does not fully represent the
Hebrew term. They both mean cultivated land,
but savi'deh is applied .specificially to what is un-
enclosed, the opposite of the notion conveyed by
the word Held. The separate plots of land were
divided by stones, which might be removed ( Deut.
xix:i4; xxvii:i7; cf. Job. xxiv:2; Prov. xxii:28;
xxiii:io). Stray cattle could enter (Exod. xxii :
5), and therefore the flocks and herds must be con-
stantly watched (Wortabet. Syria, 1:293). From
the absence of enclosures the term "field" might
be applied to a plot of ground of limited area, or
a man's whole property (Gen. xxiii:i3, 17; Is.
v:8; Lev. xxvii:i6 ff; Ruth iv:5; Jer. xxxii 19.
25; Prov. xxvii:26; xxxi:i6). The practice of
leaving the fields unfenced, and separated only by
a foot-path explains how seeds, in sowing, could
fall on the hard unplowed earth and be exposed to
the birds (Matt, xiii :4) ; and how the Saviour,
with his disciples, could pass through the cornfields
along these dividing paths, plucking the ears of
corn, which, according to the Jewish custom, was
not a violation of the rights of property (Luke
vi:i fl). (See Rob. Bxhl. Res. ii :i92.) It also
explains how Ruth gathered grain "in a part of
the field belonging to Boaz" (Ruth ii:3).
FIG TREE (fig), (Heb. ]*^^, teh-ane' . or ^W^.
Uh-av-naw' ; Gr. avKov, soo'kon), the fruit of the
well-known tree.
Figs aod Fig Leaves.
(1) The first notice of the fig-tree occurs in Gen.
iii 7, where Adam and Eve are described as sew-
ing fig-leaves together, to make themselves aprons.
The common fig-leaf is not so well suited, from
its lobed nature, for this purpose ; but the practice
of sewing or pinning leaves together is very com-
mon in the East even in the present day, and
baskets, di.shes and umbrellas are made of leaves
so pinned or sewn together. The fig-tree is enum-
erated (Deut. viii:8; comp. Is. xxxiv:4) as one
of the valuable products of Palestine, 'a land of
wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig-trees, and
pomegranates.'
(2) It has been cultivated in Palestine from re-
mote times, and is also found in a wild state. It
does not grow to a great height, but throws out a
profusion of very spreading branches, and the
trunk is often three feet in diameter. Five-lobed
leaves luxuriantly clothe these limbs, and often
convert this tree into a beautiful natural arbor (i
Kings iv:25; 2 Kings xviii:3i; Is. xxxvi:i6;
Mic. iv:4: Zech. iii:io; John i:48).
The fruit is pear-shaped, and the small green figs
appear before the leaves. When these figs have
attained some size, their interior will be found
filled with minute white flowers. This curious
provision leads to the common impression that this
tree never blossoms. When the leaves have ap-
peared, if there be no fruit among them, the fig-
tree will be barren for the present season (Matt,
xxi :i9).
(3) Figs are much used as food in all Eastern
lands. Two kinds of this fruit are mentioned in
the Bible, (a) The early fig, or boccdre, of which
a few ripen and are gathered in June (Is. xxviii:
4; Hos. ix:io; Mic. vii:i). while the most of this
early fruit falls off before it is perfected (Rev. vi :
1.3). (b) The main crop, or kermouse, ordinarily
does not ripen till August. These are the "green
figs" of Cant. ii:i3. "Bethphage" means "house of
green figs." A long dark-colored kermouse some-
times hangs upon the trees all winter.
These various kinds of figs are eaten as they
come from the tree, and are also dried in masses
or cakes (i Sam. xxv:i8). They seem to have
been an ordinary article of food, and to have pos-
sessed medicinal properties (2 Kings xx;7; i
Chron. xii:40).
The putting forth of the fig-tree was one of
the earliest indications of summer (Cant. ii:l3;
Matt. xxiv:32; Luke xxi 129 ; and a failure of its
fruit was a great calamity (Jer. v:i7; viii:i3; Joel
i:7, 12; Hab. iii:i7, 18).
Figurative, (i) The fie;-iree is referred to as
one of the signs of prosperity (l Kings iv:2S).
'And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man
under his vine and under his fig-tree.' (2) And
its failure is noted as a sign of affliction (Ps.
cv:33). 'He smote their fig-trees and broke, the
trees of their coasts.' (3) The Jewish nation is
likened to a barren fig-tree, spared another year
at the request of the dresser. When our Savior
came into the world, and for more than three
years exercised his public ministry among them,
how barren were they, and how ripe for destruc-
tion ! But by His intercession and the prayers of
His apostles, they were spared till it was seen that
the preaching of the gospel had no good effect on
the greater part of them ; and were afterward cut
off with terrible destruction (Luke xiii:6-9). (4)
They were also shadowed forth by the fig-tree
with fair leaves, but no fruit, which Jesus cursed
into barrenness and withering; they had many
showy pretenses to holiness and zeal, but were
destitute of good works and refused to believe in
and receive the promised Messiah (Matt. xxi:i9).
(S) The cursing of the fig-tree by our Savior
(Mark xi:i3, 21) has occasioned great perplexity,
"This incident occurred about the beginning of
April, when, as the evangelist states, the time for
figs had not come. Why, then, should Christ seek
figs upon the tree and, as it were, blame its bar-
renness? The best reply seems to be: because the
FIGURE
660
FIR
tree was in leaf; and when the tree was in this
state, abnormal though it were, fruit might be
expected. Dr. Thompson, as the result of his ob-
servation, considers it not at all impossible that
the early variety of this tree might have ripe fruit
in the warm, sheltered ravines of Olivet at Easter.
If there was no fruit on this leafy tree it might
justly be condemned as barren; and hence the
propriety of the lesson it was made to teach — that
those who put forth in profusion only the leaves
of empty profession are nigh unto cursing.
FIOTTBE (fig' Qr), the translation of the following
words: SeA'me/ (Hth. '9?). an idol, as otherwise;
mik-lah'ath (Heb. I^^'ip^), a carving; tab-neeth'
(Heb. '^'^??^), likeness or model; an-teet' oo-pon
(Gr. dLvrVrvvov, i Peter iii:2i), antitype; the verb
met-askh-ay-mat-id zo (Gr. licraaxrifiaTifu)).
(1) Deut. iv:i6, 'Lest ye corrupt yourselves, and
make you a graven image, the similitude of any
figure,' (Driver, 'statue'). The word is found also
(2 Chron. xxxiii 7, 15) 'idol,' and (Ezek. viii:3,
5) 'image.' The meaning 'statue' is confirmed by
the Phoenician inscriptions.
(2) I Kings vi :29, 'He carved all the walls of
the house round about with carved figures of
cherubim' and the next: vi;i8 'was carved,' i. e.,
'was carving of ;' vi :^2 'carvings ;' vii :2i 'grav-
ings.' These 'carved figures' were representations
of the cherubim cut in relief on the wood of the
doors.
(3) Is. xliv:i3, 'The carpenter . . . maketh it
[the image] after the figure of a man (tablinilh).
The Hebrew is frequent for the outward appear-
ance of a person or thing.
(4) In Acts vii -.43 the meaning is 'representa-
tions' or 'images of gods;' in Rom. v:i4 it is
'type.'
(5) Heb. ix :24, 'Christ is not entered into the
holy places made with hands, which are the figures
of the true; but into heaven itself.'
(6) I Cor. iv :6, "And these things, brethren, I
have in a figure transferred to m.yself and to
Apollos.' The Greek verb 'in a figure transferred'
elsewhere means to change one's form or appear-
ance into some other form (2 Cor. xi:i3, 14, 15)
(A. V. 'transform,' R. V. 'fashion into' or 'fash-
ion as'), and Phil, iii :2i (A. V. 'change,' R. V.
'fashion anew'). Here it is the truth stated that
is to change its application ; applied by the apostle
to himself and Apollos, it really applies to the
Corinthians. (Hastings' S16. Z)iVr) (See Type.)
FILE (fit), is the improper translation in the A.
V. of the Heb. ^r '^T^'r. pets-ee-raw' peh (I Sam.
xiii:2i), literally signifying a bluntness of the mouth,
i. e., edge of tools.
riLiLET (fil'et), an incorrect translation in the
A. V. of two words:
1. Khash-oo-keem' (Heb. ^*F1?''^, joinings, Exod.
xxxviii:l7, 28; xxvii:i7), the rods which joined
together the tops of the pillars round the court of
the Tabernacle (q.v.) and from which the curtain
was suspended (Exod. xxvii:io, II, etc.).
2. Knoot (Heb. Uln, thread, as elsewhere ren-
dered), i. e., a measuring line (Jer. lii:2l).
FILTH, FILTHY (fflth. fn'thy), the translation
of several Hebrew and Greek words and meaning
"foul matter," "anything that soils or defiles." In
2 Chron. xxix:5 and Ezra. vi:2l, it denotes the filth
from which the Jews were to cleanse the Temple.
Figurative. (I) FWxhTepTcsenis mora/ impur-
ity (Ezek. xxxvi :25 ; 2 Cor. vii :i ; James i :2I, etc.).
(2) That the Ulthiness of it may be molten in it"
(Ezek. xxiv:ii) seems to mean that the pot was
to be placed empty upon the fire that the rust
may be burned away by the heat. The Ulthiness
of the pot was the rust upon it. (3) The apostles
were made as the filth of the world; its offscour-
ings, or outsweepings. They were by wicked men
accounted and used as if most base and con-
temptible (i Cor. iv:l3). (4) Sinful pollu-
tions of the heart or practice are often called
filth and Althiness; they render men corrupt
and abominable to God and to good men
(Is. iv:4; Ezek. vi:2i). (s) Men are repre-
sented as filthy, and fitthiness, on account of their
being infected and defiled with sin (Rev. xxii:
11; Ezek. xxii:is). (6) Filthy lucre is gain
basely and sinfully gotten ; as when ministers
make their salaries their great aim in their work
(Tit. 1:7, 11; I Pet. v:2).
FIN (Heb. "^'^iP, sen-ap-peer), a distinctive
mark of such fish as might be eaten under the
Mosaic law (Deut. xiv:9, 10; Lev. xi:Q, 10, 12).
FINE (fin). Under the Mosaic law the amount
of indemnification was fixed by the one injured in
certain cases; in others by the judge (Ex. xxiilQ-
36; xxii:6; Deut. xxii;l9, 29.
FINEB (fin'er), (Heb. H-V.A'iK'-ra///, to refine),
a worker of gold and silver (Prov. xxv:4).
FINGER (fi«'ger), (Heb. i'5V?<, ets-bah' ; Gr.
Jd/cTuXos, dak'too-los). Besides referring to the
member of the human body it has a specific mean-
ing as Digit (Heb. ^?!'^', ets-bah'), the smallest
measure among the Hebrews, and equal to the
breadth of the human finger. We find the thick-
ness of the solid parts of Solomon's pillars mea-
sured by fingers (Jer. lii:2i).
Figurative, (i) The finger of God Aer\o\tsh.\%
power, his operation. Pharaoh's magicians dis-
covered the finger of God in some of the miracles
of Moses (Exod. viii:i9). (2) That legislator gave
the tables written with the finger of God to the
Hebrews (Exod. x.x.xi:i8). The heavens were the
work of God's fingers (Ps. viii :3). (3) Our Lord
says, he casts out devils with the finger of God ;
meaning, perhaps, by his authority (Luke xi:2o).
(4) To put forth one's finger, is a bantering ges-
ture (Is. Iviii -.g). (5) To "teach with the fingers,"
imported a concealed and indirect method of ex-
citing others to iniquity (Prov. vi:i3). (6) To
bind God's law on the fingers, is to have it con-
stantly in our eye as the rule and reason of our
whole practice (Prov. vii:3). (7) Rehoboam's
little finget' being thicker than his father's loins,
meant, that the easiest exertion of his power and
authority, should be more rigid and grievous than
any servitude or hardship they had suffered under
his father (i Kings xii :io; 2 Chron. x :lo).
FINOEB. NAIL signatures were common
among the Chaldeans. "An indentation was made
with the finger nail on one of the sides of the (soft
clay) tablet, and this mark, followed or preceded
by the mention of a name, 'Nail of Zabudamik,'
'Nail of Abzii.' took the place of more or less
complicated sign-manuals" (Maspero, Dawn of
Civilisation, p. 731). (Barnes' Bib. Cyc.)
FINISHER (Gr. rfXeiuTi^s, tel-i-o-tace' , com-
pleter), spoken of Jesus (Heb. xii:2) as one who in
his own person raised faith to its perfection and so
set before us the highest example of faith (Grimm,
Gr. Lex., s. v.).
FIR (Heb. '^*''?, ber-ash'), probably the cypress,
Cupressus sempevirens, L. This tree fulfills all
the conditions of the various passages in which _/?r
FIRE
661
FIRE
occurs (l Kings vi:i5, 34; 2 Chron. iii:;; Erek.
xxvii:5). The tall trunk of this tree is well adapted
for masts.
FIBE (Br), (Heb. ^^■, ays/i ; Gr. irfp, poor).
The uses of fire among the Hebrews were va-
rious : —
(1) Bomestia The domestic use, for cooking,
roasting, and baking. (See Bread; Food.)
(2) Warmth. In winter they warmed them-
selves and their apartments, by 'a fire of coals'
(Jer. xxxvi:22, 23; Luke xxii:55). In the rooms
it would seem that a brazier with charcoal was
usually employed, as is still the case in western
Asia, although the ovens and fire-places used in
baking bread might have been, and doubtless were,
as now, often employed to keep rooms properly
warm. (See Bread; Coal.)
(3) Religious. The religious use of fire was
for consuming the victims on the altar of burnt-
offerings, and in burning the incense on the
golden altar ; hence the remarkable phrase in
Is. xxxi :9 — 'the Lord, whose fire is in Zion, and
his furnace in Jerusalem.'
In the sacerdotal services no fire but that of the
altar of burnt-offerings could lawfully be used.
That fire was originally kindled supernaturally and
was ever after kept up. From it the fire used
in the censers for burning incense was always
taken ; and for neglecting this and using common
fire, Nadab and Abihu were struck dead by 'fire
from heaven" (Lev. x:2, sy. ; Num. iii:4; xxvi:6i).
(4) War. In time of war torclits were often
carried Dy the soldiers; which explains the use
of torches in the attack of Gideon upon the camp
of the Midianites (j"f^g- vii:i6). This military
use of torches was very general among ancient
nations, and is alluded to by many of their writ-
ers (Statins, Tlicb. iv :5, 7; Stobaeus, Serm. p.
194; M.ichaelis, in Symbol Liter. Bremcns, iii :
254)-
Towns were often destroyed by fire. This, as
a war usage, belongs to all times and nations;
but among the Hebrews there were some par-
ticular notions connected with it, as an act of
strong abhorrence, or of devotement to abiding
desolation. The principal instances historically
commemorated are the destruction by fire of Jeri-
cho (Josh. vi:24); Ai (Josh, viii :I9) ; Hazor
(Josh. xi:ii) ; Laish (Judg. xviii :27) ; the towns
of the Benjamites (Judg. xx:48) ; Ziklag. by the
Amalekites (i Sam. xxx:i); Jazer, by Pharaoh
(1 Kings ix:i6) ; and the temple and palaces of
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings xxvip).
Even the war-chariots of the Canaanites were
burnt by the Israelites, probably on the principle
of precluding the possibility of recovery, by the
enemy, of instruments of strength for which they
had themselves no use. The frequency with
which towns were fired in ancient warfare is
shown by the very numerous threats by the
prophets that the towns of Israel should be burned
by their foreign enemies. Some great towns, not
of Israel, are particularly named ; and it would
be an interesting task to trace, as far as the ma-
terials exist, the fulfillment of these prophecies in
those more marked examples. Among the places
thus threatened we find Damascus (Is. xliii:i2,
13), Gaza, Tyre, Teman (.^mos i :", 10, i:). The
temples and idols of a conquered town or people
were very often burned by the victors, and this
was enjomed as a duty to the Israelites (Deut.
vii:5, 25; xii:3; xiii:i6; Is. xxxiii:i2|.
(5) Special Begulatlons. (i) There were
some special regulations respecting the use of
fire among the Israelites. The most remarkable
of these was the prohibition to light fire on the
Sabbath (Exod. xxxvrji As the primary de-
sign of this law appears to have been to prevent
the proper privileges of the Sabbath day from
being lost to anyone through the care and time
required in cooking victuals (Exod. xvi:23) it is
doubted whether the use of fire for warmth on
the Sabbath day was included in this interdiction.
In practice it would appear that the fire was never
lighted or kept up for cooking on the Sabbath
day, and that consequently there were no fires in
the houses during the Sabbaths of the greater
part of the year ; but it may be collected that, in
winter, fires for warming apartments were kept
up from the previous day. Michaelis is very much
mistaken with respect to the climate of Palestine
in supposing that the inhabitants could, without
much discomfort, dispense with fires for warmth
during winter (Mosaisches Recht, ivngj). The
modern Jews, although there is no cooking in
their houses, have fires on the Sabbath day, which
are attended to by a Christian servant, or a char-
woman is hired to attend to the fires of several
houses, which she visits repeatedly during the
day. (2) Another law required the damage done
by a conflagration in the fields to be made good
by the party through whose incaution it had been
kindled (Exod. xxii:6). This was a most useful
and necessary law in a country where the warmth
and drought of summer soon render the herbage
and underwood highly combustible, so that a fire
once kindled often spreads most extensively, and
produces disastrous consequences (Judg. ix:i5;
.XV :5). This law was calculated to teach caution
in the use of fire to the herdsmen in the fields,
who were the parties most concerned. And it is
to be remembered that the herdsmen were gener-
ally substantial persons, and had their assistant
shepherds, for whose imprudence they were made
responsible. Still no inference is to be drawn
from this law with regard to fires breaking out in
towns, the circumstances being so very different.
(6) Punishment. Burning criminals alive
does not appear to have been known to the He-
brews; but as an additional disgrace the bodies
were in particular cases burnt after death had
been inflicted (Josh, vii 125 ; compare verse 15);
and it is in this sense that the allusions to burn-
ing as a punishment are to be understood, except
when the reference is to a foreign usage, as in
Dan. iii :22. 24, sq.
Figurative, (i) 'Fire from heaven,' 'fire of
the Lord,' usually denotes lighlning in the Old
Testament; but, when connected with sacrifices,
the 'fire of the Lord' is often to be understood as
the fire of the altar, and sometimes the holocaust
itself (Exod. xxix:i8; Lev. iip; ii:3; iii :5. 9;
Num. xxviii:6; i Sam. ii:28; Is. xxx:30; Mai.
i:lo. (2) Fire .was a symbol of the Lord's pres-
ence and the instrument of his power, either in the
way of approval or of destruction (Exod. xiv:i9,
24; Num. xi:i, 3, etc.). Thus Jehovah appeared
in the burning bush and on Mount Sinai (Exod,
iii:2; xix:i8). In the midst of fire he showed
himself to Isaiah, Ezekiel. and John (Is. vi 14 ;
Ezek. i:4; Rev. i:i4), and will so appear at his
second coming (2 "Thess. i:8). (3) Fire is the
comparison of intense love (Cant, viii :6) ; of the
injuring tongue (Ps. cxx :4 ; Prov. xvi:2~; Jas.
iii:5), and of godlessness (Is. ix:i8. (4) God is
compared to fire because of his purity, majesty,
terribleness (Deut. iv:24; Heb. xii:29; Is. x:l7).
(5) Christ is compared to fire; he tries the chil-
dren of men, purifies and comforts his people, and
destroys his enemies (Mai. iii:2; Ezek. viii :2, and
i:27). (6) The Holy Ghost is likened to Are, to
denote his enlightening, purifying, sin-destroying,
FIRE BAPTISM
662
FIRSTBORN IN ISRAEL
and holy love-enkindling influences (Matt. iii:li;
Acts ii:3; Is. iv:4). (7) Angels are compared to
fire; they are pure in their nature, and their exe-
cution of God's command is irresistible, awful and
speedy (Ps. civ:4). (8) The church of God is
likened to fire; she is often full of troubles ; but,
eventually she shall prevail over her opposers
(Obad. 18). (9) The wicked are like fire; they are
very dangerous and destructive to others, and hate-
ful to God (Prov. vi:27; Is. lxv:5), andGod rnakes
them like a fiery oven, when he inflicts his judg-
ments on them (Ps. xxi:9). (10) God's word is
like fire; it tries the states and conditions of men ;
and it warms, melts and purifies the heart, and its
threatenings are fulfilled (Jer. v:i4, and xxiii:
29).
FIBE BAPTISM. See Baptism of Fire;
MOLECH.
FIKEBBAND (fir-brand).
1. Lap'peed {Heh. "?2, torch, Judg. xv:4). The
firebrand used by Samson was probably a torch
made of resinous wood or other material that
would hold fire.
2. Zake (Heb. Tl, Prov. xxvi:i8), i. e., arrows
fitted with combustibles (comp. Eph. vi:l6).
3. Ooif iU eh. fiH, Is. vii:4; Amos iv:ii), the
burnt ends of wooden pokers (literally, fire stirrers),
which would blaze no longer, but only continue
smoking.
riBEPAN (fir-pan), (Heb. '^•'?~^, makh-taw'),
a vessel used in the temple service (Ex. xxvii:3,
vxxviii:3; 2 Kings xxv:i5; Jer. liiiig). In Ex.
XXV ;38; xxxvii:23; Num. iv:g, the word is trans-
lated "snuff-dish," and in Lev. x:l; xvi::2; Num.
xvi;6 ff, "censer." The first mentioned must have
been like a chafing dish, to carry coals for burning
incense; the other like a snuffer-dish to trim the
lamps.
FIBES (firz), (Heb. "IIX, oor). In Is. xxiv:l5 we
read, "Glorify ye the Lord in the fires," but which
is better rendered in the R. V. " East." The lands
of the Asiatic East were called 00-reem, "the
lands of light," i. e., the sun-rising, as opposed to
the West, i. e., the "from the sea" (verse 14).
(Barnes' Bib. Diet.).
FIBE, STBANGE. See Fire, 3.
FIBE WOBSHIP or PYBOLATBY. The
custom which prevailed among the ancient Per-
sians and Medes, and which also obtained among
the Carthaginians, Scythians, the ancient Germans
and the ancient inhabitants of Great Britain.
Reville, Religions of Mexico and Peru, pp. 162
and 163, says: Among the Peruvians "fire, con-
sidered as derived from the sun, was the ob-
ject of profound veneration. Strange as it may
seem at first sight, the symbol of fire was stones.
But . . . stones were thought to be animated
by the fire that was supposed to be shut up within
them, since it could be made to issue forth by a
sharp blow. A perpetual fire burned in the Tem-
ple of the Sun and in the abode of the Virgins of
the Sun. It was supposed that fire became pol-
luted and lost its divine nature by too long con-
tact with men. The fire must be renewed from
time to time, and this act was performed yearly
by the chief priest of Peru, who kindled (Wood by
means of a concave golden mirror.
FIEKIN (fer'kin). See Weights and Meas-
ures.
FIBMAMENT (fer'ma-rafnt\ (Heb. S'P"), raw-
kee'ah, expanse), the pure and transparent expanse
of ether which envelops the globe. This is the
word which is translated as " the firmament of the
heavens." It is explained in Gen. i;i4, 15, 17, as
that which is distended, expanded— the expanse of
heaven. (See marginal reading.)
With some old astronomers the firmament is
considered the region of the fixed stars, or the
highest of all the heavens. But in Scripture, and
in common language, it is used for the middle
regions, the space or expanse appearing like an
arch immediately above us in the heavens. Many
of the ancients, and of the moderns also, account
the firmament a fluid substance ; but science has
yet to find a better name than the term which
Moses used so long ago, viz., expanse.
The Hebrews seem to have considered the
firmament as transparent, like a crystal or sap-
phire (Ezek. 1:22; Dan. xii :3 ; Exod. xxiv:io;
Rev. iv :6) .
FIBSTBOBN (ferst' born'). The rendering of
several words from Heb. "'??, baw-kar' , to burst
forth; Gr. ir/juTorAKot, pro-tot-ok'os, applied both
to animals and human beings.
By the firstborn, in a religious point of view,
we are to understand the first of a mother's
oflfspring (Exod. xii:i2). (See Inheritance.)
Figurative. The term firstborn denotes that
which is most excellent, (i) Christ, the first-
horn of every creature, and the first-begotten from
the dead, who, as he was begotten from eternity,
is dignified above all creatures, has a double por-
tion of power, authority and fullness; is the great
high priest consecrated for evermore, and is the
first, the only person, who ever did or will rise
from the dead by his own power. He is the head
of all his chosen, the preserver of his father's
name, and the sanctifier of his people (Col. 1:15,
18; Rev. i:5). (2) T\ie firstborn of the poor are
those who are exceedingly wretched, having a
double share of poverty (Is. xiv:30). (3) The
firstborn of death is -an accursed and most
wretched and tormenting death (Job xviii:i3).
FIBSTBOBN, DESTBTJCTION OF. See
Plagues of Egypt.
FIBSTBOBN IN ISBAEL.
(1) Consecrated. The first-born male of every
Jewish family and of all beasts was consecrated
to God in commemoration of the judgment which
God brought upon the firstborn of Egypt (Ex.
xiii :2) . Several provisions of the Jewish law re-
late to the firstborn.
(2) Privileges. He received a double portion
of the estate (Deut. xxi:i7) and officiated as
priest of the family in the father's absence or
death. The privileges of the firstborn were obvi-
ously great in the cases of Esau and Reuben
(Gen. xxvii:l9, 32; I Chron. v:i, 2), but might
be forfeited, as these two cases show. The re-
ligious pre-eminence of the firstborn ceased when
the priesthood was committed exclusively to the
tribe of Levi (Num. iii:i2, 13). It was then re-
quired that a certain piece of money (s shekels,
about $2.50) should be paid for the redemption of
all the firstborn of succeeding generations; and
this redemption money became part of the sacred
revenue (Num. viii:i7; xviii:i6).
(3) Beasts. The firstborn of all beasts used
in sacrifice were devoted to the Lord (Ex. xiii :2),
Ijut the firstborn of unclean animals might be
redeemed with the addition of one-fifth of the
value (Lev. xxvii:i3) ; otherwise they were sold,
exchanged, or destroyed (Ex. xiii:i3; Lev. xxvii :
27). It is supposed that dogs were never re-
deemed (Deut. xxiii :i8). (See Birthright.)
FIRST FRUIT
663
FISH
FTRST FRUIT (ferst frut), (Heb. n-tfKn_ ray.
iheeth').
No doubt the leading object, as far as regards
the oflfering of the first fruits to God, was, that
all the after fruits and after gatherings might
be consecrated in and through them, and it was
not less the dictate of a natural impulse that the
first fruits should be offered to God in testi-
mony of thankfulness for his bounties. Hence
we find some analogous customs among most na-
tions in which material offerings were used.
There are, however, some particulars in the
Mosaical regulations which these considerations
do not adequately explain.
/. First Fruits of Fruit Trees. It was di-
rected that the first fruits of every tree whose
fruit was used for food should, for the first three
years of bearing, be counted 'uncircumcised,' and
regarded as unclean (Lev. xix:23, 24). It was
unlawful to sell them, to eat them, or to make
any benefit of them. It was only in the fourth
year of bearing that they were accounted 'holy,'
and the fruit of that year was made an offer-
ing of first fruits, and was either given to the
priests (Num. xviii:i2, 13), or, as the Jews
themselves understand, was eaten by the owners
of it 'before the Lord, at Jerusalem,' as was the
case with second tithe. After the fourth year all
fruits of trees were available for use by the owner.
As the general principle of the law was, that only
that which was perfect should be used in offerings,
it is an obvious inference that the fruits of trees
were considered imperfect until the fourth year,
and if so, the law may have had the ulterior ob-
ject of excluding from use crude, immature, and
therefore unwholesome fruits. Michaelis (iii:267-
8), indeed, finds a benefit to the trees themselves
in this regulation.
2. First Fruits of Yearly Increase. Of
these there were two kinds — (i) The first fruits in
the sheaf (Lev. xxiii:io). (2) The first fruits
in the two wave-loaves (Lev. xxiii:i7). These
two bounded the harvest, that in the sheaf being
offered at the beginning of the harvest, upon
the 15th of the month Nisan ; the other at the
end of the harvest, on the Feast of Pentecost.
Both of these are called '^f''^^, ten-oo-faw' (undu-
lation), wave offerings.
(1) Heave Offerings, (i) The first of the
dough, being the twenty-fourth part thereof,
which was given to the priests (Num. xv:20),
and this kind of offering was not neglected even
after the return frotn Babylon (Neh. x:37). (2)
The first fruits of the threshing floor. These two
are together called '^?^"^'i^, /^r-ou-waw', ( raised),
'heave offerings ;' the one, the 'heave offering of
the threshing floor,' the other, 'the heave offer-
ing of the dough.' The words teiiufihoth and
terumoth both signify 'shake offering,' 'heave
offering,' or 'wave offering.'
(2) First Fruits of Corn, Wine, etc. The sec-
ond sort consisted of corn, wine, oil and what-
ever other produce was fit for the support of hu-
man life. Under this class of first fruits was
included the first of the fleece, by which the
priests were provided with clothes, as by the other
offerings with food. The hair of goats, which
are shorn in the East, was included under this
denomination.
(3) Ceremonies. The first fruits were brouglrt
up to Jerusalem with great pomp and ceremony.
All the people of a given district assembled on an
appointed day in one of the towns, and lodged in
the streets. On the following morning the chief
of the party gave the signal for departure.
When the party came to the mount of the Tem-
ple every one then, however high or noble, took
his own basket upon his shoulder, and went for-
ward till he came to the court of the Temple. The
offerer, having the basket still upon his shoulder,
then began to recite the passage, "I profess this
day,' etc. (Deut. xxvi:3-io). It was usual with
those who were liberally disposed to hang turtle-
doves or pigeons about their baskets, and these
formed part of the offering. The first fruits be-
came the property of the course of priests which
was in actual service. The party who brought
them was obliged to spend the night following his
offering in Jerusalem, but was at liberty to re-
torn home the ensuing morning.
It is obvious that this and some other of the
apparently onerous obligations of the law, cannot
be properly appreciated or understood when re-
garded in the 'dry light' of abstract duties or
exactions. They were surrounded by engaging
and picturesque associations, calculated to make
their observance a matter of privilege and pleas-
ure to all the parties concerned.
Figurative, (i) The ancient patriarchs were
the first fruits of the Jewish nation, by whose
means their posterity were blessed, and set apart
to God (Rom. xi;i6). (2) The Hebrews were
the first fruits of God's increase; were long his
peculiar people, before the gentiles were gathered
to Shiloh (Jer. ii:3). (3) The first fruits of the
Spirit are such communications of his grace on
earth, as fully ensure the full enjoyment of God
hereafter (Rom. viii:23). (4) The first fruits
were typical of Jesus, the principaly?rj///'«//l5, who
was before all things, who has in all things the
preeminence, and by his consecration, oblation,
and resurrection on the second day of unleavened
bread his people are sanctified to God, and their
resurrection and eternal happiness secured (l
Cor. xv:2o), and whose Spirit descending at
Pentecost, began to gather the nations to Christ
(.Acts ii). (5) They represent the saints, who,
as first fruits to God, were chosen to his service ;
in the day of power devote themselves to him ; are
by grace rendered more excellent than their neigh-
bors, and are a means of preserving and convert-
ing the nations to Christ. (6) Those who are
first converted to Christ in a country are repre-
sented as the first fruits of it (Rev. xiv :4 ; Jam.
i :l8; i Cor. xvi :is).
FISH (fish), (Or. IxOit, ick-thoos'. Gen. ix:2;
Num. xi:22; Jonah ii:I, 10; Matt. vii:lo; xivriy; xv:
34; Luke v:6; John xxi:6, 8, II).
(1) Fishes, strictly so called, that is, oviparous,
vertebrated, cold-blooded animals, breathing water
by means of gills or branchiae, and generally, pro-
vided with fins, are not unfrequently mentioned in
the Bible, but never specifically.
(2) In the Mosaic law (Lev. xi:9-l2), distinc-
tion of them is made into clean and unclean, ac-
cording as they have fins and scales or are with-
out them. Of the numerous species of fish which
inhabit the lakes and rivers of Palestine and the
adjacent sea, Solomon possessed some knowledge
(l Kings iv:33), but not a single variety has its
name recorded in the Bible. (The whale is not a
fish!)
(3) An aggravation of the first plague of Egypt
was the destruction of fish — an important part of
the food of the people. In the wilderness the
Israelites murmured for the fish of their old home
(Num. xi:5). It was a sad prophecy for Egypt
that by the falling of her waters the fishermen
should mourn, and that they should be disap-
pointed who make ponds and sluices for fish (Is.
xix:5-io; conip. Ezek. xxix:4-io).
FISH
664
FLAG
(4) Most of the still and running waters of Pal-
estine swarm with fish. Josephus first called at-
tention to the similarity of the fish of the Sea of
Galilee and those of the Nile. Of those in the
former water Tristram says : the density of the
shoals can scarcely be conceived by those who
have not witnessed them. Frequently these shoals
cover an acre or more of the surface, and the fish,
as they slowly move along in masses, are so
crowded, with their back-fins just appearing on the
level of the water, that the appearance at a little
distance is that of a violent shower of rain pat-
tering on the surface. We obtained fourteen spe-
cies of fish in the lake, and probably the number
inhabiting it is at least three times as great.
But not all of these fish of Galilee are savory
eating (Matt. xiii:47, 48). On this lake four of
the disciples toiled as fishermen (Matt, iv :i8-2i).
(5) But the Hebrews could draw only a small
supply from the lake of Tiberias and the affluents
of the Jordan. On the coast the great sea-fisheries
were in the slack waters, within the dominion of
the Phoenicians, who mitst have sent the supply
into the interior in a cured or salted state; al-
though the fact involves the question how far in
that condition, coming out of Pagan hands, con-
sumption by a Hebrew was strictly lawful ; per-
haps it may be presumed that national wants had
sufficient influence to modify the law. The art
of curing fish was well understood in Egypt, and
unquestionably in Phoenicia, since that industrious
nation had early establishments for the purpose
at the Golden Horn or Byzantium, at Portus Sym-
bolorum in Tauric Chersonesus, and even at Calpe,
in the present Bay of Gibraltar.
(6) The usual method of catching fish was either
by casting the net (Hab. i:iS; Ezek. xxvi :5, 14;
xlvii:io; Matt. iv:i8, 20, 21; Mark i:i6, 18, 19;
Luke v:2 ff; John xxi :6 ff), or dragging it (Is.
xix:8; Matt. xiii:47). See Tristram, Land of
Israel, pp. 245, 426, 485, 529, 544- The language
of Matt. vii:io, and Luke xi:ii, implies that one
in need might ask a fish as a gratuity and expect
to receive it.
(7) The Hebrews seem to have classified to-
gether all creatures living in the waters, whether
'whales' A.V. or 'sea-monsters' R.V. (Gen. i :2l ;
Heb. tunnhi'im), or 'great fish' (Jonah i.17; dAg
gddhiU), or the 'living creature that moveth'
(Gen. i:2i), or 'fish' (ver. 28). (See Jonah.)
(8) The fish was an object of idolatry in all the
ancient world. The Philistines worshiped Dagon.
the fish-god (l Sam. v:4), who was represented
with the body of a man and the tail of a fish
(see Dagon). Hence it was forbidden to make
an image of a fish (Deut. iv:i8), which to the
Hebrew included, as before said, all living crea-
tures in the water (Ex. xx:4).
(9) The form of a fish (M otitis Poseidon) was
from remote ages, a type of protective dominion,
as above indicated. As the symbolizing spirit of
the ancients it passed into Christian observance,
as appears from Eusebius (Life of Constnntine),
and St. Augustine (De Civitate Dei). On the
walls of the oldest catacombs of Rome the repre-
sentation of the fish is frequently discernible, and
always interpreted as an emblem of the Savior.
Figurative, (i) Men are compared tofishes
and fishes of the great sea; they are very numer-
ous ; their tempers and courses are very different ;
they often live in a very confused and disorderly
manner ; they prey on one another ; they are fre-
quently taken in the net of temptation and trou-
ble, and sometimes in the net of the gospel. At
last, by the providence of God. they are drawn to
the shore of the eternal state : and the good fishes
are separated from the sea (Ezek. xlvii :9, 10;
Eccl. ix:i2; Matt. xiii:47-5o). (2) Ministers
are fishers of men ; by casting the net of the
gospel among them, with great labor and care
they draw them to Christ and his church (Matt.
iv:i6; Ezek. xlvii :io). (3) The Chaldeans are
called fishers; they ensnared, apprehended and
carried out of their country multitudes of men
(Jer. xvi:i6; Hab. i:is).
FISHEK (Heb. ^P, dav-vawg' ; Gr. dXtei/i,
hal-ee-yoos').
In addition to the usual meaning, the Lord
called his disciples "fishers of men" (Matt, iviip;
Mark i:i7). (See Fishhook.)
FISH GATE (Etsh gat), (Heb. °'^?'!! ''it, shah' ar
had-dawg-yeem' , gate of the fishes), the name (2
Chron. xxxiii:i4; Neh. iii:3; xii;39) of one of the
gates of Jerusalem. (See Jerusalem.)
FISHHOOK (Rsh' hook), (Heb.,plural '^T''^ nlVD,
see-roth' doo-gaw', horns of fishing, Amos iviz;
comp. Jer. xvi:i6).
The method of taking fish with hooks was
doubtless known in the early ages of the world
(Job xli:l). The spear was also used (Job
xli7).
The usual way, however, was by a net — either
a casting-net (Ezek. xxvi :5 ; xlvii :io; Hab. i:is;
Matt, iv :20, 21; Mark i:l8, 19; Luke, v:2; John
xxi:6 ff.) or a drag net (Is. xix:8; Hab. i:is;
Matt. xiii:47). In the latter case a boat was
necessarily used. Such fishing was done, by pref-
erence, at night (Luke v:5). Angling was a
favorite recreation in ancient Egypt. The ref-
erence in Job xli :2 is to the custom of putting
a ring through the gill of a fish, and then by a
line attaching it to a stake, the object being to
keep it alive in the water until required for use.
Besides amateur there were professional fisher-
men. Such were many of the apostles. (Schaff,
Bib. Diet.)
FISHING (Heb. ^*1, deeg ; Gr. oXieiJu, hal-ee-
yoo'o). For modes of fishing see Fishhook.
FISH FOOL (fish pool), (Heb. '^i'^^.ber-ay-kaw' ,
pool), in general a pond or reservoir (Cant. vii:4);
a mistranslation for "pools" simply. There is no
reference to fish. (See Heshbon.)
FITCHES (Gch'ez), the rendering of two differ-
ent words.
1. Keh'tsakh (Heb. "?l?.. Is. xxviii:25, 27),
which refers to the fruit of the nutmeg flower,
Nigella sativa, L. It is a plant of the buttercup
family.
Some species are cultivated in our flower
gardens under such names as "love-in-a-mist."
Fitches are grown for their small black, hot-tast-
ing seeds, which are sprinkled over the flat cakes
of the Syrians before they are baked. These ten-
der seeds are still beaten out with a stout staff,
as described in Is. xxviii 127.
2. Koos-seh'meth (Heb. ^!??p, Ezek. ivig), which
should be vetch or kirsenneh, or as in the margin,
"spelt." (See Rve;Ketzach.)
FLAG (flag), (Heb. 'I'"'?, a-w'khoo).
Probably used, as by us, somewhat indefinitely
(Ex. ii:3). If any special plant was intended it
may have been the edible rush or the flowering
rush, both of which abound in Egypt, and the lat-
ter in Palestine.
The Hebrew original, '"^?i is rendered (Gen.
xli :2, 18) A. V. "meadow," R. V. "reed grass."
It would be better to render it in all the passages
FLAGON
«)j
FLESH A.\U BLOOD
ffiis. Another word, soof (Exod. 11:3, 5), is well
translated "flags." (See Achu.) For Flag, an
Ensign, see Standards.
FLAGON (flag'iin), (Heb. ^T"^., asA-ee-sAav'. a
thin cake).
1. The word thus rendered in the A. V. (2 Sam.
vi:i9; I Chron. xvi:3; Hos. iii:i; Cant. ii:5) means
rather a caie, especially of dried figs or raisins,
pressed into a particular form. (SeeFRUiTS.)
2. In Is. xxii:24 occurs the word nebel, which
was used for a bottle or vessel, at first of skin,
later of pottery (Is. xxx:i4). The same word
means a musical instrument; the "psaltery" of the
A. v., or "viol."
FLAKE (flak), (Heb. ^|P, map-pawt, pendu-
lous), the dewlaps or flabby parts on the belly of
the crocodile (Job xli:23), which are firmly at-
tached to the body and do not hang loosely as on
the ox.
FLAME (flam). See Fire.
FLANK (flink), (Heb. -??. keh'sel, loin), in the
Clural the internal muscles of the loins near the
idneys, to which the fat adheres (Lev. iii:4, 10, 15;
vii:4); hence the viscera in general, figuratively
for the inmost feelings (,Ps. xxxviii;7, "loins"). (See
Reins.)
FLAX (flax), (Heb. '"'•"J^?, pish-taw'), a well-
known plant, Linum sativum, L.
The fibers of the bark, when separated, twisted,
bleached and woven, are linen. In the raw state
they are "tow" (Judg. xviig; Is. i:3i). Somewhat
twisted, tow constitutes a "wick" (R. V. marg.
Is. xlii:3; .xliii 117). (See Pishtah.)
Egyptian Flax.
It was produced of the best quality in Egypt
(Is. xixig), and was an article of extensive com-
merce.
At the present day, as in ancient times, flax is
laid upon the housetop in the heat of the sun to
dry (Josh. ii:6). It was anciently the labor of
the most noble ladies (Prov. xxxi :i3, 19, 24. (See
Linen.)
FLEA (fle), (Heb. ^^"^r-.par-oshc, pulex irritans),
occurs only I Sam. xxiv:iA; xxvi;20, where David
thus addresses his persecutor Saul at the cave of
Adullam: 'After whom is the king of Israel come
out? after whom dost thou pursue — after a flea?"
'The king of Israel is come out to seek a Ilea!'
In both these passages the Hebrew means 'to
pursue after, to seek one or a single flea.' David's
allusion to the flea displays great address. It is
an appeal founded upon the immense disparity
between Saul as the king of Israel and himself
as the poor, contemptible object of the monarch's
laborious pursuit. Hunting a flea is a compari-
son, in other ancient writings, for much labor ex-
pended to secure a worthless result. However,
the reference (i Sam. xxvi :2o) is considered by
some an error in the text. Owing to the habits of
the lower orders, fleas abound so profusely jn
Syria, especially during the spring, in the streets
and dusty bazaars, that persons of condition al-
ways change their long dresses upon returning
home. There is a popular saying in Palestine that
'the king of the fleas keeps his court at Tiberias;'
though many other places in that region might
dispute the distinction with that town (Kitto's
Physical History of Palestine, p. 421).
J. F. D.
FLESH (flash), (Heb. "I??, iaw-sawr', fleshi-
ness). This word bears a variety of significations
in Scripture:
(1) Whole Animal Creation. It is applied,
generally, to the whole animated creation, whether
man or beast ; or to all beings whose material sub-
stance is flesh (Gen. vi:i3, 17, 19; vii :is, 'etc.).
(2) Humanity. But it is more particularly
applied to 'mankind ;' and is, in fact, the only He-
brew word which answers to that term (Gen. vi:
12 ; Ps. xlv :3 ; cxlv :2i ; Is. xl :$, 6) . In this sense
it is used somewhat figuratively to denote that
evil principle which is opposed to the spirit, and to
God, and which it is necessary to correct and sub-
due (Gen. vi:s; Job x:4; Is. xxxi 13; Matt, xvi:
17; Gal. i:i6, etc.).
(3) Opposed to Soul. The word 'flesh' is op-
posed to nephesh, 'soul,' or 'spirit,' just as we
oppose body and soul (Job xiv:22; Prov. xiv:3o;
Is. x:i8).
(4) Ordinary Sense. The ordinary senses of
the word, namely, the flesh of men or beasts (Gen.
xli:2, 19; Job xxxiii:25), and flesh as used for
food (Exod. xvi: 12; Lev. vii:i9), are both suffi-
ciently obvious ; and with respect to the latter see
Food.
(5) General Term. The word 'flesh' is also
used as a modest general term for the secret parts,
in such passages as Gen. xvii:ii; Lev. xii:3; Ezek.
xxiii:2o; 2 Peter ii:io; Jude 7. In Prov. v:ii the
'flesh of the intemperate" is described as being
consumed by infamous diseases.
FLESH AND BLOOD (blud), (Gr. aipi itoi
aliia), an expression denoting man as fallible, liable
to err (Matt. xvi:i7; comp. Gal. i:i6; Eph. vi:i2).
Figurative, (i) "F/esh and blood czxiuox \n-
herit the kingdom of God;" human nature, in its
frail and corrupt condition, is not capable of the
immediate enjoyment of God (i Cor. xv:5o). (2)
We are not bom again by the will of Jlesh or
Hood ; that is, by natural descent from godly par-
ents, or by any, however vigorous and careful,
cultivation of oar natural powers (John i:i3).
(3) Flesh and blood, that is, merely human
means, did not reveal jesus' true character as the
Christ, the Son of the living God, to Peter (Matt.
xvi:i7). (4, Paul, when converted, conferred
not with y?«// and blood; consulted not earthly
friends, inclinations or views regarding his true
interest and duty (Gal. i:i6).
FLESH HOOK
666
FLY
FLESH HOOK (flesh'hook), (Heb. 5.'?I^, maz-
layg' , and ~??1^, maz-law-gaw'), an instrument
with a number of prongs bent backward to catch
and draw the flesh from the tire when it was be-
ing roasted in the sacrificial service (I Sam. ii:i3,
14; Exod. xxvii:3; xxxviii:3; Num. iv:i4; i Chron.
xxviii:i7; 2 Chron. iv:i6). The liook mentioned
in Samuel is three tined, and was probably only
an ordinary culinary fork.
FliESHPOT (flfish'pot), (Heb. "''??u' I"?, seer
hab-ba'w-sawr' , pot of the flesh), probably of bronze,
standing on three legs, and suitable for cooking
purposes (Exod. xvi:3).
FLIES (fliz), (Heb. 2''2', zeb-oob' , fly). The
immense number of flies in the East is one
of its most striking characteristics. The Heb.
zeb-oob' , which is part of the name of the god of
Ekron, Baal-zebub, is generic, but as the house
fly is the most familiar representative it would be
most frequently thought of in connection with
this name. In speaking of the plague of flies the
word used is "^"^"^ , aw-robe' . (See Fly.)
FLINT (flint), (Heb. ^'^^h^, khat-law-meesh' ,
perhaps hardness). The Heb. word "125, tsor, for
lis, tsoor, is rendered "rock" (Job. xxviii:9).
Flint is a form of silica, a mineral vyhich occurs
in its purest condition as quartz. Flint is found
in bands and nodules in certain calcareous rocks,
notably in chalk, in various parts of the world.
It is exceedingly hard, and breaks with a glassy
fracture and sharp edges. When pieces of it are
struck together, or against steel, sparks are
emitted, and this method of obtaining fire has
been used from the earliest times. It is probably
alluded to in 2 Mace. ,\ 13. Flints are ofteri dark
colored owing to impurities. Their origin is one
of the problems of geology not yet completely
solved, but it is supposed that the siliceous frame-
work of certain marine organisms was dissolved,
and afterward deposited in cavities, or actually
substituted for the material of other organic re-
mains. (Jas. Patrick, Hastings' Bib. Did.)
Flint proper was the material almost every-
where employed in early prehistoric time for edge
tools and weapons, prior to the use of metals. Its
hardness, and the peculiar sharpness of its edges
when broken or "flaked," rendered it all im-
portant for such purposes to primitive man, and
hence the science of prehistoric archaeology has
dealt very largely with the study of flint imple-
ments, in their wide distribution, their varied
forms and their stages of evolution from ruder
and more finished types. All this lies back of
any Old Testament references. (Barnes' Btb.
Diet.)
Figurative, In Is. 1:7 't signifies the firmness
of the prophet against his persecutors. In Ezek.
iii:9, the Hebrew isor is translated "flint" in the
same sense. The hoofs of horses are likened to
flint (Is. v:28) in hardness.
FLOAT (flot), of uncertain derivation. A raft
for conveying bulky substances like tirnbers, etc.,
by water. Thus Solomon contracted with Hiram,
king of Tyre, to have cedars cut on the western
side of Mount Lebanon and floated to Joppa or
Jaffa, and then carried overland to Jerusalem
(I Kings v:9). Sometimes spelled "flote' (2 Chron.
ii;i6).
FLOCK (flSk).
Figurative, (i) Armies, nations and com-
panies of men are likened to flocks; they are nu-
merous, and are inspected, governed, and, as it
were, fed and folded by their respective rulers
(Jer. xlix:20 and li:23). (2) The chief ones 01
the flock are men distinguished in honor, power
and wealth (Jer. xxv :34, 35). (3) The Jews are
represented as the Lord's flock; they were pe-
culiarly chosen, redeemed and governed by him;
and a beautiful flock that made a glorious appear-
ance at their solemn feast (Jer. xiii:i7, 20); a
holy flock, as they were separated to the service
of God, and not a few of them sanctified by his
Holy Spirit (Ezek. xxxvi:38); and a flock of
slaughter, as in Christ's time, they were con-
demned to, and ripened for, judgments of God
(Zech. xi:4). The Lord himself, and, under him
their magistrates, prophets, priests and teachers,
were their shepherds (Ps. Ixxx; Ezek. xxxiv).
(4) The church is likened to a ^oek, because of
the number, the order and agreeable society of
her members (Is. xl:ii; Acts xx:28).
FLOOD (fliid), (Heb. -'^25, niab-bool ; Gr. kuto-k-
\vafii!, kat-ak-looce-mos ). See Deluge.
FLOOB (flor), (Heb. n'> go'ren, to smooth), a
level, or open area, as the "place" or square near
the gates of oriental cities (i Kings xxii:lo; 2
Chron. xviii;q; A. V. "void place" in both passages).
(See House; Pavement; Thrashing Floor.)
FLOTES (flotz). See Float.
FLOTIB (flour), rendered in the A. V. for the
iioVnjvA\\%:Keh' makh (Heb.'^^iv, to grind, Judg. vi:
ig; I Sam. i:24; xxviii:24, etc.); So'leth (Heb. '^.;^>
to strip), irom a stripping off \S\e hull; the finest
and purest of the meal, usually rendered "fine
flour." (See Bread; Meal, etc.)
FLOWERS (flou'erz). See Plant.
FLTJTE (flut). See Music.
FLTJX, - BLOODY (Gr. hvaevr^pla, doos-enter-
ee'ah, dysentery, Acts xxviii:8)._ This was a com-
plaint which is often epidemic in the East. This
was probably the disease of Jehoram (2 Chron.
xxi:i5,i9).
FLY (fli), (Heb. 212J, zeb-oob).
(1) The word occurs Exod. viii:2i, 22, 24, 29,
31; Ps. lxxviii:45, and cv;3i; all which passages
relate to the plague of flies inflicted upon Pharaoh
and his people. In the Septuagint it is uniformly
rendered K\ivt>)u)M, or the dog-fly.
(2) Philo, in his Life of Moses (1:23, p. 401,
ed. Mangey), expressly describes it as a biting.
insidious creature, which comes like a dart, with
great noise, and rushing with great impetuosity
on the skin, sticks to it most tenaciously. All the
ancient translators understood by the original
word, a mixture of noxious creatures. More
modern writers, reasoning on other senses of the
Hebrew word, and which are very numerous,
have proposed several different insects. Thus,
one of the meanings of the word is 'to darken,'
and Mouffet observes that the name cynomyia
agrees with no kind of flies, better than with
those black, large, compressed flies, which boldly
beset cattle, and suck out blood from beneath, and
occasion great pain. He observes that they have
no proboscis, but, instead of it, have double sets
of teeth, like wasps, which they infix deeply in
the skin, and adds that they greatly infest the
cars of dogs (Thcat. Insect, cxi). Others have
proposed the blatta Orientalis or iEgyptia of
Linnaeus, as answering considerably to the char-
acteristics of voracity, intrusion into houses, etc.,
etc. (Forskal, Descrip. Animal., Praef., p. 22).
The miracle involved in the plague of flies con-
sisted, partly at least, in the creature being
brought against the Egyptians in so great an
FOAL
667
FOOD
abundance during winter. The particular species
is, however, at present undetermined.
FOAL (fol), (Hcb. ■'"*, ahyecr. Gen. xlix;li;
I?, bane, s»n, Zech. ix:9; Gr. v\b%, son, Matt. xxi;5),
an ass's colt. (See Ass.)
FOAM (fom), (Hcb. 'l?i^, keh'tse/, something
broken, a splinter). The original word is rendered
"foam" in Hos. x:7, "As for Samaria, her king is
cut off as the foam upon the water." It means a
broken branch, a dry twig, or splinter.
FODDER (fod'der), (Heh.^"^}, bcl-eel' , Job vi.
f;). The word properly signifies a mixture, a med-
ey, and is rendered "corn" in Job xxiv:6, and
"provender" in Is. xxx:24.
FOLD (fold). Several Hebrew and Greek words
are thus translated.
1. C/ted-ay-raw' (Heb. ^'7^}, walled in. Num.
xxxii:i6, 24, 36). See Hedge.
S. Mik-law' (Heb. ^)fi^, a pen, Hab. iii:i7; Ps.
1:9; lxxviii:70j.
3. Raw-bals' (Heb. V5'?, to recline, Is. xiii:2o).
These three words, with the Gr. aCMi, dw-lay' , sig-
nify a small inclosure for flocks to rest in.
4. The following terms, Do' her (Heb. "H^, Is.
v:i7; Mic.ii:i2), and Naw-vek' (Heb. '"'J^, at home,
2 Sam. vii:8; 1 Chron. xvii:7; Jer. xxiii:3, etc.), sig-
nify pasture.
In the passage in John x:i6the Greek word
iroliivri, poym'nay, means the flock itself. (See
Flock.) There shall be one flock and one shep-
herd. The folds of the Christian Church may be
many ; the flock is one.
FOLDEN (foldVn), (Heb. 15?, saw-back').
This earlier participle of the verb to fold is
found in Nah. i;io, 'while they be folden together
as thorns' (R. V., 'like tangled thorns;' American
R. v.. "entangled'). The meaning is that the
thorns are intertwined so as to form an impene-
trable hedge.
FOLLOWER (fol'lo-er), (Gr. a"/»77t^s, mim-ay-
tace', an imitator).
St. Paul says to the Corinthian Christians: "Be
followers of me," etc., meaning that they were to
imitate him in all good things (i Cor. iv:i6; xi:i,
etc.) ; also to take God as an example (Eph. v:i).
In Phil. iii:l7 the "followers" were to be co-imi-
tators of him.
FOLLY (fol'ly), (mostly Yie\).^W,iv-veh'leth
and '"'+ T^, ncb-aw law).
The first word means silliness, as in Prov. v :23,
etc. ; the second word emfliness (Gen. xxxiv :7,
and many others).
1. Folly denotes, in general, weakness of under-
standing (Ps. xiv:i; 1 Cor. i:27; iv:io), and
sometimes sin or wickedness (Ps. xxxviii:s; Josh.
vii:iS). The transgression and disobedience of
Adam were the height of folly, as is the sin of
humanity generally. Foolish talking, jesting, fool-
ish and unlearned questions, etc. (2 Tim. ii:23),
are such as are vain, frivolous, or have no useful
tendency.
2. The phrase "Thou fool" (Matt. v:22), im-
plies not only an angry temper and foolishness,
but probably also impiety and wickedness, in al-
lusion to Ps. xiv:i, where the atheist is called a
fool. (See Fool. )
FOOD (foSd), (Heb. Cn?, Ukh-em, bread, food).
The productions of a country, at an early period
of the world, necessarily determined its food. Pal-
estine abounded with grain and various kinds of
vegetables, as well as with animals of different
species. Such, accordingly, in general, was the
sustenance which its inhabitants took.
(1) In Early Times. Bread formed 'the stjP
of life' to the ancient Hebrews even more than to
ourselves; but the modes of preparing it have
been noticed under other heads. (See Bread;
Mill.)
On a remarkable occasion a calf, tender and
good, is taken, slain, dressed (roasted, most prob-
ably, Judg. vi:i9; Gen. xxvii :7 ; i Sam. ii:i3;
Exod. xii ;8, 9; boiling was not known till long
afterward), and set before the guests, while the
entertainer (Abraham) respectfully stood at their
side, doubtless to render any desirable service.
The sauce or accompaniments on this occasion
were butter and milk. From Gen. xix 13 it may be
inferred that the bread was unleavened.
The cases, however, to which reference has
been made were of a special nature ; and from
them, as well as from what is recorded touching
Isaac and Esau and Jacob, it appears that iiesh
meat was reserved as food for guests, or as a
dainty for the sick; lentils, pulse, onions, grain,
honey and milk being the ordinary fare.
The agreeable, and perhaps in part the salu-
brious, qualities of salt were very early known and
recognized. In Lev. ii:i3 it is expressly enjoined:
'Every oblation of thy meat-offering shall thou
season with salt ; with all thine offerings shalt
thou offer salt.'
Locusts were a permitted (Lev. xi :22) and a
very common food. At the present day they are
gathered by the Bedouins in the beginning of
April, and, being roasted on plates of iron, or dried
in the sun, are kept in large bags, and, when
needed, eaten strewed with salt by handfuls.
Of four-footed animals and birds the favorite
food were sheep, goats, oxen and doves. There
are few traces of the eating of fish, at least in
Palestine (Num. xi:is; Lev. xi:9-22). In the last
passage a distinction is made between certain fish
which might be eaten and others which were for-
bidden. 'These shall ye eat of all that are in the
waters; whatsoever hath fins and scales in the
waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye
eat ; and all that have not fins and scales they
shall be an abomination unto you.'
(2) Among the Egyptians. The distinction of
clean and unclean animals, and of animals which
might and those which might not be eaten, is
found to have existed to a great extent in ancient
Egypt. Among fish the oxyrrhynchus, the phagrus,
and the lepidotus were sacred, and might not even
be touched. The inhaliitants of Oxyrrhynchus ob-
jected to eating any fish caught by a hook, lest it
should have been defiled by the blood of one they
held so sacred. Tlie phagrus was the eel ; and the
reason of its sanctity, like that of the oxyrrhynchus,
was probably owing to its unwholesome qualities ;
the most effectual method of forbidding its use
being to assign it a place among the sacred ani-
mals of the country.
Neither the hippopotamus nor the crocodile ap-
pears to have been eaten by the ancient Egyptians.
Some of the Egyptians considered the crocodile
sacred, while others made war upon it (Herod.
ii:69). In some places it was treated with the
most marked respect, fed, attended, adorned, and
after death embalmed. But the people of Apol-
linopolis, Tentyris, Heracleopolis and other places
held the animal in abhorrence ; how far they car-
ried their dislike may be seen in Juvenal (5o/.
.XV ), though something, probably, must be de-
ducted from the account, in consideration of poetic
license.
FOOD
668
FOOD
Cats as well as dogs were held in high esteem
by the ancient Egyptians. The former especially
were objects of superstitious regard. When a
cat died in a house a natural death, a general
mourning throughout the family ensued, and to
kill one of these revered animals was a capital
offense.
Though it appears that swine frequently formed
part of the stock of an Egyptian farmyard, yet
the animal was unclean and an abomination in
the estimation of the Egyptians. Herodotus, tells
us (ii:47) that if any one but touched a pig in
passing he was compelled to bathe himself and
wash his garments ; and those of the natives who
were swineherds were a degraded caste, with
whom others would not intermarry.
(3) The Mosaic Law. The Mosaic laws which
regulated the use of animal food may be found
in Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. The grounds of many
of these regulations may be ascertained with a
greater or less degree of probability, provided the
student is well acquainted with the mind and spirit
of Hebrew antiquity. Considerations drawn from
idolatrous usages, regard to health, the further-
ance of agriculture and established customs and
tastes, had in each case an influence in the
promulgation of these laws.
(4) Beverages. In the earliest times water
was the common drink. That wine of an intoxi-
cating tendency was drunk at a very early period
appears from what happened to Noah (Gen. ix:
20), who seems to have made as well as drunk
wine. Bread and wine are spoken of in Gen.
xiv:i8, as offered for refreshment to Abraham
by Melchizedek, king of Salem. Water was some-
times put to the wme ; at others a strong drink
was made by mixing with the wine aromatic
herbs (Ps. lxxv:8; Is. v:22), or a decoction de-
rived from them; myrrh was used for this pur-
pose. Date-wine was in use, and probably the
Egyptian or malt wine, fCfos, ohot KpWifot (Herod.
ii:77). Jerome (0pp. iv. 364, ed. Bened.) says
that 'drink, called by the Hebrews Sikera, is every
kind which can inebriate, or that which is made
from grain, or of the juice of apples, or when the
honeycomb is made (decoquuntur) into a sweet
and barbarous beverage, or the fruit of the palm
expressed into a liquor, and when water receives
a color and a consistency from prepared herbs.'
'The common people' (Mark xii :37) drank an
acrid sort of wine, which is rendered vinegar in
our English Version (Ruth ii:i4; Matt, xxvii:
48). The Orientals frequently used wine in ex-
cess, so as to occasion intoxication, whence are
drawn many striking figures in Holy Writ (Is.
v:li ; xxviii :i ; xlix 126; Jer. viii 114 ; ix:is ; Deut.
xxxii:42; Ps. lxxviii:65). That indulgence in
wine was practiced in very ancient days is mani-
fest from there being in the court of Pharaoh, at
the time of Joseph, state officers who had charge
of the wine, and served the monarch with it when
he drank (Gen. xl:l,2, 11 ; comp. Neh. i:ii; I Kings
x:5; 2 Chron. ix:4.) (See Palm Tree.)
(5) Drinking Cups. For drinking vessels there
were used the cup and the bowl (Jer. xxxv :$ ;
Amos vi:6; Zech. i.\:l5; Num. vii:i3, 84). The
cup was generally of brass covered with tin, in
form resembling a lily, sometimes circular. It is
still used by travelers, and may be seen in both
shapes in the ruins of Persepolis (i Kings
vii:26). The bowl (Exod. ■k-h.v -.^i) assumed a
variety of shapes, and bears many names. Some
of these 'chargers' appear, from the presents made
by the princes of Israel (Num. vii.), to have been
of large size and great splendor; some were silver,
some gold (i Kings x:2i).
(6) Meal Hours. In Eastern climes the chief
meal, or what we term dinner, is, in consequence
of the heat of the middle period of the day, de-
ferred till towards evening, a slight repast being
taken before noon (Adam, Rom. Antiq. p. 377, ed.
Major; Potter, ii. 62s; Chardin, iv. ; Jahn, 1:2).
But from Gen. xliii :i6, 25, it appears to have been
the custom to dine at noon in the days of the
patriarchs. The same seems to have been the
case in Palestine at a later period (l Kings
xx:i6 ; comp. Acts x:io; Luke xi:37). Conviviali-
ties, however, were postponed till evening, and
sometimes protracted to the following morning
(Is. v:ii ; Mark vi :2i ; Luke xiv -.24).
(7) Giving of Thanks. The meal was pre-
ceded by washing of hands (Luke xi:38; Mark
vii:2), which the mode of eating rendered neces-
sary, and by an invocation of the divine blessing
(I Sam. ix:l3); in Greek,cv\oyiaevxapi-o-Tla,d//;sstH£;
giving of thanks (Luke ix:l6; John vi;n). Similar
customs prevailed among the Greeks and Romans.
Jahn [Bid. Antiq., p. 68) has given the short
prayer, as preserved in the Talmud, which the
Jews used, as follows: ' Blessed be Thou, O Lord
our God, King of the world, who hast produced
this food (or this drink) from the earth (or the
vine)' (Matt. xiv:ig; xv:36; xxvi:27).
(8) Table Customs. The Hebrews, like the
Greeks and Romans in their earlier history, ate
sitting (Gen. xxvii:i9; Judg. xix:6; I Sam. xx :
25). A carpet was spread, on which the meal was
partaken. At a later period, however, particu-
larly when Palestine came under the influence of
Roman manners, the Jews reclined on cushions
or couches (Esth. i:6; Amos vi:4; Luke vii 137;
i.v(K\l6t], reclined, not 'sat,' as in the common
translation). The custom of giving preference in
point of seat or position to guests of high con-
sideration appears from I Sam. ix :22, to have
been of ancient date (Amos. iii:i2). In the time
of Christ (Luke xiv:8) the Pharisees, always
eager for distinction, coveted the place of honor
at meals and feasts. Women were not admitted
to eat with the men, but had their meals sup-
plied in their own private apartment (Esth. i:6-9).
In Babylon and Persia, however, females min-
gled with males on festive occasions (Dan. v:2).
In general the manner of eating was similar to
what it is in the East at the present day. Special
care was taken of favored persons (Gen. xliii :34;
TOOL
669
FOOTSTOOL
1 Sam. 1:4; ix:22; John xiii:26). Knives, forks
lud spoons were not employed for eating. The
food was conveyed from the dish to the mouth
by the right hand. The parties sat with their
legs bent under them round a dish placed in the
center, and either took the flesh meat with their
fingers from the dish, or dipped bits of their
bread into the savory mess, and conveyed them
to their mouths. In Ruth ii:i4, Boaz says to
Ruth, 'Dip thy morsel in the vinegar,' which ex-
plains the language of our Lord (John xiii:26),
'He it is to whom I shall give a sop when I have
dipped it.' This presenting of food to ^ person is
still customary, and was designed originally as a
mark of distinction, the choice morsels being se-
lected by the head of the family for the purpose.
Drink was handed to each one of the guests in
cups or goblets, and at a very ancient period, in
a separate cup to each person. Hence the word
cup is used as equivalent to what we term a man's
lot or destiny (Ps. xi:6; lxxv:8; Is. i:22; Matt.
xxvi:39). J. R. B.
FOOL (frol), (Heb. ^'."1??, evtV, fool).
The fool of Scripture is not an idiot, but an ab-
surd person ; not one who does not reason at all,
but one who reasons wrong: also any one whose
conduct is not regulated by the dictates of reason
and religion. Foolishness, therefore, is not a
privative condition, but a condition of wrong ac-
tion in the intellectual or sentient being, or in
both (2 Sam. xiii:l2, 13; Ps. xxxviii:5). In
the Proverbs, however, 'foolishness' appears to
be sometimes used for lack of understanding, al-
though more generally for perverseness of will.
(See Folly.)
FOOT (foot), (Heb. 1?, iane, a stand, with ref-
erence to the laver (which see); Heb. '-r^, reh'gel;
Gr. iroi/s, pooce, the human foot).
Of the various senses in which the word 'foot'
is used in Scripture, the following are the most
remarkable. Such phrases as the 'slipping' of the
foot, the 'stumbling' of the foot, 'from head to
foot' (to express the entire body), and 'foot-steps'
(to express tendencies, as when we say of one that
he walks in another's footsteps), require no ex-
planation, being common to most languages. The
extreme modesty of the Hebrew language, which
has perhaps seldom been sufficiently appreciated,
dictated the use of the word 'feet,' to express the
parts and the acts which it is not allowed to
name. Hence such phrases as the 'hair of the
feet,' the 'water of the feet,' 'between the feet,'
'to open the feet,' 'to cover the feet,' all oA which
are sufficiently intelligible, except perhaps the last,
which certainly does not mean 'going to sleep,' as
some interpreters suggest, but to 'dismiss the
refuse of nature.'
Figurative, 1- 'To be under any one's feet'
denotes the subjection of a subject to his sovereign,
or of a servant to his master ( Ps. viii:6; comp.
Heb. ii:8; I Cor. xv:2s), and was doubtless de-
rived from the symbolical action of conquerors,
who set their feet upon the neck or body of the
chiefs whom they had vanquished, in token of
their triumph. This custom is expressly men-
tioned in Scripture (Josh. x:24), and is figured on
the monuments of Egypt, Persia and Rome.
2. In like manner, 'to be at any one's feet,'_ is
used for being at the service of any one, following
him, or willingly receiving his instructions (Judf?-.
iv:io). The passage, in which Paul is described
as being brought up 'at the feet of Gama-
liel,' will appear still clearer, if we understand
that, as the Jewish writers allege, pupils actually
Hid sit on the floor before, and therefore at the
feet of the doctors of the law, who themseive*
were raised on an elevated seat.
(3) 'Lameness of feet" generally denotes afflic
tion or calamity, as in Matt. xviii:8; xxxviii:l7;
ler. xx;io; Micah iv:6, 7; Zeph. iiiig.
(4) 'To set one's foot' in a place signifies to
take possession of it, as in Deut. i:36; xi:2S, and
elsewhere.
5. 'To water with the feet' fDeut. xi:io) im-
plies that the soil was watered with as much ease
as a garden, in which the small channels for irri-
gation may be turned, etc., with the foot. (See
Garden.)
6. An elegant phrase, borrowed from the feet
occurs in Gal. ii:i4, where St. Paul says: 'When
I saw that they walked not uprightly' — literally,
'not with a straight foot,' or 'did not foot it
straightly.'
7- Nakedness of feet expressed mourning
(Ezek. xxiv ;i7). This must mean appearing abroad
with naked feet ; for there is reason to think that
the Jews never used their sandals or shoes within
doors. The modern Orientals consider it disre-
spectful to enter a room without taking off the
outer covering of their feet. It is with them
equivalent to uncovering the head among Euro-
peans. The practice of feet washing implies a
similar usage among the Hebrews. Uncovering
the feet was also a mark of adoration. Moses put
off his sandals to approach the burning bush where
the presence of God was manifested (Exod. iii :s).
Among the modern Orientals it would be regarded
the height of profanation to enter a place of wor-
ship with covered feet. The Egyptian priests of-
ficiated barefoot; and most commentators are of
opinion that the Aaronite priests served with bare
feet in the tabernacle, as, according to all the
Jewish writers, they did it afterward in the temple,
and as the frequent washings of their feet en-
joined by the law seem to imply. (See Sandals.)
8. The passage, 'How beautiful upon the
mountains are the feet of him that bringeth glad
tidings, that publisheth peace' (Is. Hi:?), appears
to signify that, although the feet of messengers
and travelers are usually rendered disagreeable
by the soil and dust of the way, yet the feet of
these blessed messengers seemed, notwithstanding,
even beautiful, on account of the glad tidings
which they bore.
Respecting the 'washing of feet,' see Ablution
and Washing.
FOOTMAN (fuot-m(7n), (Heb. *??!!, rag'/i, from
regel, a foot).
1. A word used to distingfuish the men who
fought on foot from cavalrymen and charioteers.
2. A term applied to swift runners attached to
the king (i Sam. xxii:i7). The same word is
rendered guard (margin, "runners" (i Kings xiv:
27, 28; 2 Chron. xii:io, 11; 2 Kings xi :4. 6, II,
13, 19). There are many allusions in the Bible to
the valuable accomplishment of swift running,
though obscured by the translation of gibbor in
the A. V. (Ps. xix:5: Job xvi:i4: Joel ii:7), as
"giant." "mighty man," "strong man."
FOOTSTEPS (foot'stSps), (Heb. =??, pah'am,
Ps. xvii:5; 3i?4', aw-zf'aiJ^', Ps. lxxxix:5i; Cant. i:8).
To watch one's footsteps is to seek a cause for
accusation (Ps. xvii:5, 11 ).
FOOTSTOOL (foot'stobl), ( Heb. ^?.?, keh'besh,
something trodtlen upon); a support for the feet
when on an exalted seat or throne (2 Chron. ix: 1 8).
Such the ark was represented to be (l Chron.
xxviii:2; Ps. xcix :5 ; cxxxii:7) ; and the farth is
God's footstool (Ps. cx:i; Is. lxvi:i; Matt
v:3S).
FORBEAR, FORBEARANCE
670
FOREKNOWLEDGE
FORBEAR (for'bSr), FORBEARANCE (ffir-
bSr'uns), (Gr. dmx'^, an-okh-ay' , a holding back,
delaying, Rom. ii:4, iii:25).
The words mean: (i) To let alone (2 CTiron.
XXV :i6). (2) To neglect (Num. ix:i3). God's
forbearance is the continued exercise of his pa-
tience, whereby he lets men alone, at least for a
time, without punishing them (Rom. ii :4, and
iii:25). Christian forbearance, required of us. is
a patient letting of others alone, not resenting the
injuries which they have done us, nor oppressing
their conscience with a rigid imposition of our no-
tions, or pattern, as their rule (Eph. iv:2; Col.
iii :i3). By long forbearing a prince is persuaded;
by mild representations, repeated and submissive
remonstrances and patient waiting, he is persuaded
to do that which he would not had it been haught-
ily and rashly suggested to him (Prov. xxv:i5).
FORCES (fors'ez), (Heb. -M", khah'yil, strength,
especially in a military point of view). It is applied
to army, fortifications, etc. (Is. Ix:;, 11).
FORD (ford), (Heb. "^r^;^, mah-ab-awr' , and
'Ti^V'Q,mah-ab-aw-raw' , a pass), a shallow place
where a stream might be crossed easily by wading
(Gen. xxxii:23; Josh. ii:7; Is. xvi:2). The Hebrew
word also refers to the mountain pass at Michmash
(l Sam. xiv:4; Is. x:29). The fords of the Jordan
seem to have been few and well known (Josh. ii7;
Judg. iii;28; xii:5, 6, A. V. "passages").
FOREFRONT (for'frQnt') is used in its present
sense as the foremost part or place, e. g., ike fore-
front oi a building or of a battle (Ex. xxvi:9; 2 Sam.
xi:i5, etc.).
FOREHEAD (for'gd), (Heb. "55, may'isakh, to
shine).
The practice of veiling the face in public for
women of the higher class — especially married
women — in the East, sufficiently stigmatizes with
reproach the unveiled face of women of bad char-
acter (Gen. xxiv:65; Jer. iii:3). Reference is
made to this when Israel is called "impudent;"
that is, "hard of forehead" (Ezek. iii 7, 8, 9).
Marks upon the forehead, for the purpose of
distinguishing the holy from the profane, are men-
tioned in Ezek. ix 14, and again in Rev. vii :3.
The classical idolaters used to consecrate them-
selves to particular deities on the same principle.
The marks used on these occasions were various.
Sometimes they contained the name of the god ;
sometimes his particular ensign, as the thunder-
bolt of Jupiter, the trident of Neptune, the ivy of
Bacchus, etc. ; or else they marked themselves-
with some mystical number whereby the god was
described.
If this analogy be admitted the mark on the
forehead may be taken to be derived from the
analogous custom among the heathen of bearing
on their forehead the mark of the gods whose
votaries they were. Some, however, would rather
understand the allusion to refer to the custom of
marking cattle, and even slaves, with the sign of
ownership.
Figurative, (i) The saints having a mark
or seal in their foreheads denotes their having full
direction and protection amid terrible calamities
(Ezek. ix:4; Rev. vii:3). (2) The saints having
God's name in their foreheads denotes their open
and bold profession of his truth, obedience to his
law and conformity to his image (Rev. xiv:i and
xxii:4). (3) The forehead of an abandoned
woman and a stiff forehead imports their shame-
less obstinacy in idolatry and other wickedness
(Jer. iii:3; Ezek. iii:8). (4) God's setting a
jewel on their forehead signifies his giving them
public and great honor and wealth, and openly
placing his tabernacle, temple and ordinances
among them (Ezek. xvi:i2).
Men's having the mark of the beast in their
forehead denotes their open profession of the
heresies and their bold attachment to superstition
and idolatry (Rev. xiii;i6 and xx:4).
FOREIGNER (for'In-er), (Heb. "''I^PJ, nok-ree' ,
stranger, Deut. xv:3; Obad II ; 32?in^ to-shawb' ,
Exod. xii:45, dweller, as distinguished from a
native; Gr. iripoims, par'oy-kos, dwelling near,
Eph. iiilg), one living in a country of which he is
not a native, i. e., in the Jewish sense, a Geijtile.
Toleration and special privileges were granted
the heathen or alien people who dwelt among the
Jews. For these they were required to observe
certain regulations. They were not to blaspheme
the name of Jehovah (Lev. xxiv:i6) ; not to in-
dulge in idolatrous worship (Lev. xx :2) ; not to
commit acts of indecency (Lev. xviii:26); not
to do any work on the Sabbath (Exod. x.x:io) ;
not to eat leavened bread during the Passover
(Exod. xii:i9) ; not to eat any manner of blood
or flesh of animals that had died a natural death
or had been torn by wild beasts (Lev. xvii:io,
15). Under such circumstances the law ac-
corded to foreigners not only protection and tol-
eration, but equal civil riglits with the Israelites.
Figurative. The saints are termed foreigners
or strangers on earth; they are born from above;
have their possession and "conversation," i. e.,
their citizenship in heaven (i Pet. ii:ll; see also
Ps. xx.xix:i2; Heb. xi:i3).
FOREKNO^WXEDGE (for-nol'ej).
As an attribute of God, foreknowledge is sim-
ply a special case or aspect of omniscience. God
knows all things, therefore not only the present
and the past, but the future also, must lie open
to His sight. 'This is implied in all His promises,
whether they refer to the individual only, as
where offspring is promised to Abraham (Gen.
xviii:i4), or are on a national scale, as when the
glory of Abraham's descendants is foretold (Gen.
xviii:i8). It is implied also in the warnings
which God gives, or causes to be given, as in the
story of Lot and Sodom (Gen. xix), or in that
of Moses before Pharaoh (Exod. viii-xi). To an
earlier Pharaoh God shows in a dream 'what he
is about to do' (Gen. xli:25), and similarly, at a
later period, to Nebuchadnezzar 'what shall be
in the latter days' (Oan. ii:28, 29).
FOREORDINATION
671
FORNICATION
It is, however, in its application, not to events
generally, but to salvation, and that both of the
individual and of the communitY, 'hat the question
of the divine foreknowledge has arrested the at-
tention, engaged the thoughts, and sometimes tried
the hearts of men. True piety refers all things
to God, and rejoices to see in the individual life
of faith and love the manifestation of divine ac-
tivity. It seems to it that, were the case other-
wise, there could be no assurance of salvation,
and the peace which is the most priceless posses-
sion of God's children would be impossible to
them. It is argued that, as God is both able and
willing to bring about the salvation of the indi-
vidual. He must know beforehand, not only His
purpose to do so, but its fuitiilnient. VVc refer
lalvation, along with all other events, to the Di-
vine Will; but, as God is not only Supreme Will,
but Supreme Intelligence, before, or accompany-
ing the forthputting of that will, there must be
an act of knowledge. Thus foreknowledge comes
to be associated with Election and Predestina-
tion (which see) as a constitutive element in the
ultimate ground of the salvation made known in
Christ. (See the article God, 4.) (A. Stewart,
Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
FOREORDINATION (for-or'dl-na'shun). See
Election; Predestination.
FORERUNNER (for-run'ner), (Gr. vpSSpofiot,
proct ro7>i-os), one who is sent before to take obser-
vations or act as a spy, a scout, a light-armed
soldier. In Heb vi:2o it is used in the sense of
one who comes in advance to a place whither the
rest are to follow, viz., Jesus Christ (John xiv:2),
and also to make arrangements for them to follow.
FORESHIP (for'shlp), (Gr. Trpipa., pro' ra. Acts
xxvii:30, 41, "forepart"), the prow of a ship. (See
Ship.)
FORESKIN (for'skin), (Heb. ^)')^, or-law' ; Gr.
iKpofiwrla, ak-rob-oos-tce' ah), the prepuce, which
was taken off in circumcision. (See CIRCUMCISION.)
FOREST (for'^st). (Heb. "l?-, yah'ar, a thicket).
Tracts of woodland are mentioned by travelers
in Palestine, but rarely what we should call a
forest. The word translated by 'forest' is ^i^",
ya'ar, which does not necessarily mean more than
'woodland.' There are, however, abundant inti-
mations in Scripture that the country was in an-
cient times much more wooded than at present,
and in parts densely so. The localities more par-
ticularly mentioned as woods or forests are:
!• The forest of cedars on Mount Lebanon
(i Kings vii:2: 2 Kings xixiaj; Hos. xivis, 6)
which must have been much more extensive for-
merly than at present.
8- The name of 'House of the Forest of Leb-
anon' is given in Scripture (i Kings vii:2; x:l7,
21; 2 Chron. ix:i6, 20) to a palace which was
built by Solomon in, or not far from, Jerusa-
lem, and which is supposed to have been so called
on account of the quantity of cedar trees em-
ployed in its construction, or, perhaps, because
the numerous pillars of cedar wood suggested the
idea of a forest of cedar trees.
3. The forest of oaks, on the mountains of
Bashan. The trees of this region have been al-
ready noticed under Allon and Bashan.
4. The forest or wood of Ephraim, already
noticed under Ephraim 4.
6. The wood of Bethel (2 Kings ii:23, 24).
This was situated in the ravine which descends
to the plain of Jericho.
6. The wood through which the Israelites
passed while pursuing the Philistines (1 Sam.
xiv:a5).
7. The wood in the wilderness of Zeph, whera
David hid himself (i Sam. xxiiiMS ff.).
8. The forest of Harcth, in the south of Ju-
dah, to which David withdrew to avoid the fury
of Saul (i Sam. xxii :5). The precise situation i;
unknown.
Figurative, (i) Forest is used symbolically
to denote a city, kingdom, polity, or the like
(Ezek. XV :6). Devoted kingdoms are also rep-
resented under the image of a forest, which God
threatens to burn or cut down. See Is. x:i7, 18,
•9, 34, where the briers and thorns denote the
common people ; 'the glory of the forest' are the
nobles and those of highest rank and importance.
See also Is. xxxii:ig; xxxvii:24; Jer. xxi:i4;
xxii 7; xlvi:23; Zech. xi:2. (2) The forest is
the image of unfruitfuln6ss as contrasted with a
cultivated field or vineyard (Is. xxix:i7; xxxii:
is; Jer. xxvi:i8; Hos. ii:l2). (3) The Assyrian
army is called a forest, how numerous and how
stately was their appearance ! but how soon were
they consumed by the wrath of God! (Is. x:i8,
19, and xxxii :i9). (4) Egypt and her numerous
cities, of their large army, under Pharaoh-neclio,
is called a forest (Jer. xlvi:23). (5) Jerusalem
is called the forest of the south field; it lay near
the south of Canaan; the Chaldeans marched
southward to it, and its houses and inhabitants
were numerous.
FORGIVENESS (for-gJv'nes), (Heb. '??, /taw-
far", to cover, to hide, to purge, to do away, Deut.
xxi:8, et al.; '*'?^, naw-saw' , to lift up, to take
away. Gen. I:i7, et al.; '^i?, saw-lakh, and d.(plrifu,
af-ee' ay-mee, to send away, let off, Ps. ciii:3, et al..
Matt. vi:i2, and most of the New Testament
places; xip'foMat, khar-id zom-ahee, to give gladly
or freely, Luke vii:42, et al.). (Barnes, Bib.
Diet.)
Forgiveness is an act of God toward man, and
nf man toward his fellow. To forgive sin is
the exclusive prerogative of God, of whose law
sin is the transgression (Ps. cxxx:4). Our Lord,
by virtue of his Divine nature, assumed the pre-
rogative and exercised the power of forgiv'ing
sins, which the scribes and Pharisees, viewing
him merely as a man, made the occasion of a
charge of blasphemy (Mark ii:S). The gospel
makes known not only that there is forgiveness
with God, but also how such forgiveness is made
compatible with the Divine justice.
Forgiveness, full, free and everlasting, is offered
to all who will believe and obey the gospel
(.•\cts xiii :38, 39; l John ii:i2). The duty of
mutual forgiveness is urged upon man with the
most solemn sanctions.
While Christ forbids retaliation and revenge,
he does not command us to forgive, in the strict
sense of the word, only on condition of repent-
ance; but when this takes place the forgive-
ness must be prompt and cordial (Luke xvii:3,
4). We are bound to this, under the penalty of
not having our own sins forgiven by God; or the
canceling of the act of forgiveness if we have been
pardoned (Matt, vi :i2-i5 ; xviii :i5-3s). The ^or-
giving spirit Christ enjoins.
FORK (fSrk), (Heb. X'^^V *'''?, shel-oshe' kil-
lesh-one , three of prongs), a three-pronged fork
for pitching hay, or straw (1 Sam. xiii:2i).
FORMER (for'mer), (Heb. "i'^'^V-. kad-mo-nee');
as to time it is anterior, and as to place it refers to
the "East." R. V. has it "eastem''(Zech. xiv:8).
FORNICATION (fSr'ni-ka'shun), (Heb. ^I^^ICI,
taz-nooth' ; Gr. iropveia, por-ni' ak).
FORT, FORTIFICATIONS, ETC.
672
FORT, FORTIFICATIONS, ETC.
In Scripture this word occurs more frequently
in its symbolical than in its ordinary sense.
Figurative, (i) In the Prophets woman is
often made the symbol of the church or nation of
the Jews, which is regarded as affianced to Je-
hovah by the covenant on Mount Sinai. In Ezek.
xvi there is a long description of that people un-
der the symbol of a female child, growing up to
the stature of a woman, and then wedded to Je-
hovah by entering into covenant with him. There-
fore when the Israelites acted contrary to that
covenant, by forsaking God and following idols,
they were very properly represented by the sym-
bol of a harlot or adulteress, offering herself to
all comers (Is. i:2; Jer. ii:2o; Ezek. xvi; Hos.
1:2; iii:i). And thus fornication, or adultery
(which is fornication in a married state), became,
and is used as the symbol of idolatry itself (Jer.
iii:8, 9; Ezek. xvi:26, 29J xxiii:37). (2) Anti-
represented on Egyptian monuments, though
dating back to a period of fifteen centuries before
the Christian era, bear evidence of an advanced
state of fortifications — of walls built of squared
stones, or of squared timber judiciously placed on
the summit of scarped rocks, or within the cir-
cumference of one or two wet ditches, and fur-
nished on the summit with regular battlements to
protect the defenders.
(2) More Ancient System. All these are of
later invention than the accumulation of unhewn
or rudely chipped, uncemented stones, piled on
each other in the form of walls, in the so-called
Cyclopean, Pelasgian, Etruscan and Celtic styles,
where there are no ditches, or towers, or other
gateways than mere openings occasionally left be-
tween the enormous blocks employed in the work.
As the first three styles occur in Etruria. they
show the progressive advance of military archi-
Tablet Showing Assyrian Fortifications.
christ is called the great whore and mother of har-
lots and abominations, because of its noted apos-
tasy and idolatry, and decoying others into it ; and
such apostasy i=; called fornication, whoredom, or
adultery (Rev. xvii, and xix:2). (3) Tyre sang
as a harlot when by fair speeches the Tyrians en-
ticed the nations to renew their trade with them
(Is. xxiii :is).
FORT, FORTIFICATIONS, 'FENCED
CITIES' (fort, for'tl-fi-ka'shuns). Several Hebrew
words are thus translated: Maw-tsooit (,'^"'^'?'
net), A fastness (2 Sam. v:g; xxii:2, and five times
in the Psalms); maw-002' ('^^?, Dan. xirig), a
stronghold, fortified by nature and art; daw-yake'
(?!".!, 2 Kings xxv:i; Jer. U(:4).
Inventions for the defense of men in social life
are older than history.
(1) Egyptian. The walls, towers and gates
tecture, and may be considered as more primitive,
though perhaps posterior to the era when the
progress of Israel, under the guidance of Joshua,
expelled several Canaanitish tribes, whose system
of civilization, in common with that of the rest
of Western Asia, bore an Egyptian type, and
whose towers and battlements were remarkably
high, or rather were erected in very elevated situ-
ations. When, therefore, the Israelites entered
Palestine, we may assume that the 'fenced cities'
they had to attack w-erc. according to their de-
gree of antiquity, fortified with more or less of
art. but all with huge stones in the lower walls,
like the Etruscan. Indeed. Asia Minor. Armenia,
Syria and even Jerusalem still bear marks of this
most ancient system. Stones from six to fifty
feet in length, with suitable proportions, can still
be detected in many walls of thj Cities of those
regions, wherever (j^iarrics existed, from Nineveh,
where beneath the surf:u;« there still remain ruins
FORTH
673
lOUNTAIN
and walls of huge stones, sculptured with bas-re-
liefs, originally painted, to Babylon, and Bassonib,
where bricks, sun-dried or baked, and stamped
with letters, are yet found, as well as in all the
plains of the rivers where that material alone
could be easily procured. The wall was some-
times double or triple (2 Chron. xxxii:s), suc-
cessively girding a rocky elevat'ion, and 'building
a city' originally meant the construction of the
wall.
In Biblical times the general distinction be-
tween a city and village was that the former was
surrounded by one or more walls, while the lat-
ter was not. These walls were often crowned
with battlements and parapets, with towers placed
at frequent intervals (2 Chron. xxxii 15 ; Jer.
xxxi:38). Engines of war were mounted on
them, and, in times of war, a constant watch was
kept (2 Chron. xxvi 19, 15; Judg. ix :45 ; 2 Kings
ix:i7). (Layard, Nineveh.) The walled towns
of Palestine seldom served to check the invasion
of an enemy, though they often prolonged the
struggle (2 Kings xviii:lo; xxv:3).
Figurative, (i) 'Sitting in the gate' of the
fortress was, and still is, synonymous with the
possession of power, and even now there is com-
monly in the fortified gate of a royal palace in
the East, on the floor above the doorway, a coun-
cil-room with a kind of balcony, whence the sov-
ereign sometimes sees his people, and where he
may sit in judgment. (2) The Lord is the fortress
or stronghold of his people. To him they flee
in times of danger; in him they trust and find
preservation from hurt (Ps. xviii:2: Nah. i:7).
(3) "The fortress also shall cease from Ephraim"
(Is. xvii:3), is an expression signifying that she
loses her fortified cities, which were once her
defense. (4) To overthrow one's fortress is to
rob it of defense, to humiliate (Is. xxv:i2). (s)
Of the righteous man it is said, "his place of de-
fense shall be the munitions of rocks" (Is. xxxiii :
16), i. e., God's protection shall be to him as the
impregnable walls of a fortress upon a rock. "I
have set thee for a tower and a fot^tress among
my people," etc. (Jer. vi:27).
FORTH (Gr. iKSiSwin, ek-did'o-mee), out, to let
out, to deliver over (Luke xx:^).
In the following examples 'out' is distinctly the
modern word, with pxi,t (Acts ix:4o), 'Peter put
them all forth' (Gen. viii:g; Judg. vi :2i ; Matt.
ix:2S); with break (2 Sam. v:2o), 'The Lord
hath broken forth upon mine enemies ;' with give
(Ezek. xviii :8, 13), 'He that hath not given forth
upon usury;' with set (Ezek. xxvii:io), 'they set
forth thy comeliness;' with spread (Ezek. xlvii :
10), 'a place to spread forth nets' (R. V., 'for the
spreading of nets') ; with cast (Jonah i:5, 12, 15);
let (Luke xx:9). 'A certain man planted a vine-
yard, and let it forth to husbandmen' (R. V..
'out') ; look (Cant. ii:9), 'he looketh forth at the
windows (R. V.. 'in') ; or omitted altogether, as
in John ii:ii, 'Jesus . . . manifested forth his
glory.' (Hastings' Bih. Diet.)
FOBTXTNATTTS (for'tu-na'tus), (Gr. iopTovfirot
for-toonat'os, from Latin, fortunate), a disciple of
Corinth, of Roman birth or origin, as his name
indicates, who visited Paul at Ephesus, and re-
turned, along with Stephanus and Achaicus, in
charge of that apostle's first Epistle to the Corin-
thian church, B. C. 59 (i Cor. xvi:i7).
FORTJM APPn (fo'rum ap'pi-i). See APPll-
FORU.M.
FORWARDNESS ({or'werd-nSs).
1. ( ;r. 'S.irovbri, .^fiofl-day' , literally haute, and >;en-
erally of earnestness in accomplishing (2 Cor. viil:8;
in ver. 7 " diligence "),
43
2. Gr. ripoSf^fa, protli-00-tne' ah (2 Cor. ix:2;
R. \'. " rcadinrss"), literally predisposition.
FOUNDATION (founda'shun).
1- The lower part of any structure, as of a
house, wall, mountain, etc., which supports the
rest (Ezra iv :i2; 2 Sam. xxii :i6; Dcut. xxxii :22).
2. Tlic beginning of a thing: thus, the founda-
tion of the u'orld denotes the beginning of it
(.Matt. xiii:35).
Figurative, (i) Christ is a/oMnrfafion; on his
person, office and work is h's church, and the
whole of our salvation erected and supported (Is.
xxviii:i6; i Cor. iii:ii; Matt. xvi:i8). (2) He is
likened to twelve foundations ai precious stones;
he is infinitely precious, adapted to every case, and
exhibited in the doctrine of his twelve apostles
(Rev. xxi:i4, 19. 20). (3) God's truths, pub-
lished by the prophets and apostles, are a founda-
tion : on them the saints found their faith and
hope (Eph. ii:20). (4) The first principles of
Divine truth aie a foundation, as they ought to be
first known, in order to understand the rest, which
depend on them (Heb. vi:i, 2). (5) Teaching
these Divine truths is called a foundation. (6)
Paul studied so to preach Christ as not to build on
another man's foundation; i.e.. to preach Christ
where nobody had before taught the first princi-
ples of Christianity (Rom. xv:2o). (7) Magis-
trates, and the principal constitutions of their gov-
ernment, are the /oM)idafio)i.r of a state that support
and establish the rest (Ps. Ixxxiits and xi:3; Mic.
vi:2). (8) The righteous are an everlasting /oMii-
dation; being fixed in Christ, their persons, and
holy and happy state and condition, are stable and
fixed, and they are great means of supporting and
establishing nations and churches (Eph. ii:20).
They lay up a good foundation for the time to
come; the good foundation they lay up is the heav-
enly glory itself, which is fixed and stable, and on
that account is called a city having foundations
(i Tim. vi:i9; Heb. xi:io). (9) The founda-
tion of God that standeth sure, having this seal,
The Lord knorveth them that are his, i. e., the
fundamental truths of the gospel, that cannot be
overthrown ; or the saints themselves, divinely
fixed in their new covenant state (2 Tim. ii:i9).
(10) The foundations or pillars of heaven are the
mountains on which the skies seem to rest (2
Sam. xxii:8).
FOUjM'JL'AXN (foun'ttn), the rendering of several
Hebrew words and one Greek word.
1. Alt'yin (Heb. 1?*', eye\, a natural source of
living water (Gen. xvi:7; Deut. viii:7, xxxiii:28;
1 Satn. xxix:i; Prov. viii:28, etc.).
2. Mah-yawn' (Heb. KV-li a springof running
water (Lev. xi:36; Josh, xvig; Ps. Ixxiv:i5; Prov.
xxv:26); a well-watered place (Fs. lxxxiv:6); A. V.
" well "; R. V. " a place of springs."
Figurative, (i) God is called a fountain of
living "waters and with him is the fountain of liv-
ing waters; he is the unsearchable and unfailing
source of all. our happiness and comfort (Jer. ii:
13; Ps. xxxvi:9). (2) Jesus Christ is an open
fountain, a fountain of gardens, a well of living
'.•.■alers, and streams from Lebanon (Zcch. xiii).
(3) The church is a spring shut up, and fountain
sealed (Is. lviii:ii). All the saints' springs are in
Iter; in her dwells God, the fountain of living wat-
ers; Jesus, the smitten, the water-yielding Rock of
Ages; the Holy Ghost, that river of life, issuina:
from under the throne of Go<l. and the Scrip-
tures and ordinances. (4) Spiritual knowledge
and wisdom, and the fear of the Lord, are a foun-
tain, or well-spring of life: a delightful means
of promoting the temporal and spiritual happiness
FOUNTAIN-GATE
674
FRANKINCENSE
of ourselves and others (Prov. xvi:22; xviii:4;
xiii:i4) and (xiv:27). (5) Wives are called
fountains and ivells; they bring forth children,
that, as streams, are dispersed in the streets, and
are a great means of happiness and comfort to
their husbands (Prov. v:is, 18). (6) Children
are fountains, and the offspring of Jacob, his
fountain; they are means of help and comfort
to their parents, and, in due time, produce chil-
dren of their own (Prov. v:i6; Deut. xxxiii:28).
(7) Fountains and springs also denote prosperity
and the means thereof (Hos. xiii:i5). Thus, to
turn dry land into springs of water is to afford
great prosperity to a distressed nation, or to grant
plenty of ordinances and powerful influences to
a church or people that had been barrea and
withered (Ps. cvii :3s ; Is. xxxv:7; xli:li, and
xIix:io). (8) To turn springs and rivers into
a wilderness is not only to alter the soil of fields
to the worse, as God has done in Idumea, Canaan,
Egypt, etc., but to change great prosperity into
sad adversity (Ps. cvii:33).
FOTJNTAIN-GATE (£oun'tm-gat). See Jeru-
salem.
FOWL (foul).
In the New Testament "fowls" is the frequent
rende ing of the Greek rd v£Tciiid, which compre-
hends all kinds of birds (Matt. xiii:4; Mark iv:4,
etc.). (See Birds; Cock, etc.)
FOWLEB (foul'er), (Heb. 2??^ yawJioosA', to
lay snares, Ps. xci:3; Prov. vi:5; Jer. v:26; Hos.
ix:8), one who took birds by means of nets, snares,
decoys, etc.
Among the Egyptians "fowling was one of the
great amusements of all classes. Those who fol-
lowed this sport for their livelihood used nets and
traps, but the amateur sportsman pursued his game
in the thickets and felled them with the throw-
stick . . . The throw-stick was made of heavy
wood, and flat, so as to oflfer little resistance to the
air in its flight, and the distance to which an ex-
pert could throw it was considerable. _ It was
about one foot and a quarter to two feet in length
and about one and a half inches in breadth, slightly
curved at the upper end. They frequently took
with them a decoy bird, and, in order to keep it
to its post, a female was selected, whose nest, con-
taining eggs, was deposited in the boat" (Wil-
kinson, Ancient Egyptians, i :234, sg). By a hu-
mane and just regulation Moses forbade anyone
finding a bird's nest, to take the mother with the
eggs or young (Deut. xxii:6, 7) lest the species
be extinguished ; or, perhaps, to impress upon men
the sacredness of the relation between parent and
young.
FOX. In several places it is uncertain whether
Heb. '^'12?^ shoo-awl' ; Gr. iXilivrii, al-o'pakes, %\^-
Xi\^e%fox ox jackaHX^2cm.\:\%\ Ezek. xiii:4; Cant.
ii:i5). In others it probably means jackals (Judg.
xv:4; Ps. lxiii:io).
Under this term, as above indicated, the jackal
is included — indeed, most of the references seem
to be to that animal. The Orientals at the pres-
ent time do not distinguish in common language
between the two creatures. Both are common in
Palestine. The fox (Vulpes vulgaris) is smaller
than the jackal (Canis aureus), and is of a red-
dish hue, while the latter is yellowish; hence its
scientific name, meaning "the golden dog." It is
the latter also, and not the fox. which devours the
dead and follows the armies that he may feed on
human bodies left behind (Ps, Ixiii:io). Both
animals are omnivorous, but the jackal, which
goes in packs, is even more destructive to the
vineyards than the other (Cant. ii:i5). The
crafty, artful nature of the fox is proverbial (Ezek.
xiii:4; Luke xiii:32). He prowls singly for his
prey of birds or small quadrupeds, which he takes
by stratagem. Jackals are concealed by hundreds
a5^~^*
Jackal.
among the ruins, caves and gardens of Syria
(Lam. v:i8). At sunset they come forth, and
both then and at intervals through the night the
traveler hears their cry, resembling the confused
wailing of many infants. (See Shual.)
Figurative, (i) False prophets and teachers
are likened to foxes; how crafty ! how obstinate
in their evil way ! how uneven and inconsistent
their doctrine and practice! (Ezek. xiii:4; Cant.
ii:5). (2) Tyrants and other wicked men are
likened to foxes for their craft, obstinacy in sin,
and ruinous designs against others (Luke xiii:
32). (3) Inward sinful lusts resemble_ foxes;
how crafty, stubborn, abominable and ruinous to
the souls of men ! and how hurtful to the graces
of the saints! (Cant. ii:i5)- (4) To be the por-
tion of_ foxes is for men to have the"ir land or
habitation rendered desolate and ruinous, and
themselves left unburied (Ps. Ixiiirio). (5) The
fox's fondness for grapes is alluded to in Cant.
ii:iS-
FBAKE (Heb. ""V.', yay'tser, form), as of the
human body (Ps. ciii:l4); "thing framed" (I3.
xxix:l6); and "the frame of a city" (Heb. '''^?'?»
tnib-neh , Ezek. xl:2), a city building.
It denotes in general :
1. To contrive, to manage (Judg. xii:6}, 'he
could not frame to pronounce it right.'
2. To direct (Hos. v:4), 'They will not frame
their doings to turn unto their God.'
3. To form (Is. xxix:i6), 'Shall the thing
framed say of him that framed it. He had no un-
derstanding?'
4. To fit together, make (Eph. ii:2i), 'all the
building fitly framed together.'
5. To devise (Ps. I:i9), 'thy tongue frameth
deceit'; (xciv:2o), 'which frameth mischief; (Jer.
xviii:il), 'Behold, I frame evil against you.'
FBANKINCENSE (fr5nkrn-sens), (Heb. 'I^^^^.
leb-o-naw' , whiteness).
A dry, resinous, aromatic substance of a white
or yellowish color, bitter and acrid to the taste,
burning for a long time with a clear, steady and
very odoriferous flame. Several trees (of the
genus Boswellia) which grow in India, Arabia
and Africa, yield this gum from incisions in the
bark. Along the coast of Hadramaut, a district
of Arabia, as Carter has shown, frankincense (the
olibanum of commerce) is produced, as was af-
firmed by Herodotus, Celsius, other ancient writers
FRANKLY
675
FRINGE
and the Bible (Is. Ix :6; Jer vi :2o). The Arabian
species (JB. Carterii) somewhat resembles, espe-
cially in itspinnate leaves when young, the moun-
tain ash. This gum, in the above and other pas-
sages, is mentioned simply as "incense." It is
Frankincense Plants. Etc.
called frank because of the freeness with which it
burns and gives forth its odors; and the pure in-
cense is that which is first obtained and is freest
from foreign admixture.
"Sweet incense' (Exod. xxx:7) might as well
be rendered "incense of spices," and is the com-
position mentior>ed in Exod. xxx :34.
The use of incense in the Jewish worship may
be learned from Exod. xxx:/ and Lev. xvi:i2,
13, and it is figuratively employed to represent
lovely and agreeable qualities (Cant. iii:6; iv:6.
14), and devotional fervor (Ps. cxli:2; Mai.
i:ii; Rev. viii:3). (Schaflf, Bib. Diet.) (See
Offering; Sacrifice.)
FBANKLT (frank'H). (Gr. xapTo/^", khar-i^-
zoni-ahee, Luke vii:42).
The English word 'frankly' is used, not in the
modern sense of candidly, openly, but in the old
and literal sense of freely, unrestrainedly, as in
Elyot. The Govcrnour, ii :234. 'puttynge out of
their citie their women and all that were of yeres
unhabill for the warres, that they mought more
frankely sustayne famyne;' and in Shakes. Meas.
for Meas., ill, i:io6:
'O, were it but my life,
I'd throw it down for your deliverance
As frankly as a pin.'
Wycliffe 1380, "he sat freely." R. V. omits the
word altogether.
FBAT (Heb. ""l!?, khaw-ract,lo frighten, Deut.
xxviii:26; Jer. vii:33; Zech. i:2l), an old word, sig-
nifying to frighten, to scare away, as the driving
of wild beasts from a dead body.
FRECKLED SPOT (frek'k'ld spot), (Heb. p^^^.
bo'kak. Lev. xiii:3Q), an "efflorescence on the skin,
not uncommon in the East, consisting of spots of a
palish white, resembling the leprosy, but harm-
less, and neither cont.igious nor hereditary." It
was a tetter or "a wen of white color," Tyndale.
(Gesenius, Lex., s. v.)
FREEDOM (fre'diimj, illcb. ^Pi^, Uioo/shaw',
liberty; Gr. voKinla, pol-cc-ti' ah, citizenslii|i. Acts
xxii:28). See Libf.rty; Slave.
FREEDOK OF GOD aud FREEDOM OF
MAN. Sec LiBKRTV; Will.
FREEDOM TEAR. See JUBILEE.
FREEMAN (fre'man), (Gr. direXeiJecpos, a^l-
yoo'ther-os, one set free), a person who had been
freed (I Cor. vii:22). Especially "the Lord's free-
man' (R. v. 'freedman'), so as to bring out the
spiritual cmancipatioti and to distinguish from the
natural 'treeman' following. In Cal. iv:22, 23, 30,
a strung distinction is drawn between the free-
woman and the bondmaid. (.See Slave.)
FREE'WILIi OFFERINQ (fre'wH 6f'fer-ing).
See Offeri.ng.
FRET (Heb. f^-inS pekk-eh' theth. Lev. xiii:55,
to wear a hole by corrosion, to eat like moth or
mildew; Heb. '"'Vt', khaw-raw' , Ps, xxxvii;i, prim-
itive root, to grow warm, glow, vex, displease in
the sense of vying with a rival).
FRIEND (Heb. ^"1, ray' ah, associate), a person
with whom one has friendly intercourse (Gen.
xxxviii;i2, 20; 2 Sam. xiii:3; Job.ii:ii; xix:2i, etc.);
also a lover, one beloved u{ a woman (Cant. v:i6).
1. Het-ah' ee-ros (Gr. (ralpot, comrade. Matt, xi:
19, A. V. "fellow"), used in kindly address (Matt.
xx;l3; xxii:l2; xxvi:5o).
2. Pi'tho (Gr. IlfWw, Acts xii:2o), is used in the
sense of \o pacify, to win one' s favor.
3. Fee' los (Gr. ^iXos), one attached by affection;
frequently used in the New Testament, as Jas.
ii:23; iv:4. {htiTnes' Bit. Diet)
(n) Christ's friends and neighbors, whom he in-
vites to rejoice with him at the conversion of his
elect, are angels, ministers, and saints, who ar-
dently love him and his Father, promote his honor
and cause, and have much intimacy with him
Luke xv:6, 9; James ii:22; John xv:i5). (b)
In allusion to the friend at marriages, who per-
formed the honors of the wedding, and led the
bride to the nuptial bed, John Baptist, and other
ministers, are friends of the Bridegroom; they, by
their preaching and example, direct and conduct
sinners to Christ (Judg. xiv:2o; John iii:29). (c)
Judas, and the man without the wedding garment
were but pretended friends; or the word is used
as a term of discreet address (Matt. xxvi:50, and
xxii:l2. (d) The friendship of this world,
which is enmity with God, is a superlative love
and desire of earthly and sinful things, and a
study to obtain the favor of worldly men, by con-
formity to them in their evil courses (James iv:
4; Matt. vi:24; Luke xvi:i3).
FRINGE (fritij), (Heb. ^Hf, ghed-eer , twisted
thread, i. e., a tassel, Deut. xxii:l2; f^V'V, tsee-
tseeth' , flowery, bloomlike, and so tassel. Num. xv:
3«. 39)-
Fringes were a part of the outer garment, and
the same as the hem or border of the garment
(Deut. xxii:i2; Matt. ix:20; ,xiv:36).
The children of Israel were enjoined to wear
them by Moses (Num. xv:38), and to place them
on the four borders or edges of their outer gar-
ment, which was usually rectangular in shape.
They were of a blue color.
The object of the fringes was to remind the
cliildren of Israel of the commandments of God
(Num. XV -39). In the time of our Lord they had
become objects of parade and show, so that he
finds an evidence of the hypocrisy of the Phari-
sees in their practice of "enlarging the borders
FROG
676
FRUITS
of tl:cir garments." The "hem of the garment"
which the woman with the issue of blood touched
(Matt. ix:2o), was the ancient fringe enjoined by
Moses. (See Clothing. J
FBOG (frog) (Heb. J'!5152f, tsef-ar-day' ah. frog,
Exod. viii:2).
Although the common frog is so well known
that no description is needed to satisfy the read-
er, it may be necessary to mention that the only
species recorded as existing in Palestine is the green
(Rana esculenta), and that of all the authorities
we have been able to consult, Dr. Richardson alone
refers the species of Egypt to the green-speckled
grey frog (Rana punctata). But considering the
immense extent of the Nile from south to north,
and the amazing abundance of these animals
which it contains in the state of spawn, tadpole,
and complete frog, it is likely that the speckled
is not the only species found in its waters, and
that different species, if they do not occur in
the same locality, are at least to be met with in
different latitudes. The speckled species is found
westward, even to the north of France. It is
lively, but no strong swimmer, the webs on the
hinder toes extending only half their length;
hence, perhaps, it is more a terrestrial animal than
the common green frog, and, like the brown spe-
cies, is given to roam on land in moist weather.
Frog.
Although it is very hazardous in transactions
of an absolutely miraculous nature to attempt
to point out the instruments that may have served
to work out tlie purposes of the Almighty, we
may conjecture that, in the plagiie of frogs, a
species, the one perhaps we have just mentioned,
was selected for its agility on land, and that,
although tlie fact is not expressly mentioned,
the awful visitation was rendered still more omi-
nous by the presence of dark and rainy weather
^an atmospheric condition never of long dura-
tion on the coast of Egypt, and gradually more
and more rare up the course of the river.
We have ourselves witnessed, during a storm of
rain, frogs crowding into our cabin, in the low
lands of Guiana, till they were packed up in the
corners of the apartment, and continually falling
back in their attempts to ascend above their
fellows ; and the door could not be opened with-
out others entering more rapidly than those within
could be expelled. Now, as the temples, palaces
and cities of Egypt stood, in general, on the edge
of the ever dry desert, and always above the level
of the highest inundations, to be there visited by
a continuation of immense number of frogs was
assuredly a most distressing calamity ; and as this
phenomenon, in its ordinary occurrence within
the tropics, is always accompanied by the storms
of the monsoon or of the setting in of the rainy
season, the dismay it must have caused may be
judged of when we reflect that the plague occurred
where rain seldom or never falls, where none of
the houses are fitted to lead off the water, and that
the animals appeared in localities where they had
never before been found, and where, at all other
times the scorching sun would have destroyed
them in a few minutes. Nor was the selection of
the frog as an instrument of God's displeasure
without portentous meaning in the minds of the
idolatrous Egyptians, who considered that ani-
mal a type of Pthah — their creative power — and
also an indication of man in embryo. The ma-
gicians, indeed, appeared to make frogs come up
out of the waters ; but we must not understand
that to them was given also the power of pro-
ducing the animals. The effect which they
claimed as their own was a simple result of the
continuation of the prodigy effected by Moses
and Aaron ; for that they had no real power is
evident, not only from their inability to stop the
present plague, the control of which even Pharaoh
discovered to be solely in the hands of MoseSj but
also the utter failure of their enchantments in that
of lice, where their artifices were incompetent to
impose upon the king and his people.
C. H. S.
FRONTIER (fron'ter), (Heb. '"'Vp, kaw-tseh' ,
Ezek. XXV :g), the extremity or border of a country.
FRONTLET (frunt'let), (Heb. ^W^, to-taw-
/rt7t'', to bind, only in Exod. xiii:i6; Deut. vi;8; xi:
I8).
FROST (frost), (Heb "'"-3, kef-ore', so called
from covering the ground, "hoar frost,' Exod.
xvi:l4). Light frosts are frequent in certain parts
of Palestine and the pools become covered with
thin ice (Barclay, City of the Great King, p. 50).
FROWARDNESS (fro'werd-nes), (Heb. '''??''?l?.
/(7^-/(7c-^a!a/'), perverseness (Deut. xxxii:2o); false-
hood, deceit (Prov. ii:l2; vi;i4, etc.).
FRUITS (frutz), (Heb. *ri?,/fr/, fruit), in general,
. vegetable or animal(Deut. vii:l3, bis; xxviii:5i,i«).
It originated the English word 'fruit,' by the
D being sounded as ph, and subsequently con-
verted into /. Under this head may perhaps be
most appropriately noticed a classification of
produce of great importance to a right under-
standing of the Bible, since the beauty and force
of more than forty passages of the s.acred record
are impaired by inattention to it.
(1) Summer Fruits. The term ka'^jits, 'sum-
mer-fruits,' appears to denote those less impor-
tant species of fruit which were adapted only to
immediate consumption, or could not be easily
or conveniently conserved for winter use (Jer.
xl:lO, 12). Kayits may have been included as a
species under the head of orchard-fruit ; it would
seem to indicate either the existence of some con-
trasted term, as 'winter-fruits, or to imply that
the products of the class under which it ranked
as a species were generally distinguished by their
capability of being preserved throughout the year.
It is conceived that the products denoted by the
third of the generic terms now to be considered
were chiefly characterized by their capacity of
being stored up and preserved. The three terms
spoken of as being so frequently associated in the
Scriptures, and expressive of a most comprehen-
FRUITS
677
FRYING I'AN
sive triad of blessings, arc Dagan, Tirosh, and
Yil7.har.
(2) Fruit of the Field. Dagan, "fruit of the
field,' or agricultural produce. Under this term
the Hebrews classed almost every object of Add
culture. (See Aukiculture.) Dr. Jahn says,
'the word is of general signification, and compre-
hends in itself different kinds of grain and pulse,
such as wheat, millet, spelt, wall-barley, barley,
beans, lentils, meadow-cummin, pepper-wort, ilax,
cotton, various species of the cucumber, and per-
haps rice' (Bib. Antiq., sec. 58). There is now
no doubt among scholars that dagan comprehends
the largest and most valuable species of vegetable
produce ; and therefore it will be allowed that the
rendering of the word in the common version
by 'corn,' and sometimes by 'ivheat,' instead of
'every species of corn' or field produce, tends to
limit our conceptions of the divine bounty, as
well as to impair the beauty of the passages where
it occurs.
(3) Fruit of the Vine. Tirosh, 'the fruit of
the vine,' in its natural or its solid state, compre-
hending grapes, moist or dried, and the fruit
in general, whether in the early cluster or the
mature and ripened condition (Is. Ixv:8), which
is rendered by pbrpvC, grape, in the Septuagint,
refers to the young grape; while (Judg. ix:i3),
where 'the vine said, Shall I leave my tirosh
(fruit) which cheereth God and man?' as evi-
dently refers to the ripened produce which was
placed on the altar as a first-fruit offering in
grateful acknowledgment of the divine good-
ness. 'Sometimes,' says Dr. Jahn, 'the grapes
were dried in the sun and preserved in masses,
which were called gncnabhim, eshisSiah, tcimmoo-
kiin' (i Sam. xxv :i8; 3 Sam. xvi :i ; i Chron. xii :
40; Hos. iii:i) ; (Bib. Antiq. sec. 69). Tirosh is
derived from the verbal noun yarasli, 'to possess
by inheritance' (whence Latin hares, English
heir), and was very nalurally applied to designate
the vintage-fruit, which, next to dagan, consti-
tuted one of the most valuable 'possessions' of
the Jews.
It is also distinctly referred to as the yielder
of wine, and therefore was not wine itself, but
the raw material from which it was expressed
or prepared. Dr. Conquest's amended translation
of (Micah vi:l5), is, 'Thou shalt sow, but thou
shalt not reap, thou shalt tread the olives, but
thou shalt not anoint thee with oil (shemcn,
not yitchar) ; and the gral>e (tirosh). but shalt
not drink wine' (yayin). .\^ the treading of the
olive is represented as yielding oil, so is tirosh
represented as that which, being trodden in the
vat, should yield icine, which flowed out from
an opening into the lacus or receptacle beneath.
Archbishop Newcome. in his version of this text,
has 'the grape of the choice wine ;' while Julius
Bate, M. A., observes on this passage — 'Hence
it is plain that tirosh is what is pressed, the
grapes.'
Dr. Jahn's definition of tirosh as the juice
which flows from the trodden grapes, is also
negatived by the fact that another word exactly
expressive of the same thing already exists,
namely, aw.su, from ausas, 'to tread down to-
gether.' Neither is it likely that it should be
a generic name for wine, since such a term is
found in y", yayin.
(4) Orchard Fruits. Yilchar. 'orchard-fruits,'
especially winter or keeping fruits, as dates, figs,
olives, pomegranates, citrons, nuls. etc. The
etymology of yitchar (whence perhaps the Saxon
ortgeard, and the old English word hortsyard
now orchard) quite accords with the claim ad-
vanced for it, as denoting a large and valuable
class of fruits. Lexiconists properly refer it to
the root tzhar, expressive of a bright, glowing
and shining appearance.
As we distinguish dagan from hhitt.ihh
(wheat) and tirosh from ausis and yayin, so must
we yilchar from shcmcn, 'oil.' which are un-
fortunately confounded together in the common
version. Shcinen, beyond question, is the proper
word for oil, not yitchar.
Figurative, (i ) Christ is the fruit o/iAe earth ;
his human body sprung of it (Is. iv:2). (2) The
ttvelve manner of fruits which he bears, and
which are better than gold, are his various bless-
ings of righteousness, peace, pardon, acceptance,
adoption, sanctification, comfort, and eternal
glory, sufificient for all the tribes of the chosen
Israel (Rev. xxii :2 ; Prov. viii:i9). (3) The
fruits of the Spirit are the gracious qualities, tem-
pers, comforts, and good works, which his in-
habitation and influence produce in the saints
(Gal. v:22-24; Eph. v:9). (4) The fruits of the
Gospel, are turning from idols, and other wicked-
ness, to God, believing on Christ, and the bring-
ing forth of good works (Col. i:6; Rom. 1:13).
(S) Saints are represented as friiit gathered
(Is. xxvii:6; John iv :36) ; their good fruit is the
e.xerci.se of their graces and their good works ;
they are fruits of righteousness produced by the
application of Jesus' righteousness to their souls
(Matt. vii:i8 and xii 133 ; Gal. v:22-24; Prov. xi :
30; Phil. i:il; Jam. iii:i8). (6) They are fruits
meet for repentance; i. e.. such as mark the truth
and sincerity of, and answer to a profession of it
(Matt. iii:8); and fruit unto holiness and life;
they mark the truth of our inward sanctification,
and promote our holiness in themselves ; and they
are a means of promoting life temporal, spiritual,
and eternal, in ourselves and others (Rom. vi:22).
(7) The fruit of the lips is either the comfortable
doctrines of the gospel published by ministers;
or the saints' praises and thanksgiving to God;
or their pious conferences and counsels (Is. Ivii:
19; Heb. xiiins; Prov. xii:i4). (8) The fruit
of the wicked is their evil works, in thought,
word, or deed (Matt. vii:i6); it is fruit unto
death, as it tends to promote the spiritual and
eternal death of themselves and others (Rom.
vii :5, 13; Jam. 1:15). Even their good-like fruit
is fruit to thcnisck'cs; springs from selfish prin-
ciples, is performed in their own strength, arid di-
rected to selfish ends (Hos. x:i; Zcch. viii 5) ;
and it is withering fruit, which is not continued
in, but they fall away, and grow worse and worse
(Jude 12). (9) The frttit of the stout heart of the
king of Assyria, was his insolent blasphemies
against God (Is. x:l2). (lo) Liberal donations
to such as are in need are called o friiil; they
proceed from a benevolent disposition, and are
refreshing to such as receive them (Rom. xv:28;
Phil. iv:i7). (11) The fruit of men's ways or
deeds, is the reward or punishment that follows
on good or evil works (Prov. i:3i; Is. iii:lo).
Fruit is also employed symbolically in many
other wavs in the Scriptures, as of offspring,
children (Exod. xxi :22 ; Ps. xxi:io; Hos. ^ix:i6);
also in such phrases as "fruit of the womb" (Gen.
XXX :2: Deut. vii:i3, etc.); "fruit of the loins"
(Acts ii:30) ; "fruit of the body" (Ps. cxxxii:li;
Mic: vi 7). ^
FRYING PAN (fri'ing pan), (Heh.^'i^'^l^.mar-
kheh'sheth), properly a boiler. It was a deep ves
sel so that the oil could not beci>iiic ignited upon
the fire (Lev. ii7; vii;o).
FUEL
678
FUTURE LIFE
FUEL (fu'el), (Heb. ^)^i^^, mah-ak-o' leth, and
"^f??, ok-law' , both meaning to be consumed).
In most Eastern countries there is a scarcity of
wood and other materials used by us for fuel.
Consequently almost every kind of combustible
matter is eagerly sought for, such as the withered
stalks of herbs and flowers (Matt, vi :28, 30),
thorns (Ps. Iviiiip; Eccles. vii:6), and animal
excrements (Is. ix :5, 19; Ezek. iv:i2-i5; xxi :
32). At present wood or charcoal is employed
in the towns of Syria and Egypt, although the
people of Palestine use anthracite coal to some
extent. (Mc. & Str. Cyc.) (See Coal.)
FTTGITIVE (fu'ji-tiv), the rendering of several
Hebrew words, meaning to wander, a refugee, de-
serter, vagabond, etc. (Gen. iv:i2, 14).
FULFILL (ful-fll), (Heb. from ^)'Q,>naw-law',
to fill; Gr. ir\Tjp6w, play-ro'o), a term generally
used with reference to the accomplishment of
prophecy.
FDXLER (ful'er), (Heb. D23 kaw-bas\ to wash;
Gr. ■tva.4>iv's, ^naf-yuce' , a clothes dresser).
At the transfigurations, our Saviour's robes
are said to have been white, 'so as no fuller on
earth could white them' (Mark ix:3). Elsewhere
we read of 'fullers' soap' (Mai. iii:2), and of 'the
fullers' field' (2 Kings xviii :i7). Of the processes
followed in the art of cleaning cloth and the vari-
ous kinds of stuff among the Jews we have no
direct knowledge. In an early part of the opera-
tion they seem to have trod the cloths with their
feet, as the Hebrew Axn Rogel, or En-rogel,
literally Foot-fountain, has been rendered, on
Rabbinical authority, 'Fullers' fountain,' on the
ground that the fullers trod the cloths there with
their feet. A subsequent operation was probably
Fullers Cleansing Cloth.
that of rubbing the cloth on an inclined plane, in
a mode which is figured in the Egyptian paint-
ings, and still preserved in the East. Fullers were
warned to be careful to avoid a mixture of clothes
sent to be cleaned, such as was forbidden by the
law (Lev. xixag; Deut. xxiiiii).
FTTLLER'S FIELD (ful'ers feld), (Heb. 033
'^!!"f , seh-day' kaw-bas').
A locality near Jerusalem (2 Kings xviii :i7, 26;
Is. xxxvi:2; vii:3). Some locate it on the north-
ern side of the city, others on the west, near the
modern pool Birkel cl Mamtllah. It took its name
doubtless from the fact that the fullers spread their
garments here after cleaning them in the neighbor-
ing pool, as they do to this day (Williams' Holy
City, i suppl. p. 122 Robinson Bibl. Sacra, iii :
6466.) (See En-Rogel.)
FtTLLERS' FOUNTAIN. See EnRogel.
FTTLLERS' SOAP. See BoRITH.
FUNERALS (fu'ner-alz^. See Bukial; Mourn-
ing.
FURLONG (flir'long). See Weights and
Measures.
FURNACE (fflr'nas).
In Neh. iii:ii; xii;38, the word applies to the
baker's oven. In Gen. xv:l7 and Is. xxxi:g it is
used in a broader sense. Smelting ovens and
calcining furnaces were also known and used
(Gen. xix:28; Exod. ix:8-io; xix:i8). The He-
brews also evidently understood the use of the
lime kiln (Is. xxxiii:i2; Amos ii:i). Refining is
frequently mentioned and the furnaces were
doubtless like those used in Egypt (Prov. xvii :
3; xxvii:2i; Ezek. xxii:i8 £f; Deut. iv:2o; i Kings
viiirsi; Is. xlviiirio; Jer. xi:4). The furnace of
Dan. iii :22, 23, was built like a brick-kiln, with
an opening at the top to put in the materials and
a floor at the bottom where the metal might be
extracted (verse 26). These were used by the
Persians as an instrument of capital punishment
(Dan. iii; Jer. xxix:22; Hos. vii:7).
FURNACES, THE TOWER OF (fflr'nis-ez,
thetow'er6v),(Heb.D"'"?''i?in ^j??'? mig-daF hat-fan-
noo-reem' , Neh. iii:ii; xii:38).
This was one of the towers of the middle or sec-
ond wall of Jerusalem, at its northwest angle, ad-
joining the "corner gate," and near the intersec-
tion of the present line of the Via Dolorosa with
the street of Stephen. Possibly it may be the
"Baker's Street" (Jer. xxxvii:2l).
FURNITURE (fur'ni-tflr).
1. The rendering in the A. V. of the Heb. '^2>
kar, pad, a camel's litter or canopied saddle, in
which women usually travel in the East at the
present day (Gen. xxxi:34).
2. Kel-ee' (Heb. '«?, something prepared).
The name given to the sacred articles in the
tabernacle and their utensils (Exod. xxxi:7, sq..
XXXV 114; xxxix:33). In Nah. ii:9 it is translated
"ornamental vessels." (See Tabernacle; House;
etc.)
FURROW (fiir'ro), (Heb. "'"'"'?, ghed-ood! , an in-
cision, Ps. lxv;io), a trench in the soil made by
a plow in the process of tilling (Ps. lxv:io;
Hos. x:4).
Figurative. Grievous injuries done to the
church and saints of God, are likened to long fur-
rows made upon the back; how barbarous and
painful (Ps. cxxix:3). The Israelites' 'two fur-
roii.'s,' may either denote their principal transgres-
sions, revolting from the family of David, by
rebellion, and from God, by idolatry ; or their two
countries; or their hard service under the Assyr-
ians (Hos. x:io). The marginal translation has
it, "When I shall bind them for their two trans-
gressions, or in their two habitations." The Chal-
dee compares Israel under bondage to their en-
emies, as a pair of yoked heifers drawing the plow-
By some it is thought that reference is here made
to the practice of saying that two persons at
enmity, when reconciled, are plowing in two fur-
rows ; that is, acting in accordance. So Israel
would fall in heartily with idolaters. The passage
is confessedly obscure.
FURY (fu'rj?), (Heb. '""^D, khay-maw' , heat; or
T'^C'. khaw-rone' , burning), intense anger, attrib-
uted to God metaphorically, or speaking, after
the manner of men (Lev. xxvi:28; Job xx:23; Is.
lxiii:3, etc).
FUTURE LIFE (fu'tot lif). See Life; Im-
MORTALITY.
GAAL
679
GABKIEL
GAAL (ga'al), (Heb. '?5, gah'al, miscarriage,
loathing), son of Ebed.
He went to Shechem with his brothers when
the inhabitants became discontented with Abim-
elech, and so engaged their confidence that they
placed him at their head. At the festival at which
the Shechemites offered the first-fruits of their
vintage in the temple of Baal, Gaal, by apparently
drunken bravadoes, roused the valor of the peo-
ple, and strove yet more to kindle their wrath
against the absent Abimelech. It would seem as
if the natives had been in some way intimately
connected with, or descended from, the original
inhabitants ; for Gaal endeavored to awaken their
attachment to the ancient family of Hamor, the
father of Shechem, which ruled the place in the
lime of Abraham (Gen. xxxiv :2, 6), and which
seems to have been at this time represented by
Gaal and his brothers. Although deprived of
Shechem, the family appears to have maintained
itself in some power in the neighborhood ; which
induced the Shechemites to look to Gaal when
they became tired of Abimelech. Whether he suc-
ceeded in awakening among them a kind feeling
towards the descendants of the ancient masters
of the place, does not appear ; but eventually
they went out under his command, being assisted
doubtless by his men, to intercept and give battle
to Abimelech, when he appeared before the town.
Gaal, however, fled before Abimelech, and his re-
treat into Shechem being cut ofT by Zebul, the
commandant of that place, he went to his home,
and we hear of him no more. The account of
this attempt is interesting, chiefly from the slight
glimpse it affords of the position, at this period,
of what had been one of the reigning families of
the land before its invasion by the Israelites (Judg.
ix:26-48). (B. C. 1319-)
OAASH (ga'ash), (Heb. ''^'?\ ga'ash, quaking),
a mountain of Ephraim, north of which stood
Timnath-Serah, celebrated for Joshua's tomb
(Josh. xxiv:jo; judg. iiip), which, Eusebius says,
was known m his time. A brook or valley (2 Sam.
xxiii:30; I Chron. xi:32).
Dr. Eli Smith discovered Timrath-Serah in the
modern Tibneh, six miles northeast of Jufua, and
within its precincts a high hill on "the north
side" of which are some remarkable ruins of
tombs of great antiquity. There can be but little
doubt that this spot is the site of the ancient tomb
of Joshua.
GABA (ga'ba). The same as Geba. The
broader vowel sound occurs in the pause (Josh.
xviii:24; Ezra ii:26; Neh. vii:3o). (See Geba).
OABATHA (gib'a-tha). See Bigthan.
GABBAI (gab'ba-i), (Heb. "^i, gab-bah'ee, fax
gatherer), head of a Benjamite family of note in
Jerusalem (Neh. xi:8), B. C. 536.
GABBATEA (gab'ba-tha), (Gr. yaPPaBd, gab-
bath-ah' ; Chald. ^'v?4 knoll), the place mentioned
in John xix:i3 where the Evangelist states that
Pontius Pilate, alarmed at last in his attempts to
save Jesus, by the artful insinuation of the Jews, 'If
thou let this man go, thou art not Caesar's friend,'
went into the prastorium again, and brought Jesus
out to them, and sat down once more upon the
P^IM, tribunal, in a place called AcW^rpuToi-, stone-
paved, but in the Hebrew Gabbatha.
The Greek word, signifying literally stone-
paved, is an adjective, and is generally used as
such by the Greek writers ; but they also some-
times use it to denote a pavement formed of
ornamental stones of various colors, commonly
called a tcsselatcd or mosaic pavement. The par-
tiality of the Romans for this kind of pavement is
well known (Casaubon, ad Sueton. p. 38, etc., edit.
1605). From this fact it has been inferred by many
eininent writers, that the stone-paved place where
Pilate's tribunal was set on this occasion, was
covered by a tesselaied pavement, which, as a
piece of Roman magnificence, was appended to
the praetorium at Jerusalem. The emphatic man-
ner in which St. John speaks of it agrees with
this conjecture. It further appears from his nar-
rative that it was outside the prsetoriuni; for
Pilate is said to have 'come out' to the Jews, who,
for ceremonial reasons, did not go into it, on
this as well as on other occasions (John xviii 128,
29, 38; xix:4, 13). Besides which, the Roman
governors, although they tried causes, and con-
ferred with their council (Acts xxv:i2), within
the prxtorium, always pronounced sentence in the
open air. Probably this tesselated pavement, on
which the tribunal was now placed, was inlaid
on some part of the terrace, etc., running along
one side of the prsetorium, and overlooking the
area where the Jews were assembled, or upon a
landing-place of the stairs, immediately before the
grand entrance.
It has been conjectured that the pavement' in
question was no other than the one referred to in
2 Chron. vii -.3, and by Joscphus, De Bell. Jud. vi :
I, 8, as in the outer court of the temple; but that
he would adjourn the whole assembly, consisting
of rulers of every grade, as well as the populace,
to a«y other place, is very unlikely ; and the sup-
position that such place was any part of the
temple is encumbered with additional difficulties.
. J. F. D.
GABBXEL /ga'bri-el), (Heb. ^^^^l^^.trab-ree-aW,
the mighty one or hero of God), the heavenly
messenger who was sent to Daniel to explain the
vision of the ram and the he-guat (Dan. vii), and
to communicate the prediction of the Seventy
Weeks (Dan. ix;2i-27).
Under the new dispensation he was employed
to announce the birth of John the Baptist to his
father Zechariah (Luke i;ii), and that of the
Messiah to the Virgin Mary (Luke i:26). Both
by Jewish and Christian writers, Gabriel has been
denominated an archangel. The scriptures, how-
ever, affirm nothing positively respecting his rank,
though the importance of the commissions on
which he was employed, and his own words 'I
am Gabriel, that stand in the presence of God'
(Luke i:i9), are rather in favor of the notion of
his superior dignity. But the reserve of the In-
spired Volume on such points strikingly distin-
guishes its angelology from that of the Jews and
Mohammedans, and, we may add, of the Fathers
and some later Christian writers. In all the
solemn glimpses of the other world which it gives,
a great moral purpose is kept in view. What-
ever is divulged tends to elevate and refine; noth-
ing is said to gratify a prurient curiosity.
GAD
680
GADARA
GAD (gad), (Heb. "^"^.gawd, fortune).
(1) ^e Seventh Son of Jacob. By his con-
cubine Zilpah, the handmaid of Leah ; so called,
to signify that a troop, or good fortune, was com-
ing (Gen. xxx:9-ii). He had seven sons — Ziph-
ion, Haggai, Shuni, Ebzon, Eri, Arodi, Areli ; all
of whom were fathers of numerous families (Gen.
xlvi:i6; Num. xxvi:i5-i8). (B. C. 1915.)
(2) The Tribe of Gad. When this tribe came
out of Egypt, under their prince Eliasaph, the
son of Deuel, it amounted to 45,650; but il de-
creased 5,150 in the wilderness. Their spy to
search the Promised Land was Geuel, the son
of Machi (Num. xiii:i5). They, along with the
Reubenites, petitioned for, and obtained their in-
heritance from Moses, on the east of Jordan, be-
tween the Reubenites on the south and the Manas-
sites on the north (Deut. x.xxii; xxxiii ;20, 21).
Their warriors assisted in conquering Canaan
westward of Jordan ; and from Mount Ebal they
gave their assent to the curses of the law (Deut.
xxvii:i3; Josh. i:i2; iv:i2). After seven years
they returned to their homes (Josh. xxii).
Eleven captains of this tribe, swimming through
Jordan when high swollen, came to David in the
hold, and routed some Arabs, or Philistines, whom
they found in the valley of Jordan ; and great
numbers of them attended at David's coronation
to be king of Israel (l Chron. xii:8-i5, 37, 38).
The Gadites were a warlike people, and were
compelled to be continually armed and on the
alert against the inroads of the surrounding
Arabian hordes (comp. Gen. xlixnp; Deut.
xxxiii :2o; i Chron. viip, sq.) .\bout the time of
Jeroboam II, they cut off a prodigious number of
the Arabian Hagarites, and seized on iheir cat-
tle and country (Gen. xlixiip; Deut. xxxiii :2o).
When Tiglath-pileser transported the Gadites and
Reubenites to Assyria, the Ammonites and Mo-
abites seized on their country (i Chron. v:i8-26;
Jer. xlviii : 18-24; xli.x:i).
(3) The Land of Gad. As a reward for their
having formed the vanguard in war of the army
of the tribes collectively, they were allowed to
appropriate to their exclusive use some pastoral
districts beyond the Jordan (Num. xxxiiyy,
sq.).
The inheritance of this tribe, called the land of
Gad (i Sam. xiii7; Jer. xlix:i), was situated
beyond the Jordan in Gilead, north of Reuben,
and separated on the east from /\mmon by the
river Jabbok. According to I Chron. v:il, the
Gadites had extended their possessions on the east
as far as Salcah, though the latter had been al-
lotted by Moses to Manasseh (Deut. iii:io, 13);
a proof how difficult it is to drav^ a strong line
of demarcation between the possessions of pastoral
tribes. The territory of Gad forms a part of the
present Belka (Burckhardt, Syria, ii:598).
In Josh, xiii :25. the land of Gad is called 'half
the land of the children of Ammon;' not because
the latter were then in possession of it, but proba-
bly because the part west of the Jabbok had for-
merly borne that name (comp. Judg. xi:i3).
The principal cities of Gad are called by the
general appellation, the Cities of Gilead (Josh.
xiii:2s).
(4) The Prophet. A prophet contemporary
with David, and probably a pupil of Samuel, who
early attached himself to the son of Jesse (i Sam.
xxii:5). Instances of his prophetic intercourse
with David occur in 2 .'^am. xxiv:ll. sq. ; I Chron.
xxi:9, sq. ; xxix :25. Gad wrote a history of the
reign of David, to which the author of the 2nd
book of Samuel seems to refer for further in-
formation respecting that reigfn (l Chron. xxix:
29). (B. C. 1062-1017.)
(5) An IdoL (Heb. ""i, gad), the god (Is.
lxv:ii, A. V. "troop") of good fortune. Prop-
erly "the Gad," with the article. In the A.
V. of Is. lxv:ii the clause "that prepare a
table for that troop" has in the margin in-
stead of the last word the proper name "Gad,"
which evidently denotes some idol worshiped
by the Jews m Babylon, though it is impossi-
ble positively to identify it. Huetius would un-
derstand by it Fortune as symbolized by the
Moon, but Vitringa, on the contrary, considers it
to be the sun. Gesenius, Miinter, and Ewald,
consider Gad to be the form under which the
planet Jupiter was worshiped as the greater star
of good fortune (see especially Gesenius. Com-
jiient. iiber dcr lesaia, ad loc). J. W.
(6) A Plant. (Heb. ""i, gad) occurs in two
places in scripture, in both of which it is trans-
lated coriander, viz. ( Exod. xvi;3i). 'And it
(manna) was like coriander (gad) seed, white;
and the taste of it was like wafers made of honey'
(Num. xi:7), 'And the manna was as coriander
seed, and the color thereof as the color of bdel-
lium.' The manna which fell in the desert, and
on which the Israelites were fed during their so-
journ there, is usually described, from a collation
of the different passages in which it is mentioned,
as white, round, and like gad, which last has
almost universally been considered to mean 'co-
riander' seed, though some prefer other seeds.
The coriander is an umbelliferous plant, the Co-
riandrum sativum of botanists. The fruit, com-
monly called seeds, is glsbular, greyish-colored,
about the size of peppercorn, having its surface
marked with fine striae. Both its taste and smell
are agreeable, depending on the presence of a
volatile oil, which is separated by distillation.
(See Coriander.) J. F. R.
GADARA (gad'a-ra), (Gr. TaSapd, gad-a-rah').
(1) Gadara was the chief city or metropolis of
Perasa. lying in the district termed Gadaritis, some
small distance from the southern extremity of the
sea of Galilee, sixty stadia from Tiberias, to the
south of the river Hieromax, and also of the
Scheriat-al-Mandhur (Joseph. Antiq. xiii:l3, 3;
Polyb. V :7I, 3 ; Joseph. Dc Bell. Jud. iv :8, 3 : Plin.
Hist. Nat. v:i5). It was fortified, and stood on
a hill of limestone. Its inhabitants were mostly
heathens. Josephus says of it, in conjunction with
Gaza and Hippos, 'they were Grecian cities' {Antiq.
xvii:il, 4). After the place had been destroyed
in the domestic quarrels of the Jews, it was re-
built by Pompey, in order to gratify Demetrius
of Gadara, one of his freedmen (Joseph. £)? Bell.
Jud. i:7, 7). Augustus added Gadara, with other
places, to the kingdom of Herod (Joseph. Antiq.
XV :7, 2) ; from which, on the death of that prince,
it was sundered, and joined to the province of
Syria (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. ii :6, 3). At a
later period it was the seat of an Episcopal
See in Pal^stina Secunda, whose bishops are
named in the councils of Nice and Ephesus.
(2) Identification. There can be no doubt
that we find Gadara in the present village of
Om-keis, or Un-keis.
The city formed nearly a square. The upper
part of it stood on a level spot, and appears to
have been walled all round, the acclivities of the
hill being on all sides exceedingly steep. The
eastern gate of entrance has its portals still re-
maining. Among the ruins Buckingham found a
GADARENE
681
GALAL
theater, an Ionic temple, a second theater, be-
sides traces and remnants of streets and houses.
The prevalent orders of architecture arc the Ionic
and the Corinthian.
Burckhardt also found near Gadara warm sul-
phurous springs. They were termed Thermae I lelia;,
and were reckoned inferior only to those of Bai.ne
(Eusch. 0)winast.) According to Epiphanius
(Adv. Hcrrcs. i:i3l) a yearly festival was held
at these baths (Rcland, p. 775).
(3) Scene of a Miracle. Gadara is the scene
of the miracle recorded in Matl. viii:28; Mark
v:i; Luke viii :26. The text of the original
narratives which record the cure of the Gad-
arene demoniac, or demoniacs (see Demo-
niac), has more than its sliare of difficulty in
regard to the name of the locality where the
OASI (ga'di), (Heh. "I?, gaw-dee', a Gadite).
father of Menahcm, who deprived Shallum of the
throne of Israel (2 Kings xv;i4, 17), B. C. bef. 741.
GADITES (gad'itz), (Heb. "'?, gaiv-dee'), de-
scendants of Gad, the son of Jacob. See Gad.
GAHAM (gahSm), (Heb. =Qi, gah'kham, to
burn), son of Nalior (brother of Abraliam), by his
concubine Reuniah (Gen. xxii:24), B. C. about
2200.
GAHAR (ga'har), (Heb. "^^i, gah'khar, lurkcr),
the sons of Gahar were among the Nethitn'm who
returned from Babylon with /erubbabel (Ezra ii:
47; Nell. vii:4o), B. C. 536.
GAIXTS (ga'yus), (Gr. Va:im,gah'ee-oi).
1. An inhabitant of Corinth, the host of Paul,
event took place. Mark and Luke indeed agree
in describing it as 'the country of ihc vjadarenes,'
but Matthew calls it 'the country of the Gcr-
lesencs.' One various reading gives 'of the Ger-
asenes,' another 'of the Gadarcncs.' But Gerasa
(see Gerasa) lay at a wide distance from the
lake of Galilee, and possibly the difficulty which
hence arose was that which led Origen to con-
jecture that the reading should be 'of the Gcr-
gescnes.' for with Origen this reading took its
rise (Rosenmiiller, ii:2, 22; Reland, pp. 774, <So6).
Indeed to him the place as well as the name
owes its existence. Gergesa is found in some
imps, but the best authorities omit it (Kicpert's
Atlas') ; for it is not found either in the Bible
or Josephus. (See Gf.rcitsa.) J R. B.
GADARENE (gad'a-rene'), (Gr. FoSopiji-A!, _e-af-
ar-(7\->t(>s'), an inhabitant of Gadara (^Iark v:i;
Luke viii;26, 37). (See Gadara.)
GAD7)I (g5d'di), (Heb. '% gad-dee', fortunate),
■nil of Susi, of Manasseh, sent by Moses to explore
ilie land (Num. xiiiiil), B.C. I20g.
GADDIEL (gad'di-el), (Heb. ^^'^Ti, gad- dee-ale' ,
f irtune of God), son of Sodi, of the tribe of Zebu-
lun, one of the spies (Num. xiii:io), B. C. 1209.
idara.
and in whose house the Christians were accus-
tomed to assemble (Rom. xvi:2,?). He was bap-
tized by Paul (i Cor. i:i4).
2. \ Macedonian missionary, associate of Paul.
When the apostle went into Asia. Gaius and
.■\ristarchiis accompanied bim to Ephesns. where
they aliode some time with him; so that in the
sedition raised there about the great Diana, the
Ephcsians ran to the house of Gaius and Aris-
tarchus, and dragged thcin to the theater (Acts
xix :2g). ( k. D. 54.)
3. The person to whom Ihc apostle John di-
rected his third enistlc. In the opinion of several
commentators be is the same as 4. The apostle
comniciulcd him for his goodness (3 Juhi i:6).
(.\. D. about 02.)
4. One of those who accompanied Paul from
Corinth, or Philippi, to Asia on his last trip to
Palestine. He was a native of Derbc (Acts xx:
4), and perhaps to be identified with 3. The
name was such a common one that it is difficult
to differentiate them. (A. D. 55.)
GALAL (ga'151), (Heb. \^v, icawlawP , perhaps
weighty) , three Levites by this name are mentioned.
1. Son of .^saph (i Chron. ix.15). (B. C.
before 536.)
GALATIA
682
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
2. Son of Jeduthun (Neh. xi:i7).
3. One of the family of Elkanah (i Chron. ix :
l6). (B. C. before 536.)
GALATIA (ga-la'shi-a), (Gr. TaXarla, gal-at-ee'-
ah).
Galatia was a province of Asia Minor, bounded
on the north by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, on the
south by Lycaonia, on the east by Pontus and
Cappadocia, and on the west by Phrygia and
Bithynia.
It derived its name from the Gallic or Keltic
tribes who, about 280 years B.C., made an irrup-
tion into Macedonia and Thrace. At the invitation
of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, they passed over
the Hellespont to assist that prince against his
brother Ziboeta or Zipcetes. Having accomplished
this object, they were unwilling to retrace their
steps ; and strengthened by the accession of fresh
hordes from Europe, they overran Bithynia and
the neighboring countries, and supported them-
selves by predatory excursions, or by imposts
exacted from the native chiefs. After the lapse of
forty years, Attains I, king of Pergamus, succeed-
ed in checking their nomadic habits, and confined
them to a fixed territory. Of the three principal
tribes, the Trocmi settled in the eastern pan' of
Galatia near the banks of the Halys ; the Tecto-
sages in the country round Ancyra ; and the
Tolistobogii in the southwestern parts near Pes-
sinus. They retained their independence till the
year B. C. 189 when they were brought under the
power of Rome by the consul Cn. Manlius (Livy,
xxxviii ; Polybius, xxii:24), though still governed
by their own princes. In the year B. C. 25 Ga-
latia became a Roman province. Under the suc-
cessors of Augustus the boundaries of Galatia
were so much enlarged that it reached from the
shores of the Euxine to the Pisidian Taurus. In
the time of Constantine a new division was made,
which reduced it to its ancient limits, and by
Theodosius I or Valens it was separated into
Galatia Prima, the northern part, occupied by the
Trocmi and Tectosages, and Galatia Secunda or
Salutaris: Ancyra was the capital of the former,
and Pessinus of the latter.
From the intermixture of Gauls and Greeks
Galatia was also called Gallo-Graecia (Strabo. xii:
5), and its inhabitants Gallo-Graeci. But even in
Jerome's time they had not lost their native
language. The gospel was introduced into this
province by the Apostle Paul. His first visit is
recorded in Acts xvi :6, and his second in Acts
xviii :23. J. E. R.
"Few Jewish or Jewish-Christian inscriptions
can be detected in South Galatian cities, because
the names are usually unrecognizable and few
emblems or Jewish formulae are employed.
"Christian inscriptions are comparatively nu-
merous in Galatic Phrygia and Lycaonia, especial-
ly in the country that lies north and northwest
of Iconium ; and. though none are dated, yet style
indicates that some must be as early as ilie third
century." (W. M. Ramsay, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
GALATIANS (ga-la'shanz), (Gr. Va\6.Tai, f;al-
ah'tai, Galatia), the people to whom St. Paul
wrote his Galatian Epistle (Gal. iii:i).
They were a mixed people ; Phrygians, Gauls,
Greeks, Romans and Jews made up the population
in a more or less amalgamated form. Quickness
of apprehension, prompt action, impressibility and
eager craving for knowledge marked their char-
acter; but, true to their racial disposition, they
were fickle. This perhaps accounts for the read-
iness with which they discarded their own re-
ligious system and embraced the teachings of St'.
Paul. But the pure spiritual teaching soon ceas^
to satisfy, and they sought a more ritualistic and
external form which the Apostle rebukes, saying
to them "having begun in the spirit are ye now
made perfect by the flesh?" (Gal. iii:3).
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE.
(1) Pauline Origin. The Pauline origin of
this epistle is attested not only by the super-
scription which it bears (i:i), but also by fre-
quent allusions in the course of it to the great
Apostle of the Gentiles (comp. 1:13-23; ii:i-i4).
and by the unanimous testimony of the ancienC
church (Lardner, Works, vol. ii:8vo.). It is cor-
roborated also by the style, tone, and contents of
the epistle, which are perfectly in keeping with
those of the Apostle's other writings.
(2) To Whom Addressed. The parties to
whom this epistle was addressed are described in
the epistle itself as 'the churches of Galatia' (i:
2; comp. iii:i). Into this district the gospel
was first introduced by Paul himself (Acts xvi:
6; Gal. i:8; iv:i3, 19). Churches were then also
probably formed; for on revisiting this district
some time after his first visit it is mentioned
that he 'strengthened the disciples' (Acts xviii:
23). These churches seem to have been composed
principally of converts directly from heathenism,
but partly, also, of Jewish converts, both pure
Jews and proselytes. Unhappily, the latter, not
thoroughly emancipated from early opinions and
prepossessions, or probably influenced by Judaiz-
ing teachers who had visited these churches, had
been seized with a zealous desire to incorporate
the rites and ceremonies of Judaism with the
spiritual truths and simple ordinances of Christian-
ity. So active had this party been in disseminat-
ing their views through the churches of Gala-
tia that the majority at least of the members
had been seduced to adopt them (i:6; iii:l,
etc.). To this result it is probable that the
previous religious conceptions of the Galatians
contributed ; for, accustomed to the worship of
Cybele, which they had learned from their neigh-
bors the Phrygians, and to the theosophistic doc-
trines with which that worship was associated,
they would be the more readily induced to believe
that the fullness of Christianity could alone be
developed through the symbolical adumbrations of
a very elaborate ceremonial (Neander, A postal,
Zeitalter. S. 400, 2te, Aufl.). From some passages
in this epistle (e. gr. i :ii-24; ii :i-2i) it would ap-
pear also that insinuations had been disseminated
among the Galatian churches to the eff'ect that
Paul was not a divinely-commissioned Apostle,
but only a messenger of the church at Jerusalem;
that Peter and he were at variance upon the sub-
ject of the relation of the Jewish rites toChrislian-
ity ; and that Paul himself was not at all times
so strenuously opposed to those rites as he had
chosen to be among the Galatians. Of this state
of things intelligence having been conveyed to
the Apostle, he wrote this epistle for the purpose
of vindicating his own pretensions and conduct,
of counteracting the influence of these false views,
and of recalling the Galatians to the simplicity
of the gospel which they had received. The im-
portance of the case was probably the reason why
the Apostle put himself to the great' labor of writ-
ing this epistle with his own hand (vi:ll).
(3) How Divided. The epistle consists of
three parts, (i) In the first part (i.-ii.). after his
usual salutations, Paul vindicates his own
Apostolic authority and independence as a di-
rectly-commissioned ambassador of Christ to men.
and especially to the Gentile portion of the race;
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
683
GALEED
asserting that the gospel which he preached was
the only gospel of Christ, — expressing his surprise
that the Galatians had allowed themselves to be
so soon turned from him who had called them lo
a different gospel, — denouncing all who had thus
seduced them as troublers of the church, per-
verters of the doctrine of Christ, and deserving,
even had they been angels from heaven, to be
placed under an anathema instead of being fol-
lowed,— maintaining the Divineorigin of his Apos-
tolic commission, which he illustrates by the his-
tory of his conversion and early conduct in the
service of Christ,— and declaring that, so far from
being inferior to the other Apostles, he had ever
treated with them on equal terms, and been wel-
comed by them as an equal. (2) Having in the
close of this part of the epistle been led to refer
to his zeal for the great doctrine of salvation by
the grace of God through faith in Christ, he en-
ters at large, in the second part (iii.-iy. ), upon
the illustration and defense of this cardinal truth
of Christianity. He appeals to the former experi-
ence of the Galatians as to the way in which they
had received ihe Spirit, to the case of Abraham,
and to the testimony of scripture in support of his
position that it is by faith and not by the works of
the law that men are accepted of God (iii:i-9).
He proceeds to remind them that the law has
brought a curse upon men because of sin, a curse
which it has no power to remove, and from which
the sinner can be redeemed only through the sub-
stitutionary work of Christ, by whose means the
blessing of Abraham comes upon the Gentiles.
And lest any should object that the law being of
more recent origin than the covenant must super-
sede it, he shows that this cannot be the case, but
that the covenant must be perpetual, while the
law is to be regarded only in the light of a tempo-
rary and intercalary arrangement, the design of
which was to forward the fulfillment of the prom-
ise in Christ (iii:io-29). The relation of the Jewish
church to the Christian is then illustrated by the
case of an heir under tutors and governors as
contrasted with the case of the same person
when he is of age and has become master of all ;
and the Galatians are exhorted not willingly to
descend from the important and dignified position
of sons to that of mere servants in God's house —
an exhortation which is illustrated and enforced
by an allegorical comparison of the Jewish church
to Ishmael, the son of Hagar, and of the Christian
to Isaac, the son of Sarah, and the Child of
Promise (iv:i-3i). (3) The third part of the
Epistle (v.-vi.) is chiefly hortatory and ad-
monitory ; it sets forth the necessity of steadfast
adherence to the liberty of ihe gospel in con-
nection with obedience to the moral law as a rule
of duty, the importance of mutual forbearance
and love among Christians, and the desirableness
of maintaining a firm adherence to the doctrine of
Christ and him crucified. The apostle concludes
with benedictions and prayers.
(4) Time and Place. Respecting the time
when and the place where this epistle was written,
great diversity of opinion prevails. Marcion held
this to be the earliest of Paul's epistles
(Epiphanius, Adv. Hares, xlii :9) ; and Tertul-
lian is generally supposed to favor the same opin-
ion, from his speaking of Paul's zeal against Juda-
ism displayed in this epistle as characteristic of
his being yet a neophyte (Adv. Marc, i :20).
Michaelis also has given his suffrage in favor
of a date earlier than that of the Apostle's second
visit to Galatia, and very shortly after that of his
first'. Koppe's view {Nov. Test. vol. vi. p. 7)
is the same, though he supposes the Apostle to
have preached in Galatia before the visit men-
tioned by Luke in Acts xvi :6, and which is
usually reckoned his first visit to that district.
Others, again, such as Mill (Proleg. in Nov. Test.
p. 4), Calovius (Biblia Illust. t. iv. p. 529), and,
more recently, Schrader (Der Ap. Paulus, th. i. s.
226), place the date of this epistle at a late period
of the Apostle's life.
The majority, however, concur in a medium
view between these extremes, and fix the date of
this epistle at some time shortly after the Apostle's
second visit to Galatia. This opinion has decided
support from the epistle itself. From the Apostle's
abrupt exclamation in ch. i :6, 'I marvel that ye
are .jo soon removed from him that called you,'
etc., it seems just to infer that he wrote this
epistle not very long after he had been in
Galatia for the second time, and perhaps while he
was residing at Ephesus (Gal. i:6; iv:i3; comp.
Acts xviii:23; xix:i ff.). W. L. A.
(5) Difficulties. Among the difficulties con-
nected with the Epistle are the apparent dis-
crepancies made by St. Paul in Galatians ii. and
Acts ix ;23 . Comp. also Galatians i :23 ; Acts ix :
27, 28. To these objections it has been answered
by Pfleiderer (Hibbcrt Led. p. 103, comp. p.
Ill), that 'the agreement as to the chief points
is in any case greater than the discrepancies in the
details, and these discrepancies can be for the most
part explained simply by the difference of the
standpoint of the relaters.'
"It is further objected that the conduct ascribed
to St. Paul in the Acts is inconsistent with the
attitude heassumes and the principles he maintains
in Galatians. In Acts he is represented as cir-
cumcising Timothy (xvi:3), as shaving his head in
fulfillment of a vow (xviii:i8), as attending the
Jewish feasts (xx:i6), and as being at charges for
four men who had a vow on them (xxi:23, 24).
Such acts of conformity to the law are, it is
thought, incompatible with the principle St. Paul
lays down in the Epistle, 'If ye be circumcised,
Christ shall profit you nothing.' The solution is
obvious. When St. Paul makes this strong state-
ment, what he means is, If you observe the or-
dinances of Moses because you believe them to be
necessary to salvation, Christ shall profit you noth-
ing. Together with this fundamental principle he
held also as an ethical maxim, that it is right to
become all things to all men. a Jew to the Jew
if need be. And when he observes the Mosaic
ordinances in the temple, it is not because he
believes they have any virtue for salvation, but
because he wishes to give no offense to his Jewish
brethren. These Jewish observances have become
to him matters of indifference, and only when they
are lifted out of their proper position and con-
sidered essentials do ihey^ become dangerous.
'Neither is circumcision anything, nor uncircum-
cision' (Gal. vi:l5; comp. I Cor. vii:i8). That
he did not yield when it was demanded of him
as a matter of principle that he should circum-
cise Titus, is perfectly consistent with his circum-
cising Timothy as a concession to expediency.
(Marcus Dodds, Hastings' Bib. Did.)
OALBANTTM (gai'ba-nura). See Chelbenah;
Frankincense; etc.
GALEED (gil'e-ed), (Heb. ""^^i, ,i;al-ade' , heap
of witnesses), a name given by Jacob and Laban to
the heap they made on Mount Gilead in witness of
the covenant they agreed upon (Gen. xxKi:47, 48;
comp. verses 23, 25).
GALILiEAN OR GALILEAN
684
GALL
GALIIiiEAN or GALILEAN (gal'i-lai'an or
gil'i-le'an), (Or. ToXiXa'DS, gal-ee-lah'yos, Galilaean),
an inhabitant of Galilee (which see) (Mark xiv:
70; Luke xiii:i, 2, xxii:59, xxiii:6; John iv:45; Acts
ii:7, and in the Greek, Matt. xxvi;6g; Acts v.W,
v:37)- ,1^,
GALILEE (gal'I-le), (Heb. '^T-}, gaw-lee-law' ,
circle region district), the Greek form of the name
given to one of the three principal divisions of
Palestine, the other two bemg Judaea and Sam-
aria.
(1) Name. This name of the region was very
ancient. It occurs in the Hebrew forms of GaMX
and Galilah (Josh, xx:?; xxi:32; i Kings ix:li;
2 Kings xv:29), and in Is. ix:i, we have 'Galilee
of the nations' (i Mace. v:i5; Matt. iv:is).
(2) Geography. Galilee was the northernmost
of the three divisions, and was divided into Upper
and Lower. The former district had Mount Leb-
anon and the countries of Tyre and Sidon on the
north; the Mediterranean Sea on the west;
Abilene, Ituraja, and the country of Decapolis on
the east ; and Lower Galilee on the south. This
was the portion of Galilee which was distinctive-
ly called 'Galilee of the nations,' or of the 'Gen-
tiles,' from its having a more mixed population,
>. e. less purely Jewish, than the others. Caesarea
Philippi was its principal city. Lower Galilee
had Upper Galilee on the north, the Mediterranean
on the west, the Sea of Galilee or Lake of Gen-
nesareth on the east, and Samaria on the south.
Its principal towns were Tiberias, Chorazin, Beih-
saida, Nazareth, Cana. Capernaum, Nain, Caesarea
of Palestine, and Ptolemais.
(3) Home of Christ. This is the district
which was of a^l others the most honored with
the presence of our Savior. Here he lived en-
tirely until he was thirty years of age ; and al-
though, after the commencement of his ministry,
he frequently visited the other provinces, it was here
that he chiefly rc'^ided (Matt. iv:i3; ix:i7). Here
also he made his first appearance to the apostles
after his resurrection ; for they were all of them
natives of this region, and had returned hither
after the sad events at Jerusalem (Matt, xxviii :
(4) Disciples Called Galileans. Hence the
disciples of Christ were called 'Galileans' (Acts
i:ii; ii:7; John i :46 ; vii:52). They were easily
recognized as such; for the Galileans spoke a
dialect of the vernacular Syriac different from that
of Judsa, and which was of course accounted rude
and impure, as all provincial dialects are con-
sidered to be, in comparison with that of the
metropolis. It was this which occasioned the de-
tection of St. Peter as one of Christ's disciples
(Mark xiv 70; Matt. xxvi:73'). The Galilean dia-
lect (as we learn from Buxtorf. Lightfoot, and
others), was of a broad and rustic tone, which
affected the pronunciation not only of letters but
of words.
(5) A Seditious People. The Galileans are
mentioned by Josephus (Atitiq. xvii:io, 2; De
Bell. Jud. ii:io, 6; iii :3, 2) as a turbulent and
rebellious people, ready on all occasions to rise
against the Roman authority. This character of
them explains what is said in Luke xiii :i. with re-
gard to 'the Galileans whose blood Pilate had
mingled with their sacrifices.' Josephus, indeed,
does not mention any Galileans slain in the Temple
by Pilate ; but the character which he gives that
people sufficiently corroborates the statement. The
tumults to which he alludes were, as we know,
chiefly raised at the great festivals, when sacrifices
were slain in great abundance; and on all such
occasions the Galileans were much more active
than the men of Judaea and Jerusalem, as is
proved by the history of Archelaus (Joseph. Antiq.
xvii :9, lo) ; which case, indeed, furnishes an an-
swer to those who deny that the Galileans attend-
ed the feasts with the rest of the Jews.
The seditious character of the Galileans also
explains why Pilate, when sitting in judgment
upon Jesus, caught at the word Galilee when
used by the chief priests, and asked if he were
a Galilean (Luke xxiii:6). To be known to
belong to that country was of itself sufficient to
prejudice Pilate against him, and 10 give some
countenance to the charges, unsupported by im-
partial evidence, which were preferred against
him, and which Pilate himself had, just before,
virtually declared to be false. (Porter, Hand-
book.)
GALILEE (gal'Me), MOUNTAIN IN, where
Christ showed himself to certain of his disciples
after his resurrection (Matt. xxviii;l6; perhaps i
Cor. XV :6). It is quite impossible to know to which
mountain the Evangelist refers. It is, however,
generally conjectured that it was Mt. Tabor.
GALILEE, SEA OF. See Sea.
GALL (gal).
1. Mer-ay-raw' (Heb. '',-'?), or mer-o-raw'
(Heb. 'Q~^), denotes etymologically "that which
is bitter;" occurs in '\\.% primary and proper mean-
ing, as denoting the substance secreted in the gall-
bladder of animals, commonly called bile, in the
following passage : (Jobxvi:i3) 'He pourcth out
my gall,' mererah ; Sept. ttjv x"'^'^" /""i", "ly gall ;
Vulg. viscera mea. The metaphors in this verse
are taken from the practice of huntsmen, who first
surround the beast, then shoot it, and next take
out the entrails. The meaning as given by Bp.
Heath, is, 'he entirely destroyeth me.' Job xx:i4
as describing the remorse of a wicked man.
2. Roshe (Heb. tf^i^, or Tfiil), generally trans-
lated "gall" by the A. V. is in Hos. x;4 rendered
" Hemlock;" m Deut. xxxii:33and Job xx:i6 roshe
denotes the " poison " or " venom" of serpents.
Gall (Quercus.)
It refers to 'the gall of adders,' which according
to the ancients is the seat of their poison ( Plin.
Hist. Nat. ii :37). See, also, Job xx:25. where, to
describe the certainty of a wicked man's destruc-
tion, it is said, 'the glittering sword cometh out of
his gall.' Sept.. out of Ids vitals. In the story of To-
bit the gall of a fish is said to have been used to
cure his father's blindness (Tobit vi :8 ; xi:lo,
13). Pliny refers to the use of the same sub-
stance for diseases of the eye. Galen and other
writers praise the use of the liver of the silurus
in cases of dimness of sight. J. F. D.
GALLANT
(■>RS
GA^rKs
3. Khol-a^ (Gr. x<>^^. perhaps greenish), the
bitter secretion galL It is related that the Roman
soldiers offered our Lord, just before his cruci-
fixion, "vinegar (R. V. 'wine') mingled with gall"
(Matt. xxvii:34i, and "wine mingled with myrrh"
(Mark. xv:23). This was intended as a stupefying
draught.
Figurative, (i) Iniustice, oppression, and
like wicked works, are likened to gail ; how of-
fensive and detestable to God! how hurtful and
ruinous to men (Deut. xxxii 132; Amos vi:i2).
(2) A state of sin is called the gall of bitter-
ness and "bond of iniquity" (Acts viii-23).
Most grievous troubles are called "gall" (Jer.
viii:i4; ix:is; Lam. iii:5, 19). (3) The wicked
man's meat', and other outward enjoyments, are
turned into the "gall of asps" within him; they
tend to ruin and destroy him; and often is his
conscience terribly tormented for the unlawful
manner of procuring them (Job xx:i4).
GALLANT (gariant),(Heb. 1' V><, ad-deer", large,
mighty). " But there the glorious Lord wi/l be
unto us a place of broad rivers ami streams;
wherein shall go no galley with oars, neither shall
gallant ship pass thereby" (Is. xxxiii:2i).
OALLERT (gal'ler-y), the rendering of two
Hebrew words:
Rekh-eef (Heb. '^'"1, probably panel work or
fretted ceiling); the term denotes a portico or
veranda. At-took' signifies projection of a story.
In Cant. 1:17 the Hebrew means panelling, and
in Ezek. xliris; xlii :3, it seems ^ signify a pillar
used in supporting a floor. In Cant.vii :$ the term is
applied to the regularly arranged, flowing locks of
the hair, in their likeness to the channels of run-
ning water. So it is doubtful if the Hebrew words
mean "galleries" in our sense of the word.
GALLEY (gai-ly), (Heb. '''"^!, on-ee-yaw' , con-
veyance). A low, flat built vessel with one or more
banks, i. e., rows of oars (Is. xxxiii:2i; 2 Mace, iv:
20). (See Ship.)
The enemies of the Jews, and the .•\ssyrian army
are compared to galleys or gallant vessels; that
is, large and magnificent ships (Is. xxxiii:2I>.
GALLIM (gal'lim), (Heb. ='H gal-leeni' , foun-
tains, or perhaps heaps).
1- The name of the place from which Phalti
came to whom Saul gave Michal, David's wife (i
Sam. XXV :44).
2. One of the places terrified by the approach
of Sennacherib (Is. x:3o). In both instances the
place is mentioned in connection witli towns in
the tribe of Benjamin and not far from Jeru-
salem.
OALLIO (garii-o), (Gr. ViMsiwv, gal-lee' own,
Galliun). Junius Annjeus Gallio, elder brother of
Seneca the philosopher.
His name was originally M. Ann. Novatus, but
changed to Jun. Ann. Gallio in consequence of his
adoption by Jun. Gallio the rhetorician ('pater
Gallio.' Quintil. Inst. Oral. iii:i; sec. 21; ix :
2; sec. 91). Seneca dedicated to him his treatise
De Vita Beata, and in the preface to the fourth
book of his Naturales Qucestiunes describes him
as a man universally beloved; and who, while ex-
empt' from all other vices, especially abhorred
flattery. According to Eusebius, he committed
suicide before the death of Seneca, but Tacitus
speaks of him as alive after that event (.Annal.
XV -.73), and Dion Cassius states that he was put
to death by order of Nero. He was Proconsul
(drftm-aTf^n-oj), of Achaia (Acts xviii:i2) under the
Emperor Claudius, when Paul first visited Corinth,
and nobly refused to abet the persecution raised
by the Jews against the Apostle. Dr. Lardner has
noticed the strict accuracy of Luke in giving him
this designation, which is obscured in the Auth.
Vers, by the use of the term deputy (Credibility.
part i. book i. ch. i.; Works, 1:34). (See Paul).
J. E. R.
GALLO'WS (gil'lsz), (Heb. '^^,ayts,?i tree of
wood, Esth. vi:4). In Gen. xLig; Dcut. xxi:22,
"a tree." Hanging seems to have been a punish-
ment inflicted by the Egyptians.
GAMALIEL (ga-ma'li-el), (Heb. 'X'^r?, ^aw».
lee-ale' , reward of God).
1. Son of Pedahzuf, and the captain of the
tribe of Manasseh (Num. vii:54; x:23), who
was appointed to assist Moses in numbering the
people at Sinai (i.io; ii:20). He made an of-
fering, as tribe prince, at the dedication of the
altar (vii:54), and was chief of his tribe at start-
ing on the march through the wilderness (x:
2i). (B. C. 1210.)
2. A doctor and member of the Sanhedrim in
the early times of Christianity, who, by his fa-
vorable interference, saved the Apostles from an
ignominious death (Acts v:34). He was the
teacher of the Apostle Paul before the conversion
of the latter (Acts xxii:3). He bears in the Tal-
mud the surname of hasoken, 'the old man, and is
represented as the son of Rabbi Simeon, and
grandson of the famous Hillel; he is said to
have occupied a seat, if not the presidency, in
the Sanhedrim during the reigns of Tiberius,
Caligula, and Claudius, and to have died eighteen
years after the destruction of Jerusalem.
There are idle traditions about his having been
convened to Christianity by Peter and John
(Phot. Cod. clxxi. p. 199) ; but they are altogether
irreconcilable with the esteem and respect in which
he was held even in later times by the Jewish Rab-
bins, by whom his opinions are frequently quoted
as an all-silencing authority on points of religious
law. Neither does his interference in behalf of
the Apostles at all prjve — as some would have it
— that he secretly approved their doctrines. He
was a dispassionate judge, and reasoned in that
affair with the tact of worldly wisdom and ex-
perience, urging that religious opinions usually
gain strength by opposition and persecution (Acts
v:36, 37), while, if not noticed at all, they are sure
not to leave any lasting impression on the minds
of the people, if devoid of truth (ver. 38) ; and
that it is vain to contend against them, if true
(ver. 39). That he was more enlightened and
tolerant than his colleagues and contemporaries,
is evident from the very fact that he allowed his
zealous pupil Saul to turn his mind to Greek
literature, which, in a great measure, qualified
him afterwards to become the Apostle of the
Gentiles ; while by the Jewish Palestine laws, after
the Maccabaean wars, even the Greek langnage
was prohibited to be taught to the Hebrew youth
(Mishna, Sotali, ix:i4).
Another proof of the high respect in which
Gamaliel stood with the Jews long after his death
is afforded by an anecdote told in the Talmud re-
specting his tomb, to the effect that Onkelos (the
celebrated Chaldtean translator of the Old Testa-
ment) spent seventy pounds of incense at his
grave in honor of his memory. (Youchasin, 59;
Conybeare and Howson, Life of St. Paul. ed. 2,
vol. i. p. 69. fT.) E. M.
GAIfES (gams).
If by the word are intended mere secular amuse-
ments, which are the natural expression of vigor-
ous health and joyous feeling, fitted, if not de-
GAMES
686
GAMES
sigfied, to promote health, hUariiy, and friendly
feeling, as well as to aid in the development of
the corporeal frame, we must look to other quar-
ters of the globe, rather than to Palestine, for
their origin and encouragement.
1. Among the Hebrews. The Hebrew tem-
perament wastoo deep, too earnest, too full of
religious emotion, to give rise to games having
a national and permanent character. Whatever
of amusement, or rather of recreation, the
descendants of Abraham possessed, partook of that
religious complexion which was natural to them;
or rather the predominant religiousness of their
souls gave its own hue, as to all their engage-
ments, so to their recreations.
(1) Amusements of Children. Zechariah
(viii:s) alludes to the sportiveness of children
in the streets as a sign and consequence of that
peace and prosperity which are so free from alarm
that the young take their usual games, and are
allowed entire liberty by their parents: — 'and the
streets of the city shall be full of boys and
girls playing in the streets thereof (comp. Jer.
XXX : 19). An interesting passage illustrative of
these street-amusements is found in Malt. xi:i6:
— 'This generation is like unto children sitting in
the markets and calling unto their fellows. We
have piped unto you and ye have not danced,
we have mourned unto you and ye have not
lamented.'
That the amusement of playing with tamed and
trained birds was not unusual may be learned
from Job x!i:5:— 'Wilt thou play with him
(leviathan) as with ? S-VH?' Commenting on
Zech. xii 13, Jerome mentioi.^ „.. ... -ement of the
young, which we have seen practiced in more
than one part of the north of England. 'It is
customary,' he says, 'in tlie cities of Palestine,
and has been so from ancient times, to place up
and down large stones to serve for exercise for
the young, who, according in each case to their
degree of strength, lift these stones, some as high
as their knees, others to their middle, others
above their heads, the hands being kept horizontal
and joined under the stone.'
(2) Amusements of Young People. Music,
song, and dancing were recreations reserved most-
ly for the young or for festive occasions. From
(Lam. v:i6), 'the crown is fallen from our head'
(see the entire passage on the subject of Games),
it might be inferred that, as among the Greeks
and Latins, chaplets of flowers were sometimes
worn during festivity. To the amusements just
mentioned frequent allusions are found in holy
writ, among which may be given Ps. xxx :ii ; Jer.
xxxi:i3; Luke xv:2S. In Is. xxx :29, a passage
is found which serves to show how much of
festivity and mirth was mingled with religious
observances; the journey on festival occasions up
to Jerusalem was enlivened by music, if not by
dancing: 'Ye shall have a song as in the night
when a holy solemnity is kept ; and gladness of
heart, as when one goeth with a pipe to come
into the mountain of the Lord, to the Mighty
One of Israel.' A passage occurs in 2 Sam. ii:
14, which may indicate the practice among the
ancient Israelites of games somewhat similar to
the jousts and tournaments of the middle ages.
On the subject of dancing see Michaelis, (^Mos.
Rccht, art. 197). No trace is found in Hebrew
antiquity of any of ilie ordinary games of skill
or hazard which are so numerous in the western
world.
2. Grecian Games. The Grecian influence
which made itself felt after the Exile led to a
great change in the manners and customs of the
Hebrew nation. They were soon an almost dif-
ferent people from what we find them in ihe days
of their national independence and primitive sim-
plicity.
(1) Gymnasium. In Mace. i:i4, we find evi-
dence that the Grecian games were introduced;
and that a gymnasium was built under Antiochus
Epiphanes — 'They built a place of exercise at
Jerusalem, according to the custom of the heathen.'
Compare 2 Mace. iv:i2, 13, 14, where special men-
tion is made of the prevalence of 'Greek fashions,'
and 'the game of Discus;' though, as appears clear-
ly from the last passage (v:i7), these practices
were considered contrary to the Mosaic institu-
tions, and were hateful to pious Israelites.
(3) Theaters and Amphitheaters. The Hero-
dian princes had theaters and amphitheaters built
in Jerusalem and other cities of Palestine, in
which were held splendid games, sometimes in
honor of their Roman masters. The drama does
not appear to have been introduced, but Jews
were in foreign countries actors of plays (Joseph.
Vita, sec. 3). The passage already cited (see
the original) is full of evidence how distasteful
these heathenish games were to the more sound-
minded part of the nation.
These facts make it the less surprising that
allusions should be found in the New Testament
writings to the Grecian games.
The fact that, as we have seen, the games
of the amphitheater were celebrated even in Jeru-
salem, serves to make it very likely that Paul,
in I Cor. xv:32: iv:9, alludes to these detestable
practices, though it is not probable that the apostle
was himself actually exposed to the fury of the
raging animals. Contrary to the opinion of some
writers, the reference to these combats appears
to us very clear, though it was only metaphorically
lliat Paul 'fought with beasts at Ephesus.'
3. "Barbarous Sports. The word which the
Apostle _ (i Cor. xv:32) uses is emphatic and
descriptive, iSripiotiixvc; I fought with wild
beasts. The e-ripio/iaxla or beast-fight {ve/iatio
in Latin) constituted among the Romans a part of
the amusements of the circus or amphitheater.
It consisted in the combat of human beings with
animals. The persons destined to this barbarous
kind of amusement were termed Sripiofidxat, beast-
fighters. They were generally of two classes.
(1) Volunteers. Voluntary, that is, persons
who fought either for amusement or for pay;
these were clothed and provided with offensive
and defensive weapons.
Beast-fight.
(2) Martyi's. Condemned persons, who were
mostly exposed to the fury of the animals un-
clothed, unarmed, and sometimes bound (Cic. Pro
Sext. 64; Ef. ad Quint. Frat. ii. 6; Senec. De
Benef. ii:i9; Tertull. Apol. 9). As none but the
vilest of men were in general devoted to these
beast-fights, no punishment could be more con-
dign and cruel than what was frequently inflicted
on the primitive Christians, when they wer-i hur-
GAMES
687
GAMES
ried away 'to the lions' (as the phrase was),
on account of their fidelity to conscience and to
Christ, its Lord. Ephesus appears to have had
some unenviable distinction in these brutal ex-
hibitions (Schleusner, in voc), so that
there is a peculiar propriety in the lan-
guage of the Apostle.
Olympic Games.
4. Sacred Games of Greece. Some of thest
games stood far above the rest, bearing the appel-
lation of Ifpoi, 'sacred,' and deriving their support
from the great Hellenic family at large, though
each one had special honor in its own locality.
(1) Olympic. The Olympic games were held
in the highest honor. The victors at them were
accounted the noblest and happiest of mortals, and
every means was taken that could show the respect
in which they were held. These games were cele-
brated every five years at Olympia, in Elis, on
the west side of the Peloponnesus. Hence the
epoch called the Olympiads.
Vaulting aad Quoits.
At the Olympic games the prize was simply a
chaplet made of wild olive. The crowns were
laid on a tripod, and placed in the middle of the
course, so as to be seen of all. On the same table
there were also exposed to view palm-braiKhes,
one of which was given into the hand of each
conqueror at the same time with the chaplet. The
victors, having been sumniuncd by
proclamation, were presented with the
ensigns of victory, and conducted
alone the stadium, preceded by a
herald, wlio proclaimed their honors,
and announced their name, parentage,
and country.
The real reward, however, was in
the fame which ensued. A chaplet
won in the chariot-races at Olympia
was the highest of earthly honors.
What congratulations from friends;
how was the public eye directed to the
fortunate conqueror; what honor had
lie conferred on his native city, and
for what office was such an one unfit I
In order to perpetuate the memory
of these great men, their names and
achievements were entered into a pub-
lic register, which was under the care of
suitable officers. A no less privilege
was that of having a statue of them-
selves placed either at the expense of their countrv
or their friends, in the sacred grove of Jupiter. A
perhaps still greater honor awaited the victor on
(lis return home. The conquerors at the Isthmian
games were wont to be receivedin their chariots,
superbly attired, amid thronging and jubilant
multitudes.
Wrestling.
(2) The Pentathlon. The Pentathlon was
made up of the union of leaping, running, quoil'-
ing, wrestling, and hurling the spear.
Boxing.
(3) Boxing. The Pankration consisted of
wrestling and boxing.
(4) Foot Baces. Racing may be traced
back to the earliest periods of Grecian antiquity,
and may be regarded as the first friendly contest
in which men engaged. Accordingly the Olympic
and Pythian, probably also the other games,
opened with foot races. Foot racing, perfected by
systematic practice, was divided into different
kinds. If you ran merely to the end of the course
{(TTdSiov), it was called stadium; if you went
thither and back, you ran the double cours*
(ilavXos). The longest course was the HiKixos,
GAMES
688
GAMES
lonci course, which required extraordinary speed
and power of endurance.
It may well be supposed that the competitors
employed all their ability, and displayed the great-
est eagerness to gain the prize. The nearer, too,
they approached to the goal, the more did they in-
crease their efforts. Sometimes the victory de-
Fool Racing.
pended on a final spring; happy he that retained
power enough to leap first to the goal. The spec-
tators, also, used every encouragement in their
power, these favoring one competitor, those an-
other. All these remarks go to show how wisely
Paul acted in selecting the figure, and how care-
fully he has preserved the imagery which belongs
to it. A word employed in the Common Version,
I Cor. i.x :27, 'Lest when I have f reached to others
I myself should be a castaway' — namely, preached,
mars the figure. The original is Kripu(as, keiuc/isas
'acted the part of herald' whose business it was to
call the competitors to the contest and proclaim
their victory, functions which Paul spent his life
in performing.
(5) The Isthmian. In writing to the Chris-
tians at Corinth there was a special propriety, on
the part of the Apostle, in making allusions to the
public games. Corinth was the place where one
of the four Greek national games was celebrated,
namely, the Isthmian. These games were so called
from being held on the isthmus which joins north-
ern with southern Greece — a spot of land most
celebrated in Grecian history, alike in martial and
commercial matters.
At' the Isthmian games the prize was parsley
during the mythic periods. In later ages the
victor was crowned with a chaplet of pine leaves.
Parsley, however, appears to have been also em-
ployed. If the conqueror had come off victorious
in the three great divisions — music, gymnastics,
and racing — he was in the Pythian, as well as in
the other sacred games, presented also with a
palm-branch. The names of about seventy per-
sons are preserved who gained honors at the
Isthmian games, among which occurs that of the
emperor Nero, who is recorded to ^^
have gained the victory in the char-
acterof harper and that of herald.
rant Nero carried off a crown, by destroying his
too highly-gifted antagonist. The gymnastic con-
tests were the same as those of which we have
already spoken. A few words, however, may
here be introduced as to the horse racing, which
has not been hitherto described. Generally the
same kinds prevailed as at the Olympic and Pyth-
ian games. Chariot races seem to have been prac-
ticed in the earliest heroic times, since chariots
were as early as this used in battle, and the notices
which have come down to us refer this kind of
sport to the early period now indicated. It stood
Horse Racing.
pre-eminently before other games. The skill and
outlay which it required prevented any but per-
sons of distinction — the wealthy, governors,
princes, and kings — from engaging in its enjoy-
ments. The number of chariots that might ap-
»Si5^5^^?^'5^^^^^-
Section of Ihe Chariot Race. Circus Maximus.
(6) Chariot Baces. The Corinthians appear to
have been inordinately fond of these amusements.
They were held every three years. They com-
prised three leading divisions — musical, gynuias-
tical, and equestrian contests. In the first the ty-
Chariot Racing.
pear on the course at once cannot be accurately
determined. Pindar (Pyth. v. 46) praises Ar-
kesilas of Cyrene for having calmly brought off
his chariot uninjured, in a contest where no fewer
than forty took part. The course had to be gone
over twelve times. The urgency of the drivers,
the speed and exhaustion of the horses, may easily
be imagined. The greatest .skill was needed in
turning the pillar which tnarked the extremity of
the course, especially wlien the contending char-
iots were numerous.
5. Neil} Testament Allusions. The
New Testament, in several places, con-
tains references to the celebrated Grecian
Games, though it may be allowed that
some commentators have imagined illu-
sions where none were designed. As
might, from his learning, be expected, it
is Paul who chiefly su])plies the passages
in question. In Gal. ii:2, 'Lest by any
means 1 should run in vain;' v:7, 'Ve did
run well, who did hindcryou?' I'hil. ii:l6,
'That 1 may rejoice in the day of Christ,
that 1 have not run in vain nor labored in
vain;' Heb. xii:i, 'Run with patience theraceset
before us;' xii:4, 'Ye have not resisted unto blood,
striving against sin' (a.vTa~tuvL^bi:i(voi)\ Phil. iii:l4, ' 1
press toward the mark for the prize;' 2 Tim.
ii :5, 'If a man strive he is not crowned except he
strive lawfully.' The most signal passage, how-
ever, is found in l Cor. ix :24-2S, 'Know ye nut
GAMMADIM
(;s9
GARKB
that they which run in a race run all. but one
receiveth the prize? So run that ye may obtain.
And every man that striveth for the mastery is
temperate in all things. Now they do it to obtain
a corruptible crown; but we an incorruptible.'
6. Literature. On the subject here treated,
see West's O^es of Pindar, 2d edit.; Potter's An-
tiquities of Greece ; Harper's Diet, of Classical
Antiq.
GAMMADIM (gSra'raa-dfm), (Heb. ^"I'Ji.^rtw-
maiu-deem' , brave, valiant warriors, Ezek. xxvii:
II). The word occurs but once and is of uncer-
tain meaning, some connecting it with the word
cubit, in the sense of cubit-high men ; others treat
it as a geographical name. The best exi^lanaiion
is that of warriors, in a general sense (Oesenius,
Thes. p. 292).
For other views see Spencer, de Leg. Heb. Rit.
ii. Cap. 24; Fuller, Miscell. v'v.y, Hitzig, Comm. in
loco.
GAMXTL (ga'raul), (Heb. '^^^J, gaw-mool' , re-
warded), a priest who had charge of the 22d
course in the temple service (i Chron. xxiv:i7),
B. C. after 1000.
OAOLEB. (jal'er), (Gr. Sco-^^i/Xof, des-viof-oo' -
lax. Acts xvi;23), a keeper of a prison. (See
Jailer.)
GAP (gip), (Heb. Y^f , peh-rets, breach), an
opening in a wall (Ezek. xiii:5); "breaches" (Amos
iv;3).
The Jewish false prophets did not stand in the
gap, or make up the hedge : they did nothing tend-
ing to stop the course of wickedness, which opened
a door for the vengeance of God to break in upon
their nation, nor did they, with effectual fervent
prayer, intercede with God to turn away his provi-
dential judgments (Ezek. xiii :£, and xxii:3o).
GABDEN (gar'dn), (Heb. ]i, gan .■ "^i^, gan-
naw' ; •"'?■-', gin-tiaw' ; Gr. k'/itoi, kay'pos). Gan
and its derivatives have the same generic mean-
ing in Hebrew as their English equivalent garden.
Several gardens are mentioned in the Scrip-
tures, as the garden of Eden (Gen. ii:8, 9, 10, 15),
Ahab's garden of herbs (i Kings xxi :2), the royal
garden near the fortress of Zion (2 Kings xxi:
18; xxv:4), the royal garden of the Persian kings
at Susa (Esther i :s ; vii 7, 8), the garden of Jo-
seph of Arimathea (John xix:4l), and the garden
of Gethsemane (John xviii:i). It is clear, from
Lam. ii :6, that gardens were generally hedged
or walled, as indeed Josephus expressly states re-
specting the gardens near Jerusalem {De Bell.
Jud. V. 7). In Neh. ii:8, and John xx:i5, gar-
deners and keepers of gardens by occupation are
indicated.
Gardens were planted not only with fragrant
and beautiful plants, but with various fruit-bear-
ing and other trees ( Gen. ii 19 ; Jer. xxix 15 ; Amos
ix:i4). Thus we find mention of nut-gardens
(Cant. vi:li), pomegranate-gardens (Cant, iv :
13), olive-gardens (Deut. viii:8; i Chron. xxvii:
28), vine-gardens (Cant. vii:i2). Here, however,
we are not to suppose that the gardens were ex-
clusively occupied by these fruits, but that they
were severally predominant in the gardens to
which they gave name. The distinction, for in-
stance, between a vine-garden and a vineyard
would be, that, in the latter, the vine was culti-
vated solely for use, whereas in the former it was
planted for solace and ornament, to cover walls,
and to be trained in arbors and on trellises.
Gardens were, when possible, planted near
streams, which afforded the means of easy irri-
gation. This explains such passages as Gen. ii :9^
sq. and Is. i -.yo.
Gardens were dedicated to various uses among
the Hebrews, such as we still firvd prevailing
in the East. One most essential difference be-
tween them and our own is that they are not at-
tached to or in any way connccicd with the resi-
dence, but are situated in the suburbs. We have
known gardens from half a mile to a mile distant
from the houses of the persons to whom they be-
longed. It is manifest that all the gardens men-
tioned in scripture were outside the several towns.
This is, however, to be understood of regular gar-
dens, for shrubs and flowers were often planted in
the open courts of the dwelling-houses.
People repair to their suburban gardens to take
the air, to walk, and to refresh and solace them-
selves in various ways. For their use there is
mostly in each garden a kind of summer-house
or pavilion, fitted up with much neatness, gaily
painted, and furnished with seats, where the visit-
ants may sit and enjoy themselves. Here some-
times banquets were and are still given, attended
by singing and music (Is. li:3; lxv:3). The cus-
tom of burying the dead in gardens is indicated
in Gen. xxiii:i9. 20; i Sam. xxv:l ; Mark xv :46 ;
and still occurs sometimes in the East, but is not
very prevalent. We find it also among the Greeks
(Heliodorus, jEthiop. i. 2, p. 35), and the Romans
(Suetonius, Galba, 20).
It is evident that the gardens of the Hebrews
were in a very considerable degree devoted to the
culture of medicinal herbs, the preparation of
which in various ways was a matter of much so-
licitude with them (Jer. viii:22). This is still the
case in the East, where vegetable simples are as
much employed in medicine as they were in this
country in the times of Gerarde and Culpepper.
It would seem that the Jews were much in
the habit of performing their devotions in gar-
dens (Gen. xxiv:63; Matt. xxvi:36; John xviii:
I, 2). This interesting practice, however, was
idolatrously abused; for the worship of idols in
these shady seclusions was nut of unfrequcnt
occurrence, and is often mentioned in scripture
(1 Kings xiv:23; 2 Kings xvi:4; xvii:io; Is. i:
29; Ixv:3; lxvi:i7; Jer. ii;2o; iii:6; Ezek. xx:
28).
The Jews in their ceremonial treatises have fre-
quent occasion to mention gardens, chiefly for the
purpose of showing what plants or seeds might
or might not be planted or sown together under
the law against heterogeneous propagations (Lev.
xix:9; Deut. xxi:9-ii).
GARDENER (gar'd'n-er), a class of workmen
alluded to in Job xxvii:i8, and mentioned in John
xx;i5. (See Garden.)
GARDEN HOUSE (gar'dn hous), the render-
ing (2 Kings ix:27) of Heb. II'!! ^"ri, baytA /lag-
gawn' , "Ahaziah fled by the way of the garden
house."
"The 'garden house' cannot have formed a por-
tion of the royal gardens, but must have been at
some distance from the city of Jczreel, as Ahaziah
went by the road thither, and was not wounded
till he reached the height of Gur, near Jibleam"
(Keil. Com.)
OAREB (ga'reb), (Heb. ^V^, gaw-rabe' .scMoy).
1. A hill near Jerusalem (Jer. xxxi;39\the situa-
tion of which is not known. Ewald would identify
it with Golgotha (Geschichte Christus, p. 485);
Gesenius with Bezetha (add. ad Thesaur, p. 80).
2. An Ithrite, descendant of Jethro or Jether,
and one of David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. xxiii:
38; I Chron. xi:40). (B. C. about 1000.)
GARLAND
690
GATE
GARLAND (gar'lund), (Gr. aritLiui, stem'mah,
wreath). Garlands of flowers brought by the priest
of Jupiter, at Lystra, together with oxen, when the
geople were about to offer worship to Paul and
arnabas (Acts xiv:i3).
GARLIC (gar'lik), (Heb. Clff, slwom, odor), a
well-known vegetable, more agreeable to Oriental
than to most European palates. It is mentioned
in Num. xi:5.
GARMITE, THE (gar'mite, the), (Heb. "'^lin,
with the art. hag-gar-niee' ; an appellation uf Kei-
lah, a descendant of Gerem, in the genealogies of
Judah (I Chron. iv:ig).
GARNER (gar'ner), (Heb. ''.!^, meh-zev' , to
gather), a place for storing grain, a granary (Ps.
cxliv:i3; Joel i:i7; Matt. iii:l2).
GARNISH (gar'nish), (Heb. !^??, tsaw-faw').
(I) To adorn, to decorate with ornamental addi-
tions (2 Chron. iii:6; Job xxvi:l3; Matt. xii:44;
xxiii:29; Luke xi:25; Rev. xxi;i9). (2) (Heb. '"""r- .
shif-raiv' , brightness), i. e., with which the heavens
are clothed (Job xxvi:i3).
GARRISON (gar'ri-s'n), (Heb. 2'Sf, neh-eeb' ,
I Sam. xiii:23; xiv:l, 4, 12, 15; 2 Sam. xxiii;l4; I
Chron. xi:i6).
In 2 Sam. viii :6, 14 ; I Chron. xviii :I3 ; 2 Chron.
xvii :2, the Hebrew means "officers" placed over a
conquered people, by which "garrison" is implied.
There was a garrison at Jerusalem in later times
known as the acropolis.or castle, or barracks (Acts
xxi :34, yj). This stood on the northwest corner
of the temple area, and is memorable as being
the refuge of the Apostle Paul (Acts xxiii:io).
It hada tower seventy cubits high which overlooked
the temple and its courts. This arrangement ex-
plains how the Chiliarch could so quickly interfere
and rescue Paul from the fury of the mob (Acts
xxii :3 fif). At Damascus there was a garrison (2
Cor. xi;32) employed to prevent Paul's escape.
GASHMTJ (gash'mu), (Heb. ''^fe, gash-moo'),
given as a variation of Geshem by the lexicons
(Neh. vi:6).
GATAM (ga'tara), (Heb. ^^Vi,ga/i-iaTum' , puny),
grandson of Esau and fourth son of Eliphaz (Gen.
xxxvirii; I Chron. i:36), and a "duke" of Eliphaz
(Gen. xxxvi:l6), B. C. after 1740.
GATE (gat), (Heb. ''^t, shah'ar), the entrance
to enclosed grounds, buildings, dwelling houses,
towns, etc.
/. Various Jf antes. Thus we find mentioned:
(1) Cities. Gates of cities, as of Jerusalem, its
sheep-gate, fish-gate, etc. (Jer. xxxvii:i3; Neh.
i ;3 ; ii:3); of Sodom (Gen. xix:i); of Gaza
(Judg. xvi:3).
(2) Palaces and Temples. Gates of royal pal-
aces (Neh. ii;8). Gates of the Temple. The
temple of Ezekiel had two gates, one towards the
north, the other towards the east ; the latter closed
(Ezek. xlivii, 2), the other must have been
open.
(3) Tombs and Prisons. Gates of tombs
(Matt, xxvii :6o). Gates of prisons. In Acts xii :
ID, mention is made of the iron-gate of Peter's
prison (xvi:27). Prudentius {Hymn. v. 346)
speaks of gatekeepers of prisons.
(4) Caverns and Camps. Gates of caverns
(j Kings xix:i3). Gales of camps (Exod. xxxii :
26, 27; see Heb. xiii:i2). The camps of the
Romans had generally four gates. The camp of
the Trojans is also described as having fiad gates
(Virgil, v£«. ix.724).
2. filaterial. We do not know of what mate-
rials the enclosures and gates of the temporary
camps of the Hebrews were formed. In Egyptian
monuments such enclosures are indicated by lines
of upright shields, with gates apparently of wicker,
defended by a strong guard. As the gates of towns
served the ancients as places of security (see
Fortifications, etc.), durable material was re-
quired for them, and accordingly we find men-
tioned :
(1) Iron and Brass. Gates of iron and brass
(Ps. cvii:i6; Is. xlv;2; Acts xii:io). It is prob-
able that gates thus described were, in fact, only
sheeted with plates of copper or iron (Faber,
Archceol. p. 297) ; and it is probably in this sense
we are to interpret the hundred brazen gates
ascribed to the ancient Babylon. Thevenot {Voy-
age, p. 283) describes the si,x gates of Jerusalem as
covered with iron : which is probably still the
case with the four gates now open. Other iron-
covered gates are mentioned by travelers, such
as some of the town gates of Algiers (Pitt's Let-
ter, viii, p. 10), and of the towers of the so-called
iron bridge at Antioch (Pococke, vol. ii. pt'. I.
p. 172). The principal gates of the great mosque
at Damascus are covered with brass (Maundrell, p.
126). Gates of iron are also mentioned by Hesiod
{Theog. 732), by Virgil {..Sn. i. 482; vii 1609), and
by Ovid (Metam. vii:i26).
(2) Stones and Pearls. Gates of stone, and
of pearls, are mentioned in Is. Iiv:i2, and Rev.
xxi: 12, which, it has justly been supposed, refer
to such doors, cut out of a single slab, as are oc-
casionally discovered in ancient countries. At
Essouan (Syene), in Upper Egypt, there is a
granite gateway bearing the name of Alexander,
the son of Alexander the Great (Wilkinson, iii.
403). The doors leading to the several cham-
bers of one so-called 'Tombs of the Kings' near
Jerusalem, were each formed of a single stone
seven inches thick, sculptured so as to resemble
four panels : the styles, muntins, and other parts
were cut with great art, and exactly resembled
those of a door made by a carpenter at the pres-
ent day — the whole being completely smooth and
polished, and most accurate in their proportions.
The doors turned on pivots, of the same stone of
which the rest of them were composed, which
were inserted in corresponding sockets above and
below, the lower tenon being of course short. (See
Giant Cities of Bashan.)
(3) Wood. Gates of wood. Of this kind were
probably the gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi:3). They
had generally two valves, which, according to Fa-
ber's description {Archceol. p. 300), had some-
times smaller doors, or wickets, to afford a pas-
sage when the principal gate was closed — a fact
which he applies to the illustration of Matt'.
vii:i3.
3. General Features and Purposes.
(1) Protection. Gates were generally pro-
tected by some works against the surprises of
enemies (Jer. xxxix:4). Sometimes two gates
were constructed one behind another, an outer
and inner one; or there were turrets on
both sides (2 Sam. xviii :24, 33; see Faber's
Archaol. p. 301). The gates of the ancients
were generally secured with strong heavy bolts
and locks of brass or iron (Deut. iii :s ; I Sam.
xxiii :7; I Kings iv :i3 ; 2 Chron. viii :S ; Jer. .xfuj:
31; Ps. cxlvii:i3). This was probably done with a
view to the safety of the town, and to prevent hos-
tile inroads (Harmcr's Observations, vol. i. p.
188). The keys of gates, as well as of doors, were
generally of wood ; and Thevenot observes that
gates might' be opened even with the finger put
GATE
GATH
iijto the keyhole— from which Harmer elucidates
tht passage in Cant, v :4.
The gates of towns were kept open or shut ac-
cording to circumstances : in time of war they
were closed against the inroads of the enemy
(Josh. ii:s), but they were opened when the ene-
my had been conquered. On festive occasions
they were also thrown wide opcnj to which Ps.
xxiv:7 alludes. This opening of the gates, as
well as closing them, was done by means of keys.
That near the gates towers were often construct-
ed, serving for defense against attacks of the
enemy, may be inferred from Deut. iii ;5 ; 2 Sam.
xviii :24 ; Judg. ix -.3$ , comp. with verse 52. Ene-
mies, therefore, in besieging towns were most anx-
ious to obtain possession of the gates as quickly as
possible (Deut. xxviii:52; Judg. ix:40; 2 Sam. x:
8; I Kings xviitio; Job v:4; Is. xxii7; xxviii :
6) ; and generally the town was conquered when
its gates were occupied by the invading troops
(Deut. xxviii :57; Judg. v:8). In or near ihe
gates, therefore, they placed watchmen, and a suf-
ficiently strong guard, to keep an eye on the move-
ments of the enemy, and to defend the works in
case of need (Judg. xviii :i6; 2 Kings vii:3; Neh.
xiii:22).
(2) Place of Judgment. Gates are often men-
tioned in Scripture as places at which were holdcn
courts of justice, to administer the law and de-
termine points in dispute : hence fudges in the gate
are spoken of (Gen. xix:i; xxiii:io, 18; xxxiv :
60; Deut. xvi:i8; xvii:8; xxiiig; xxv:6, 7; Josh.
XX :4; Ruth iv:i; i Sam. iv:i8; 2 Sam. xviii 124 ;
xix:8; I Kings xxii:io; Job. xxix:7; Prov. xxii:
22; xxiv:7; Lam. v:i4; Amos v:i2; Zech. viii :
16). The reason of this custom is apparent; for
the gates being places of great concourse and re-
sort, the courts held at them were of easy access
to all the people ; witnesses and auditors to all
transactions were easily secured (a matter of
much importance in the absem-? or scanty use of
written documents) ; and confidence in the integ-
rity of the magistrate was ensured by the public-
ity of the proceedings. There was within the
gate a particular place, where the judges sat on
chairs, and this custom must be understood as re-
ferred to when we read that courts were held
under the gates, as may be proved from i Kings
xxii: 10; 2 Chron. xviii :9. Apart from the hold-
ing of court's of justice, the gate served tor read-
ing the law, and for proclaiming ordinances, etc.
(2 Chron. xxxii:6; Neh. viii:i, 3). We see from
Prov. xxxi :23 ; Lam. v:i4, that the inferior mag-
istrates held a court in the gates, as well as the
superior judges (Jer. x.xxviiio) ; and even kings,
at least occasionally, did the same (i Kings xxii:
10; comp. with Ps. xxvii:5). The gates at Je-
rusalem served the same purpose ; but for the
great number of its inhabitants, many places of
justice were required. Thus we find that Nehe-
miah (iii:3i) calls a particular gate of this city
the counsel-gate, or justice-gate, the gate Miphkad,
which seems to have had a preference, though not
exclusive since courts must have been held in the
other gates also.
(3) Place of Proclamations. In Palestine
gates were, moreover, the places where, sometimes
at least, the priests delivered their sacred ad-
dresses and discourses to the people ; and we find
that the prophets often proclaimed their warnings
and prophecies in the gates (Prov. i:2i; viii:3;
Is. xxix:2i ; Jer. xvii :i9, 20; xxvi :io; xxxvi :lo).
On an uproar having broken out at Jerusalem, the
heads of the people met under the New-gate (Jer.
xxix:26), where they \vere sure to find insur-
gents. The town-gates were to the ancient Orien-
tals what the coffee-houses, exchanges, markets,
and courts of law, are in our large towns : and
such is still the case in a great degree, although
the introduction of coffee-houses has in this, and
other respects, caused some alteration of Eastern
manners.
Figurative. (i) Cttfes are put figura-
tively for public places of towns and palaces.
(2) The gates of a toivn are also put instead of
tiie town itself (Gen. x.\ii:i7; xxiv:6o; Deut. xii;
12; Ps. Ixxxvii:2). (3) Ga/es of brass, and bars
of iron, import strong help and full protection;
nr impediments apparently insurmountable (Ps.
c\lvii:i3, and cvii:i6). (4) The gates of death
and of hell occur in Job. xxxviii:i7; Ps. i.K:i4;
Micah. ii:i3. Doors and gates of hell are chiefly
introduced (Prov. v:s; Is. xxxviii:io; Matt, xvi:
19) ; and the Jews go so far in their writings as
to ascribe real gates to hell (Wagenseil, Sota, p.
220). Virgil {^)i. vi. 126) also speaks of infer-
nal gates. The origin of this metaphorical ex-
pression is not difficult to explain ; for it was very
common to use the word gates as an image of
large empires (Ps. xxiv:7; and in pagan authors
the abode of departed souls is represented as the
residence of Pluto (see Virgil, ^n. vi. 417, sy.).
In the passage, then, Mati. xvi: 19, by 'gates of
heir must be understood all aggressions by the
infernal empire upon the Christian church. (5)
The gates of the river may be the bridges on it
(Nah. ii:6).
GATH (gath),(Heb. ^i.gath, a wine fat).
It was one of the five princely cities of the
Philistines, of which mention is made in Josh,
xiii :3. It was one of the cities upon which the
ark is said to have brought calamity (i Sam. v:
8, 9), and which offered in connection therewith
a trespass-offering, each one a golden emcrod (l
Sam. vi:i7). Goliath, of the family of giants
which Joshua spared (Josh. xi:22), of which oth-
er members may be found mentioned in Scripture
(i Chron. xx:5-8; 2 Sam. xxi: 19-22), has ren-
dered Gath a word familiar from our childhood;
but it is not certain whether Goliath was a native
or merely a resident of Gath (l Sam. xvii:4).
To Achish, king of Gath, David fled for fear of
Saul (i Sam. xxi:io: xxvii:2-7; Ps. Ivi). At his
own entreaty David received from Achish the city
of Ziklag. David dwelt in the country of the Phil-
istines 'a full year and four months.' It was con-
quered by David, and fortified both by him and
by Rehoboam (2 Sam. viii:i; Chron. xviii :i;
2 Chron. xi:8). From 2 Sam. xv:i8, it' appears
that David had a band (600 men) of Gittites in his
service at the time of the rebellion of Absalom.
Their devotedncss to him under Ittai their leader
forms a beautiful episode in the history of David's
varied fortune (2 Sam. xv:i9, sq.) Shimei's
visit to Gath and its fatal consequences to himself
may be read in i Kings ii :39-46. In the reign of
Solomon mention is made of a king of Gath (l
Kings iv:24), who was doubtless a tributary
prince, but powerful enough to cause apprehension
to Solomon, as appears from the punishment he
inflicted on Shimei. Under Jehoash, Hazacl, king
of Syria, took Gath (2 Kings xii:i7); from his
successor, Benhadad, the place was recovered (2
Kings xiii:24). It must, however, have soon re-
volted; for Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi:6), finding it
necessary to war against the Philistines, 'broke
down the wall of Gath.' Probably the conqiiest
was not of long duration. This constant with-
standing of the power of Jerusalem shows that
(iath was a place of great resources and high
eminence — a conclusion which is confirmed by the
gath-hepher-
GAZA
language employed by the prophets (Amos vi:
2; Micah i:io). 'Gath,' says Jerome (on Micah
i), 'is one of the five Philistine cities lying near
the confines of Judah, on the road from Eleuther-
opolis to Gaza^now it is a very large village.' On
Jer. XXV the same authority declares that Gath
was not far from Azotus, (Reland, Palast. p.
785, sq.; Porter, Handbook, p. 252; Thomson,
Land and Book, ii. 360.)
GATH-HEPHER (gath-he'pher), (Heb. with the
article 1?^'!!"'^^, ^ath-hah-khay' fer, wine press of
the well).
There was a Gath-hepher belonging to the chil-
dren of Zebulun (Josh. xix:io. sq.), the birth-
place of the prophet Jonah (2 Kings xiv:25), ly-
ing not far from Sepphoris on the road to Ti-
berias. This location corresponds with the vil-
lage of el-Meshhed or Meshhad, three miles north-
47). It is a very ancient place, as we find it men-
tioned in Gen. x:i9, where it is given as one of
the border-cities of the Canaanites. In Deut. ii:
23, it is found as the place unto which the Avitns
dwelt. Joshua smote the Canaanites as far as
Gaza (Josh. x:4i), but spared the Anakims
(giants) that dwelt there (Josh. xi:2l, 22). In
the division of the land, Gaza fell to the lot of
Judah (Josh. xv:47), and was taken by him with
the coast thereof (Judg. i:i8), but its inhabitants
were not exterminated (Judg. iii :3) Gaza was one
of the five Philistine cities which gave each a
golden emerod as a trespass-offering to the Lord
(I Sam. vi:i7). Solomon's kingdom extended
as far as Gaza (l Kings iv:24). Biit the place
appears always as a Philistine city in scripture
(Judg. iii:3; xvi:i; i Sam. vi:i7; 2 Kings xviii :
8). Hezekiah smote the Philistines as far as Gaza
(2 Kings xviii :8). Gaza fell into the hands of
^r)^^f^
T t
Gaza.
east of Nazareth. Here one of Jonah's tombs
exists, its chief rival being at the site of ancient
Nineveh. (Thomson, Land and Book, ii. 122.)
GATH-RIMMON(gath'rim'mon), (Heb.l'^l'f^i.
gath-rim-mone' , wine press of Rimmon).
1. This place lay in the territory of Dan, and
was given to the Levites (Josh. xxi:24; I Chron.
Ti:69). It was apparently not far from Joppa
(Josh. xix:4S).
2. A town of the half tribe of Manasseh, west
of the Jordan (Josh. xxi:25). V^^LVLXntx {Patiis-
tina) supposes it to be another Levite city; but
Winer (Hav.dwiirtcrbuch) . with more likelihood,
ascribes its origin to a mistake of the transcriber,
who took the word from the preceding verse.
J. R. B.
GA'ai.ANITIS (gaul'Sn-its). See Golan.
GAZA (ga'za), (Heb. ~,'^, az-zaw, stronghold).
Gaza lies on the road leading from Akabah
to Hebron, which passes along nearly the whole
length of the great Wady-el-Arabah. It is on the
seacoast, in lat. 3id. 2qin, long. 34d. 29m. (Robin-
son), in the country of the Philistines (Josh, xv :
the Egyptians, probably Pharaoh-Necho (Jer.
xlvii:i; comp. Herod. ii:i59). The prophets
speak in severe terms against it (Jer. xlvii:S;
.\mos i:6, 7; Zeph ii:4; Zech. ix:5). After the
destruction of Tyre it sustained a siege of two
months against Alexander the G'-eat (Joseph.
Antiq. xi :8, 4). Jonathan Maccabseus (i Mace.
xi:6i) destroyed its suburbs; Simon Maccabaeus
(i Mace. xiii:43) took the city itself, though
not without extraordinary efforts. Alexander Jan-
naeus spent a year in besieging it and punishing
its inhabitants (Antiq. xiii:T3. .^). The place was
rebuilt by Gabinius (Antiq. xiv:5, 3). Itwasamorig
the cities given by Augustus to Herod (Antiq.
XV :7, 3), after whose death it was united to the
province of Syria (Antiq. xvii:ll, 4).
Gaza is celebrated for the exploit recorded of
Samson (Judg. xvi:i-3), who 'took tlie doors
of llie gate of the city, and the two posts, and
went away with them, bar and all, and put them
on his shoulders, and carried tlicm up to the to|)
of a hill thnt is before Hebron.' The Philis-
tines afterwards took Samson, and put out his
eyes, and brought him to Gaza, and bound him
GAZATHITES
603
GEDALIAH
with fetters of brass, and he did grind in the pris-
on-house: he, however, pulled down the temple
of Uagon, god of the Philistines, and slew, to-
gether with himself, 'all the lords of the Philis-
tines,' besides men and women (Judg. xvi:2i-3o).
It was near Gaza — on the road from Jerusalem to
that place — that Philip baptized the eunuch 'of
great authority under Candace, queen of the Ethi-
opians' (Acts viii :26, sq.).
Gaza lay some distance from the sea (Arrian,
ii:26), though it had a port on the sea, called
'Gaza on the sea,' called also Majuma (o Moioii/iaj),
which Constantine called Constantia, from the
name of his son, giving it. at the same time,
municipal rights. Julian took away this name
and ordered it to be called the port of Gaza.
Subsequent emperors restored ihe name and the
privileges of the place. It was afterwards called
the sea-coast of Gaza. (Literature. Porter,
Handbk. of Syria and Palest, i. 262. ff. : Gage's
Transl. of Rittcr, Geog. of Palest.; Van deVelde.
Syria and Palest, ii. 179-189; ThomsCKi, Laud and
Book, ii. 331 ff.)
GAZATHITES (ga'za'h-itez), (Heb. "^1^7. /law-
az-za'LU-thce'), a designation (Josh. xiii:3) of the in-
habitants of the city of Gaza; rendered Gazites
(Judg. xvi:2).
GAZELIiE (ga-zSl'). See Antelope.
GAZER (ga'zer), (Heb. ^.J^, gaw'zer, precipice).
The same as Gezer. The emphatic Hebrew ac-
cent has been retained (2 Sam. v:25; i Chron. xiv:
161 in the A. \ ., which accounts for difference of
form.
GAZEZ (ga'zez), (Heb. '.'.J, gaw-zaze', shearer),
son of Caleb and his concubine Ephah (i Chron. ii;
46). In the same ])assage he is mentioned as the
son of Ha ran and the Ephah. The second is in
all probability only a repetition of the first (U. C.
about 1856).
GAZITES (ga'zites), (Heb. ^"^V^^, haw-az-zaw-
theeni' , Judg. xvi:2), inhabitants of Gaza. Else-
where the form is G.\z.\thites (which see).
GAZZAX (gaz'zam), (Heb. ^.Ji gaz-zawm' , de-
vouring). I-ciundcr of a family of Nethinim who
returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:48), B. C. 536.
GEBA (ge'ba), (Heb. *3?, gheh'bah, in pause
ga-ha, a hill).
It is often stated that Geba and Gibeah were
names of the same place. The two names arc in-
deed only masculine and feminine forms of the
same w'ord, signifying 'hill ;' but that they were
two different places is evident from Josh, xviii :
24; comp. J&; I Sam. xiii;2; comp. 3; Is. x ;29.
Geba belonged to the tribe of Benjamin (Josh,
xviii :24), and was assigned to the priests (Josh.
xxi;i7; comp. chap. xvi;24). The Philistines
were smitten from Geba unto Gazer by David (2
Sam. v;25); Asa rebuilt Geba and Mizpeh with
the stones of Ramah (i Kings xv;22; 2 Chron.
xvi;6). 'From Geba (in the north) to Beersheba'
(in the south) (2 Kings xxiii;8), expressed the
whole extent of the separate kingdom of Judah,
just as 'from Dan to Beersheba' expressed the
whole length of Palestine. It would seem, from
the manner in which Geba (Gaba) and Ramah
are coupled in Noh. vii :30. that they were very
near each other, but the site of Geba is now un-
known, although a village still bearing the old
name, marks the site, six miles north-northeast of
Jerusalem and iwo miles southwest of Michmash,
The form Gaba (Josh, xviii 124 and el.sewhere) is
due to the Hebrew emphasis. (See Gaba.)
GEBAIi (ge'bal), (Heb. ^}hg/ub-awr,3. line).
1- A namcoccurring in connection with Ammon
and Anielek, Moab and Edom. Gebal signifies a
mountain, and apparently belongs not to the most
ancient times, as it does not occur when the Israel-
ites were actually in this quarter, but is first found
in Ps. lxxxiii:7, which was probably written in
the time of Jehoshaphat to encourage him and the
people to resist the invasion of the Moabites, Am-
monites, and others. This would connect the
Gebal of Ezekiel xxvii :9, with (2).
2. A city of Phoenicia, between Sidon and Orth-
osia, on the Mediterranean, in the country north of
the Dead Sea and on the west of El Ghor, which
is called Gebalene by Josephus and Jerome (Ps.
Ixxxiii :7) . Gebal was called Byblos by the
Greeks, and so the Sepiuagint has it. It was an
important place, and celebrated for the birth and
worship of Adonis, the Syrian Thammuz. Pliny
and other Roman authors call it Gabale (Hist.
Nat. v. 20). The town is still standing under the
name of Jebail. It is seated on a rising ground
near the sea, at the foot of Lebanon, which here
approaches close to the coast. It became a Chris-
tian See in the patriarchate of Antioch (Reland,
Palaest. i. p. 214 ff.). (See Maundrel!, Early
Travels m Palest., by Wright, p. 494.)
GEBER (ge'ber), (Heb. 155, gheh'ber, warrior).
1, The son of Uri, governor of Gilead, in the
reign of Solomon (i Kings iv:l9), B. C. 1013.
2. Son of Geber, who had charge of theHavoth-
Jair, and the district of Argob (i Kings iv;i3).
These are taken by some to be the same persons.
GEBIM (ge'bim),(Heb. 2'?5,.f<7)'-fe^///'),springs,
cisterns; in Is. xxxiii:4, "locusts;" in Jer. xiv:3,
"pits."
.A. village north of Jerusalem, apparently be-
tween Anathoth, the modern Anata, and Nob. It
is one of the places from which the inhabitants
fled on the approach of Sennacherib (Is. x;3i).
Exact site unknown.
GECKO (gek'6), the rendering of the Hebrew
'~It?^, an-aiv-kaw' , a ceremonially unclean animal
which the Hebrews classed with crecpinc thines
(Lev. xi:30,R.V.) *" ^
The gecko is a wall lizard. It has white spots
on its back ; and it emits a plaintive wail, whence
the Hebrew name. The common gecko or fan-
foot (Ptyodactylus geeko) is very common in Pal-
estine. It frequents houses, running over the
walls and ceiling. It is able to do this by reason
of the peculiar construction of its toes, which
are provided with plates under which a
vacuum is created when the animal walks, thus
causing ii to adhere. (Davis, Bib. Diet.)
GEDALIAH (ged'a-li'ah). (Heb. '~;'?1i:, ghed-al-
yaiu' , made great by Jehovah).
1. The son of Ahikam, and appointed by Neb-
uchadnezzar, governor of Judea, after the de-
struction of Jerusalem. He was probably of the
number of those who quitted the city at the in-
stance of the prophet, justly despairing of the suc-
cessful defense of a place which God had aban-
doned. Gcdaliah had inherited his father's respect
for Jeremiah (Jer. xl ;5. sq.) . and was moreover
enjoined by Nebuzaradan to look to his safety and
welfare. He established the seat of his melan-
choly government at Mizpah in the tribe of Ben-
jamin; and there the Jews, who had fled at the
advance of the Chalda;an armies, or when the
troops of Zedckiah were dispersed in the plains
of Jericho, quitting their retreats, began to gather
GEDEON
694
GEHENNA
around him. Gedaliah wisely counseled them to
submission and quietness ; and he promised on
thai condition to ensure them the undisturbed en-
joyment of their possessions, and of the produce
of the ground. In this hope the labors of the field
were resumed, and the extraordinary returns of
that season seemed as if specially given to re-
pair the recent injuries of war. But this
calm was of short duration. Among those
who returned was a member of the royal family,
named Ishmael, who had taken refuge with
Baalis, king of the Ammonites. He appears to
have been irritated at seeing one who was not
of the house of David seated upon even the shad-
ow of David's throne ; and some of the friends
of Gedaliah believed him to be in a plot with
Baalis to take away his life. But the noble-mind-
ed governor refused to entertain such a suspicion,
and rejected with horror the proposal of an o\er-
zealous friend, who offered to assassinate Ish-
mael. The suspicion which he thus generously re-
pelled was, however, correct. He was murdered
in the midst of a repast by this very Ishmael,
whom he had received as a friend. This event
happened about two months after the destruction
of Jerusalem, and by it the present ruin of Judea
seemed to be consummated (B. C. 588) (2 Kings
xxv:22-26; Jer. xxxix:i4; xl:s; xH:i8).
2. Son of Amariah, and grandfather of the
prophet' Zephaniah (Zeph. i:i). (B. C. before
63s.)
3. One of the six sons of Jeduthun, the Levite,
who played a harp in the temple service (i Chron.
xxv:3, 9). (B. C. 1013).
4. A priest of the time of Ezra (Ezra x:i8).
(B. C. 458.)
5. One of those who conspired to imprison Jere-
miah (Jer. xxxviii;i). (B. C. 589.)
GEDEON (ged'e-on), (Gr. Vebeiiv, ghed-e/i-civn').
This is the (ireek form of Gideon (Heb. xi:32).
(See Gideon.)
GEDER (ge'der), (Yi.eh.'Q^.,gJich'der).
This word signifies a wall, enclosure, or forti-
fied place. Geder itself was the name of an an-
cient town of the Canaanites, in the plain country
of Judah (Josh. xii:i3), whose king was one of
the thirty-one conquered by Joshua, west of the
Jordan. It may be the same as Gedor (i Chron.
iv:39).
GEDEKAH (ge-de'rah or ged'e-rah), (Heb.
T^'h ghed-ay-raw' , sheep-cote), a city of Judah
with a Phoenician title. It is the feminine form
of Geder (Josh. xii:l3) and its plural is Gederoth
(xv;4l).
GEDERATHITE, THE (ged'e-rath-ite, the),
(Heb. '^'^r-i hag-ghed-ay-raw-thee'), the desig-
nation of Josabad ( I Chron. xii:4). He could not
have been a native of the Gederah in the lowlands
of Judah, for he was of Saul's own tribe (l Chron.
xii:2).
GEDEKITE, THE (ge'de-rite or ged'e-rrte),
(Heb. ^"t-, hag-ghed-ay-ree'). Baal-hanan, who
had charge of the olive and sycamore groves of
the low country of Judah for David, was thus
called (l Chron. xxvii:28). He perhaps belonged
to Gederah mentioned (Josh. xv:36).
GEDEROTH (ge-de'roth or ged'e-roth), (Heb.
^""^ii, ghcd-ay-roth' , fortresses), a city in the plain
country of Judah (Josh. xv:4i), and one of those
which the Philistines took from King Ahaz
(aChron. xxviii'iS). Its site, or that of Gederah,
is commonly fixed at Katrah, called in i Mace.
xv:39 Kidron, in the maritime plain about four
miles southwest by south of Ekron.
^G^EDEROTHAIM (ged'e-ro-tha'im), ( Heb.
"•- '"'-t, ghed-ay-ro-thah' yim, double wall), a town
in the low country of Judah named next to Gede-
rah (Josh. xv:36).
GEDOR (ge'dor), (Heb. '^^'<k, ghed-ore' ,a. wall).
1. An ancient city in the mountains of Judah
(Josh. xv:58), a few miles north of Hebron.
Robinson identifies it with/(?^/«Y (iii:283).
2. Apparently a town of Benjamin, the native
place of Joelah and Zebadiah, who came to Da-
vid at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:/).
3. Son of Jehiel and an ancestor of Saul (i
Chron. viii :3i ; ix :37). (B. C. about 536.)
4. A name occurring twice in the genealogies of
Judah (i Chron. iv:4, 18).
5. A city apparently in the south of the moun-
tains of Judah, surrounded by fat pastures, and
formerly occupied by the Amalekites (i Chron.
iv:39)-
GEHAZI (ge-ha'zi), (Heb. ^)^r^., gay-khah-zee',
valley of vision).
The servant of Elisha, whose entire confidence
he enjoyed. His history is involved in that of
his master (see Elisha). He personally appears
in reminding his master of the best mode of re-
warding the kindness of the Shunamite (2 Kings
iv:i4). He was present at the interview in which
the Shunamite made known to the prophet that
her son was dead, and was sent forward to lay
Elisha's staff on the child's face, which he did
without eflfect (2 Kings iv:3i). (B. C. about
887). The most remarkable incident in his career
is that which caused his ruin. When Elisha, with
a noble disinterestedness, declined the rich gift's
pressed upon him by the illustrious leper whom
he had healed, Gehazi felt distressed that so favor-
able an opportunity of profiting by the gratitude
of Naaman had been so wilfully thrown away.
He therefore ran after the retiring chariots, and
requested, in his master's name, a portion of the
gifts which had before been refused, on the ground
that visitors had just arrived for whom he was
unable to provide. He asked a talent of silver
and two dresses; and the grateful Syrian made
him take two talents instead of one. Having de-
posited this spoil in a place of safety, he again ap-
peared before Elisha, whose honor he had so se-
riously compromised. His master asked him
where he had been? and on his answering, 'Thy
servant went no whither,' the prophet put on the
severities of a judge, and having denounced his
crime, passed upon him the terrible doom, that
the leprosy of which Naaman had been cured,
should cleave to him and his forever. 'And he
went forth from his presence a leper as white as
snow' (2 Kings v:2o-27). (B. C. 894.)
We afterwards find Gehazi recounting to king
Joram the great deeds of Elisha, and, in the provi-
dence of God, it so happened that when he was
relating the restoration to life of the Shunamite's
son, the very woman with her son appeared before
the king to claim her house and lands, which had
been usurped while she had been absent abroad
during the recent famine. Struck by the coinci-
dence, the king immediately granted her applica-
tion (2 Kings viii:l-6).
GEHENNA (ge-h6n'na), (Gr. VUvm, gheh'en-
nah, for the Heb. 0^'?, hin-nome', the Valley of
Hinnom). See Hinnom.
GELILOTH
695
GENEALOGY
OELILOTH (gen-loth), (Heb. '^"^'??, ghel-ee-
lowth' , circles), one of the marks of the south
boundary of the tribe of Benjamin (Josh. xviii:i7).
In the description of the north boundary of
Judah at this point Gilgal is substituted for Geli-
loth (Josh. XV 7). As Geliloth does not appear
again, it is likely that Gilgal is the right reading.
The word, however, is used in a topographical
sense (Josh. xiii:2; xxii:io, ii; Joel iii 14) for
"borders," "coast," which may be the sense here
(Stanley S. and P., 1st ed. Appendix, sec. 13).
GEMALLI (ge-mai'li), (Heb. "'^'??, ghem-al-lee,
camel driver), father of Ammicl, the "ruler" of
Dan, who was among the spies chosen to explore
the land of Canaan (Num. xiii:l2), B. C. before
I20g.
GEItABA (ge-ma'ra). See Talmud.
GEMAMAH (gem'a-ri'ah), (Heb. '''*1^|, ghem-
ar-yaiv' , God-perfected).
1. The son of Shaphan, and a scribe of the tem-
ple in the time of Jehoiakim. Baruch read aloud
the prophecies of Jeremiah to the people at the
official chamber of Gemariah, which was attached
to the new gate of the temple built by King Jotham
(Jer. xxxvi:io; comp. 2 Kings xv:35). Gema-
riah's son Michaiah having reported this to his
father, Baruch was invited to repeat the reading
at the scribes' chamber in the palace, before Gema-
riah and other scribes and councillors, who gave
an account of the matter to the king (Jer. xxxvi:
10-26). (B. C. 607.)
2. The son of Hilkiah, who, with Elasah, son
of Shaphan, was sent to Babylon by king Zede-
kiah with his tribute-money for Nebuchadnezzar.
He also took charge of a letter from Jeremiah to
the Jewish captives at Babylon, warning them
against the false prophets who deluded them by
promises of a speedy return to their own land
(Jer. xxix:3, 4). (B. C. 599-)
GEMS. See Amethyst; Ruby; Sapphire; etc.
GENEALOGY (jSn's-ai'o-jJf), (from the Greek
■y<waXo7io, tracing a family, compounded of 7/w)5,
race, and X670S, discourse), signifies a list of ances-
tors set down both in their direct and collateral
order.
(1) Care of Records. We read of no nation
which was more careful to frame and preserve
its genealogical tables than Israel. Their sacred
writings contain genealogies which extend through
a period of more than 3,500 years, from the crea-
tion of Adam to the captivity of Judah. Indeed,
we find from the books of Ezra and Nehemiah
that the same care in this matter was observed
afier the captivity ; for in Ezra ii 162 it is expressly
stated that some who had come up from Babylon
had sought their register among those that were
reckoned by genealogy, but were not found ; there-
fore were they, as polluted, removed from the
priesthood. The division of the whole Hebrew
nation into tribes, and the allotment to each tribe
of a specified portion of the land of Canaan as
an inalienable possession, rendered it indispensa-
ble that they should keep genealogical tables. God
had, however, a still higher object than that of
giving stability to property in Israel, in leading
successive generations of His people thus to keep
an accurate list of their ancestry. That they
should do this was especially required from the
moment that the voice of prophecy declared that
the promised Messiah should be of the seed of
Abraham, of the posterity of Isaac, of the sons of
Jacob, of the tribe of Judah, and of the family
of David.
The Rabbins affirm that after the Captivity the
Jews were most careful in keeping their pedigrees
{Babyl. Gemar. Gloss, fol. xiv:3). Josephus
{De Vita sua, p. 998, D) states that he traced his
own descent from the tribe of Levi by public
registers. And he informs us that, however dis-
persed and depressed his nation were, they never
neglected to have exact genealogical tables pre-
pared from the authentic documents which were
kept at Jerusalem ; and that in all their suffer-
ings they were particularly careful to preserve
those tables, and to have them renewed from time
to time. Since, however, the period of their de-
struction as a nation by the Romans, all their
tables of descent seem to be lost, and now they
are utterly unable to trace the pedigree of any
one Israelite who might lay claim to be their
promised, and still expected, Messiah. Hence
Christians assert, with a force that no reasonable
and candid Jew can resist, that Shiloh must have
come.
We find traces of the existence of the public
tables of descent, to which Josephus refers, in the
New Testament : the taxation spoken of by St.
Luke ii :2 3, would clearly indicate this ; for how
could each one be able to go to his own city, un-
less he knew the specific tribe to which he be-
longed? Hence it was, we think, that St. Paul
was able with confidence to appeal to the He-
brews concerning the lineage of Christ; 'for it in
evident,' says he, 'that our Lord sprung out of
Judah' (Heb. vii:i4; 2 Tim. ii:8). To evince this
beyond reasonable doubt, it pleased God to give
us by his inspired servants, St. Matthew and St.
Luke, the following genealogies :
1 Abraham..
2 Isaac
3 Jacob
4 Judas
5 Phares . . .
6 Esrom. . . .
7 Aram.
Matthew i:2-i6.
1 Solomon I Jechonias, t. e., Jehoiachin.
2 Roboam 2 Salathiel.
3 Abia 3 Zorobabel.
4 Asa 4 Abiud.
5 Josaphat 5 Eliakim.
6 Joram 6 Azor.
7 Ozias 7 Sadoc.
8 Aminadab 8 Joatham 8 Achim.
9 Naasson g Achaz 9 Eliud.
10 Salmon 10 Ezekias lo Eleazar.
11 Booz II Manasses 11 Matthan.
12 Obod 12 Amon 12 Jacob.
13 Jesse 13 Josias 13 Joseph, the husband of Mary
14 David j '^ ^^ElUktm '' '" ^^''°''''' "" "^ j '4 Jesus.
GENEALOGY
696
GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST
God.
1 Adam. .
2 Seth
3 Enos.. .
4 Cainan .
Luke 111:23-38.
5 Maleleel 5
Thara
Abraham. .
Isaac
Jacob
Juda
Phares. . . .
Esrom ....
Aram
Aminadab.
Naasson. . .
Salmon
Booz
Obed
Jesse
David
Nathan
Mattatha . .
Menan . . . .
Melea
6 Jared 6
7 Enoch 7
8 Mathusala 8
9 Lamech 9
10 Noe 10
11 Sem II
12 Arphaxad 12
13 Caman 13
14 Sala 14
15 Heber 15
16 Phalec 16
17 Ragau 17
18 Saruch 18
19 Nachor 19
(2) Genealogy of Christ.
We do not find that there was any objection
made to these genealogies, either by Jew or Gen-
tile, during the first century. Had any difficulty
on this head existed, we may reasonably suppose
that the Jews, of all others, would have been but
too ready to detect and expose it. We may there-
fore fairly conclude that, whatever difficulty meets
us now in harmonizing our Lord's pedigree as given
by the two Evangelists, it could have had no place
in the first age uf the Christian church.
(3) Objections. In subsequent ages, however,
objections were and still are made to the geneal-
ogies of Matthew and Luke. The chief ground of
objection is the alleged inconsistency of the Evan-
gelists with each other. The first solution of these
apparent discrepancies is that of Africanus, which,
he informs us (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. i. 7), he re-
ceived from the relatives of our Lord, who, be-
cause of their consanguinity to him, were called
des-pos'vo-noi, belonging to the Master. It is to
the effect that Matihan, the third in the list from
Joseph, in Matthew's genealogy, and Melchi, the
third in Luke's list, married successively the same
woman, by whom the former begat Jacob, and the
latter Heli. Heli dying without issue, his ma-
ternal brother took his widow to wife, by whom
he had Joseph, who, according to law (Deut. xxv :
6), was registered by Luke as the son of Heli,
though naturally the son of Jacob as Matthew
records him. This is tbe explanation which was
generally admitted by Eusebius, Nazianzen, the
writer of Ad orthodoxos, and others, for ages.
Grotius, however, availing himself of the tra-
dition that Heli and Jacob were both sons of the
same mother, but of different fathers (Matthan
and Melchi), supposes that Luke traces the nat-
ural pedigree of Christ, and Matthew the legal.
This he argues on two grounds. First, that Sala-
thiel could not have been the natural son of
Jechonias, who was childless — according to the
declaration of God by Jeremiah (xxii:3o) — and
was, therefore, as Luke states, the son, properly so
called, of Ncri, of Nathan's line; and, secondly,
that the Lcvirate law imposed no necessity on
Jacob to marry Heli's widow they being only
uterine brothers. But both the reasons assigned
by Grotius for differing from the solution of
Africanus would seem to be founded on a petitio
principii. It does not appear an ascertained fact
that Salathicl was not the natural sonof Jechonias,
nor yet that the law which obliged a man to marry
the widow of his deceased brother might be de-
parted from when they were only maternal breih-
ren; for even in cases of distant relationship the
Eliakim i Joanna.
Jonan 2 Juda.
Joseph 3 Joseph.
Juda 4 Semei.
Simeon 5 Mattathias.
Levi 0 Maath.
Matthat 7 Nagge.
8 Jorim 8 Esh.
9 Eliezer 9 Naum.
Jose 10 Amos.
Er II Mattathias,
Elmodan 12 Joseph.
Cosam 13 Janna.
Addi 14 Melchi.
15 Melchi 15 Levi.
16 Neri 16 Matthat.
17 Salathiel 17 Heli.
18 Zorobabel 18 Joseph.
19 Rhesa 19 Jesus.
law seemed obligatory, as we see in the case of
Boaz marrying Ruth, the widow of his distant
kinsman.
Dr. Barrett objects to the above theory as given
by Africanus and altered by Grotius, on the
ground principally, that it refers entirely to the
descent of Joseph from David without attempting
to prove that the son of Mary was the son of
David. Dr. Barrett then states his own hypothe-
sis, viz., that Matthew relates the genealogy of
Joseph, and Luke that of Mary. He supposes a
sufficient reason, that after Matthew had given his
genealogical table another should be added by
St. Luke, fully to prove that Christ, according
to the flesh, derived his descent from David, not
only by his supposed father Joseph, but also by his
real mother Mary.
(4) Beckoned Only by Males. In construct-
ing their genealogical tables, it is well known
that the Jews reckoned wholly by males, rejecting,
where the blood of the grandfather passed to the
grandson through a daughter, the name of the
daughter herself, and counting that daughter's hus-
band for the sonof the maternal grandfather (Num.
xxvi :33 ; xxvii:4-7). On this principle Joseph,
begotten by Jacob, marries Mary, the daughter
of Heli ; and in the genealogical register of his
wife's family, is counted for Heli's son. Salathiel,
begotten by Jeconiah, marries the daughter of
Neri, and, in like manner, is accounted his son:
in Zorobabel, the offspring of Salathiel and Neri's
daughter, the lines of Solomon and Nathan co-
alesce ; Joseph and Mary are of the same tribe and
family ; they are both descendants of David in the
line of Solomon ; they have in them both the blood
of Nathan, David's son, Joseph deduces his de-
scent from Abiud (Matt. i:i3), Mary from Rhesa
(Luke iii :27) sons of Zorobabel. The genealo-
gies of Matthew and Luke are parts of one perfect
whole, and each of them is essential to the ex-
planation of the other. By Matthew's table we
prove the descent of Mary, as well as Joseph,
from Solomon ; by Luke's we see the descent of
Joseph, as well as Mary, from Nathan. (See
Chronology.)
(5) Iiiterature. Yardley, On the Geneal. of
Jesus Christ; Dr. Mill, Vindication of the Geneal.
For the genealogy of the ancient Hebrews see Au-
berlen, Gottlich Offeiibarung ; ein Apologetischer
Versuch. (Trans, in the Bibl. Sacra. 1865, pp.
395-405.) J. W. D.
GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST. See
Genealogy (2); Chronology, New Testa-
ment; Jesus.
GENERALLY
697
GENESIS
OENEBALLY (jen'er-rtl-lj;), (Heb. ri, kole).
The adverb "generally' means (i) universally
in every place, Jer. xlviii -.38 'There shall be lam-
entation generally upon all the housetops of
Moab' ('""?, lit. 'all of it' (see Driver on 2 Sam.
iiip; R. V. 'everywhere'). Cf. Art. -XVII. (XXX/X.
Articles). 'Furthermore, we must receive God's
promises in suchwi^e, as they be generally set
forth to us in Holy Scripture" («/ nobis in siuris
Uteris generaliter propositce sunt); Hooker, Eccl.
Polity, V. Iv. I, 'God in Christ is generally the
medicine, which doth cure the world;' Prayer
Book, Catechism, 'How many Sacraments hath
Christ ordained in his Cliurch? Two only, as gen-
erally necessary to salvation;' and Chaucer Troilus
and Criseyde, i;86—
'The noyse up roos, whan it was first aspyed.
Through al ihe toun, and generally was spoken,
That Calkas traytor fled was, and allyed
With hem of Grece.'
OENEBATIOIi (jen'er-a'shun). (Heb. •I^'^'^.
to-led-aw' ; Or. yivtai^, g/iC7i'es-is, birth, nativity;
Or. yivvnua, ghen'nay-mah, offspring; Heb. 1''l'^,
dore ; Gr. -yevei., g/ien-e/i-ah' , period).
1. Considerable obscurity attends the use of this
word in the English Version, which arises from
the translators having merged the various mean-
ings of the same original word, and even of sev-
eral different words, in one common term, 'gen-
eration, instead of bringing out the abstract and
concrete ideas of the word. The following in-
stances seem to require the original words to
be understood in some or other of their deriva-
tive senses — (Gen. ii:4), 'These are the genera-
tions,' toleda-w (V'ulg. generationes), rather 'origin,'
'history,' etc. The same Greek words (Matt. i:i),
are rendered 'genealogy,' etc., by recent transla-
tors: Campbell has "lineage' (Gen. v:i), 'The
book of the generations' is properly a family reg-
ister, a history of Adam.
The same words (Gen. xxxvii:2), mean a his-
tory of Jacob and his descendants: so also (Gen.
vi:9; x:l), and elsewhere. (Gen. vii:i), 'In this
generation' is evidently 'in this age." (Gen. xv:6).
'In the fourth generation' is an instanceof the word
in its concrete sense. ( Ps.xli.x :it)), 'Thegeneration
of his fathers' Gesenius renders "the dicelting of his
fathers,' .1 e., the grave, and adduces (Is. xx.\viii:
12; Ps. lxxiii:is), 'The generation of thy chil-
dren' is 'class,' 'order,' 'description;' as in Prov.
xxx:li, 12, 13, 14. Is. liii:8, 'Who shall declare
his generation?' is rendered, "Who can describe
his length of life?" (Seiler), or "who of his con-
temporaries reflected?" (Gesenius and Rosenmiil-
Icr).
In the New Testament, IVIatt. i.iy, yeveal, gen-
erations is a series of persons, that is a succession
from the same stock. The passage in Matt, iii :
7, is well rendered by Doddridge and others
'brood of vipers.' Matt xxiv :34, v ^ewA oCttj,
means the generation or persons then living con-
temporary with Christ (see Macknight's Har-
mony for an illustration of this sense.) (Luke
xvi:8), 'in their generations,' etc., wiser in re-
gard to their dealings with the men of their gen-
eration. Rosenmiiller gives, inter se. The pas-
sage found in i Pet. ii:9, is a 'chosen people,' quo
ted froin the Sept. Version of Is. xliii :20. The an-
cient Greeks, and, if we may credit Herodotus
and Diodorus Siculus, the Egyptians also, as-
signed a certain period to a generation. The
Greeks reckoned three generations for every hun-
dred years. This is nearlv the present computa-
tion. The ancient Hebrews also reckoned by the
generation, and assrgned diflFerent' spaces of time
to it at different periods of their history. In the
time of Abraham it was one hundred years
icomp. Gen. xv:i6, 'in the fourth generation they
shall come hither'). This is explained in verse
13, and in Exod. xii :40, to be four hundred years.
Caleb was fourth in descent from Judah, and
Moses and Aaron were fourth from Levi. In
Deut. i .35 ; ii 114). Moses uses the term for thirty-
eight years. In later times (Baruch vi., in the
Epistle of Jeremiah, verse 2) ytnii, generation,
clearly means ten years. In Matt. i:l7, it means a
single descent from father to son. (See Gene-
alogy.) J. F. D.
2. (Gr.y^i/initia, ghen'nay-mah, Luke iii:7), pro-
geny, offspring, brood. "O generation of vipers."
GENESIS (jen'e-sls), (Sept. VtK<n\, ghen'es-is,
beginning), the first book of the Pentateuch, is, in
Hebrew, called J^""'?**'?.?, ber-ee-sheeth' , from the
word with which it begins.
This venerable monument, with which the sa-
cred literature of the Hebrews commences, and
which forms its real basis, is divided into two
main parts ; one universal, and one special. The
most ancient history of the whole human race is
contained in chapters i-xi., and the history of
Israel's ancestors, the patriarchs, in chapters xii-1.
These two parts are, however, so intimately con-
nected with each other that it would be erroneous
to ascribe to the first merely the aim of furnishing
a universal history. The chief aim which per-
vades the whole is to show how the theocratic in-
stitution subsequently founded by Moses was ren-
dered possible and necessary. The book, there-
fore, takes its starting-point from the original
unity of the human race, and their original rela-
tion to God, and proceeds thence to the interrup-
tion of that relation by the appearance of sin,
which gradually and progressively wrought an ex-
ternal and internal division in the human race
for want of the principles of divine life which
originally dwelt in man in general, but which had
subsequently been preserved only among a small
and separate race — a race which in progress of time
became more and more isolated from all the other
tribes of the earth, and enjoyed for a series of
generations the special care, blessing, and guid-
ance of the Lord. The Mosaical theocracy ap-
pears, therefore, by the general tenor of Genesis.
partly as a restoration of the original relation to
God, of the communion of man with God, and
partly as an institution which had been prepar-
ing by God himself through a long series of
manifestations of his power, justice, and love.
Genesis thus furnishes us with the primary view
and notion of the whole of the theocracy, and
may therefore be considered as the historical
foundation without which the subsequent history
of the covenant people would be incomplete and
unintelligible.
1. Unity and Authenticity. The unity and
composition of the work, which is a point in dis-
ptite among the critics in regard to all the books
of the Pentateuch, have been particularly ques-
tioned in the case of Genesis.
(1) Objections. Some suppose that Genesis is
founded on two principal original documents, dis-
tinguished by the terms Elohim and Jehovah, the
names which they respectively give to God. That
of Elohim is closely connected in its pan's, and
forms a whole, while that of Jehovah is a mere
complementary document, supplying details at
those points where the former is abrupt and de-
ficient, etc. These two documents are said to
have been subsequently combined by the hand of
GENESIS
GENESIS
an editor, so ably as often to render their separa-
tion difficult, if not altogether impossible.
But Ranke, Hengstenberg, Drechsler, Haver-
nick, and others, maintain that Genesis is a book
closely connected in all its parts, and composed
by only one author, while the use of the two dif-
ferent names of God is not owing to two different
sources on which Genesis is founded, but solely lo
the different significations of these two names.
The use of each of the two names, Jehovah and
Elohim, is everywhere in Genesis adapted to the
sense of the passages in which the writer has pur-
posely inserted the one name or the other. This
point of view is the more to be considered, as it
is the peculiar object of the author to point out in
Genesis the gradual and progressive development
of the divine revelations.
The opponents have in vain attempted to dis-
cover in Genesis a few contradictions indicative
of different documents in it ; their very admission,
that a fixed plan and able compilation visibly per-
vade the whole of the book, is in itself a refuta-
tion of such supposed contradictions, since it is
hardly to be conceived, that an editor or compiler
who has shown so much skill and anxiety to give
unity to the book should have cared so little about
the removal of those contradictions. The whole
of Genesis is pervaded by such a freedom in the
selection and treatment of the existing traditions,
such an absence of all trace of any previous source
or documents which might in some measure have
confined the writer within certain limits of views
and expressions, as to render it quite impractica-
ble to separate and fix upon them specifically,
even if there were portions in Genesis drawn from
earlier written documents.
(2) Authorship and Date. That first ques-
tion concerning the unity of the book is closely
connected with another question, respecting its
authenticity, or whether Moses was the author of
Genesis. We confine ourselves here to only a few
remarks on the authenticity of Genesis in particu-
lar, and refer the reader for further informa-
tion to the article Pentateuch.
Some critics have attempted to ascertain the pe-
riod when Genesis was composed, from a few
passages in it, which they say must be anachron-
isms, if Moses was really the author of the book
(see, for example, Tuch, Commentar iiber Genesis,
p. Ixxxv. sq.).
Among such passages are, in particular. Gen.
xii:6; xiii:7; 'And the Canaanile was then in the
land.' This remark, they say, could only have
been made by a writer who lived in Palestine
after the extirpation of the Canaanites.
But the sense of the passage is not that the Ca-
naanites had not as yet been extirpated, but mere-
ly that Abraham, on his arrival in Canaan, had
already found there the Canaanites. This notice
was necessary, since the author subsequently de-
scribes the intercourse between Abrahain and the
Canaanites, the lords of the country. According
to the explanation given to the passage by the op-
ponents, such an observation would be quite a
superfluous triviality.
Also the name Hebron (Gen. xiii:i8; xxiii:2),
they say, was not introduced till after the time
of Moses (Josh. xiv:is; xv:i3). This, however,
does not' prove anything, since Hebron was the
original Hebrew name for the place, which was
subsequently changed into Arba (by a man of
that name), but was restored by the Israelites on
their entrance into Canaan.
The opponents also maintain that the name of
the place Dan (Gen. xiv:i4) was given only in
the post-Mosaical period (Josh. xix;47; Judg.
xviii:29). But the last two passages speak of
quite a different place. There were two places
called Dan; Dan-/oaK (2 Sam. xxiv:6), and Dan-
Laish, or Leshem.
In Genesis, they further add, frequently oc-
curs the name Bethel (xii:8; xxviiiiip; xxxv :
15) ; while even in the time of Joshua, the place
was as yet called Luz (Josh. xviii:i3). But the
name Bethel was not first given to the place by the
Israelites in the time of Joshua, there being no
occasion for it, since Bethel was the old patri-
archal name, which the Israelites restored in the
place of Luz, a name given by the Canaanites.
Another passage in Genesis (xxxvi:3i), 'Be-
fore there reigned any king over the children of
Israel,' is likewise supposed to have been writ-
ten at a period when the Jews had already a
king over them. But the broachers of these ob-
jections forget that this passage refers to those
promises contained in the Pentateuch in general,
and in Genesis in particular (comp. Gen. x.xxv:
n), that there should hereafter be kings among
the Israelites as an independent nation. In com-
paring Israel with Edom (Gen. xxxvi), the sacred
writer cannot refrain from observing that Edom,
though left without Divine promises of possessing
kings, nevertheless possessed them, and obtained
the glory of an independent kingdom, long before
Israel could think of such an independence; and
a little attention to the sense of the passage will
show how admirably the observation suits a writer
in the Mosaical period.
The passage (Gen. xv:i8) where the land of
Israel is described as extending from the river
of Egypt (the Nile) to the great river (Euphrates),
it is alleged, could only have been penned during
the splendid period of the Jews, the times of Da-
vid and Solomon. Literally taken, however, the
remark is inapplicable to any period, since the
kingdom of the Jews at no period of their history
extended so far. That promise must, therefore,
be taken in a rhetorical sense, describing the cen-
tral point of the proper country as situated be-
tween the two rivers.
2. Historical Character. In its historical
character Coiesis is a book consisting of two con-
trasting parts.
(1) The Creation. The first part introduces
us into the greatest problems of the human mind,
such as the Creation and the fall of man; and the
second, into the quiet solitude of a small defined
circle of families. In the former, the most sub-
lime and wonderful events are described with
childlike simplicity; while, in the latter, on the
contrary, the most simple and common occur-
rences are interwoven with the sublimest thoughts
and reflections, rendering the small family circle
a whole world in history, and the principal actors
in it' prototypes for a whole nation, and for all
times. The contents in general are strictly re-
ligious. Not the least trace of mythology ap-
pears in it. It is true that the narrations are
fraught with wonders. But primeval wonders,
the marvelous deeds of God, are the very subject
of Genesis. None of these wonders, however,
bear a fantastical impress, and there is no use-
less prodigality of them. They are all penetrated
and connected by one common leading idea, and
are all related to the counsel of God for the sal-
vation of man. This principle sheds its lustrous
beams through the whole of Genesis ; therefore
the wonders therein related are as little to be
ascribed to the invention and imagination of man
as the whole plan of Gnd for human salvation.
The foundation of the Divine theocratical insti-
tution throws a strong light upon the early patri-
GENESIS
699
GENTILES
archal times; ilie reality of the one proves the
reality of the other, as described in Genesis.
(2) Biblical Cosmogony. The separate ac-
counts in Genesis also manifest great internal evi-
dence of truth if we closely examine them. They
bear on their front the most beautiful impress of
truth. The cosmogony in Genesis stands un-
equaled among all others known in the ancient
world. (See Cosmogony.) No mythology, no
ancient philosophy, has ever come up to the idea
of a creation out of nothing. All the ancient sys-
tems end in Pantheism, Materialism, emanation-
theory, etc. But the Biblical cosmogony occupies
a place of its own, and therefore must not be
ranked among, or confounded with, any of the
ancient systems of mythology or philosophy. The
mythological and philosophical cosmogonies may
have been derived from the Biblical, as being later
depravations and misrepresentations of Biblical
truth ; but the contents of Genesis cannot, vice
versd, have been derived from mythology or phil-
osophy. (See Babylonian Creation Story, Baby-
lonia, i6.)
(3) Fall of Man. The historical delineation
also of the Creation and of the fall of man does
not bear the least national interest or coloring,
but is of a truly universal nature, while every
mythus bears the stamp of the national features
of the nation and country where it originated and
found development. All myths are subject to
continual development and variations, but among
the Hebrews the accounts in Genesis stand firm
and immutable for all times, without the least
thing being added or altered in them for the pur-
pose of further development, even by the New
Testament. What a solid guarantee must there be
in this foundation of all subsequent revelations,
since it has been admitted and maintained by all
generations with such immovable firmness !
The ancient heathen traditions coincide in many
points with the Biblical accounts, and serve to
illustrate and confirm them. This is especially
the case in the ancient traditions concerning the
Deluge (Gen. vi:9), and in the list of nations in
the tenth chapter; for instance (Gen. x:4), Tar-
shish is called the son of Javan. This indicates
that the ancient inhabitants of Tarshish or Tar-
tessus in Spain were erroneously considered to he
a Phoenician colony like those of other towns in
its neighborhood, and that they sprang from Ja-
van, that is, Greece. That they were of Greek
origin is clear from the account of Herodotus (i.
163). Also (verse 8), Nimrod, the ruler of Babel,
is called the son of Cush, which is in remarkable
unison with the mythological tales concerning Bel
and his Egyptian descent (comp. Diodor. Sic.
i. 28, 81; Pausan, iv:23-5). Sidon alone is men-
tioned (verse 15), but not Tynis (comp. .xlix:i3),
which arose only in the time of Joshua (Josh.
xix :29) ; and that Sidon was an older town than
Tyrus, by which it was afterwards eclipsed, it
certified by a number of ancient reports (comp.
Hengstenberg, De Rebus Tyriorum, pp. 6, 7).
(See Fall OF Man.)
(4) Patriarchal History. With the patriarchal
history (xii. sq.) begins an historical sketch of
a peculiar character. The circumstantial details
in it allow us to examine more closely the his-
torical character of these accounts. The numer-
ous descriptions of the mode of life in those days
furnish us with a very vivid picture. We meet
everywhere a sublime simplicity quite worthy of
patriarchal life, and never to be found again in
later history. One cannot suppose that it would
have been possible in a later period, estranged
from ancient simplicity, to invent such a pic-
ture.
(5) Fidelity of Author. The authenticity of
the patriarchal history and the fidelity of the au-
thor everywhere exhibits itself. Neither the blem-
ishes in the history of Abraham, nor (he gross
sins of the sons of Jacob, among whom even Levi,
the progenitor of the sacerdotal race, forms no ex-
ception, are concealed.
The same author, whose moral principles are so
much blamed by the opponents of Genesis, on ac-
count of the description given of the life of Jacob,
produces, in the history of Abraham, a picture
of moral greatness which could have originated
only in facts.
The faithfulness of the author manifests itself
also especially in the description of the expedition
of the kings from Upper to Western Asia; in
his statements concerning the person of Melchiz-
edek (Gen. xiv) ; in the circumstantial details
given of the incidents occurring at the purchase
of the hereditary burial-place (ch. xxiii) ; in the
genealogies of Arabian tribes (ch. xxv) ; in
the genealogy of Edom (ch. xxxvi) ; and in
many remarkable details which are interwoven
with the general accounts. In the history of Jo-
seph the patriarchal history comes into contact
with Egypt ; and here the accounts given by an-
cient classical writers, as well as the monuments
of Egypt, frequently furnish some splendid con-
firmations. For instance, the account given (xlvii:
13-26) of the manner in which the Pharaohs be-
came proprietors of all the lands, with the excep-
tion of those belonging to the priests, is confirmed
by Herodotus (ii. 109), and by Diodorus Sicu-
lus (i. yi). The manner of embalming described
in Gen. I. entirely agrees with the description of
Herodotus, ii, 84. etc. For other data of a similar
kind, compare Hengstenberg {Die Backer Mo-
sis und Aegyp.ien, p. 21, sq.) (See Pentateuch.)
H. A. C. H.
3. Literature. Conant, The Bk. of Genesis;
Quarry, Gen. and Its Authorship; Lange, Die
Genesis (Am. ed. by Lewis); Hiivernick, Introd.
to the Old Testament; Driver, Introd. to Lit. of
Old Testament ; Keil, Introd. to Old Testament;
Driver, Addis. Documents of the Hctateuch;
Fripp, Composition of the Hook of Genesis ; C.
J, Ball, 'Book of Genesis ;' and Spurrell, Notes
on the Text of Genesis. The fullest complete com-
mentaries are those by Dillmann and Delitzsch
(both now translated into English; Edinburgh:
T. & T. Clark). Sayce, Higher Crit. and the Mon.
and the writings of George Smith, Maspcro,
Pinches. Haupt, and others. On the Theology of
Genesis: the Old Testament Theology of Schultr,
Ochlcr, Riehm.
The reader may also consult Miss Wedgwood,
Message of Israel; Watson, The Book Genesis;
Ottley, Aspects of the Old Testament ; Westcott,
Faith of the Gospel ; Kyle, Early Narratives of
Genesis.
OENNESABET (gen-n6s'a-ret), (Gr.rei-n^ropfr,
ghen-nay-sar-ef , garden of riches). See Chinne-
RETH.
GENNESABET, LAKE OF (gen-n6s'a-rgt),
(Gr. V(vvy)(3a.!>iT^. See Sea.
GENTHiES (jen'tils), (Heb. ^''^^ f;o-yeem'\ a
word which, both in the Hebrew Goyim, and in
the Anglo-Latin 'Gentile,' by which we translate it
means literally, 'the nations."
It was applied by the Hebrews to all individuals
or communities not under the law — that is. all the
nations of the world excepting the Jews (Neh. v:
GENTILES, COURT OF THE
700
GERAR
8; in Lev., Deut., Ps. it is applied I'o various
heathen nations). But in later times some small
states, and many individuals, embraced the law ;
and they were distinguished from the Gentiles,
as well as from the Jews, by the name of Prose-
lytes (irpoffTjXKToi). In some places our authorized
version has the word 'Gentiles' where the original
has 'EWrive! (Rom. ii:g, lo; iiiig; John vii:33;
I Cor. x:32), which is usually and properly ren-
dered 'Greeks' (Acts xiv:i;xvii:4; Rom. i:i6; x:i2),
thus failing in consistency in the treatment of this
word.
GENTIIiES, COURT OF THE. A court in
the Temple where strangers might assemble.
(See Temple Hill.)
GENTILES, ISLES OF THE (Gen. x;;) de-
notes, in a most general way, the people of the far
western islands and Europe.
GENTLENESS (jSn't'1-nes), {Heh.^M, an-aw
vaw' , condescension, Ps. xviii:3S; Or. iirteUtta,
ep-ee-i' ki-ah, clemency, 2 Cor. x:i).
"All God's going back from the strictness of his
rights as against men, all his allowing of their
imperfect righteousness and giving a value to that
which, rigidly estimated, would have none; all his
refusal to exact extreme penalties ; all his remem-
bering whereof we are made and measuring his
dealings with us thereby" (Trench, Syn. of New
Testament).
In other words, God's gentleness is his grace,
goodness, and mercy, and favors proceeding there-
from (Ps. xviii:35).
GEMTJBATH (ge-nu'bath), (Heb. ^^h ghen-
oo-bath' , perhaps theft), an Edomite, son of Hadad.
His mother was an Egyptian princess, the sister of
Tahpenes, who was the wife of that Pharaoh rul-
ing in the latter part of the reign of David (i Kings
xi:2o), B. C. about 1036. Genubath was born m
Pharaoh's palace, and became a member of the
royal establishment.
GEOGRAPHY (j5-6g'ra-fy). It is the Hebrews
who present us with the earliest written informa-
tion of a geographical kind.
In the account of creation mention is made of
a spot called Eden, out of which a river, after
watering Paradise, ran, and 'from thence it was
parted, and became into four heads' (fountains)
which sent forth as many rivers, Pison, Gihon,
Hiddekel, Phrat or Euphrates. Of these the last
is the only stream that is identified. The high-
lands of Armenia would appear to have been the
first known to the human family. Descending
from these some may have gone eastward, others
westward. The latter alone are spoken of in
scripture. Coming south and west the progen-
itors of the world first became acquainted with the
countries lying between the Euphrates and the
Tigris, roughly termed Mesopotamia, whence they
advanced still more south and west into Aram or
Syria. Arabia, Canaan, and Egypt.
Professor Sayce says : "The geography of
Genesis starts from the north. It was upon the
mountains of Ararat or Armenia that the ark
rested, and it was accordingly with this region of
the world that our primitive chart begins." He
ciairns that ihe tenth chapter of Genesis is eth-
nographical rather than ethnological. "It is de-
scriptive merely of such races of men as fell with-
in the horizon of the writer from a geographical
point of view. We shall never understand the
chapter rightly unless we bear in mind that its
main purpose is geographical. In Hebrew as in
other Semitic languages, the relation of a mother
state to its colony, or of a town or country to its
inhabitants, was expressed in genealogical form.
The inhabitants of Jerusalem weie regarded as
'the daughters of Jerusalem ;' the people of the
east were 'the children' of the district to which
they belonged.
"When therefore we are told that 'Canaan begat
Sidon his first born,' and 'Heth,' all that is meant
is that the city of Sidon and the Hittites to whom
reference is made were alike to be found in the
country called Canaan. It does not follow that
there was any ethnological kinship between the
Phcenician builders 01 Sidon and the Hittites from
the north. Indeed we know from modern research
that there was none. But the Hittite and the
Sidonian were both inhabitants of Canaan, or as
we should say, Canaanites; they were both ac-
cordingly'the children of Canaan.'" (Races of the
Old Testament, pp. 39-40.)
We know that the Hebrews were widely ac-
quainted with the then known world, since col-
onies and individuals of their nation were spread
over nearly the entire surface covered by ancient
dlvilization, and identified with the Roman empire.
The occasional, if not periodical, return of the
Jews thus scattered abroad, or at least the rela-
tions which they would sustain with their mother
country, must have greatly widened, and made
less inaccurate, the knowledge entertained in Pal-
estine of other parts of the world. Accordingly we
read (Acts ii :5, sq.), that, at the effusion of the
Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost, 'there were
dwelling at Jerusalem Jews out of every nation
under heaven.' J. R. B.
GEPHEN (ge'fen), (Or. dnireXos. am'pe-los). See
Vine.
GERA (ge'ra), (Heb. ^'^., gay-raw', grain), the
name of at least three Benjamites.
1- Son of Bela, a descendant of Benjamin, who
is mentioned as living at the time of Jacob's mi-
gration into Egypt. (B. C. 1706.) (Gen. xlvi:
21; I Chron. viii:3). The passage in Chron. is
very corrupt and the different Geras there seem
to merge themselves into the Gera, son of Bela
(comp. I Chron. viii :s, 7).
2. Father of Ehud, the Judge (Judg. iii:i5).
Possibly identical with I. (B. C. 11 70.) (See
Ehud.)
3. Father or ancestor of Shimei, the man who
abused David (2 Sam. xvi:5; xix:i6, 18; i Kings
ii:8). Perhaps identical with both i and 2. (B. C.
966.) (See Shimei.)
GERAH (ge'rah), (Heb. '"'1^, gay -raw' , a ker-
nel). The smallest piece of money among the
Hebrews. Twenty made a shekel; one of them
would therefore be worth three cents, according to
the present value of silver (Exod. xxx:l3).
GERAR (ge'rar), (Heb. '^'}, gher-awr, a region,
a lodging place).
A city and district on the southernmost bor-
ders of Palestine, in the country of the Philistines,
and not far from Gaza. It' was visited by Abra-
ham after the destruction of Sodom (Gen. xx:
i), and by Isaac when there was a dearth in the
rest of Canaan (Gen. xxvi:i). The incidents of
their sojourn show that the district was very fer-
tile. It was the seat of the first Philistine king-
dom we read of, and gave name to it. The inter-
course, differences, and alliances of the Hebrew
fathers with the king and people of Gerar form a
very curious and interesting portion of patriarchal
history. It was still an important place in later
times, as we may gather from I Chron. xiv:i3, 14.
According to the ancient accounts Gerar lay in
or near a valley, which appears to be no other
GERAk, VALLEY OF
701
GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD
than the greai' Wady Shcriah, called by some
Wady Gaza (or one of tlic branches of it), that
comes down from Bcershcba ; besides we know
that it was in the land of the Philistines, and that
it was not far from Beersheba when Isaac resid-
ed there (Gen. xxvi:i, 20, 23, 26-33; comp. xx:
l). The name continued to exist (perhaps as a
matter of tradition) for several centuries after
the Christian era. Thomson in The Land and the
Book, vol 2, p. 349, says "the R«v. J. Rowlands
writes that near Joorf el Gerar are the traces of
an ancient city called Khirbei el Gerar — the Ruins
of Gerar." These ruins are between Gaza and
Khalasa.
OERAB, VALLEY OF (ge'rar, vai'ley 6v). See
Ger.^r.
GEBASENES (gSr'a-senz').
The people of Gerasa (R. V. of Mark v:i and
Luke viii:26, 37; manuscripts vary between Gera-
senes, Gadarenes, Gergesenes).' See Gergesa or
Cekasa.
GERGESA or GERASA (ger'as-a), (Gr. Tdpaaa,
i;her' as-ah), now Jerash (not named in the Bible),
was in the Decapolis, and formed the eastern
boundary of Perasa. It lay on elevated ground,
according to Ptolemy, in 68^ 15' = 31° 45'. Its
inhabitants were mostly heathen.
After the Roman conquests in the East, the
country in which Gerasa lies became one of their
favorite colonies, and ten principal cities were
built on the east of the Jordan, giving the name
of Decapolis to the land in which they stood. The
place was taken by storm by Alexander Jannaeus.
who was actuated by a desire of gaining a large
treasure (Joseph. De Bell. Jttd.i:4, 8; Antiq. viii -.2,
3). Alexander died near it while besieging Regaba
{Antiq. XV :s). Before the place had time 10 re-
cover from this calamity, it was included among
the number of those cities which were burnt by
the enraged Jews in their vengeance on the Sy-
rians, and on the Roman power generally, for
the massacre of a number of their nation at Caesa-
rea (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. ii:i8, i). A terrible
revenge was taken by other cities, but Gerasa is
honorably excepted (De Bell. Jud. ii:i8, 5). An-
nius, general under Vespasian, took the city;
'after which he set fire to their houses,' 'and what
was remaining was all burnt down' {De Bell. Jud.
iv:9, i). Its ruins were first discovered by Seet-
zen, and have often been subsequently visited
They have been pronounced superior to those of
Palmyra (Burckhardt, Syria, p. 252-64; Kelley,
Syria, p. 448 fi. ; Buckingham, Palestine, p. 405).
J. R. B.
GERGESENES (ger'ge-senez'), (Gr. Ttpy^artvSi,
gher-ghes-ay-nos'). "The inhabitants of Gergesa
(which see).
OERIZIM, MOUNT (ger'i-zim, mount), (Heb.
^"y^h g^er-ee-zeem'). See Ebal and Gerizim,
Mounts.
GERIZITES (ger'iz-Ites), (I Sam. xxvii:8). See
Gerzites, The.
GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF
NORTH AMERICA.
This Synod is based on the union between the
two great branches of Protestantism — the Lu-
theran and the Reformed Church, as the same was
effected since 1817 in the different German states.
The founders of the Evangelical Synod were mis-
sionaries, sent during the third decade of the nine-
teenth century to America by the Mission Houses
of Basel and Barmen. These two institutions are
supported alike by Lutherans and Reformed Con-,
gregations in Germany and Switzerland, and both
denominations are also represented in the Board
of Directors. It was therefore only natural for
the pupils of these schools to organize a church
here in America as sitfiilar as possible to their
mother church in Germany. On October is, 1840^
seven of these missionaries assembled at Gravois
Settlement, near St. Louis, Mo., and organized as
an association, which has become known as The
German Evangelical Synod of North America.
(1) Doctrine. The following declaration of
faith was adopted by the founders and still serves
as its confessional basis: "The German Evangeli-
cal Synod of North America means by the term
Evangelical Church that church community which
acknowledges the Holy Scriptures of the Old and
New Testament as the Word of God, and as the
only true and infallible standard of Christian doc-
trines and precepts (i) and accepts as its con-
fession that interpretation of the Holy Scriptures
which is laid down in the symbolic books of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches, among which
the Augsburg Confession, Luther's Minor and
Major Catechism, and the Heidelberg Catechism
are the principal ones, so far as ihey agree; but
in points of difference the German Evangelical
Synod adheres solely to the passages of Holy
Scriptures alluding to them, observing that lib-
erty of conscience existing in the Evangelical
Church."
According to iliese articles of faith the German
Evangelical Synod accepts as its doctrine the con-
sensus fidei of the Lutheran and Reformed
Churches. We confess, in entire harmony with
the Church of the Reformation, God as the Al-
mighty Creator of heaven and earth ; his omni-
present providence in the guidance of men ; the
doctrine of the fall of man, of original sin, of
redemption through the atoning blood of Christ;
and the Christolog>', as the same was formed by
the ecumenical councils of the first centuries. We
confess that sanctification is not our work, but
is initiated by the agency of the Holy Spirit, by
means of the Divine word and the sacraments,
and is a process that reaches its end only with the
close of life. This declaration expresses the union
of the Lutheran and Reformed branches of prot-
estantism. As is well known, both have always
agreed in all fundamental doctrines of Christian
life and faith, and on all subjects and facts clear-
ly expressed and stated in the Holy Scriptures,
and on all articles of faith pertaining to our sal-
vation. The controversy between the two Ger-
man denominations centers around the doctrine of
the Lord's Supper. (2) Our position on this
question is the following: The German Evan-
gelical Synod believes and confesses, that in the
Holy Supper the faithful and penitent communi-
cant receives in the bread and wine the body and
the precious blood of Christ and therewith for-
giveness of sins, life and salvation; but the unbe-
liever and unworthy receives damnation. The
other question : Ho'c is this done? how is it pos-
sible? how is this miracle performed? the Synod
leaves unanswered, since the Scripture gives us no
explanation. But we believe in the fact, in the
actuality of the miracle ; we believe that bread and
wine in the Holy Supper is the body and the blood
of Christ, for Christ plainly said so.
(2) Polity. Every congregation binds itself
voluntarily to the doctrine and precepts as laid
down in the statutes of the German Evangelical
Synod, when it joins that body.
Our relation toward other churches has ever
been governed by the so-called Augustine motto:
"In nceessariis unitas, in dtibiis Iwcrtas, in om-
nibus carilas." We sliow friendly interest in all
GERSHOM
702
undertakings for a coniederation of different de-
nominations such as the International Evangehcal
Alliance, and prior to that organization the
"Evanglischer Kircheniag" in Germany. We sup-
port international Bible associations and like work
in different directions.
Let us say a few words on the management ot
our Church. Every congregation is independent
in its local affairs ; the Synod acts more in the
character of a counsellor or adviser. A number
of congregations within certain geographical
boundaries constitute a "district," whose ministers
and lay delegates meet annually in a district con-
ference. All the districts meet together in the
"General Synod," which is composed of one out
of every nine ministers, and one lay delegate out
of every nine congregations, elected at district
conferences. It convenes every three years.
(3) Institutions. The Synod owns a theolog-
ical seminary founded 1850 at Marthasville, Mo.,
removed to St. Louis, Mo., 1883. The preparatory
college for students purposing to enter the theo-
logical seminary is at Elmhurst, 111. It was found-
ed 1871 In connection with the college is the
seminary for the education of teachers for our
parochial schools.
The German Evangelical Synod has its own
mission field in the Central Province of India.
There are seven missionaries and fifty native
preachers. The annual expense is about $10,000,
while a much larger sum is expended for home
missions. A harbor mission in Baltimore, Md.,
for the benefit of emigrants, has been during the
:ast ten years a blessing to many. There are
orphanages at Detroit, Mich.; at Chicago, Bensen-
,ille and Hazleton, 111. ; at St. Louis, Mo. ; and
-t Lincoln, Neb. ; also deaconess homes in seven pt
^he states. Eden Publishing House is at St. Louis,
Mo , and publishes all kinds of church papers and
books of worship. The official organ is the
-Fricdcnsbotc" with a circulation of 25,(X)0. be-
sides which are seven other papers. !• . M.
GERSHOM (ger'shom), (Heb. D'^U gay-resh-
ome'. expulsion).
1. The elder of the two sons (the other was
Eliezer) who were born to Moses in the land of
Midianby Zipporah (Exod. ii:22; xviii;3). 1 hese
sons of the great lawgiver held no other rank
than that of simple Levites, while the sons of
their uncle Aaron enjoyed all the privileges of
the priesthood (I Chron. xxiii;i5). The glory ot
being the children of such a father doubtless
availed them more than the highest dignities ; but
we must nevertheless admire the rare disinterest-
edness of Moses in making no public provision—
as he might so easily have done— for his own chil-
dren. (B. C. 1698.) . , _,
2. The form of Gershon, as it appears (l Chron.
vi :i6, 17, 20, 43. 62, 71 ; xv 7). , . , _ ,
3. One of those who returned with Ezra trom
Babylon, as a representative of the priestly family
of Phinehas (Ezra viii:2). (B. C. 459)
GERSHON (ger'shon), (Heb. T'^X gay-resh-
one', expulsion), eldest of the three sons of the
patriarch Levi, bom in Canaan before the going
down into Egypt.
He is only known from his name having been
given to one of the three great branches of the
Levitical tribe. The office of the Gershonites, dur-
ing ilie marches in the wilderness, was to carry
the veils and curtains of the tabernacle, and their
place in the camp was west of the tabernacle
(Gen. xlvi:ii; Exod. vi:i6; Num. iii:i7)- . (B-
C. about 1706.) Gershon's sons were Libni and
GESHURI.
Shimi (Exod. viM7; Num. iii:i8, 21; I Chron.
vi:i7).
GERSHONITES, THE (ger'shon-ites),
1. Descendants of Gershon (Num. iii;2l, 23, 24;
iv:24, 27; xxvi;57; Josh. xxi;33; 1 Chron. xxiii:?;
2Chron. xxix:i2). (See Gershon).
As to the office and duties of the Gershonites,
see Levites.
2. "The Gershonite,"aname applied to Laadan
(I Chron. xxvi:2i), and Jehiel (l Chron. xxix:8).
GERZITES, THE (ger'zites), (Heb. with the
art. T.?!!?, hay-girzi), a tribe living between Egypt
and the south of Palestine in the time of Saul (i
Sam. xxvii;8, marg.) Our translators adopted the
form Gizrites (or rather Gezrites) as corrected by
the Masorets.
GESHAM (ge'sham), or rather GESHAN (Heb.
'^^}., gay-shawti' ,ii\x\vy, or else firm, strong), the
third son of Jahdai, among the descendants of
Caleb (I Chron. ii:47), B. C. after 1210.
GESHAN (ge'shan), (Heb. "Wh gay-shawn' ,
filthy, Ges), in A. V. Gesham, an error which
crept into the later editions, the original of 1611
having Geshan.
GESHEM (ge'shem), (Heb. ^f?, gheh'shem,
shower), an Arabian (Neh. ii:l9; vi:i), and one of
the enemies of the Jews on the return from the
exile, especially in the plots against the life of
Nehemiah (vi:2), B. C. 445.
He was probably a Samaritan, although on
some account or other designated an Arabian
(Neh. ii:i9), and seems to have been a subaltern
officer at Jerusalem. He opposed the designs of the
Jewish governor, talking of them as seditious, and
turning them into ridicule. Eventually he took
part in the plots of Tobiah against the life of
Nehemiah (Neh. ii:i9; vi:2-9). (B. C. about
445- )
GESHTJB (ge'shur), (Heb. ""'"?. ghesh-oor",
bridge), Syria (2 Sam. xv:8; i Chron. ii:23), which
adjoined, on the east side of the Jordan, the
northern border of the Hebrew territory, and lay
between Mount Hermon, Maachah, and Bashan
(Deut. iii:i3, 14; Josh. xii:5).
According to the boundaries of the Holy Land,
as defined by Moses, Geshur would have fornied
part of it; but in Josh. xiii:2, 13, it is stated that
the Israelites had expelled neither the Geshurites
nor the Maachathites, but dwelt together with
them That the Hebrews did not afterwards per-
manently subdue Geshur appears from the cir-
cumstance that, in David's time, this district had a
king of its own, called Talmai, whose daughter,
Maacah, was one of the wives of David (2 Sam.
iii-3) She was the mother of Absalom, who
look refuge with his grandfather after the murder
of Amnon, and remained three years in Geshur (2
Sam xiii:37; xv:8). The word G^Wiuf- signifies
a bridge, and corresponds with the Arabic Jxsr,
and in the same region where, according to the
above data, we must fix Geshur, between Mount
Hermon and the lake of Tiberias, there still ex-
ists an ancient stone bridge over the "PPer Jor-
dan, called Jisr-Beni-Jakub, or 'the bridge of the
children of Jacob,' i. c, the Israelites.
GESHTTRI (gesh'u-ri), (Vith.^^'^'^l ghe-shoo-ree' ,
Deut. iii:i4; Josh. xiii:2). or GESHURITES (Heb.
W-\yt\g/ie.shoo-ree}n\ Josh.xii:5; xiii;ii, i3;i Sam.
xxvii:8), the inhabitants of Geshur, bordering on
Aram, to the east of Jordan. (See Geshur).
GETHER
703
GIANTS
OETHEB (ge' ther), (Heb. "V^ , gheh'ther, deriva-
tion uncertain). The tliirtl of the sons of Aram
(Gen. x:23), no trustworthy identification of the
people sprung from him has been made.
OETHSEMANE (geth-s6m'a-ne), (Gr. Vt9<rriiiatn),
gheth-say-man-ay' , seemingly from oil press), the
The Garden of Gethsemane.
name of a small field, or garden, just out of Jeru-
salem, over the brook Kidron, and at the foot of
the Mount of Olives.
That which is now pointed out as the garden
in which our Lord underwent his agony, occupies
part of a level space between the brook and the
foot of the Mount, and corresponds well enough
in situation and distance with all the conditions
which the narrative requires. It is about fifty
paces square, and is enclosed by a wall of no
great height, formed of rough loose stones. Eight
very ancient olive-trees now occupy this enclos-
ure, some of which are of very large size, and
all exhibit symptoms of decay clearly denoting
their great age. The garden belongs to one of
the monastic establishments, and much care has
been taken to preserve the old trees from de-
struction. Dr. Robinson admits the probability
that this is the site which Euscbius and Jerome
had in view ; and, as no other site is suggested as
preferable, we may be content to receive the tradi-
tional indication. Thomson, however (The Land
and the Book, vol. ii. pp. 483-4 ), says: "The posi-
tion is too near the city, and so close to what must
have always been the great thoroughfare eastward,
that our Lord would scarcely have selected it for
retirement on that dangerous and dismal night."
He believesGethscmane to have been in a secluded
vale several hundred yards northeast of ibe tradi-
tional site. Barclay thinks it evident that the
present enclosure, from its narrow dimensions,
can occupy only in part the site of ibe ancient
garden, and finds a better position higher up in
the valley. Porter states that the Greeks, envious
of the Latins, have recently enclosed a piece of
ground a little north, beside the Virgin's tomb,
and contend that this is the true garden.
GETJEIj (ge-u'el), (Heb. ^'^'^1^},gkeh-oo-ale' .m^]-
esty of Gad), son of Machi, and ruler of the tribe
of Gad. He was among the spies sent to explore
the promised land (Num. xiii;l5), B. C. 1657.
OEZEB (ge'zer), (Heb. "I.'?, gheh'zer, a preci-
pice).
Formerly a royal city of the Canaanites, and
situated in what became the western part of the
tribe of Ephraim. The Canaanites were not ex-
pelled from it at the conquest (Josh. ■x.:j,i\ xvi :
S, 10; Judg. i:29). It was, nevertheless, assigned
to the Levites (Josh, xxi :2i ; i Chron. vi :67). In
after limes, having been, on some occasion, de-
stroyed by the Egyptians, it was rebuilt by Solo-
mon (i Kings ix:i6). M. Clermont Ganneau
identified the site by inscriptions ; one of which,
perhaps as old as the Herods. marked the limits
of Gezer, and gave in Hebrew letters the actual
name, h is now called Tell Jezar and is situated
about eighteen miles west-northwest of Jerusalem,
and nearly six east of Ekron.
GEZBITE8 (gSz'rites), (Heb.'^.I?''5. hagh-ghiz-
ree' , strictly "the Gizrite"), is the rendering of the
gerioi I Sam. xxvii:8, where the kethibh has '''^;,^,
which may be Girzite, Gerizite, or Gerizzite. (See
Gerzites, The.)
OIAH (gl'ah), (Heb. 5'?, ghee'akh, fountain), a
place named (2 Sam. ii:24), which Ammah was
said to face. No trace of this place has been
found.
GIANTS (jl'rtnts), (Heb. "''25, ghib-bore', for
mighty, strong one). The English word is derived
immediately from the Latin gigas, which is only
Greek in Roman letters; and 7I705, giant, itself is,
in all likelihood, made up of yifdcreat, to be horn,
and yia., the earth, thus signifying 'the earth-born,'
in allusion to classical fable.
These beings of unusual height are found in the
early history of all nations, sometimes of a purely
human origin, but more frequently supposed to
have partaken also, in some way, of the super-
natural and the divine.
(1) Nephilim. In Gen. vi :4, we have the first
mention of giants (Heb. °';*?^ nef-ee-leem' , causing
to fall), 'There were giants in the earth in those
days; and a\io after that, when the sons of God
came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare
children to them, the same became mighty men
which were of old, men of renown."
In our judgment the bearing of the passage
obviously favors the common notion of giants,
and that the rather because their origin is traced
to some unexplained connection with 'the sons of
God,' that is, with beings of high endowments, if
not of a superior nature.
(2) Rephaim. In Gen. xiv:5, we meet with a
race termed Rephaim (^''^?1, ref-aiv-eem' , strong),
as settled on the other side of the Jordan, in
Ashteroth-Kamaim, whom Chedorlaomer de-
feated.
Of this race was Og, king of Bashan, who alone
remained, in the days of Moses (Deut. iii:io),
of the remnant of the Rephaim. This race gave
their name to a valley near Jerusalem.
(3) Anakim. The Anakim (1^"^^:, an-aw-
keem' , sons of Anak). In Num. xiii the spies sent
by Moses before bis army to survey the promised
land, report among other things - 'The people be
strong that dwell in the land; and, moreover, we
saw the children of Anak' (verse 28).
This indirect' mention of the children of Anak
shows that they were a well-known gigantic
race. In the 32d and 33d verses the statement
GIANTS
704
gia>;ts
is enhanced — 'It is a land that eateth up the in-
habitants ; and all the people that we saw in it are
men of great stature. And there we saw the
giants, the sons of Anak which came of the
giants; and we were in our own sight as grass-
hoppers, and so we were in their sight.' How-
ever much of exaggeration fear may have given
to the description, the passage seems beyond a
doubt to show the writer's belief in a race of
giants (Deut. ix:2). From Deut. ii:io, it ap-
pears that the size of the Anakim became pro-
verbial, and was used as a standard with which
to compare others. In the time of Moses they
dwelt in the environs of Hebron (Josh. xi:22).
(5) Emim. Another race is mentioned in Deut.
ii-io, the Emim (O""^"*?, ay-tnccn' ), who dwelt in
the country of the Moabitcs. They are described
as a people 'great and many, and tall as the
Anakims, which were also accounted giants' (Gen.
xiv:5).
(6) Zamzummim. The Zamzummim also
(C*?2T^T^ zam-zum-meem' , Deut. ii:20) had their
home in the land of Ammon — 'that also was
accounted a land of giants. Giants dwelt therein
of old time, and the Ammonites called them
Zamzummims, a people great and many, and
Old Olive Trees in the Garden of Gethsemane.
They consisted of three branches or clans — 'Ahi-
man. Sheshai, and Talmai— the children of Anak'
(Num. xiii:22). They were destroyed by Joshua
(Josh, xi :2l ; Judg. i :2o) .
(4) Goliath. From this remnant of the Ana-
kim thus left in Gath of the Philistines, proceeded
the famous Goliath (^-'i'l', gol-yath' , exile, 1 Sam.
xyii:4). This giant is said to have been in height
six cubits and a span.
Other giants of the Philistines are mentioned
in the passage before cited, 2 Sam. xxi:l6, sq.,
namely: — (i) 'Ishbi-benob, which was of the sons
of the giant, the weight of whose spear weighed
three hundred shekels of brass, he being girded
with a new sword, thought to have slain David ;
but Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, succored him,
and smote the Philistine and killed him.' (2)
Saph (2 Sam. xxi:i8), which was of the sons of
the giant who was slain by Sibbcchai. (3) 'A
man (2 Sam. xxi:2o) of great stature, that had on
every hand six fingers and on every foot six toes,
four and twenty in number, and he also was born
to the giant ; and when he defied Israel, Jonathan,
the son of Shimcah, the brother of David, slew
him.' These four were sons of the giant in
Gath, that is, probably of the Goliath of Gath
whom David slew (l Kings xx:8; 2 Sam. xxi:i9;
I Sam. xvii :4).
tall as the Anakims ; but tlie Lord destroyed them
before them, and they (the Israelites) succeedea
them, and dwelt in their stead.'
From this enumeration it is clear that the
scriptures tell of giants in the olden time, and of
races of giants; that primitive races greatly ex-
celled all others in size; and that, though giants
are mentioned as something singular and conse-
quently as comparatively rare, they appear to have
been, relatively to the luiinbiLrs of the population, ui
frequent occurrence. (See Bashan; Rephaim.)
The possibility of a race of giants cannot well
be denied. There is a known tendency in the
human frame to perpetuate peculiarities which
have been once evolved. Why not extraordinary
'procerity' as well as any other? In fact, the
propagation of stature, whether high or low, is a
phenomenon which we all see presented daily be-
fore our own eyes. Tall parents give birth to tall
children. The tallness is found to remain in fami-
lies ; and, doubtless, did not circumstances inter-
vene to reduce the stature by intermarriage with
short persons, the unusual height would be per-
petuated in any given line. The inhabitants of
Potsdam, descended to a great extent from the
famous regiment of tall grenadiers which Freder-
ick of Prussia took so much pains to bring
together, are said to be still remarkable for ex-
ceeding the average height. The family of Scaligers
appears to have been unusually tall. J. R. B.
GIBBAR
705
(ilBKON
OIBBAA (gib'bar), (Chal. "I??, ghib-bawr' , a
licro), ninety-five of "the sons of Gibbar" returned
from captivity witfi Zerubbabel (K/,ra ii;20). In
the parallel passage of Neh. vii:25, the name is
Ciibeon.
GIBBETHON (gib'be-thdn), (Heb. V"''-??'
g/iib-hc'th-oiie' , A height), a city of the Philistines,
which was included in the territories of the tribe
of Uan (Josh. xix:44), and was assigned to the
Levites (Josh. xxi;23).
It was still in the hands of the Philistines in the
lime of Nadab, king of Israel, who besieged it,
and was slain under its walls by Baasha, one of
his own officers (i Kings xv :27 ; xvi:i5). Noth-
ing is known of its site.
GIBEA (gib'ea), (Heb. >*??'', ghib-aw' , hill),
occurs among the names of places, among the
descendants of Judah (i Chron. ii:49l. "''s would
seem to identify Gibea with Gibeah of Judah
(Burrington, i. 216).
GIBEAH (gib'e-ah), (Hebrew same as above).
There were several places of this name, which, as
before remarked (see Geba), is the feminine form
of tlie word Gibeah, and signifies a hill. Without
doubt all the places so named were situated upon
hills.
(1) Gibeah of Judah. Gibeah in the moun-
tains of Judah (Josh. xv;57), which, under the
name of Gabaatha, Eusebius and Jerome place
twelve Roman miles from Eleutheropolis, and
state that the grave of the prophet Habakkuk was
there 10 be seen. Dr. Robinson {Researches, \\:
327) identifies it with the village of Jebah, which
stands upon an isolated hill, in the midst of
Wady-el-Musurr, about ten miles southwest of
Jerusalem.
(2) Gibeah at Kirjath-jearim. The place
where the ark rested after it was returned by
ihc Philistines, until its removal by David (2
Sam. vi :3, 4: comp. i Sam. vii:l, 2).
(3) Gibeah of Benjamin is historically the
most important of the places bearing this name.
It is often mentioned in Scripture. It was the
scene of that abominable transaction which in-
volved in its consequences almost the entire ex-
tirpation of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. xix:l4,
sq.). It is witliout doubt identical with the next.
(4) Gibeah of Saul, which was the birthplace
of Saul, and continued to be his residence after
he became king ( i Sam. x 126 ; xi :4 ; xv 133 ; xxiii :
19; xxvi :i) ; and here was the scene of Jonathan's
romantic exploit against the Philistines (i Sam.
\iv). It was doubtless on account of this in-
timate connection with Saul that the Gibeoniies
hanged up here his seven descendants (2 Sam.
xxi:6). Jerome speaks of Gibeah as, in his time,
level with the ground {Ep. 86, ad Etistoch.), and
since then it does not appear to have been visited
by travelers till recently. Dr. Robinson, who
made many valuable observations in this neigh-
borhood, detected Gibeah in the small and half-
ruined village of Jeba, which lies upon a low,
conical, or rather round eminence, on the broad
ridge which shelves down towards the Jordan
valley, and spreads out below the village in a fine
sloping plain. The views of the Dead Sea and
the Jordan and of the Eastern tnovintains, are
here very extensive. Among the »uins some
large hewn stones, indicating antiquity, are oc-
casionally seen. This place is about five miles
north !)v east from Jerusalem.
(5) Gibeah in Mount Ephraim, called Gibeah
of Phineas, where the high-priest Eleazar, son of
45
Aaron, was buried by his son Phineas (Josh.
xxiv:33). The Ononiasticon makes it five Roman
miles from Gophna, on the road to Neapohs
(Shechcm) ; which was itself fifteen Roman miles
north of Jerusalem. Dr. Robin.son finds it in a
narrow valley called Wady-el-Jib, the Geeb of
Maundrell. lying just midway on the road be-
tween Jerusalem and Shcchem.
(6) Gibeah in the Field, a place to which ran
one of the highways out of Gibeah of Benjamin
(Judg. xx:3i). The place has not been identi-
fied.
(7) Other Gibeahs. The name of several
places given in the A. V. in their translated form
(1) "Hill of the foreskins" (Josh. v:3), be-
tween the Jordan and Jericho. It took its name
from the circumcision which took place there. It
seems to have been called Gilgal, afterwards.
(2) The "hill of Moreh" (Judg. vii:i). (3) The
"hill of God" on the route of Saul (i Sam. x:5).
(4) The "hill of Hachilah" (i Sam. xxiii :i9;
xxvi:i). (5) The "hill of Ammah" (2 Sam. ii :
24). (6) The "hill of Gareb" (Jcr. xxxi:39).
GIBEATH (gib'e-ath), (Heb. same as (gibeah),
enumerated among the towns of Benjamin, next
to Jerusalem (Josh. xviii;28). It is very probably
not the same as Gibeah of Benjamin, as has been
suggested, because the latter place was five or six
miles north of Jerusalem, and near to Gibeon and
Ramah, with which it would have been enumer-
ated. (See Gibea; Gibeah.)
GIBEATHITE, THE (grb'e-ath-ite), (Heb.
*"?iV^. ghib-aw-thee' , a native of Gibeah; applied
to Shemaah, the father of two Benjamites under
Saul, who joined David), (I Chron. xii:3).
GIBEON (grb'e-on), (Heb. "v'^V:, ghib-hon' , hill
city).
A town celebrated in the Old Testament, but
not mentioned in the New. (i) It was 'a great
city,' as one of the royal cities; and to its juris-
diction originally belonged Beeroth, Chephirah,
and Kirjath-jearim (Josh. ix:i7; x:2). It is first
mentioned in connection with the deception prac-
ticed by the inhabitants upon Joshua, by which, al-
though Canaanites (Hivites), they induced the
Jewish leader not only to make a league with them,
and to spare their lives and cities, but also, in their
defense, to make war upon the five kings by whom
they were besieged. (2) It was in the great battle
which followed that "the sun stood still upon
Gibeon' (Josh. x:i2, 1-14). (3) The place after-
wards fell to the lot of Benjamin and became a
Levitical city (Josh. xviii:25; xxi;i7), where the
tabernacle was set up for many years under David
and Solomon ( i Chron. xvi :39 ; xxi :29 ; 2 Chron,
1:3), the ark being at the same time at Jeru-
salem (2 Chron. i:4). (4) It was here, as be-
ing the place of the altar, tliat the young Solomon
oflfercd a thousand burnt-offerings, and was re-
warded by the vision which left him the wisest
of men (i Kings iii 14-15 ; 2 Chron. i:3-l3). (s)
This was the place whore .Mmcr's cliallenge to
Joab brought defeat upon himself, and death upon
his brother .'\shael (2 Sam. ii:i2-32), and where
Amasa was afterwards slain by Joab (2 Sam.
xx:8-i2). (6) None of these passages mark the
site of Gibeon; but there are indications of it in
Josephus (Dc Bell. Jtid. \\.\<). i). who places it
fifty stadia northwest from Jerusalem ; and in
Jerome (Ep. 86, ad Euslocli.) : which leave little
doubt that Gibeon is to be identified with the
place which still bears the name of El-Jib. (7)
El-Jib is a moderately sized village, seated on
the summit of a hill, five miles north by west
GIBEONITES, THE
706
GIDEOM
from Jerusalem. The houses stand very irregu-
larly and unevenly, sometimes almost above one
another. They seem to be chiefly rooms in old
massive ruins, which have fallen down in every
direction. (8) One large building still remains,
probably a former castle or tower of strength.
Towards the east the ridge of the hill sinks a
little, and here, a few rods from the village, just
below the top of the ridge towards the north,
is a fine fountain of water. It is in a cave, ex-
cavated in and under the high rock, so as to form
a large subterranean reservoir. Not far below
it, among olive-trees, are the remains of an open
reservoir, about one hundred and twenty feet in
length by one hundred in breadth. It was doubt-
less designed to receive the superfluous waters
of the cavern, and there can be little question
but that this was 'the Pool of Gibeon' mentioned
such, and preferably employed upon ihe shipping
which formed the glory and strength of Tyre.
The term is Gebalites in the R. V.
GIDDALTI (gid-dal'tl), (Heb. ^^7% gJiid-dal-
lee' , I have made great), a Kohathite Levite, son of
Heman, "the king's seer" (i Chron. xxv:4, 29),
B. C. 1013. He with his thirteen brothers played
the horn in the temple service (verses 5, 7). He
also conducted the 22d course (verse 2q).
GIDDEL (gid'del), (Heb. ^~>., ghid-day , large).
1- The children of Giddel returned with the
Nethinim from captivity under Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii :47; Neh. vii:49).
2. Sons of Bene-Giddel, servants of Solomon,
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel in the
same caravan (Ezra ii:56; Neh. vii:s8).
Gibeon
m 2 Sam. 11:13; and. in the whole, we find the
'Great (or many) waters of Gibeon' of Jer. xli :
12.
GIBEONITES, THE (gib'e-on-ites), (Heb.
O'^J'3;^ ghib-o-7ieem' , the people of Gibeon:
Hivites). (See Gibeon.) Individual Gibeonites
are Ismaiah (i Cliron. xii:4); Melathia (Neh. iii:7);
Hananiah, son of Azur (Jer. xxviii:i, 10, 13, 17).
GIBLITES (gib'lites), (Heb. "^^^ , ghib-lee' ,
the inhabitants of the city and district of Gebal in
Phoenicia, 34° 7' N. lat., 35' 42' E. long., on the
shore of the Mediterranean, under Mount Leb-
anon.
'The land of the Giblites,' with 'all Lebanon,'
was assigned to the Israelites by the original
appointment (Josh., xiii :S) ; but it does not seem
that they ever possessed themselves of it. The
Giblites are denoted by the word rendered 'stone-
squarers' in I Kings v:i8; from which it would
seem that they were then subject to, or in close
connection with, Tyre. It is doubtful whether
this Gebal, or the one in Edom, is that men-
tioned Ps. Ixxxiii -."J. But in Ezek. xxvii :9, the
Phoenician Giblites are distinctly mentioned as
GIDEON (gid'e-on), (Heb. T'^1?, gkid-ohn', tree
feller, i. e., warrior or destroyer).
He was surnamed Jerubbaal or Jerubbesheth,
fifth Judge in Israel, and the first of thein wliose
history is circumstantially narrated. He was the
son of Joash. of the tribe of Manasseh (Judg. vi :
11). and resided at Ophrah in Gilead beyond the
Jordan.
(1) Condition of Israel. The Midianites, in
conjunction with the Amalekites and other nomade
tribes, invaded the country every year, at the sea-
son of produce, in great numbers, with their flocks
and herds. They plundered and trampled down
the fields, the v'neyards, and the gardens : they
seized the cattle, and plundered man and house,
rioting in the country, after the manner which the
Bedouin Arabs practice at this day.
(2) Call of Gideon. After Israel had been
humbled by seven years of this treatment, the
Lord raised up a deliverer in the person of Gideon.
He was threshing corn by stealth, _ for fear of
its being taken away by the Midianites, when an
angel of God appeared before him, and thus
saluted him : — 'The Lord is with thee, thou mighty
man of valor.' Gideon expressed some doubt
GIDEON
707
GIDEON
wheilier God was still with a people subject to
such al'lliction, and was answered by the most un-
expected commission — 'Go in this thy miglit, and
thou shalt save Israel from the hand of the
Midianitcs; have not I sent thee'? Gideon still
urged, 'Wherewith shall I save Israel? Behold
my family is poor in Manasseh, and I am the
least in my father's house.' The 'Wherewith'
was answered by 'Surely I will be with thee.' He
then demurred no more, but pressed his hospitali-
ty upon the heavenly stranger, who, however, ate
not of what was set before him, but directing
Gideon to lay it out upon the rock as upon an
altar, it was consumed by a supernatural fire,
and the angel disappeared.
(3) Destroys Baal's Altar. Assured by this
of his commission, Gideon proceeded at once to
cast down the local image and altar of Baal ;
and, when the people would have avenged this
insult in tlicir false god. their anger was averted
through the address of his father, who, by
dwelling on the inability of Baal to avenge him-
self, more than insinuated a doubt of his com-
petency to protect his followers. This was a
favorite argument among the Hebrews against
idolatry. It occurs often in the prophets, and
was seldom urged upon idolatrous Israelites with-
out some effect upon their consciences.
(4) The Sign of the Fleece. Gideon soon
found occasion to act upon his high commission.
The allied invaders were encamped in ihe great
plain of Jczreel or Esdraelon, when he blew the
trumpet, and thus gathered round him a daily
increasing host, the summons to arms which it
implied having been transmitted through the
northern tribes by special messengers. The in-
quietude connected with great enterprises is more
sensibly felt some days before than at the mo-
ment of action ; and hence the two miraculous
signs which, on the two nights preceding the
march, were required and given as tokens of vic-
tory. The first night a fleece was laid out in
the middle of an open threshing-floor, and in
the morning it was quite wet, while the soil was
dry all around. The next night the wonder was
reversed, the soil being wet and the fleece per-
fectly dry (Judg. vii).
(5) Midianites Defeated. Encouraged by
these Divine testimonies, Gideon commenced his
march, and advanced to the brook Harod, in the
valley of Jezrecl. He was here at the head of
32,000 men ; but, lest so large a host should as-
sume the glory of the coming deliverance, which
of right belonged to God only, two operations,
remarkable both in motive and procedure, re-
duced this large host to a mere handful of men.
First, by Divine direction, proclamation was made
that all the faint-hearted might withdraw; and
no fewer than 22,000 availed themselves of the
indulgence. The remaining 10,000 were still de-
clared too numerous ; they were therefore all
taken down to the brook, when only those who
lapped the water from their hands, like active
men in haste, were reserved for the enterprise,
while all those who lay down leisurely to drink
were excluded. The former numbered no more
than 300, and these were the appointed vanquish-
ers of the huge host which covered the great
plain (Judg. vii :i-8).
The overheard relation of a dream, by which
Gideon was encouraged (Judg. vii:9-i4), and the
remarkable stratagem, with pitchers and torches,
by which he overcame (verses 15-23), are well
known.
The routed Midianites fled towards the Jordan,
but were pursued with great slaughter, the coun-
try being now roused in pursuit of the flyino
oppressor.
(6) The Ephraimites. The Ephraimites ren-
dered good service by seizing the lower fords of
the Jordan, and cutting off all who attempted es-
cape in that direction, while Gideon himself pur-
sued beyond the river those who escaped by the
upper fords. Gideon crossed the Jordan a little be-
low ^yhere it leaves the lake of Gennesaret, in
pursuit of the Midianitish princes Zeba and Zal-
munna. On that side the river, however, his vic-
tory was not believed or understood, and the peo-
ple still trembled at the very name of the
Midianites.
(7) Destroys Succoth and Penuel. Hence he
could obtain no succor from the places which he
passed, and town after town refused to supply
even victuals to his fatigued and hungry, but still
stout-hearted troop. He pronounced vengeance
upon them, but postponed its execution till his
return ; and when he did return with the two
princes as his prisoners, he by no means spared
those towns which, like Succoth and Penuel, had
added insult to injury (Judg. viii:4-l7).
(8) Avenges His Brethren. In those days
captives of distinction taken in war were almost
invariably slain. Zeba and Zalmunna had made
up their minds to this fate ; and yet it was Gideon's
intention to have spared them, till he learned that
they had put to death his own brothers under the
same circumstances; upon which, as the avenger
of their blood, he slew the captives with his own
hand (Judg. viii:i8-2i). Among the fugitives
taken by the Ephraimites were two distinguished
emirs of Midian, named Oreb and Zeeb, whom
they put to death. They took their heads over
to Gideon, which amounted to an acknowledg-
ment of his leadership; but' still the always
haughty and jealous Ephraimites were greatly an-
noyed that they had not in the first instance been
summoned to the field ; and serious consequences
might have followed, but for the tact of Gideon
in speaking in a lowly spirit of his own do-
mgs in comparison with theirs (Judg. vii:i4;
viii;4).
(9) Refuses the Crown. Gideon having thus
delivered Israel from the most afflictive tyranny
to which they had been subject since they quitted
Egypt, the grateful people, and particularly the
northern tribes, made him an offer of the crown
for himself and his sons. But the hero was too
well acquainted with his true position, and with
the principles of theocratical government, to ac-
cept this unguarded offer: 'I will not rule over
you,' he said, 'neither shall my son rule over you ;
Jehovah, he shall rule over you.' He would only
accept the golden earrings which the victors had
taken from the ears of their slaughtered foes
(see Earrings); and a cloth being spread out
to receive them, the admiring Israelites threw in,
not only the earrings, but other ornaments of
gold, including the chains of the royal c.imcls.
and added the purple robes which the slain
monarchs had worn, being the first indication of
purple as a royal color. The earrings alone weighed
1.700 shekels, equal to seventy-four pounds four
ounces, and worth, at the present value of gold,
about £3.300, or $16,500.
(10) Remaining Deeds and Death. With this
'Gideon made an ephod, and put it in his city,
even in Ophrah ; and all Israel went thither a
whoring after it ; which thing became a
snare unto Gideon and to his house.' An ephod,
at least that of the high-priest, was an outer
garment like a sleeveless tunic, to which was at-
tached the oracular breast-plate, composed of
GIDEOMI
108
GIFTS, SPIRITUAL
twelve precious stones set in gold, and graven
with the names of the twelve tribes. Another
plainer description of ephod was worn by the
common priests. The object of Gideon in makmg
an ephod with his treasure is not very clear.
Some suppose that it was merely designed as a
trophy of Israel's deliverance ; if so, it was a
very strange one. It is more probable that as
Gideon had, on his being first called to his high
mission, been instructed to build an altar and
offer sacrifice at this very place, he conceived
himself authorized, if not required, to have there
a sacerdotal establishment — for at least the tribes
beyond the river — where sacrifices might be regu-
larly offered. In this case the worship rendered
there was doubtless in honor of Jehovah,
but was still, however well intended, highly
schismatical and irregular. Even in his lifetime
it must have had the effect of withdrawing the
attention of the people east of the Jordan from
the Tabernacle at Shiloh, and thus so far tended
to facilitate the step into actual idolatry^ which
was taken soon after Gideon's death. The prob-
ability of this explanation is strengthened when
we recollect the schismatical sacerdotal establish-
mems which were formed by Micah on Mount
Ephraim, and by the Danites at Laish (Judg.
xvii:5-i3; xviii -.29-31).
The remainder of Gideon's life was peaceable.
He had seventy sons by many wives, and died at
an advanced age, after he had 'ruled Israel' (prin-
cipally the northern tribes and those beyond the
river) for forty years (B. C. about iioo to 1080.)
He is mentioned in the discourse of Samutl (i
Sam. xii:ii), and his name occurs in Heb. xi:32,
among those of the heroes of the faith.
OISEOKI (gid'e-o'ni), (lieh.''^^% g-Aid-o-nee'.
warlike).
The father of Abidam, who was chief in the
tribe of Benjamin at the time of the taking of
the census in the wilderness of Sinai (Num. i;
II; ii:22; vii:6o, 65; x:24). (B. C. about 1220.)
GIDOM (gi'dom), (Heb. CJ'"!?, ghid-ohm; a cut-
ting down, desolating), a place to which Benjamin
went in pursuit after the battle of Gibeah (Jude.
xxt'S). It is evidently situated between Gibeah
(TiitfU-el-Ful) and the cliff Rimmon; but no trace
of it has been found.
GIEB.-EAGLE (jer'e'g'l), (The A. V. uses this
term for Heb. ^5,. raw-khawvi , Pharaoh's chick-
en. Neophron percnopterus. R. V. uses it for
C'?, pek'res, which may be translated ossifrage).
An unclean bird mentioned in Lev. xi:i8; Deut.
xiv 17. This is probably the racham of the
Arabs or the Egyptian vulture {neophron per-
cnopterus), a bird of disgusting appearance and
habits; but a faithful scavenger. (Shaw, Travels,
p. 388; Russell, Natural Hist, of Aleppo, ii;l95,
2d ed.)
GIFT (gift), the translation of several Hebrew
and Greek terms.
1. From the Hebrew root P? (naw-than')
we have words, meaning a gratuity (Prov. xix:
6); to secure favor (Prov. xviii:l6; xxi:i4),
in religious thankfulness (Num. xviii :il), or in
dowry (Gen. xxxiv:i2), in inheritance (Gen.
XXV :6; 2 Chron. xxi:3; Ezek. xlvi:i6, 17), or
as a bribe (Prov. xv:27).
2. From the Heb. *''?3 {naw-saw', to raise)
we have terms expressive of pecuniary assistance
(Esth. ii:i8) and of a present in token of respect
(2 Sam. xix:42).
3. More distinctly in the sense of a votive of-
fering is min-kliaw' (Heb. "V't'?), an oblation
or propitiatory gift (2 Sam. viii:2, 6; I Chron.
xviii :2, 6, etc.), and in several other passages
where the word has the accessory idea of tribute
elsewhere usually rendered offering.
4. Other words are mercenary in character.
Thus show'khad (Heb. "I^i^) is a gift for the
purpose of escaping punishment presented either
to a judge (Exod. xxiii.8; Deut. x:i7) or to a
conqueror (2 Kings xvi:8).
5. In Greek the usual terms are generally de-
rived from 5l5uifu {ditfo-mee, to give), and have a
very wide meaning as did the Hebrew. (Mc. &
Str. Cyc.)
6. There are specific uses of the term as fol-
lows: (l) Christ is the unspeakable gift of God;
his excellence, usefulness, and fullness of office,
righteousness, and salvation, cannot beexpressedor
conceived by any creature ; and God freely gave
him for us as our ransom, and gives him to us as
our husband and portion (2 Cor. ix:i5). (2) His
righteousness and the benefits purchased by it, are
the free gift, and gift of righteousness (Rom.
v:i5-i7). (3) The Holy Ghost, and his miraculous
influences, are the gift of God (Acts viii:20J.
Eternal life, offices in the church, and qualifica-
tions for the discharge of them, and every saving
blessing are represented as gifts. Such of them as
are necessarily connected with union to Christ
are gifts given to his children, never to be re-
called ; and such as are separable from real grace
are gifts given to servants to be recalled (Rom.
vi:23; Jam. i:i7; Ps. Ixviii:i8; Eph. ii:8; iv:
8; Ezek. xlvi:i6, 17; Rom. xi:29; i Cor. xii:l,
4, 9, 31, and xiv: I, 12; Heb. vi:4).
GIFT OF TONGtTES. An ability given by the
Holy Spirit to the apostles and others, of readily
and intelligibly speaking a variety of languages
which they had never learned. This was a glori-
ous and decisive attestation to the gospel, as well
as a suitable, and indeed, in their circumstances,
a necessary qualification for the mission for which
the apostles and their coadjutors were designed.
Nor is there any reason to understand it as merely
an occasional gift so that a person might speak a
language most fluently one hour, and be entirely
ignorant of it the next; which neither agrees
with what is said of the abuse of it, nor would it
have been sufficient to answer the end proposed
(Acts ii). Some appear to have been gifted with
one tongue, others with more. To St. Paul this
endowment was vouchsafed in a more liberal
degree, than to many others ; for, as to the
Corinthians, who had received the gift of tongues,
he says, "that he spake with tongues more than
they all."
GIFTS, SPIMTTJAIi (gifts, splr'tt-a-al), (Gr.
Xapla/J-ara, khar-is' }nah-tah, gifts of grace).
1. Charismata means those "graces" which are
the effects of grace; that is of the outpouring of
llie Holy Ghost, consequent on the ascension of
our Lord into heaven, — all, properly speaking,
subjective: yet St. Paul calls the pardon of sin
in one place (Rom. v:i5), and eternal life in an-
other (16. vi:23), a "charisma;" that is, a gracious
or free gift on the part of God through Christ.
3. Again, subjective graces have been distin-
guished into two classes: (i) those conferring
mere power (gratiae gratis dalae) ; and (2) those
which affect the character (gratiae gratum fa-
cientes). The locus classicus for both is I Cor.
xii to the end of ch. xiv (on which see Bloom-
field, Alford, Cornelius a Lapide, and others),
GIFTS, SPIRITUAL
109
GILBOA
where they are thrown together without much
system or classification.
(a) Of the former class, some were neither
permanent nor universal, as the gift of healing:
others, as for instance, that which he affirms else-
where to be in Timothy by the laying on of his
hands (2 Tim. i ;6 ; comp. i Pet. iv:io) ; in other
words, the gift conferred upon all ministers of the
gospel at their ordination, fitting them for their
respective posts, were permanent, but not uni-
versal. Both were bestowed primarily for the
edification of the whole body ; not but that it
would fare better or worse with each individual
possessed of them according to the way in which
they were used. "The manifestation of the Spirit
is given to every man, to profit withal."
(b) Of the latter class all were permanent and
universal, being designed primarily for individual
sanctification ; all had them therefore without ex-
ception; and anybody might double or quadruple
his share of them by his own exertions. Where
they lay dormant in any, the fault was his own.
Wherever they were cultivated, they would bring
forth, some thirty, some sixty, and some a hun-
dredfold.
(c) "Follow after charity," says the Apostle.
Then, in substance, he goes on to say : This
is a gift of the same character with faith and
hope, permanent and bestowed on all. There-
fore the degree to which you may become pos-
sessed of it rests with yourselves. As you fol-
low after it, so you will obtain it. For those
gifts which are not given to all you can only pray ;
still I enjoin you to pray; and of these "pray
rather that ye may prophesy;" in other words that
ye may "understand the scriptures" (compare
Luke xxiv:45), and be able to interpret them for
the benefit of others, as well as your own ; — a
gift which is permanent, and for the good of all,
like charity. Of ordinary gifts, I have devoted a
whole chapter to show that charity should oc-
cupy the first place: of extraordinary gifts, I pro-
ceed to show in the ensuing chapter my reasons
for considering prophecy, taken in its widest sense,
to be first also ; one is for practice, the other for
information : to understand the scriptures, and
to act upon them aright, for general as well as for
private profit and edification, is to fulfill every
purpose for which grace is vouchsafed.
(d) Prophecy, therefore, will mean here the
gift of expounding, rather than of foretelling
(Corn, a Lap. ad.L), and to the nine extraordi-
nary "charismata" set down here, correspond
the nine ordinary, described as "the fruit of the
Spirit," in the Epistle to the Galalians (v:22).
To these last three more have been added, making
twelve in all ; while faith, hope, and charity have
been contrariwise classified by themselves as the
three theological virtues. E. S. F.
(e) Concerning spiritual gifts Cremer says:
"Their number is as various as the needs of the
Church, and neither the enumeration of i Cor. xii,
nor of Eph. iv, nor Rom. xii can be regarded as
exhaustive. But those are permanent which are
necessary for the government of the Church, and
those temporary which had a miraculous element',
as the miraculous gifts of the apostles. But
among the latter is not to be included the 'gift of
proclaiming the gospel so as to produce faith'
(Weiss). The apostolic charismata bear the same
relation to those of the ministry that the apos-
tolic office does to the pastoral office, and consist
in the power to laythe foundations of the Church.
They are therefore not repeated, as the Irvingites
hold, for there are no circumstances calling for
their repetition." (See article in Schaff-Herzog.)
GIHON (gi'b6n), (Heb. V^"'--, /rhee-khone')-
1. A fountain near Jerusalem. The place out-
side the city to which the young Solomon was
taken to be anointed king was called Gihon, but
its direction is not indicated (i Kings '1.33, 38).
Subsequently King Hezekiah "stopped the upper
water-course (or upper out-flow of the waters)
of Gihon, and brought it straight down to the
west side of the city of David (2 Chron. xxxii :
30; xxxiii:i4). This was, perhaps, on occasion
of the approach of the Assyrian army under Sen-
nacherib, when, to prevent the besiegers from
finding water, great numbers of the people la-
bored with much diligence in stopping the water
of the fountains without the city, and in particu-
lar of 'the brook that ran through the midst of
the land' (2 Chron. xxxii :3. 4). The author of
the book of Sirach (xlviii:i7) also states, that
'Hezekiah brought water into the midst of the
city ; he dug with iron into the rock, and built
fountains for the waters.' The fountain of Gihon
is also mentioned by Josephus. From a compari-
son of these passages the conclusion has been
reached, since confirmed by Dr. Robinson (Re-
searches, i. 313), that there existed anciently a
fountain of Gihon, on the west side of the city,
which was 'stopped' or covered over by Hezekiah,
and its waters brought by subterraneous chan-
nels into the city. Before that time it would nat-
urally have flowed down through the valley of
Gihon, and probably formed the brook which
was stopped at the same time. Captain Sir
Charles Warren claimed to have traced the di-
verted water course and secured the stone plug,
twelve inches in length, with which the drain was
stopped (see Harper, Bible and Mod. Disc.) The
fountain may have been stopped, and its waters
thus secured very easily by digging deep and erect-
ing over it one or more vaulted subterranean
chambers.
2. Upper Gihon is commonly identified with Bir-
ket Mamilla, and lower Gihon with Birket es-
Sultan. The former of these pools is less than
half a mile west, the latter not the third of a
mile south, of the Jaflfa gate. These pools, how-
ever, are not now fed by living springs. Largely
on this account the question has been raised in
recent years whether Gihon should not be identi-
fied with the fountain of the Virgin, on the east-
ern slope of Ophel, and distant some 400 yards
from the pool of Siloam, with which it is con-
nected by an ancient tunnel. (Comp. Robinson's
Researches, i. 352, 512-514, Thomson, The Land
and the Book, vol. ii. pp. 494-523, 526-7.)
3. The name of one of the rivers of Paradise.
(See Paradise.)
GILALAI (gtl'a-lai), (Heb. ""1^:?. f^hil-al-lah' ee,
dungy or weighty), o.ie of a number uf priests'
sons, who played an instrument in the company
under Ezra at the time the wall of Jerusalem was
consecrated (Neh. xii -36), B. C. 446.
GIIiBOA (gil-bo'a), (Heb. ^'^^J, ghil-bo'ah, bub-
bling fountain), a mountain memorable for the de-
feat of Saul by the Philistines, where his three
sons were slain, and where he himself died by his
own hand(l Sam.xxviii:4; xxxi;l-8; 2 Sam. i:6-2i).
The circumstances of the narrative would alone
suffice to direct our attention to the mountains
which bound the great plain of Esdraelon on the
southeast, and are interposed between it and the
Jordan valley. Here there are a number of
ridges, with a general direction from northwest
to southeast, separated by valleys running in the
same direction. The largest of these valleys is
GILEAD
710
GILEAD AND BASHAN
the southernmosi : it is a broad deep plain about
two miles and a half wide, and leading direct into
the Jordan valley. This is supposed to be dis-
tinctively (for the plain of Esdraelon is some-
times so called) the Valley of Jezreel. The moun-
tains which bound it on the north appear to be
those of Little Hermon ; and the higher mountains
which bound it on the south undoubtedly form
Mount Gilboa. There is still, indeed, an inhab-
ited village, in whose name of Jelbon that of Gil-
boa may be recognized. (Van de Velde, Travels
in S. and P. ii. 368 ff. ; Porter, Handbook, ii. 355
ff . ; Thomson, r/if Land and the Book.)
GILEAD (gn'e-ad), (Heb. ''?H ghil-awd: ,
mound of witness).
1. Mountain Bange. A group of mountains
connected with Lebanon by means of Mount' Her-
mon. It begins not far from the latter, and ex-
tends southward to the sources of the brooks
Jabbok and Arnon, thus enclosing the whole
eastern part of the land beyond the Jordan (Gen.
xxxi:2i; Cant. iv:i). According to Michaelis
(^Mos. Rccht, i. 86), this mountain, which gave
its name to the country so called, must be situated
beyond the region sketched in our maps, and
somewhere about the Euphrates.
2. Beyond the Jordan, (a) The name of a
large district beyond the Jordan, continually men-
tioned in the Scriptures in contradistinction to,
or apart from, Bashan (Deut. iii:i3; Josh, xii :
5; xiii:ii: xvii:i; 2 Kings x:33; I Chron. v:
16; Mic. vii:i4) ; though, to judge from its geo-
graphical position (as given Num.xxxii :26 ; Deut.
iii:i2), it must have comprised the entire posses-
sions of the two tribes of Gad and Reuben, and
even the southern part of Manasseh (Deut. iii:
13; Num. xxxii:4o; Josh. xvii:i-6). The cities
Ramoth, Jabesh, and Jazer, are usually designated
as lying in Gilead.
This region was distinguished for its rich pas-
tures (Num. xxxii:l) and aromatic simples;
from which latter different sorts of balsam were
prepared — facts confirmed by modern travelers,
Seetzen, Burckhardt, etc., with the addition that
the whole region is covered with groups of lime-
stone mountains, intersected by fertile valleys.
(6) The name of the whole eastern part of the
Jordan (Deut. xxxiv;i; comp. 2 Kings x:33;
Judg. XX :i). The name Gilead continued to be
used, in a general and geographical sense, even
after the exile (l Mace, v, etc.). Josephus
(Antiq. xiii:i3, s) designates it as a part of
Arabia, while its special and topographical name
was Peraa.
3. A City. A city of this name is apparently
mentioned Hos. vi:8; so, at least, it is given in
most of the ancient and modern versions, though
the meaning may only be that Gilead is (like)
a city full of iniquity, i. e. a union of iniquitous
people.
GIIiEAD (Heb. as above).
1. Son of Machir (Num. xxvi 129, 30). (B. C.
between 1874 and 1668.)
2. Father of Jephthah (Judg. xi:i, 2). Per-
haps the name is used as a personification of a
community (verses 7, 8). (B. C. before 1256.)
3. A descendant of Gad, and ancestor of the
Gadites of Bashan (i Chron. v:i4). (B. C. be-
fore 781.) E. M.
OILEAB and BASHAN (gil'e-ad and ba'shan),
as connected with the pre-Mosaic Manassite con-
quest.
(1) Legal Rights of Women. "Then came
the daughters of Zelophehad . . . and they
stood before Moses . . . saying, 'Our father
died in the wilderness . . . and had no sons
. . . Give us therefore a possession among the
brethren of our father.' And Moses brought their
case before the Lord. And the Lord spake unto
Moses, saying, 'The daughters of Zelophehad
speak right. Thou shalt surely give them a pos-
session of an inheritance among their father's
brethren ; and thou shalt cause the inheritance
of their father to pass unto them'" (Num.
xxvii:l-8). This decision became the basis of a
law in Israel in relation to the rights of daugh-
ters. The incident of these heiresses occurs in
the tribe of Manasseh, after the later of the two
"numberings," and this "numbering" had shown
that the tribe of Manasseh had an increase of
more than thirty-three per cent, over the highest
increase which had been shown by any other
tribe.
(2) Pre-Mosaic Share of Manasseh. The
claim of the heirs and the great increase of this
tribe seem both to have resulted from the same
antecedent, and this antecedent was the conquest
and annexation of the kingdoms of Sihon and Og.
In that conquest it seems evident that the tribe
of Manasseh had a pre-Mosaic share. Immediately
after that conquest, Moses received a request from
the two preeminently pastoral tribes Gad and
Reuben only, to be allowed to settle in the newly
acquired territory. Their wish was granted on
the ground of their possession of "much cattle,"
but in that concession is also included "the half
tribe of Manasseh," although no petition seems to
have come from the leaders of this tribe. The
request comes from two tribes, and the concession
is made to two and a half. The half of Mount
Gilead and all of Bashan. the kingdom of Og be-
ing awarded to the half tribe of Manasseh (Deut.
iii:i3). In connection with this allotment it will
be noted that "the inheritance of their fathers"
which is awarded to the daughters is spoken of as
if it were ready for them, not future, but waiting
to be filled. It appears that there was some clear-
ly established title which was so well known at
the time as not to require any explanation ; and
what could the Manassite title to eastern ter-
ritory be founded upon, if not upon pre-Mosaic
conquests?
The name of Gilead which is borne by a por-
tion of the country is another very significant
point. Gilead was the third in descent from Jo-
seph, Manasseh being his grandfather, and the
"sons of Gilead" in Num. xxvi 130 appear as "male
children of Manasseh." If on the older historical
theory that the Manassite line shared the oppres-
sion in Egypt, went out at the Exodus, and
merely took part in the Sihon-Og campaign with
the rest of Israel, how can we account for the
fact that this region bears the name of a Manas-
site prince who had been dead long ago and was
buried in Egypt?
But suppose Machir, the grandson of Joseph
and his heir by adoption, to have led a victorious
settlement north eastward from the Egyptian
frontier, with all of his grandfather's Egyptian in-
fluence to second him, and we can see at once
why his eldest son should share the name of the
region which he first won by conquest. This
would be similar to the case of Cain who^ called
"the name of the city" which "he builded" after
"the name of his son Enoch" (Gen. iv.17).
We need not suppose that the whole of the re-
gion of Gilead and Bashan had been previously
won and held by Machir and his sons, but mere-
ly that so far as those areas had been conquered,
the achievement had been Manassite.
GILEAD AND BASHAN
711
GILEADITES. THE
There is an old psean of victory recorded in
Num. xxi. Verse 27 is the beginning of the
exultation of Sihon the Amorite over Moab, but
later comes the triumph of Israel over Sihon.
Sihon and his people were exterminated (Deut.
ii:34). How then was this Amorite pxan pre-
served? The conquered Moabitcs would not
have treasured up Sihon's song of victory over
them and passed it on to the Israelites, of whom
they had a fear and a jealousy (Num. xxii:4).
But if there was a Manassite settlement there
which had witnessed the crushing defeat of Moab,
and heard the song on the lips of the victorious
Amorites, the whole difficulty vanishes.
(3) Points in Deuteronomic Law. There are
some points in Deuteronomic law which may be
considered in connection with this matter: It
has often been urged against the law of "the land-
mark" and the curse against who "removes" it,
and especially in reference to the phrase "which
they of old time have set in thine inheritance,"
that such a law implies the long settled habits
of land in traditional possession, and therefore
is inconsistent with legislation for lands which
are yet to be won.
But suppose that the Manassiies were resuming
their heritage, from which they had been tempo-
rarily expelled by the Amorites, and with all the
old landmarks still in place, and we have exactly
the situation of all others to call for such a law.
(See Landmark.)
The same or nearly so, may be said of the law
forbidding usury (Deut. .xxiii :i9-2o) between Is-
raelites but permitting it towards aliens. The
situation is that of nearly one third of the na-
tion newly and suddenly settled by conquest, while
the remainder has its heritage yet to win. All
the available capital of this remainder might be
employed by the newly settled portion ; while the
alien races with whom Israel had been brought
into contact, Edom, Moab and Ammon offered a
similar field for loans with interest. Eastern
Manasseh having the advantage of earlier posses-
sion and domestication on the spot might readily
avail themselves of this condition. Thus if ever a
law in reference to usury was necessary it would
be now.
(4) Property Regranted to Heirs of Early
Owners. The conquests of Sihon and Og must
have narrowed or absorbed the Machir-Jair ter-
ritory, but the earlier settlement of this people is
indicated in Num. xxxii :34. We are there told
that the Gadites and Reubenites "build" (perhaps
rebuild after the havoc of war) certain cities,
but no such thing is said of the Manassites, only
tlieir conquests are recited. The Manassites prob-
ably did not rebuild, because their cities were not
destroyed, they, the former owners being pres-
ent on the spot to reclaim their lost ownership.
Thus what Moses did was to regrant, either the
whole, or a large part of the earlier Manassite
area to the posterity of Machir and Gilead. " And
thusthe Mosaic and the Joshuan narratives har-
monize with each other and all obscurities are
cleared as soon as we comprehend the fact of this
earlier conquest.
(5) Testimony of Jephthah. A little later
we find Jephthah "the Gileadite" arguing with
the children of Ammon, and claiming that for three
hundred years "Israel dwelt in Heshbon and
her tovyns, and in Aroer and her towns, and in all
the cities that be along by the coasts of Arnon"
(Judg. xi:26). And this was a portion of the
very region which Moses had obtained by the
Sihon-Og conquest. We read in Judges xi:i,
that "Gilead begat Jephthah" and Jephthah would
of course have kept the tradition of his fa-
thers.
(6) The Song of Deborah. The designation
of the great elder branch of Joseph's house by
its sub-patriarch Machir is confirmed by that
early document, the Song of Deborah (Judg. v:
14-17). When "Gilead abode beyond Jordan,"
and Reuben hesitated, "out of Machir there came
down chieftains" to aid the cause of western pa-
triotism. Machir doininatcs the western, and
Gilead the eastern branch of the tribe, and they
each held their own policy. This suggests that
Machir ben-Manasseh never lost the supremacy
of his whole tribe. Having established his son
in "the Gilead" and given him its name, he may
have returned to Goshen.
(7) Havoth-Jair of Bashan. We now see
why Moses in Deut. iii ;i4 speaks of the "Havoth-
Jair of Bashan" being so called "unto this day,"
a phrase singularly frigid, if the whole series of
events concerned had happened since the death
of Aaron, and one which has furnished an op-
portunity for the "higher criticism ' to impugn a
Mosaic Deuteronomy, but the phrase recovers its
suspended animation the moment the light of
rectified history falls upon it.
(8) Reunion of a Severed Tribe. We also
see now why the total of the Manassite tribe
jumps up sixty-three and more per cent, at the
second census (Num. xxvi 134, 35). It was evi-
dently by the reunion of long severed mem-
bers.
(9) Machir. We see also why Machir becomes
an eponymous hero, and why he is singled out
and erected into a patriarchal status in Numbers,
Deuteronomy, Joshua and Judges. He was in
fact' the morning star of eastern conquest, pre-
luding the brilliant campaign of Moses and in his
posterity conducing to its completeness. In the
case of Zelophehad's daughters, they claimed to
represent and embody the title of descent from
Machir, Gilead and Hepher to a heritage which
had come down through some two centuries of
user, and had only been interrupted through an
intrusive hostile possession. That intrusion hav-
ing ceased, their patrimony lies before them in
concrete fact, and they claim to be invested with
it. On its settlement in their favor follows the
further one of limiting their right of matrimonial
choice (,Num. xxxvi:6).
(10) Conclusion. The case emerges exactly
where we ought to find it, if the main lines of
the Exodus history are true. The numbering of
Numbers xxvi brought the tnain stock and the
dissevered branch of "Joseph" together in con-
scious unity. The latter comes into touch with
the hopes and fortunes of Israel as a whole; and
therefore the question is settled, not by any court
of mere tribal elders, but by the highest jurisdic-
tion of the nation now realizing its corporate ca-
pacity. The broad side light thus shed on the
narrative of the ensuing Joshuan occupation can-
not be without important exegetical influence
as we read, for indeed it is shed from a lost page
of patriarchal history. (See Gilead and Bashan,
or the Pre-Mosaic Manassite Conquest, by Henry
Hayman, D. D., Bihliotheca Sacra, Jan., 1898.)
GILEADITES, THE (gn'ead-ites),(Heb. "li'^f".
ghil-aw-dee'^, descendants of Gilead who formed
a branch of the tribe of Manasseh (Judg. xii:4, 5;
x:3; 2 Sam. xvii:27; xix:3i; I Kings ii:7; Ezra ii:6i;
Neh. vii:63). They had a long standing feud ap-
parently with the Ephraimites (Judg. xii:4).
GILGAL
712
GIRGASHITES
GILGAL (gil'gal), (Heb. ''>t^},ghil-gawr , circle,
wheel).
1. The place where ihe Israelites formed their
first encampment in Palestine, and which contin-
ued for some time to be their headquarters while
engaged in the conquest of the land (Josh, iv :
19, 20; ix:6; x :6, 7, etc.). It was here that they
set up the twelve stones which they took out of
the bed of the Jordan (iv:i9). (See Stones.)
It is uncertain whether this town or another place
of the name was on Samuel's circuit (l Sam. vii :
16), and where, it may be judged, Saul, the oppo-
sition to him having ceased, was made king and
the kingdom renewed (xi:i5). At any rate, it
was at Gilgal in the Jordan valley where a muster
of the people took place to form an army which
should encounter the Philistines then oppressing
the land, when Saul, finding it difficult to hold
the people together until Samuel should come and
offer sacrifice, himself offered burnt offerings (xiii:
4, 7, 8; comp. 12-15). For his disobedience the
forfeiture of his kingdom was announced to him
(13, 14). There, too, Saul incurred a second re-
buke for his disobedience in sparing Agag (xv:
12, 21, 33; comp. 34). It was to Gilgal also that
the representatives of the tribe of Judah went to
welcome David back after the death of Absa-
lom (2 Sam. xix;is, 40). Like other holy places,
it became a focus of idolatry under the kings
who succeeded Jeroboam, and it was in conse-
quence denounced by the prophets (Hos. iv:is;
ix:is; xii:ii; Amos iv;4; v;5). It is probably
the house of Gilgal or Bethgilgal mentioned after
the captivity (Neh. xii :29). Its site is Jiljfilieh, a
ruin two miles east of Jericho. (Davis, Did. of
the Bible.)
2. A place in the region of Dor, whose king
was subdued by Joshua (Josh, xii 123). The Gil-
gal of Neh. xii 129, and i Mace, ix :2, is probably
the same as this ; as well as the ancient Galgala,
which Eusebius and Jerome place six Roman
miles north of Antipatris. In this neighborhood
there is still a village called Jiljuleh, which prob-
ably represents the ancient site.
3. A place on the northern boundary of Judah
(Josh. XV 7). In the parallel list of Josh, xviii :
17, it is given as Geliloth, probably Jiljulieh, a lit-
tle north of the brook K4nah, and five miles north-
east by north of Antipatris.
4. The place where Elisha worked the miracle
of healing on the poisonous pottage (2 Kings iv:
38). It was also the last scene of the life_ of
Elijah. There is a ruin fifteen miles from Dios-
polis, called Jiljiilieh, which probably marks the
location of the ancient Gilgal. (See Van de
Velde's Map, and Rob. iii:i39-)
GILOH (gi'Ioh), (Heb. ^'?, ghee-lo' , exile), a
city of Judah (Josh.xv:5i). It was the native place
of Ahithophet (2 Sam. xv;i2), and to which he re-
turned to take his life (2 Sam. xvii:23).
GILONITE, THE (gi'lo-nite). {Vl^\,,'^'P"':, ghee-
io-nee',) a native of Giloh, used only of Ahithophel
(2 Sara. xv:i2; xxiii;34).
GIMEL (gi'mel or gim-el), (Heb. .").
The third letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The
Greek letter gamma, and consequently the English
C have the same origin : but in the spelling of He-
brew and Greek names in the English versions,
gimel and gamma (though not these letters only)
are represented by G, their approximate equiva-
lent in sound and a form fabricated out of C.
Gimel stands at the head of the third section
of Ps. cxix in several versions, since each verse
of the section begins with this letter in the
original. (Davis, Bib. Diet.)
GIKZO (gim'zo), (Heb. "t?i ghim-zo' , a place
fertile in sycamores), a city in the south of Judah,
which the Philistines took from Ahaz (2 Chron.
xxviii:i8). The name remains in the modern
Jintzu, two and a half miles south of Lydda (Rob.
ii:24Q).
GIN (jin), an old English word for trap, which is
represented by two Hebrew words.
1. Mo-kashe' (Heb. ^T-'"' a noose or "snare," as
elsewhere rendered (Ps. cxl:5; Amos iii:5).
2. Pakh (Heb. '^i), a plate of metal, hence a
trap (Job xviii:9; Is. viii:i4); elsewhere "snare."
GINATH (gi'nath), (Heb. •"'^'r', Q-hee-natk' , der-
ivation uncertain), father of Tibni, who disputed
with Omri for the Kingdom of Israel (I Kings
xvi:2l, 22), B. C. before 926.
GINNETHO (gin-ne-tho), (Heb. same as Ginne-
THON), one of the heads of the priests who returned
from captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii:4), B. C.
S36-410.
GINNETHON (gin'ne-thon), (Heb. T-"^^?, ^/z/«-
tieth-one' , a gardener), one of the priests who
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x;6).
He was head of a family of which a member is
mentioned at a late period (Neh. xii:i6j. Probably
the same as Ginnetho.
GIRBLE (ger'd'l). See Arms, Armor; Dress;
Priest, Hebrew Priesthood; Abnet.
Figurative. (I) God's girding himself im-
ports his giving noted displays of his almighty
power, and his readiness to act 1 Ps. xciiiil and
xlv:3). (2) His girding others witli strength or
gladness is his exciting and enabling them to do
great exploits, and his filling their hearts with
joy and pleasure (Ps. xviii :32, 39, and xxx:
II). (3) He girded Cyrus; encouraged and
enabled him to conquer the nations (Is.
xlv:5); but he /ooses the bond of kings, and
girds their loins witli a girdle, when he strips
them of their power and authority, and reduces
them to the condition of servants (Job xii:i8).
(4) Christ's love, power, equity, and faithfulness
are the girdle of his breast or loins, whereby he
is qualified for the discharge of his priestly and
kingly office ; and whereby we hold him by faith
(Is. xi:5; Dan. x:s; Rev. i:i3). (5) The Jews
are likened to a linen girdle hid in the bank of
the river Euphrates, and marred: after God had
caused them to cleave to him by covenant, by pro-
fession, and receipt of special favors, he, for their
sins, marred them ; and by the Chaldean troops,
and in the Chaldean captivity, reduced them to a
very low condition (Jer. xiii:i-i4). (6) The
saints have their loins girded when they are in
constant readiness to receive God's gracious fa-
vors, and obey his laws (Luke xii :35; i Pet.i:i3).
(7) Their loins are girt about with truth, when
they are thoroughly established in the faith and
experience of Divine truth ; are filled with inward
candor and sincerity; and pay an exact regard
to their promises and vows ; how excellently this
qualifies them to fight the Lord's battles ( Eph.
vi:l4). (8) The seven angels that pour out de-
structive vials on Antichrist are girded zi'ith gold-
en girdles; they are fully furnished with strength
and courage, and are ready for and zealous in their
work (Rev. xv:6).
GIRGASHITES (gir'ga-shites), ( Heb. ^^'^T^^,
hag-^Jiir-gaw-shee' , "the Girgashite"). one of the
familiesof Canaan, whoare supposed to have been
GIRL
713
GLASS
settled in that part Of the country which lay to the
east o( the Lake of Gennesaret.
The Girgashites are conjectured to have been a
part of the large family of the Hivites, as they
are omitted in nine out of ten plaacs in which
the nations or families of Canaan are mentioned,
while in the tenth they are mentioned, and the
Hivites omitted. Josephus states that nothing
but the name of the Girgashites remained in his
time iAittiq. i. 6, 2). In the Jewish Commen-
taries of R. Nachman, and elsewhere, the Gir-
gashites are described as having retired into
Africa, fearing the power of God. The notion
that the Girgashites did migrate seems to have
been founded on the circumstance that, although
thi-y are included in the list of the seven devoted
nations either to be driven out or destroyed by
the Israelites (Gen. xv:ao, 21: Deut. vii:i; Josh.
iii:io; xxivril). yet they are omitted in the list
of those to be utterly destroyed (Deut. xx:i7),
and are mentioned among those with whom,
contrary to the Divine decree, the Israelites lived
and intermarried (Judg.iii :i-6). "TheGirgashite"
as an appellation of the fifth son of Canaan (Gen.
x:i6). Elsewhere the term is tribal.
OrRli (gerl), (Heb. ~'^?-, yaZ-i/aw' , literally, one
born), in the ordinary sense (Joel iii;3; Zech. viii:5),
a marriageable girl was called "damsel" (Gen.
xxxiv;4).
OISFA (gis'pa), (Heb. **?'■??, ghish-paw'), an
overseer of the Nethinims after the return from
Babylon (Neh. xi;2i), B. C. 446.
GITTAH-HEPHEK (git ' tah-he'pher), (Heb.
"'I'"!'"'^''?.^, f;hit-taw-khaffer. Josh. xix:i3). See
Gath-hepher.
GITTAIM (git'ta-im or git-ta'tm), (Heb. C*n?,
ghit-tah'yim, two winepresses), a place to which
the inhabitants of Beeroth fled for refuge appar-
ently (2 Sam. iv:3). Beeroth was a town of the
Gibeonites (Josh. ix:l7), and the cause of the flight
may have been the persecutions of Saul (2 Sam.
xxi:2).
GITTITES (git'tltes), (Heb. "»!*, ghit-tee'), in-
habitants or natives of Gath (Josh. xiii:3). Obed-
edum, although a Levite, is called a Gittite (2 Sam.
vi:io), possibly because he had been with David
when at Gath, but much more probably from his
being a native of Gath-rimmon, which was a
city of the Levites.
There seems no reason for extending this in-
terpretation to Ittai (2 Sam. xv.ip), seeing that
David expressly calls him 'a stranger' (foreigner),
and, what is more, 'an exile.' He was at the
head of 600 men, who were also Giitites, for they
are called (verse 22) his "brethren.' They app<;ar
to have formed a foreign troop of experienced
warriors, chiefly from Gath, in the pay and service
of David ; which they had perhaps entered in the
first instance for the sake of sharing in the booty
obtainable in his wars. We can conceive that
the presence of such a troop must have been use-
ful to the king in giving to the Hebrew army
that organization and discipline which it did not
possess before his time.
GITTITH (gtt'tith), (Heb. "'"PiT hag-git-teeth' \.
a word which occurs in the title of Ps. viii., Ixxxi.,
Ixxxiv. (See Psalms, Book of.)
The conjectures of interpreters as to its im-
port are various. Some think it signifies a sort of
musical instrument, invented at Gath; others that
the Psalms with this title were sung during the
vintage. The word Gath, from which tliis is the
leminine gentile form, signifies wine-pres%
GIZONITE, THE (gl'zo-nlte), (Heb. N^'?. ghee-
zo-nee'), an appellation of Hashem, whose sons
belonged to David's guard (i Chron. xi:34). No
place of this name is known. Kennicott suggests
that this name should be Count (Dissert, pp.
199-203).
OIZBITES (giz'rites). S.ee Gerzites, The.
GLASS (glas), (Heb. W-, ghit-law-yone , Is.
iii:23i, mirrors, polished metal plates.
(1) How Discovered. Glass, according to
Pliny (Hist. i\'at. xxxvi:26), was discovered by
what is termed accident. Some ijierchants kindled
a fire on that part of the coast of Phoenicia which
lies near Ptolemais, between the foot of Carmel
and Tyre, at a spot where the river Belus casts
the fine sand which it brings down ; but. as they
were without ihe usual means of suspending their
cooking vessels, they employed for that purpose
logs of niter, their vessel being laden with that
substance ; the fire fusing the niter and the sand
produced glass. The Sidonians, in whose vicini-
ty the discovery was made, took it up. and hav-
ing in process of time carried the art to a high
degree of excellence, gained thereby both wealth
and fame. Other nations became their pupils; the
Romans especially attained to very high skill in
the art of fusing, blowing, and coloring glass.
(2) Known to the Egyptians. Wilkinson, in
his Ancient Egyptians (iii:88, sq.), has adduced
the fullest evidence that glass was known to and
made by the Egyptian people at a very early
period of their national existence. Upward of
3,500 years ago, in the reign of the first Osirtasen,
ihey appear to have practiced the art of blowing
glass. The process is represented in the paintings
of Beni Hassan, executed in the reign of that
monarch. In the same age images of glased pot-
tery were common. Ornaments of glass were
made by them about 1,500 years B. C. ; for a
bead of that date has been found, being of the
same specific gravity as that of our crown glass.
Many glass bottles, etc., have been met with in
the tombs, some of very remote antiquity. Glass
vases were used for holding wine as early as
the exodus. Such was the skill of the Egyptians
in this manufacture, that they successfully counter-
feited the amethyst, and other precious stones.
It was sometimes used by the Egyptians even
for coffins. They also employed it, not only for
drinking utensils, and ornaments of the person,
but for mosaic work, the figures of deities, and
sacred emblems, attaining to exquisite workman-
ship, and a surprising brilliancy of color. The
art too of cutting glass was known to them at
the most remote periods ; for which purpose, as
we learn from Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxvii:4), the
diamond was used. That the ancients had mirrors
of glass is clear from the above cited words of
Pliny; but the mirrors found in Egypt are made
of mixed metal, chiefly copper. So admirably did
Ihe skill of the Egyptians succeed in the com-
position of metals, that their mirrors were sus-
ceptible of a polish which has been but partial-
ly revived at the present day. The mirror was
nearly round, having a handle of wood, stone, or
metal. The form varied with the taste of the
owner. The same kind of metal mirror was
used by the Israelites, who. doubtless, brought it
from Egypt'. In Exod. xxxviii :8, it is expressly
said that Moses 'made the laver of brass of the
looking-glasses (brazen mirrors) of the wom-
en.'
(3) Known to the Hebrews. It would be
justifiable to suppor.e that the Hebrews brought
glass, and a knowledge how to manufacture it.
GLEAN
;i4
GLORY
with them out of Egypt, were not the evidence
of history so explicit that it was actually dis
covered and wrought at their own doors. Whether
it was used by them for mirrors is another ques-
tion. That glass, however, was known to the
Hebrews appears beyond a doubt. In Job xxviii;
17, i^'?''!, zek-00-keeth, is believed to mean glass,
though it is rendered 'crystal' in the English Ver-
sion.
(4) New Testament Keferences. In Rev.
xxi:i8, we read 'The ciiy was pure gold, like unto
clear glass;' ver. 21, 'as it were transparent glass'
(compare c. iv:6). 'Molten glass' also occurs
in Job xxxvii:i8, but the original is Heb. '''5'
razv-dccd.' spreading. Winer, referring to Beck-
man (Beitrage zur Gcsch. der Erfindung, iii:
319), expressly denies that glass mirrors were
known till the thirteenth century — adding that
they are still seldom seen in the East. That in
the New Testament a mirror is iniended in Jam.
i :23, 'beholding his natural face in a glass,' ap-
pears certain ; but the signification of the other
passage in which the word eaoirrpov, mirror, oc-
curs, is by no means so clear. If by ((totttpov
a metal mirror is to be understood, the language
employed is not without difficulties. The preposi-
tion Sii., 'through,' is in such a case improper;
'face to face' presents an equally improper con-
trast, for in a mirror 'face answers to face' (Prov.
xxvii:i9). So the general import of the passage
seems to require an imperfectly transparent medi-
um, through which objects are beheld. It may
have been the laf'is spcctilaris, or a kind of talc,
of which the ancients made their windows. This
opinion is confirmed by Schleusner, who says that
the Jews used a similar mode of expression to
describe a dim and imperfect view of mental
objects. J. R. B.
There are instances, however, both in the classic
Greek of Sophocles and Xenophon, and often in
the Greek of the New Testament, wherein dia
means by means of, and expresses mere instru-
mentality. See Acts xx :28 ; Eph. i 7 ; Col. i:22;
Hcb. i.x :26; many more may be cited.
Figurative. The figurative use of glass al-
ready referred to may be further amplified as
follows: (I) The word and ordinances of God
are a glass; in them we see our own sins,
wants, or graces; have imperfect views of Jesus
and his Father, and of eternal things, and have
our heart warmed by ihem (Jam. i :23. 25 ; 2
Cor. iii:i8). (2) When the ceremonial and gospel
ordinances are compared, the former are called a
shadow, which gives a very imperfect view of
the thing represented ; but the latter are called a
glass, in which we see spiritual things much more
clearly (Col. ii:i7; Heb. x:i: 2 Cor. iii:i8). {3)
The new Jerusalem is like unto transparent glass,
for its beauty and glory, and ihe delightful views
of Divine things enjoyed in it (Rev. xxi:i8, 21).
(4) The sea of glass mingled with fire before the
throne of God, on which the saints stand, m.iy
denote the righteousness of Jesus mingled with
flaming love and fiery sufferings, and which in-
deed is the support and encouragement of the
saints before God: or the glorious gospel, at-
tended with the influences of the Holy Ghost,
to uphold and embolden them; or a pure and
holy church actuated with burning zeal for the
glory of God (Rev. iv:6, and xv:2).
GLEAN (glen), (Heb. ^y-"",, lawkat' , to pick up;
''ilV, avj-lal).
The Hebrews were not permitted to go over
their trees or fields a second time, to gather the
fruit or the grain, but were to leave the gleanings
for the poor, the fatherless, and the widow (Lev.
xix:io; xxiii:22; Deut. xxiv:2i; Ruth ii:7, 8, 15;
Judg. viii:2).
GLEDE (gled), (Deut. xiv:i3), is an obsolete
name for the common kite, adopted in our version
for '^??, raw-aw', or, as Gesenius thinks, '"'?'?.
da'ah.
It is a species that rises to a towering height,
hangs apparently motionless in the sky, and darts
down with immense velocity ; but the legs and
claws being weak, it is cowardly, and feeds upon
carrion, fish, insects, mice, and small birds. The
bill of this species is dark; head and throat whit-
ish, with brown streaks ; body above dark gray
brown, pale ferruginous below ; tail but slightly
forked ; legs yellow. It is found in hieroglyphic
paintings, colored with sufficient accuracy not to
be mistaken. The other species, which mav be
held as the Milvus ater, is the black kite, Falco
melanopierus, Daudin; Elanus Ccesius, Savigny;
Falco Souninensis, Lath. ; Le Blac, Le Vaill., and
Kouhich of the Arabs. It has the head, neck, and
back dark rusty gray ; scapulars bordered with
rusty; wing-coverts and primaries black, the last-
mentioned tipped with white; tail rusty gray
above, white beneath ; bill dark ; legs yellow. The
manners of both species are much the same; it is
likely that' they are equally abundant at Cairo,
and spread into Palestine. (See Hawk.)
C. H. S.
GLISTER, GLISTERING (glis'ter-ing), (Gr.
iiaarpiTTTu, ex-as-trap' to\, to be radiant (Luke ix:
29; compare I Chron. xxix:2).
The three verbs 'glisten,' 'glister,' and 'glitter'
come from the same Teutonic base, gli, to shine,
'glitter' being traced to the Scandinavian, 'glisten'
and 'glister' being apparently English in their
earliest form. 'Glister' is simply a frequentative
form of 'glisten.' It has been superseded by the
modern "glitter." "All that glisters is not gold "
— Shakespeare.
GLORIFY (glo'ri-fi), (Heb. same as Glory).
1. To make glorious or honorable, or to cause
to appear so (John xii :28 ; xiii :3i, 32 ; xv :8 ; xvii :
4, 5; xxi:i9; Acts iii:i3). In this view it par-
ticularly refers to the resurrection of Christ, and
his ascension to the right hand of God (John
vii :39; xii :i6).
2. The change which shall pass upon believers
at the general resurrection, and their admission
into heaven (Rom. viii ;i7).
3. To glorify (i Cor. vi :20) is to "show
forth his praise" by obedience to his law. Thus
the "heavens declare the glory of God" in obedi-
ence to the law of creation, and much more do
men glorify him by willing obedience to the moral
law (i Cor. x:3i; John xvii:5).
4. To glorify one's self is to claim or boast of
honor not due to one (Heb. v:s, and Rev. xviii:
7).
GLORY (glo'ry), in the A. V. represents the
Heb. word ^'^p, kaw-bode' , weight, and the Gr. J4fa,
dox' ah.
Full details as to the various Hebrew words
must be sought in the Hebrew lexicon or in com-
mentaries on the various passages. Generally
speaking, the English term is sufficiently clear
from the context m spite of the number of the
Hebrew words which it renders.
GLORY
715
GNOSTICISM
The appearances of what is termed 'the glory
of Jehovali,' Sept. WJo Kvpiov, the Shechinah
of the Rabbins, so often referred to in the Old
Testament, seem to have originated certain uses
of the word, in the sense of light, and visible
splendor and numerous applications of these
senses among the Hellenistic writers. It is first
distinctly called by this term in E.\od. xvi .7, 10.
It is described as being like a bright fire (Exod.
xxiv:i7), and as attended with a cloud (Exod.
xl :34, 35). It is probable that the tradition of
these phenomena influenced the representations
of heathen poets, who so often describe the ap-
pearances of the deities as attended by a cloud,
with a brightness in it (see Taubmann's Notes
on yirgil). It is believed that the classical Greek
writers never use Sd^a in the sense of /i,^/it or
splendor. The nearest instance yet adduced is
from Plutarch {Nieias, torn. i. p. 538, E), who
speaks of 'the glory of Plato shining forth.' It
answers very frequently, in the Sept., to the He-
brew Kazvbode (Exod. xxiv:i7, 40; xxxiv :35 ;
Deut. v:24, etc.), down to the Captivity.
The following instances are offered of the
Hellenistic uses, allusions, or applications of the
word, originated by the events above mentioned:
(i) Matt, vi :29. 'Solomon in all his glory; i. e.
visible magnificence, as opposed to the clothing,
called 'array' of the lilies. (2) I Cor. xv:4i, "the
glory, i. e., luster, of the sun, moon, and stars.' (3)
Jesus is called (Heb. i:3), diraii7oo-/xo t^s hbi,rj%,
'the effulgence of his (the Father's) glory,' an evi-
dent allusion to Ezek. x:4). (4) Rom. i :23, 'the
glory of God' is 'the glorious jorm of God.' (s) 2
Thess. i ig, 'the presence of the Lord and the glory
of his power.' (6) i Tim. vi :i6, 'dwelling in light.'
(7) I Cor. xi 7, 'man is the image and glory of
God,' nietonyni, that which exhibits or reflects
this glory, i. e.. symbol, demonstrations. (8) Other
events would also conduce to such peculiar uses
of the word as the shining of the face of Moses
(comp. Exod. xxxiv :29; 2 Cor. iii 7, 8; iv:6).
(9) The splendor attending the appearance of
angels, especially in later ages (Matt, xxviii :3,
etc.) (10) The transfiguration of Jesus, in which
it is said that Peter, James and John saw his glory
(Luke ix:32; comp. John i:i4; 2 Pet. i:i7,
19). (See Macknight on Phil. iii:2i.) (11)
And since the appearances, etc., alluded to, are
connected with the Deity, the Savior, angels,
etc., the same word is also consistently adopted
to denote the participation in the glory and bless-
edness of these beings which is reserved for the
faithful. Col. iii :4, 'appear with him in glory ;'
2 Cor. iv:i7, 18; 2 Thess. ii:i4, 'the obtaining
of the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ.'
Figurative and yinaiogical. (1) The
Hebrew tawbode is susceptible of the various
analogical meanings which are derived from
its root, viz., 'to be heavy,' 'honored.' 'rich,' etc. ( 1 )
In Gen. xxxi:i, 'all this glory;' Is. x :3, 'your
glory;' lxvi:i2, 'the glory of the Gentiles,' all
mQa.mr\g xnealth, abundance. (2) Ps. Ixxix :9, 'the
glory of thy name,' i. e. honor, reputation. (3)
Is. xxxv:2; lx:i3, comp. x:i8, 'the glory of Leb-
anon,' i. e., ornament. (4) Is. viii :7, 'the king of
Assyria and all his glory,' is rendered by Lowth
'and all his force.'
(2) To be heavy is the primary meaning of the
root ; hence kazv-bed means 'the liver,' the heav-
iest of all the viscera; just as the lungs, the
lightest of all, are in our language called the
lights (Taylor's Heb. Concord). In some passages
it conveys the ideas of the ancients respecting
the bodily seat nf certain passions. Among others,
(.hey thoiight the liver to be the scat of anger
and love. Thus Horace (,Carm. i:i3, 4), describ-
ing jealous anger or resentment — Fervens difHcili
bile tumet jecur, — 'My burning liver swells with
angry bile' (see notes of the Delphin edition.
Comp. Persius, Sat. v:i29; Juvenal, Sat. vi:647).
Thus Ps. xvi :9, 'My heart is glad and' literally,
'my liver rejoiceth.' Gen. xlix :6, 'mine honor'
is rendered by Sept. ri fiirari. iwv, 'my liver.'
Lam. iiiii, is literally rendered by our translators
'My liver is poured upon the earth,' indicating
violent grief.
(3) In some instances the literal rendering of
the Hebrew idiom in our version is attended
with obscurity, (i) i Sam. ii :8, 'throne of glory'
is 'a glorious throne.' (2) Ps. xxiv 17, 8, 'the
king of glory' is 'the glorious or majestic king.'
(3) Ps. xxix:3, 'the God of glory' is 'the glorious
God,' and is so rendered in the Prayer Book Ver-
sion. (4) In the New Testament (Luke ii:9),
'the glory of the Lord shone,' is an extreme splen-
dor (see also Acts vii:2). (5) In i Cor. ii :8,
'Lord of glory' is 'glorious or illustrious Lord.'
(6) Rom. viii;l8, 'spirit of God' and 'spirit of
Christ,' are 'a godly and Christian spirit, temper,
or disposition.' J. F. D.
GLTTTTON (glut't'n), (Hebrew from '--J, zaw-
lal' , to shake, hence to be loose, morally), a deb-
auchee, a voluptuary (Deut. xxi:2o; Prov. xxiii:2l);
"riotous" in Prov. xxiii:20, xxviii:7. "Gluttonous"
(Matt, xirig; Luke vii:34) is a free or fast liver.
GNASH (nish), (Heb. p^P, khaw-rak\ to grate
the teeth; Gr. ^pix'^, broo' kho), "to gnash with the
teeth," and "gnashing of teetli", are expressions
denoting rage or sorrow (Job xvi:9; Lam. ii:i6;
Matt. viii:i2; Acts. vii:54).
GNAT (nat), (Gr. Kiinji/', kolt' nohps,\'\i\g. culex ;
Order, diptera, Linn., culicida, Latr.; occurs in
Matt. xxiii:24).
It is a small insect abounding in marshes and
vexatious by reason of its bite, from which the
Egyptians protected themselves at night by sleep-
ing under nets (Herod. ii:95). It 's evidently
some species of Culex, a genus known by its hairy
antennw, plumed in the males, its proboscis, its
slender body, its two gauzy wings, its long legs
and its blood-sucking propensities.
Figurative. Our Savior's allusion to the
gnat is a kind of proverb, either in use in his
time, or invented by himself, 'Blind guides, who
strain out a gnat, and swallow down (bolt, as
we say) a camel.' He adopts the antithesis of the
smallest insect to the largest animal, and applies
it to those who are superstitiously anxious in
avoiding small faults, yet' do not scruple to com-
mit the greatest sins. The typographical error,
'strain at a gnat,' first found its way into King
James' translation, 1611. It is 'strain out' in the
previous translations. The custom of filtering
wine, among the Jews, for this purpose, was
founded on the prohibition of 'all flying, creep-
ing things' being used for food, excepting the
saltatorii (Lev. xi:23). The custom seems alluded
to by the Sept., which, in Amos vi :6, reads in the
Hebrew, 'filtered wine' — a passage having a simi-
lar scope. According to the Talmud, eating a
gnat incurred scourging or excommunication.
J. F. D.
GNOSTICISM (nSs'tr-stz'm), (Gr. yvHai^ no'sis,
knowing).
(1) 'ithe Decline and Fall of Philosophy. In
the whole history of the human mind there is
not a more instructive chapter, at once strange
and sad, interesting to our curiosity and mortify-
ing I'd our pride, than the history of Platonism
GNOSTICISM
716
GNOSTICISM
sinking into Gnosticism, or, in other words, of
Greek philosophy merging in Oriental mysticism;
showing, on the one hand, the decline and fall of
philosophy, and, on the other, the rise and prog-
ress of syncretism. According to Dr. Burton,
formerly Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford,
Gnosticism is attributed principally to the writ-
ings of Plato, as studied at Alexandria.
(2) The Gnosis of Plato. Though the wis-
dom of Egypt may have influenced the Greeks
and Romans through the mysticism of Pythagoras,
though the Oriental doctrines of Babylon may
have made their way amongst the Jews both of
Jerusalem and Alexandria by means of their Cab-
bala and Talmuds, and though some sects of de-
clared Gnostics may have gone still more di-
rectly to the metaphysical, or rather mystical,
genealogies of the Eastern Magi, still it is the
opinion of Dr. Burton that it was the Greek writ-
ings of Plato which gave the extraordinary im-
pulse of their genius, and, if we may use the
word, of their fashion, to the lost writings of
the Gnostics, as well as to those which remain
to us of Philo and Plotinus ; in a word, that
Platonist, Philonist, and Gnostic, are but emana-
tions at different distances from the Gnosis of
Plato.
(3) The Gnostic Heresy. The greatest dan-
ger to which Christianity was exposed, in its
very early years, arose from that great Gnostic
Heresy, which was long the rival, and too often
the corrupter of its purer doctrines. Gnosticism
was not by any means a new and distinct phi-
losophy, but made up of selections from almost
every system. Thus we find in it the Platonic
doctrine of ideas, and the notion that' every thing
in this lower world has a celestial and imma-
terial archetype. We find in it evident traces of
that mystical and cabalistic jargon which, after
their return from captivity, deformed the religion
of the Jews ; and many Gnostics adopted the
Oriental notion of two independent co-eternal
principles, the one the author of good, and the
other of evil. Lastly, we find the Gnostic theology
full of ideas and terms which must have been
taken from the gospel ; and Jesus Christ, under
some form or other of /Eon, emanation, or in-
corporeal phantom, enters into all their systems,
and is the means of communicating to them
that knowledge which raised them above all other
mortals, and entitled them to their peculiar
name.
(4) Varied Opinions. The genius and very
soul of Gnosticism was mystery: its end and ob-
ject was to purify its followers from the corrup-
tions of matter, and to raise them to a higher
scale of being, suited only to those who were
to become perfect by knowledge. We have a
key to many parts of their system, when we know
that' they held matter to be intrinsically evil, of
which, consequently. God could not be the author.
Hence arose their fundamental tenet, that the
Creator of the world, or Demiurgus. was not the
same with the supreme God. the Author of good,
and the Father of Christ. Their system allowed
some of them to call the Creator God, but the title
most usually given was Demiurgus. Those who
embraced the doctrine of two principles supposed
the world to have been produced by the evil prin-
ciple; and in most systems, the Creator of the
world, and not the Father of Christ, was looked
upon as the God of the Jews, and the author of
the Mosaic law. Some, again, believed that angels
were employed in creating the world : but all were
agreed in maintaining that matter itself was not
created ; that it was eternal ; and that it remained
inactive till the world was formed out of it by
the Creator. The supreme God, according to the
Gnostics, had dwelt from all eternity in a pleroma
of inaccessible light: and beside the name of first
Father, or first Principle, they called him also
Bythos, as if to denote the unfathomable nature
of his perfections. This Being, by an operation
purely mental, or by acting upon himself, pro-
duced two other beings of different sexes, from
whom by a series of descents, more or less numer-
ous according to different schemes, several pairs
of beings were formed, who were called ceons,
from the periods of their existence before time
was, or emanations, from the mode of their pro-
duction. These successive seons or emanations
appear to have been inferior each to the preced-
ing; and their existence was indispensable to the
Gnostic scheme, that they might account for the
creation of the world without making God the
author of evil. These seons lived through count-
less ages with their first Father. But the system
of emanations seems to have resembled that of
concentric circles, and they gradually deteriorated
as they approached nearer and nearer to the ex-
tremity of the pleroma. Beyond this pleroma was
matter, inert and powerless, though co-eternal
with the supreme God, and, like him, without be-
ginning. At length one of the seons passed the
limits of the pleroma, and, meeting with matter,
created the world after the form and model of an
ideal world, which existed in the pleroma, or
the mind of the supreme God.
(5) Inconsistencies. Here it is that incon-
sistency is added to absurdity in the Gnostic
scheme. For let the intermediate aeons be as
many as the wildest imagination could devise, still
God was the remote, if not the proximate cause of
creation. Added to which, we are to suppose that
the Demiurgus formed the world without the
knowledge of God, and that, having formed it, he
rebelled against him. Here again we find a
strong resemblance to the Oriental doctrine of
two principles, good and evil, or light and dark-
ness. The two principles were always at enmity
with each other. God must have been conceived
to be more powerful than matter, or an emanation
from God could not have shaped or molded it into
form : yet God was not able to reduce matter to
its primeval chaos, nor to destroy the evil which
the Demiurgus had produced. What God could
not prevent he was always endeavoring to cure ;
and here it is that the Gnostics borrowed so large-
ly from the Christian scheme. The names, in-
deed, of several of their aenns were evidently
taken from terms which they found in the gos-
pel. Thus we meet with Logos, Monogenes, Zoe,
Ecclesia. all of them successive emanations from
the supreme God, and all dwelling in the pleroma.
At length we meet with Christ and the Holy
Ghost, as two of the last seons which were put
forth. Christ was sent into the world to rem-
edy the evil which the creative seon, or Demiur-
gus. had caused. He was to emancipate men
from the tyranny of matter, or the evil principle ;
and by revealing to them the true God, who was
hitherto unknown, to fit them, by a perfection
and sublimity of knowledge, to enter the Divine
pleroma. To give this knowledge was the end
and object of Christ's coming upon earth: and
hence the inventors and believers of the doctrine
assumed to themselves the name of Gnostics.
(6) Summary. Professor Burton gives a brief
.ind clear summary of the Gnostic doctrines in
the following passage, which well deserves to be
retained in the memory:— 'The system was stated
to have begun with Simon Magus; by which 1
GO ABOUT
717
GOAT
would understand that the system of uniting
Christianity with Gnosiicism began with that her-
etic ; for the seeds of Gnosticism, as we shall sec
presently, had been sown long before. What Si-
mon Magus began was brought to perfection by
Valentinus, who came to Rome in the former
part of the second century; and what we know
oi Gnosticism is taken principally from writers
who opposed Valentinus. Contemporary with
him there were many other Gnostic leaders, who
held different opinions ; but in the sketch which
I have given, I have endeavored to explain those
principles which, under certain modifications, were
common to all the Gnostics. That the supreme
God, or the Good Principle, was not the creator
of the world, but that it was created by an evil,
or at least an inferior being; that God produced
from himself a succession of aeons or emanations,
who dwell with him in the pleroma; that one of
these a;ons was Christ, who came upon earth to
reveal the knowledge of the true God; that he
was not incarnate, but either assumed an unsub-
stantial body, or descended upon Jesus at his
baptism ; that the God of the Old Testament was
not the father of Jesus Christ; that there was no
resurrection or final judgment. This is an outline
of the Gnostic doctrines as acknowledged by
nearly all of them.' J. P. P.
GO ABOUT (go i-bout'), (Gr. jyr^a. dzay-teh'o,
Rom. X :3, to seek); R. V., "seeking to establish."
OOAS (god).
1. (Heb. "'t;^, mal-mawd'), an instrument for
guiding oxen, the long handle of which might be
used also as a formidable weapon (Judg. iii;3l).
"Shamgar the son of Anath, which slew of the
Philistines six hundred men with an oxgoad : and
he also delivered Israel."
2. (Heb. X'^Ti, dor-bone'), anything pointed
and the context of Eccles. xiiiii requires rather
the sense of a peg or nail, anything in short which
can be fastened, while in I Sam. xiii:2i the point
of the plowshare is more probably intended.
Figurative. "It is hard for thee to kick
against the pricks" (Acts ix:5, A. V.), is the meta-
phor of a recalcitrant animal injuring itself against
the oxgoad. The words of the wise are as goads ;
they penetrate into men's minds, and stir them up
to the practice of duty (Eccles. xii;ii).
GOAT (got), (Chaldee, izza; Phoenician, aza;
hra.h\c, Jidda and hedzjaz).
I. A SPECIES OF AXIKALS common to
mountainous regions. Of the several Hebrew de-
nominations of this animal there is no doubt, for the
simple manners of the ancient Semitic nations mul-
tiplied the names of the few objects they had con-
stantly before their eyes; and their domestic ani-
mals, in particular, received abundant general and
distinctive appellations, according to sex, age, race,
and conditions of existence or purpose. Among
these terms are the (Heb. '9% ak-ko' , slender;
'T,, yaw-ale' , cWwAyin^;^"?. , aze, strong; '1'''"^?, at-
tood , prepared, and so leader; ''"'??, saw-eer' ,
shaggy; Gr. lpl<l>u>v,er-ifee-on; rpiyot, trag'os).
1. Races of Goats. The races either known
to or kept by the Hebrew people were probably:
(1) Syrian. The domestic Syrian long-eared
breed, with horns rather small and variously
bent ; the ears longer than the head, and pendu-
lous ; hair long, often black.
(2) Angora. The Angora, or rather Anadoli
breed of Asia Minor, with long hair, more or less
fine.
(3) Egyptian. The Egyptian breed, with small
spiral horns, long brown hair, very long ears.
(4) Hornless. A breed from Upper Egypt,
without horns, having the nasal bones singularly
elevated, the nose contracted, with the lower jaw
protruding the incisors, and the female with ud-
der very low and purse-shaped. This race, the
most degraded by climate and treatment of all the
Syrian Goat
domestic varieties, is clad in long coarse hair,
commonly of a rufous brown color, and so early
distinct, that the earlier monuments of Egypt
represent it with obvious precision.
(5) Wild Goats. Beside the domestic goats,
Western Asia is possessed of one or more wild
species — all large and vigorous mountain animals,
resembling the ibex or bouquetin of the Alps.
Of these. Southern Syria, Arabia, Sinai, and the
borders of the Red Sea. contain at least one spe-
cies, known to the Arabs by the name of Beden
or Beddan, and Taytal — the Capra Jaela of Ham.
Smith, and Capra Sinaitica of Ehrenberg. We
take this animal to be that noticed under the name
of Yau'al, Jaal or Jol, in the plural yoh-lini (i
Sam. xxiv:2; Job xxxix:i; Ps. civ:l8; Prov. v:
19). The male is considerably taller and more
robust than the larger tame he-goats, the horns
forming regular curves backwards, and with from
fifteen to twenty-four transverse elevated cross
ridges, being sometimes near three feet long, and
exceedingly ponderous ; there is a beard under the
chin, and the fur is dark brown ; but the limbs are
white, with regular black marks down the front
of the legs, with rings of the same color above
the knees and on the pasterns. The females are
smaller than the males, more slenderly made,
brighter rufous, and with the white and black
markings on the legs not so distinctly visible.
This species live in troops of fifteen or twenty,
and plunge down precipices with the same fearless
impetuosity which distinguishes the ibc.x. Their
horns are sold by the Arabs for knife handles,
etc. ; but the animals themselves are fast diminish-
ing in number. In Deut. xiv:s Akko is trans-
lated 'wild goat.' Schultens (Origines Hebraicee)
conjectures that the name arose from its shyness,
and consequent readiness to flv.
2. Uses. (1) Sacrifice. The goat was em-
ployed by the people of Israel in many respects
as their representative. Ii was a pure animal
GOAT
718
GOAT
for sacrifice (Exod. xii:s), and a kid might be
substituted as equivalent to a lamb. Regarding
sacrificial offerings we are told Ihat Aaron look
two he-goats for a sin-offering for the children of
Israel (Lev. xvi:5). These he placed before the
Lord at the door of the tabernacle (xvi:7). He
cast lots upon them; one lot 'for the Lord' and
Wild Goat of Sinai.
one lot 'for Azazel' (xvi:8). The goat upon
which the lot for the Lord fell (xvirg) he offered
for a sin-offering. After the expiation was com-
pleted, the second goat, on which fell the lot for
Azazel, was brought forward (xvirio). (See
Goat IL, Scapegoat.) He was first placed before
the Lord to absolve him. Then Aaron laid his
hands upon his head, and confessed over him the
(forgiven) iniquities, transgressions, and sins of
the children of Israel, put them upon his head,
and gave him to a man to take away, in order that
he might bear the sins of the people into a soli-
tary land (xvi:22), into the desert, for Azazel
(xvi:io). Then Aaron offered a burnt-offering
for himself, and one for the people.
(2) Food. The goat formed a principal part
of the Hebrew flocks ; and both the milk and
the young kids were daily articles of food. Among
the poorer and more sober shepherd families, the
slaughter of a kid was a token of hospitality to
strangers, or of unusual festivity ; and the pro-
hibition, thrice repeated in the Mosaic law, 'not
to seethe a kid in its mother's milk' (Exod. xxiii :
19; xxxiv:26; and Deut. xiv:2i), may have orig-
inated partly in a desire to recommend abste-
miousness, which the legislators and moralists of
the East have since invariably enforced with suc-
cess, and partly with a view to discountenance a
practice which was connected with idolatrous fes-
tivals, and the rites they involved.
(3) Bottles. It is from goatskins that the
leathern bottles to contain wine and other liquids
are made in the Levant. For this purpose, after
the head and feet are cut away, the case or hide
is drawn off the carcass over the neck, without
opening the belly; and the extremities being se-
cured, it is dried with the hair in or outside, ac-
cording to the use it is intended for. The old
worn-out skins are liable to burst : hence the
obvious propriety of putting new wine into new
bottles (Matt, ix :i7).
Harmer appears to have rightly referred the
allusion in Amos iii:i2 to the long-eared race of
goats ; "As the shepherd take-th out of the mouth
of the lion two legs or a piece of ear, so shall the
children of Israel be taken out that dwell in Sa-
maria and Damascus.' C. H. S.
Figurative, (i) Princes and great men are
likened to he-goats (Jer. 1:8; Zech. x:3), (2)
The Greeks, who were also called .^geans —
that is, goatish people — when banded under Alex-
ander the Great, are likened to a he-goat with one
horn, that, without touching the earth, ran
against, and trode down a pushing ram. Under
their sovereign, they, with incredible speed,
marched into Asia, and overthrew the Persian em-
pire (Dan. viii:5). (3) Devils and wicked men
are likened to goats (2 Chron. xi:i5). (4) In
Matt. XXV :32, 33, sheep and goats are used to rep-
resent the righteous and the wicked respectively.
"The wicked are here conceived of under the fig-
ure of goats, not on account of the wantonness
and stench of the latter (Grotius), or in conse-
quence of their stubbornness (Lange), but gener-
ally because these animals were considered to be
comparatively worthless (Luke xv 129) ; and
hence, in Matt, xxv 133, we have the diminutive
t4 ipl^/ia for the purpose of expressing contempt"
(Meyer, Com., Matt. xxv:32, 33).
11. SCAPEGOAT (scap'got), (Heb. ''^^l?.,, az-
az-el' ; meaning is doubtful). The account of the
remarkable ceremony, respecting the two goats,
one of which was to be sacrificed and the other al-
lowed to escape, is contained in Lev. xvi, in verses
i-io, and then follows, in verses 11-28, the expla-
nation of separate points.
(1) General Meaning. As to the meaning of
the word Azazel there has been much discussion.
Some have regarded it as a designation of the
goat itself, supposing it to mean 'the goat sent
away,' or 'let loose.' Others, with Bochart, re-
gard the word as referring to a place to which
the goat was sent ; translating it in the general
sense of 'desert places.' Many lake Azazel for
the name of a person ; either some false deity, who
was to be appeased by the offering of a goat ; or
an evil spirit, such as the devil.
(2) Symbolic Signification. According to
this view the doctrinal signification of the sym-
bolical action, as far as it has reference to Azazel.
is this, that Satan, the enemy of the people of
God, cannot harm those forgiven by God, but that
they, with sins forgiven of (5od, can go before him
with a light heart, deride him, and triumph over
him. There exists here a peculiar trait, which
in Hengstenberg's opinion makes it certain that
there is an Egyptian reference, namely, the cir-
cumstance that the goat was sent to Azazel into
the desert. The special residence of Typhon was
in the desert, according to the Egyptian doctrine,
which is most intimately connected with the nat-
ural condition of the country. There, according-
ly, is Azazel placed in our passage, not in the
belief that this was literally true, but merely sym-
bolically. Finally there is the explanation, less
objectionable, if it is not completely satisfactory,
which would render the word designating the lot,
'for complete sending away.' This view is held
by Tholuck, Bahr and Winer.
Perhaps we shall get a truer meaning if we
regard the slain goat as symbolizing the act of
sacrifice ; and the goat that carried off the load
of sin, as symbolizing the cleansing influence of
faith in that sacrifice. The two goats were parts
of one and the same sin-offering, and they form
together but one symbolic expression. One alone
could not convey the whole of the spiritual truth :
this may account for the presence of the two
goats (see Maurice, On Sacrifice, p. 85; Lightfoot
GOATH
719
GOU
Temple Service; Spencer, De Leg. Heh. Rituali-
bus iii. Disscrtatio viii ; HenRstenbcrg, Egypt and
the Books of Moses; Thomson, Bampton Lec-
tures, iii. note).
GOATH (go'ith), (Heb. ^p, go-aw' , lowing),
a place evidently in the neighborhood of Jerusalem,
(Jer. .\xxi:39), accurately the name is Goah.
GOAT'S HAIR, GOAT'S SKIN. See Dress;
Tabernacle.
GOB (gob), (Heb. "1% gobe' , a pit), a plain where
two battles were fought between the Hebrews and
Philistines (2 Sam. xxi:i8,l9). In i Chron. xx:4,
we read Gezer instead of Gob. The LXX in
some copies, read Nob instead of Gob; and in
others Gath. Site unknown.
GO BEYOND (Gr. virep^aivu,hoop-er-ba/t'ee-no),
R. V. "transgress," or "overreach" i Thess. iv:6.
GOBLET (gob'let), (Heb. U'>!, ag-gawn'), a
trough or receptacle for washing garments; thus
any Taver, basin, bowl (Cant. vii;2; comp. Exod.
XXIV ;6, "basin;" Is. xxii:24, "cup";. In form and
material the goblet was probably like those found
in the Egyptian ruins, of silver, gold, bronze, por-
celain and sometimes of wood.
GOD (god).
1. frames of God. The two principal Hebrew
names of the Supreme Ik-ing (St. Jerome and tlie
Rabbins enumerate ten, but they belong rather to
his attributes) used in the Scriptures are ~'-i~''., ye/i-
ho-vaw' , Jehovah, and ^''.'•?, el-o-heem' , Elohim.
Dr. Havernick proposes the reading ".""!, Jahveh,
instead of 'V":, Jehovah, meaning 'the existing
one,' while he derives Elohim from an ancient
Hebrew root, ,"iX, jil, now unused and thinks that
the plural is used merely to indicate the abund-
ance and super-richness existing in the Divine
Being.
(1) Use of Names in Pentateuch. Both
names, he admirably proves, are used by Moses
discriminately, in strict conformity with the the-
ological idea he wished to express in the immedi-
ate context ; and. pursuing the Pentateuch nearly
line by line, it is astonishing to see that Moses
never uses any of the names at mere random or
arbitrarily, but is throughout consistent in the
application of the respective terms. (See Genesis.)
Elohim is the abstract expression for absolute
Deity apart from the special notions of unity,
holiness, substance, etc. It is more a philosoph-
ical than devotional term, and corresponds with
our term Deity, in the same way as state or gov-
enuiient is abstractedly expressive of a king or
monarch. Jehovah, however, he considers to be
the revealed Elohim, the Manifest, Only, Per-
sonal, and Holy Elohim: Elohim is the Creator,
Jehovah the Redeemer, etc.
(2) Later Writers. To Elohim. in the later
writers, we usually find affixed the adjective
'^"'D, cha-yim' , 'the living' (Jer. x:lo; Dan. vi:20,
26; Acts xiv:i5; 2 Cor. vi:i6), probably in con-
tradistinction to idols, which might be con-
founded in some cases with the true God, the
linguistical difference in the Hebrew existing
only in the plural, the former being called Elilim
instead of Elohim (Lev. xix:l4; xxvi:i; Hab. iii;
18). In the Anglo Saxon, God means good.
2. The J^ame "Defined. "The true and
genuine idea of God in general is this — a perfect
conscious understanding being (or mind), exist-
ing of itself from eternity, and the cause of all
other things.
"The true and proper idea of Cod, in its most
contracted form, is this — a being absolutely per-
fect; for this is that alone to which necessary ex-
istence is essential, and of which it is demon-
strable."
"I define God thus — an essence or being, fully
and absolutely perfect. I say fully and abso-
lutely perfect, in contradistinction to such perfec-
tion as is not full and absolute, but the perfec-
tion of this or that species or kind of finite be-
ings, suppose a lion, horse, or tree. But to be
fully and absolutely perfect, is to be at least, as
perfect as the apprehension of a man can conceive
without a contradiction." (Cudworth, Intell.
Syst.)
3. The Knowledge of God. As to man's
knowledge of God two questions have been the
subjects of much controversy: the first relating
to the possibility of true knowledge of the Divine
Being, the second the source or method of such
knowledge.
(1) Can God Be Known? The Scriptures de-
clare that God is incomprehensible (see Job xi:7;
xxi:i4; xxxvi:26; Ps. Ixxvii:i4; Rom. xi:33).
Perfect or complete knowledge of God is not at-
tainable by man. But equally true it is that the
scriptures represent God as revealing himself to
man, and that a sufficient though limited measure
of true knowledge of God is put within the reach
of human beings. The important distinction to be
maintained at this point is that between partial
and perfect knowledge. We cannot comprehend
God, and yet we can truly apprehend or know him.
Our blessedness, our eternal life even, is in such
knowledge (see Matt. xii:28; John xvii:3; Rom.
i:lg, 20; Eph. i:i7; Col. i;lo; I John v:20).
(Barnes, Bil>. Did.)
(2) Regarding the Source of Knowledge of
God, whether innate or acquired, Locke's argu-
ments are of great value.
(a) Though God has given us no innate ideas
of himself, yet, having furnished us with those
faculties our minds are endowed with, he hath
not left himself without a witness; since we have
sense, perception, and reason, and cannot want
a clear proof of him as long as we carry our-
selves about us. To show, therefore, that we are
capable of knowing, that is, of being certain that
there is a God, and how we may come by this cer-
tainty, I think we need go no farther than our-
selves, and that undoubted knowledge we have
of our own existence.
{b) I think it is beyond question, that man has
a clear perception of his own being; he knows
certainly that he exists, and that he is something.
In the next place, man knows, by an intuitive cer-
tainty, that bare nothing can no more produce any
real being, than it can be equal to two right angles.
If, therefore, we know there is some real Being,
it is an evident demonstration, that from eternity
there has been something; since what was not
from eternity had a beginning ; and what had a
beginning must be produced by something else.
(f) Next it is evident, that what has its being
from another must also have all that which is in
and belongs to its being from another too; all
the powers it has must be owing to, and derived
from, the same source. This eternal source, then,
of all being, must be also the source and original
of all power; and so this eternal Being must be
also the most powerful.
((/) Again: man finds in himself perception
and knowledge : we are certain, then, that there is
not only some Being, but some knowing, intelli-
gent Being in the world. There was a time, then,
when there was no knowing Being, or else there
GOD
720
GOD
has been a knowing Being from eternity. If it
be said lliere was a time when that eternal Be-
ing had no knowledge, 1 reply that then it is im-
possible there should have ever been any knowl-
edge; it being as impossible that things wholly
void of knowledge, and operating blindly, and
without any perception, should produce a knowing
Being, as it is impossible that a triangle should
make its three angles larger than two right ones.
(t') Thus from the consideration of ourselves,
and what we infallibly find in our own constitu-
tions, our reason leads us to the knowledge of this
certain and evident truth, that there is an eternal,
most powerful, and knowing Being, which, wheth-
er any one will call God, it matters not. The
thing is evident ; and from this idea, duly consid-
ered, will easily be deduced all those other at-
tributes we ought to ascribe to this eternal Be-
ing. From what has been said, it is plain to me,
that we have a more certain knowledge of the
existence of a God, than of anything our senses
have not immediately discovered to us. Nay, I
presume I may say that we more certainly know
that there is a God, than that there is any thing
else without us. When I say we know, I mean
there is such a knowledge within our reach, which
we cannot miss, if we will but apply our minds 10
that as we do to several other inquiries.
The Old Testament as little thinks of arguing
or proving that God may be known as it thinks
of arguing that he exists. Its position is here
again, so to speak, far in front of such an argu-
ment. How should men think of arguing that
God could be known when they were persuaded
they knew him, when they felt they were in fellow-
ship with him, when their whole mind was filled
and aglow with the thought of him, and when
his spirit was within them? The expression "to
see God' (Job xix;26; xxxiii:26; Is. xxxviii:ii)
sometimes signifies merely to experience his help;
but in the Old Testament scriptures it more
usually denotes the approach of death (Gen.
xxxii:3o; Judg. vi:23; xiii:22; Is. vi:5).
4. Attributes of Cod. (1) Ascribed by
Hoses. The attributes ascribed to God by
Moses are systematically enumerated in Exod.
xxxiv :6-7, though we find in isolated passages in
the Pentateuch and elsewhere, additional prop-
erties specified, which bear more directly upon
the dogmas and principles of religion, such as
e. g. that he is not the author of sin (Gen. i:3i),
although since the fall, man is born prone to sin
(Gen. vi:5; viii:2l, etc.) But as it was the
avowed design of Moses to teach the Jews the
Unity of God in opposition to the Polytheism of
the other nations with whom they were to come in
contact, he dwelt particularly and most promi-
nently on that point, which he hardly ever omit-
ted when he had an opportunity of bringing for-
ward the attributes of God (Deut. vi:4; x:i7;
iv:39; ix:i6, etc.; Num. xvi; xxii; xxxiii:27,
29; Exod. xv:li : xxxiv :6, 7, etc.)
(2) By the Prophets. In the Prophets and
other sacred writors of the Old Testament, these
attributes are still more fully developed and ex-
plained by the declarations that God is the first
and the last (Is. xliv:6), that he changes not
(Hab. iii:f)), that the earth and heaven shall per-
ish, but he shall endure ( Ps. cii:26) — a distinct
allusion to the last doomsday — and that he is
Omnipresent (Prov. xv:3; Job xxxiv :22, etc.)
(3) In the New Testament. In the New
Testament also we find the attributes of God
systematically classified (Rev. v:i2 and vii:i2),
while the peculiar tenets of Christianity embrace,
if not a further, still a more developed idea, as
presented by the Apostles and the primitive teach-
ers of the church.
The New Testament doctrine of God is distin-
guished fron that of the Old, first, in that it pre-
sents with peculiar distinctness and fullness the
divine fatherhood. Second, it declares likewise
the divine sonship of Jesus Christ, "God mani-
fest in the flesh." The God-man is the fullest
disclosure of the divine nature, and the Redeemer
and Savior of mankind. Third, the distinct Di-
vine personality and peculiar office of the Holy
Ghost is brought most clearly into view. And
thus comes what at most was but intimated in
the Old Testament, the doctrine of the Trinity.
(See Trinity.)
The attributes of God as revealed in the scrip-
tures may be summed up as follows : Spiritual-
ity, Infinity, Eternity, Immutability, Self-suffi-
ciency, Perfection, Freedom, Omnipotence, Omni-
presence, Omniscience, Justice, Truth, Love, Mer-
cy, and Grace. For discussion of Attributes see
separate heads.
(4) God, Children of or Sons of. The
teaching of St. John on this subject combines the
elements of the Pauline and Petrine and uses ihe
term 'children' rather than sons of God. The
keynote to it may be found in the Prologue to
the gospel (John i:i2, 13), 'to as many as re-
ceived him (the Logos) he gave the right to be-
come children of God, even to them that believe
on his name : which were begotten, not of blood
nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of
man, but of God.' Here we have the right to be-
come children of God bestowed by Christ, which
answers to St. Paul's statement, 'God sent' forth
his Son . . . that we might receive the adop-
tion of sons.' The word 'adoption' is not em-
ployed ; but the right to become children expresses
the .same thing in less technical language. Fur-
ther, this is said to be giveji to those who re-
ceive Clirist by believing on his name. St. Paul
had also written, 'Ye are all sons of God by faith
in Jesus Christ ; for as many of you as have been
baptized into Christ have put on Christ' (Gal.
iii:26, f.). Thus for St. John, as well as for St.
Paul, our sonship to God is through union to
Christ the only-begotten Son, and that union is
effected by faith.
But St. John adds to this the conception found
in St'. James and St. Peter of a birth or begetting
of God, which he emphatically distinguishes from
the natural birth in every aspect of it. Those who
believe in Christ's name are they who were be-
gotten of God ; and that this is not done by the
process of natural generation is shown by a three-
fold contrast : not of blood, i. e. they did not be-
come sons of God through or in virtue of their
being of the one blood of which God has made
all mankind. Neither was it by any movement
or impulse of their own nature, whether the
spontaneous tendencies of its animal faculties
('the will of the flesh'), or even the voluntary acts
of personality ('the will of man'). The contrast
is more briefly and pointedly expressed in our
Lord's discourse with Nicodemus as between be-
ing begotten of the flesh and of the Spirit (John
iii:6). St. John seems to conceive the Divine
Spirit' as a principle or power of life and holiness
proceeding from God, given to Jesus Christ in all
its fullness and by him communicated to his dis-
ciples. It is not unworthy of notice that Irenaeus
and TertuUian apply John i:i3 to Christ, ap-
parently reading the verb in the singular ('who
was born') ; and though that reading is only
found in some Lat. MSS. and cannot be received,
yet in i John v:i8 our Lord, according to the
GOD FORBID
721
GODS, FALSli
most natural interpretation, is called 'he that was
begotten of God.' (J. S. Candlisli, Hastings' Bib.
Diet.) (.See Guild, Cuildiien, Figurative; Sons.)
GOD FOKBID (Gr. ^t), may, Rom. iii:4), a prim-
itive particle of qualified negation distinguished
from ou, 00, which expresses untiualiticd denial,
and -^Ivoiiai, ghin' om-anee, to come to be.
A. V. and K. V. translate hMilah bv 'God for-
bid'('The Lord forbid,' i Sam. xxiv:0; xxvi;il; I
Kings xxi:3, and 'My God forbid it me," I Chron.
xi:i9), everywhere except Gen. xviii;25; I Sam.
ii:3o; xx:^; xxii;i5; 2 Sam. xx:2o; xxiii:i7, where
the Wyclitite phrase 'Far be it from' or 'Be it far
from' has been retained. This plirase Amer. R. V.
prefers throughout the Old Testament.
The Greek ^jj yivoiro is only one of the render-
ings of hdlilah in L.\X. Of the others iUTjSo^ioi
occurs twice in New Testament, Acts x:i4; xi:8,
('Not so. Lord,') and i'Xcus <roi once. Matt. xvi:22
('Be it far from thee. Lord'). But ^J) yivono is
found fifteen times, all but Luke xx:i6beingin
St. Paul's Epistles, and in twelve of St. Paul's
fourteen instances it is used to express the apostle's
abhi.)rrence of an inference which he fears may be
falsely drawn from his argument. (See Burton,
J\i'. T. Moods and Tenses, 2, p. 79).
GODHEAD (god'hed), (Gr. Bttot, thi'os, godlike.
Acts xvii;29; eiihTT\%, thi-ol'ace, divinity, Rom. i:2o;
6e6T7)!, theh-ot'ace, divinity. Col. 2:9), the divine
nature or essence, the nature or essential being of
God (Acts xvii:29; Rom. i:2o; Col. iiig).
In Acts xvii:29 ThOiiov, 'the Divine,' is chosen
by St. Paul in his speech to the Athenians as a
familiar philosophical expression which enables
him to carry their thoughts easily with him. Even
they, with scarcely a personal conception of God,
ought not to debase their conception to the level
of men's handiwork. Hence R. V. margin 'that
which is divine' is better than text 'the Cfodhead,'
til igh 'the Divine' would have been better. Wy-
clitfe errs on the other side when he offers 'godly
thing' (after Vulg. Divinum). Tyndale gave 'god-
head.' and was followed by all the Versions except
the Rhemish, which has 'the Divinitie,' though
'Godhead' is given as an alternative in the An-
notation to the verse. The Greek expression oc-
curs nowhere else in Biblical Greek, though the
adjective 6eTos is common in LXX and occurs in
2 Pet. i:3, 4. (Hastings' Bii. Diet.)
GODLINESS is in the New Testament the
equivalent of the Gr. term ii<ji§ii.a., yoo-seh' by-ah
(I rim. ii:2; iii:i6; iv:7, 8; vi:3, 5, 6, 11; 2 Tim. iii:
5; Tit. i:i; also Acts iii:i2, R. V., 2 Pet. 1:3,6.7;
liiiii), except in one passage (i Tim. ii:io), where
eeoaifieia is used. 'It properly denotes," says EUi-
cutt. 'only' "well-directed reverences" (Trench,
Syiion., sec. 48), but in the New Testament is prac-
tically the same as Otoal^ua, "the spirit of piety in
the life itself either extern.il or internal."
It may therefore be considered as piety result-
ing from the knowledge and love of God, and
•leading to the cheerful and constant obedience of
his commands (2 Pet. iii:u).
In I Tim. iii:i6 it imports the substance of re-
vealed religion.
GODS (Heb. ^"'T'^,, el-o-heem').
(i) Angels are called gods, on account of their
superior excellence, and their declaring God's
mind, and executing his work as his deputies;
and they were required to worship Christ, \yhen
the heathen idols were destroyed (Ps. xcvii:7;
Heb. 1:6). (2) In Exodus (xxii:28, A. V.)_ is the
command, "Thou shall not revile the gods." Some
understand the term gods to be applied to rulers
by wav of respect. (3) The usual notion of the
46
ancients, that the royal dignity was derived from
God. may here be traced to its source ; hence the
Homeric Sioyiimis p<i<ri\evs, dee-og-en' ace bus'-
ee-looce. This notion, entertained by the Ori-
ental nations with regard to kings, made the
latter style themselves gods (Ps. Ixxxii:6; comp.
John x:34). (4) On the other hand with regard
to this particular passage Exod. xxxi :28, it is
claimed that the more correct rendering (and
so given in the R. V.) is "Thou shall not revile
God." "Elohim does not mean either the gods
of other nations, or the rulers, but simply God,
whose majesty was despised in every
breach of the commandments of Jehovah,
and who was honored in the persons of the rulers
(see Prov. .xxiv :2I ; I Pet. ii:l7)" (K. and D.,
Com., in loco). (5) Moses is called a god, be-
cause God's deputy in delivering the Israelites
(Exod. iv:i6, and vii:i). (.6) Satan is called
the god of this world; he is believed, obeyed,
and adored, under various forms, by most of the
inhabitants of it (2 Cor. iv:4). (7) Idols are
called gods, because adored, worshiped, and
trusted by their votaries (i Kings xi.33). They
are strange, or other gods; the Hebrews were not
originally in covenant with them (Deut. xxxii :
16; Judg. ii:i2); and the most devoted among
them, out of detestation, declined pronouncing
their names, and hence substitute Bosheth or
Besheth, i. e. shame, instead of Baal, in naming
some persons ; thus, for Eshbaal, Meribaal, and
Jerubbaal, they said Ishbosheth, Mephibosheth,
and Jerubbesheth; and sometimes called the idols
Elihim, no-things, or not-gods; and often Gilu-
lim, rolling excrements (Ezek. xxx:i3), etc.
GODS, FALSE. These are the beings, whether
real or imaginary, adopted as objects of worship
among men instead of Jehovah. Fear, lust,
malignity or pride, evidently predominate in the
conception and choice of such objects of adora-
tion. Nothing like pure and elevating devotion-
al sentiment could, or did attach to them.
The principal of the ancient gods, whom
the Romans called dii majorum gentium, and
(iicero celestial gods, Varro select gods. Ovid
nobiles deos, others consentes dcos, were Jupiter,
Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Mercury, Neptune, Vulcan, and Apollo. Jupiter
is considered as the god of heaven ; Neptune, as
god of the sea; Mars, as the god of war; Apollo,
of eloquence, poetry, and medicine ; Mercury, of
thieves ; Bacchus, of wine ; Cupid, of love, etc.
A second sort of gods, called demi-gods, semi
dii, dii minonim gentium, tndigetes, or gods adopt-
ed, were men canonized and deified. As the greater
gods had possession of heaven by their own right,
these secondary deities had it by merit and dona
tion, being translated into heaven because they
had lived as gods upon earth.
The heathen gods may be all reduced to the
following classes: (l) Created spirits, angels,
or demons, whence good and evil gods ; Geriii,
Lares, Lemures, Typhones, guardian gods, in-
fernal gods, etc. (2) Heavenly bodies: as the
sun, moon, and other planets; also, the fixed
stars, constellations, etc. (3) Elements; as air,
earth, ocean, Ops, Vesta ; the rivers, fountains,
etc. (4) Meteors. Thus the Persians adored
the wind; thunder and lightning were honored
under the name of Geryon ; and several nations of
India and America have made themselves gods
of the same. Castor, Pollux, Helena, and Iris,
have also been preferred from meteors 10 be gods;
and the like has been practiced in regard to
comets; witness that which appeared at the mur-
der of Caesar. (5) They fashioned minerals or
GODS, FALSE
722
GOG
fossils into deities. Such was the baetylus. _ The
Finlanders adored stones ; the Scythians, iron ;
and many nations, silver and gold. (6) Plants
have been made gods. Thus leeks arid onions
were deities in Egypt ; the Sclavi, Lithuanians,
Celtae, Vandals, and Peruvians, adored trees and
forests; the ancient Gauls, Britons, and Druids,
paid a particular devotion to the oak; and it was
no other than wheat, corn, seed, etc., that the
ancients adored under the names of Ceres and
Proserpina. (7) They took themselves gods from
among the waters. The Syrians and Egyptians
adored fishes; and what were the Tritons, the
Nereids, Syrens, etc., but fishes? Several nations
have adored serpents ; particularly the Egyptians,
Prussians, Lithuanians, Samogitians, etc. (8) In-
sects, as flies and ants, had their priests and
votaries. (9) Among birds, the stork, raven,
sparrowhawk, ibis, eagle, grison, and lapwing,
have had Divine honors ; the last in Mexico, the
rest in Egypt and at Thebes. (10) Fourfooted
beasts have had their altars ; as the bull-dog, cat,
wolf, baboon, lion, and crocodile, in Egypt and
elsewhere ; the hog in the island of Crete ; rats
and mice in the Troas, and at Tenedos ; weasels
at Thebes; and the porcupine throughout all
Zoroaster's school. (11) Nothing was more com-
mon than to place men among the number of
deities ; and from Belus or Baal, to the Roman
emperors before Constantine, the instances of this
kind are innumerable; frequently they did not
wait so long as their deaths for the apotheosis.
Nebuchadnezzar procured his statue to be wor-
shiped while living; and Virgil shows that Au-
gustus had altars and sacrifices offered to him;
as we learn from other hands that he had priests,
called Augustoles, and temples at Lyons, Narbona,
and several other places ; and he must be allowed
the first of the Romans in whose behalf idolatry
was carried to such a pitch. The Ethiopians
deemed all their kings gods; the Velleda of the
Germans, the Janos of the Hungarians, and the
Thaut, Woden, and Assa, of the northern nations,
were indisputably men. (12) Not men only, but
every thing that relates to man, has also been
deified ; as labor, rest, sleep, youth, age, death,
virtues, vices, occasion, time, place, numbers,
among the Pythagoreans ; the generative power,
under the name of Priapus. Infancy alone had a
cloud of deities ; as Vagitanus, Levana, Rumina,
Edula, Potina, Cuba, Cumina, Carna, Ossilago,
Statulinus, Fabulinus, etc. They also adored the
gods Health, Fever, Fear, Love, Pain, Indigna-
tion, Shame, Impudence, Opinion, Renown, Pru-
dence, Science, Art, Fidelity, Felicity, Calumny,
Liberty, Money, War, Peace, Victory, Triumph,
etc. Lastly, Nature, the universe, or Pan, was
reputed a great god.
Hesiod has a poem under the title of
Theogonia, that is, "The Generation of the Gods,"
in which he explains their genealogy and descent,
sets forth who was the first and principal, who
next descended from him, and what issue each
had ; the whole making a sort of system of
heathen theology. Beside this popular theology,
each philosopher had his system, as may be seen
from the "Timaeus" of Plato, and Cicero "De
N'atura Deorum." Justin Martyr, Tertullian,
Arnobius, Minutius Felix, Lactantius, Eusebius,
Augustine, and Theodoret, show the vanity of the
heathen gods. It is very difficult' to discover the
real sentiments of the heathens with respect to
'Jieir gods ; they are exceedingly intricate and
confused, and even frequently contradictory. They
admitted so many superior and inferior gods, who
shared the empire, that everv place was full of
gods. Varro reckons up no less than thirty thou-
sand adored within a small e.xtent of ground, and
yet their number was every day increasing. In
modern Oriental paganism, as in India, China,
etc., they amount to many millions, and are, in
fact, innumerable.
GODSPEED is the translation of the Greek
salutation xo'pw, khah'ee-ro, from a primary verb
signifying to be cheerful, to hail (2 John ver. 10, 1 1),
through the Ang. Sa-s.. gdd-spi^dig, "good speed."
GOD, THE TJNKNOWN (Gx.'hyviiirTtfGttf).
Paul, in his address on Mars' Hill, said that he had
seen in Athens "an altar with this inscription, 'To
the unknown God' " (Acts xvii:22, 23).
Considerable difficulty has been found by many
interpreters to reconcile this with the fact, that
no mention is made by the classic authors of
any altar in Athens bearing this inscription, whilst
we are informed by Pausanias {Attic. i:^\
Eliac. v:i4) and Philostratus {Vit. Apollonii
Tyan., vi-s), that there were several altars in-
scribed ayviicTois etots, in the plural; and different
suppositions have been made to account for
the Apostle's language (Kuinoel, in Act. xvii.
23). But why should we not receive the apostle's
own testimony on this subject, as reported by the
inspired historian? It is certain that no one is in
circumstances to affirm that no altar existed in
Athens bearing such an inscription at the time
Paul visited that city; and when, therefore, Paul,
publicly addressing the Athenians, says he saw
such an altar, why should we hesitate for a mo-
ment to take his words for what they literal-
ly mean? Besides, there is nothing in what Pau-
sanias and Philostratus affirm that appears in-
compatible with Paul's assertion. It is to be
observed that neither of them says there were
altars, on each of which the inscription was in
the plural number, but only there were 'altars
of gods called unknown' {pwiwl Qiuv imixaioiUvuv
ayvdi(TTwv); so that for aught that appears to the
contrary, each altar might bear the inscription
which Paul says he saw upon one.
GOEI< (go'gl). See Blood-revengb.
GOG (gog), (Heb. ^*^l,gohg-, Gr. Tiy, gogue).
Is This name occurs in Ezek. xxxiii:3, 14, and
xxxix:ii, as a proper name; that of a prince
of Magog (yiSfi), a people that were to come
from the North to invade the land of Israel, and
be there defeated. In a different sense, but corre-
sponding with the assertions of other Oriental
authors, in whose traditions this people occupy
an important place, Gog occurs in Rev. xx :8, as
the name of a country.
Interpreters have given very different explana-
tions of the terms Gog and Magog; but they
have generally understood them as symbolical
expressions for the heathen nations of Asia, or
more particularly for the Scythians, a vague
knowledge of whom seems to have reached the
Jews in Palestine about that period. Prof. Sayce
says : "For an explanation of Magog we must
go to the prophet Ezekiel. He tells us (xxxviii:
2) thai' Magog was the land of Gog, 'the chief
prince of Meshech and Tubal.' Gog is the Gugu
of the Assyrian inscriptions, the Gyges of the
Greeks ; and in Magog therefore we must
see a title of Lydia. The name is evidently
a compound of that of Gog" (Races of the Old
Testament, p. 45).
As a collective name, Magog seems also to
indicate in the Hebrew the tribes about the
Caucasian mountains. According to Reinegge
(Descrip. of the Caucasus, ii. 79) some of the
GO IT UP
723
GOLGOTHA
Caucasian people call their mountains Go^, and
the highest northern points Maga;.
2. A Reubenite, son of Shemaiah (i Chron. v:4).
GO IT UP (Is. XV :s) is a transposition of the
preposition and its case, — not unfrcquent in old
writers. — meaning ascend it.
OOLAN (go'lan), (Heb. ]?'-, go-lawn', captive).
A Levitical town of Bashan, in the tribe of
Manasseh (Deut. iv:43; Josh. xx:8; xxi:27; i
Chron, vi:7i), from which the small province
of Gaulonitis (rauXuviTis) took its name. The
word is recognized in the present Jolan or Djolan.
mentioned by Burckhardt ^Syria, p. 286), as giv-
ing name to a district lying east of the lake of
Tiberias, and composed of the ancient Gaulonitis,
with part of Bashan and Argob. Some diffi-
culty has been suggested as arising from the fact,
that the Judas whom Josephus (A)itiq. xviii:i, i)
calls a Gaulonite, is called by St. Luke (Acts
v:37) a Galilaean. This is the more remarkable,
as Josephus elsewhere (ex. gr. Dc Bcil. Jud.
ii:20, 4) carefully distinguishes Galilee and
Gaulonitis. Yet he himself elsewhere calls this
very Judas a Galilxan (Aiitiq. xx :5, 2; Dc Bell.
Jud. ii:9, 1). It is. from this, probable that Judas
had a double cognomen, perhaps because he had
been born in Gaulonitis. but had been brought up
or dwelt in Galilee.
OOU) (gold). The Hebrew word ^vJ, zaw-
hawb, yellow, golden ).
i. MineralogicaJ Names. This is merely the
mineralogical name of this metal. Several He-
brew words are used to denote the metal.
(l) Seg-ore' (Heb."^-"?, treasured, i. e., fine gold,
(Job xxviii;i5; i Kings vi;2o, vii:49). (2) Beh'tser
(Heb. "'??, clipping, dug out), properly metal in a
crude state, "golden ore." (3) Paiuz (Heb. '?•
pure or native gold (Job xxviii;i7; Cant. v:i5; Ps.
xix:io; xxi;3; Prov, viiiiig; Is. xiii;i2; Lam. iv:3).
2. Poetical Terms, (i) Keh'tJiern (Heb. =??
also implying something concealed) (Job xxviii:i6,
19; xxxi:24; Dan. x;S, etc.). (2) Khaiu-roots' (Heb.
^^"^7, derivation not clear) is referred to the verb
khaw-rats' (T-?, to cut off, make pointed), and is
applied to gold as eagerly sought for. From a
kindred root fchaw-mas' (^^7' to wrong, oppress),
comes the noun khaw-maivce' (^??, violence),
used by metaphor (Amos iii:lo) for wealth gotten
by wrong and oppression.
Gold was known and' valued in very early
times. Abraham was rich in gold (Gen. xiii:
2; xxiv:3S), and female ornaments were made of
gold (Gen. xxiv :22).
To judge from i Chron. xxii:i4; xxix:4, the
Jews must have been, in their palmy days, in
possession of enormous quantities of this metal,
considering the many tons of gold that were spent
in the building of the temple alone, though the
expression, plenteous as stones (2 Chron. i:is),
may be considered as hyperbolical. It is, however,
confirmed by the history of the other Asiatic
nations, and more especially of the Persians, that
the period referred to really abounded in gold,
which was imported in vast masses from Africa
and the Indies (Heeren, Ideen. i. i, 37, sq.).
The queen of Sheba brought with her (from
Arabia Felix), among other presents, 120 talents
of gold (2 Chron. ixig). E. M.
Figurative. Gold is often employed in Scrip-
ture as an emblem of what is divine, pure,
precious, solid, useful, incorruptible, or lasting
and glorious, (i) The gold of the temple and
tabernacle might represent the divine excellencies
of Christ, and the precious and incorruptible or-
dinances of his church, and graces of his people.
His head is as most Zinc gold; his hands Itkc gold
rings, set with the beryl ; he is gold tried in the
fire ; his girdle, censer, and crown are of fine
gold. How divine, precious, solid, pure, and in-
corruptible, are his Godhead and government,
power and work, person and fullness, and his
preparation for, and readiness to execute his of-
fice ! how valuable and glorious his everlasting
reward (Dan. x 15 ; Rev. iii:i8; viii 13 ; xiv:i4).
(2) God is likened to gold; what a pure, precious,
enriching, and everlasting portion is he to his
people (Job xxii:25; A. V. silver, Marg, gold).
(3) God's word, and his ordinances, especially if
more spiritual, are likened to gold; how precious,
lasting, enriching, and capable of enduring a
trial (Ps. xix:io; Is. Ix:i7; Zech. iv:i2; i Cor.
iii:l2; Rev. xxi:75). (4) Saints, and their graces
of faith, hope, love, etc., or even their trials, are
likened to gold (Job xxiiiiio; Ps. xlv:i3; i Pet.
':")• (5) The vials of God's wrath are golden;
divine, pure, and unmixed with partiality or
passion (Rev. xv.j). (6) That which is wealthy,
pompous, and enticing is called golden; so anti-
christian Rome is said to have in her hand a
golden cup (Rev. xvii;4).
GOLDEN CANDLESTICK. See Candle-
stick.
GOLDEN CITY (Heb. '^r^'^^. mad-kay-baw'),
a term used in reference to Babylon (Is. xiv:4) and
occurring nowhere else.
"Not one of the early translators ever thought
of deriving this word from the Aramaean dehab
(gold), but translated the word as if it were
jHor/iffca/i (haughty, violent treatment). We un-
derstand it, according to madmcnah (dunghill)
in Is. XXV :io, as denoting the place where they
were reduced to pining away, i. e.. as applied
to Babylon as the house of servitude where Israel
had been wearied to death" (Delitzsch, Com., in
loco).
GOLDEN "WEDGE. See Wedge.
GOLDSMITH (gold'smith), (Heb. T'^, tso-
rafe' , Neh. iii;8, 32; Is. xhig; xli:7), a melter of
gold. (See Handicraft.)
GOLGOTHA (gSl'go-tha), lfir.Vo\yo6&, gol-gotk-
ah', place of a skull).
The original word signifies 'a skull,' as does its
Latin representative, Calvaria, Calvary. Different
opinions have prevailed as to why the place was
so termed. Many have held that Golgotha was
the place of public execution ; and that hence it
was termed the 'place of a skull.' Another opin-
ion is that the place took its name from its
shape, being a hillock of a form like a human
skull. The last is the opinion to which the writer
of these remarks inclines. That the place was of
some such shape seems to be generally agreed,
and the traditional term mount, applied to Cal-
vary, appears to confirm this idea. And such a
shape, it must be allowed, is in entire agreement
with the name — that is, 'skull.' To these consid-
erations there are added certain difficulties which
arise from the second explanation. So far as we
know there is no historical evidence to show that
there was a place of public execution where Gol-
gotha is commonly fixed, nor that any such place,
in or near Jerusalem, bore the name Golgotha.
Matthew calls it 'a place called Golgotha ; that
is to S3V a place of a skull' (Matt. xxvii:33);
GOLGOTHA
724
GOLGOTHA
Mark, 'the place Golgotha ; which is being inter-
preted, the place of a skull' (Mark xv:22); Luke,
'the place which is called Calvary' (Luke xxiiim);
John, 'a place called of a skull, which is called in
the Hebrew Golgotha' (John xix;l7; Matt. xxvii:33).
In truth, the context seems to show that the Roman
guard hurried Jesus away, and put him to death at
the first convenient spot; and that rather because
there was no small fear of a popular insurrecion,
especially as he was attended by a crowd of people.
But where was the place?
(1) Tradition. The traditionary recollection
of this remarkable spot was undoubtedly strength-
ened by the erection of the Temple of Venus on
the place, after the capture of Jerusalem by the
Romans. The temple thus takes up the tradition
and transmits it in stone and marble to coming
ages. This continuation of the tradition is the
more important because it begins to operate at a
time when the Chrisiians were driven from Jeru-
salem. But the absence of the Christians from
the holy city was not of long duration, and even
early in the third century we find pilgrimages
from distant places to the Holy Land had al-
ready begun, for the express purpose of viewing
the spots which the presence and sufferings of the
Savior had rendered sacred and memorable
(Hist. Hierosol. p. 591; Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vi:
11). A century later, Eusebius (A. D. 315) in-
forms us that Christians visited Jerusalem from
all regions of the earth for the same object. So
early and so decided a current towards the holy
city presupposes a strong, wide-spread, and long
pre-eminent feeling^an established tradition in
the church touching the most remarkable spots ;
a tradition of that nature which readily links it-
self with the actual record in Hebrews.
Early in the fourth century Eusebius and Je-
rome write down the tradition and fix the local-
ity of Calvary in their writings. Pilgrims now
streamed to Jerusalem from all parts of the world,
and that site was fixed for Golgotha which has
remained to the present hour.
This was done not merely by the testimony of
these two learned fathers, but by the acts of the
Emperor Constantine and his mother Helena.
This empress, when very far advanced in life,
visited Jerusalem for the express purpose of
erecting a church on the spot where_ the Lord
Jesus had been crucified. On her arrival at Je-
rusalem she inquired diligently of the inhabitants.
Yet the search was uncertain and difficult, in con-
sequence of the obstructions by which the heathen
had sought to render the spot unknown. These
being all removed, the sacred sepulcher was dis-
covered, and by its side three crosses, with the
tablet bearing the inscription written by Pilate
(Robinson, Bib. Res. ii. 14; Theodoret, i. 17). On
the site thus ascertained, was erected, whether
by Constantine or Helena, certainly by Roman
influence and treasure, a splendid and extensive
Christian temple. This church was completed and
dedicated A. D. 335. It was a great occasion
for the Christian world. In order to give it im-
portance and add to its splendor, a council of
liishops was convened, by order of the emperor,
from all the provinces of ihe empire, which as-
sembled first at Tyre and then at Jerusalem.
J. R. B.
The evidence of locality to be gathered from the
gospel statements as to the place of the crucifixion
and tomb of our Lord is as follows : If the judg-
ment hall of Pilate was at the northwest angle of
the Harem area, where the house of the Turk-
ish pasha stands, then the soldiers would lead
Jesus out in a northwest direction to be crucified.
The combination of statements shows that it lay
just outside the city walls. The original place was
where criminals were executed, and the modern
argument is that' the hill with the openings on the
south very strikingly resembles a human skull.
The Romans were accustomed to execute their
criminals in a conspicuous place. "And when
they were come to a place called Golgotha, that
is to say, the place of a skull," there they crucified
him. A skull-shaped hill outside the city walls,
near the city, near a rock-hewn sepulcher which
was in a garden, and near some frequented road,
are the facts furnishing the data of the problem.
If the traditional site where the Church of the
Holy Sepulcher stands is rejected as not answer-
ing these conditions, another spot, a hill a little
northeast of the Damascus gate, becomes most
prominent. Skull Hill was originally a part of
the Mount Moriah ridge, extending northward
from it in a short and narrow spur. It con-
tained white limestone. Here a quarry was
opened, probably as early as the building of Solo-
mon's temple. An excavation was made right
through the hill, separating Skull Hill from the
south ridge, leaving a rounded knoll on the north.
The hill is now quite bare; not a tree or shrub
exists on it. The hillock is rounded on all sides
but the south, where the yellow clifT is pierced
by two small caves high up on the sides, which
look in the distance like the eye sockets of a hu-
man skull. The hill is certainly outside the most
northern wall existing in the days of Herod, or
what is known as the second wall. Again; it is
near a frequented road which may have been the
present Nablus road from the Damascus gate, or
a military road from Castle Antonio to Caesarea,
which Dr. Merrill says ran north of the hill, and
infers that the place of the execution would be
near it. Edward L. Wilson made a thorough
study of the place, and has left his record thus :
"A few rods northeast of the Damascus gate
the wall rests partly upon the natural rock. Be-
neath is the old-time quarry known as the "Cot-
ton Grotto." On the opposite side of the road is
"the grotto of Jeremiah." Farther, on the left, is a
hill, the face of which, with the horrid semblance
of deep-sunken eyes and broken visage, looks like
a human skull. Its locality and surrounding fea-
tures have led modern explorers to accept it as
Calvary. It is without the gates. It commands
an extensive view of the city, and of ihe whole
way to the summit of Olivet. The populace as-
sembled on two sides of the city could see an
execution on this hill."
A garden was near tlje scene of the crucifixion,
and a new sepulcher in that garden. In the west-
ern face of Skull Hill is a large tomb, one also
in the northwest, and one a little further off of
large proportions. Again, the Jews now residing
at Jerusalem affirm that this hill is the place where
Christ was crucified, and their tradition may be
as valuable as the claim for the long accepted site
within the city.
(2) Opinion of Bishop S. M. MerrilL
Bishop S. M. Merrill, after making a careful
study of the locality on the ground, says : "From
reading the Scriptures, and from reasonable con-
jecture as to what the authorities would or would
not do in ibe matter of public executions, we
incline to the belief that the three crosses were
planted farther from the heart of the city than is
the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and
that it must have been outside of the wall, and
north from the Damascus gate. Of course, if the
topography or physical conditions in that direction
were out of harmony with the facts and the phe-
GOLGOTHA
726
GOME
nomena in the narratives, this would be baseless
conjecture. But, instead of being out of har-
mony, they are exactly in harmony, and in some
respects answer to the narratives better than any
other locality. Here has ever been a public road;
here are the requisite distance and space ; and
here the garden, the rock-cut tombs, and the skull-
shaped hill. On the right hand side of the road,
going north from the Damascus gate, there is a
ridge or an uneven elevation of ground overlook-
ing the Damascus road on one side, and the Kcd-
ron valley on the other side ; and out on this
ridge beyond the grotto of Jeremiah, which is in
the west side of this ridge, is a hill, or elevation
of ground, which is considerably higher than the
ridge; and on the lower ground, between the
road and this hill, is the siie of an ancient gar-
den (still used as a garden,) and extending to
the base of the hill ; and in the base of the hill
itself, facing the garden, are rocks with ancient
excavations of tombs, not well preserved. One
could not belter describe the shape of this hill
than by comparing it to a human skull sitting
on a level space. Whether it was ever designated
as the "place of a skull" or not is now unknown ;
and the same is true of every other spot which
has been supposed to be the Calvary. W'e have
a "Mount Calvary" in our hymns and .songs, but,
of course, there has never been any such moun-
tain, unless this little skull-shaped hill out near
the Damascus road was such. The preponder-
ance of testimony, it seems to me, favors this lo-
cality as the place of the crucifixion — not thai the
crosses stood on the top of this hill, but near
by on the low ground, between the hill and the
road, and outside of the garden. If this is cor-
rect, then the burial place was in some of the un-
known excavations along the side of this hill or
ridge."
But however strong the arguments for the site
outside the north wall, there still remains the old,
old claim that reaches back to the days of Con-
stantine, when it was said: "Not the least doubt
was entertained where the sepulcher was situ-
ated." And this historical argument in iis favor
has not as yet been set aside. Modern opinions
are about equally divided. Strong efforts have
been made of late to determine what the early fa-
thers said about ihe site of Calvary, but they are
generally silent. If the old theory is continued,
then a new and undeveloped plan of the wall
must be presented in a light that will harmonize
with the facts of scripture, which the old site does
not, and never has in view of any known location
of the walls of Jerusalem. (.The Story of Jesus.
by Rev. John O. Foster. A. M. 1804.)
(3) Opinion of Lieut.-Gen. Sir Chas. Warren.
Gen. C. Warren in Hastings' Bib. Diet, sums
up the case as follows: "There are many argu-
ments in favor of the traditional site of Golgotha,
but, until it can be ascertained whether it is
within or without the city wall of the time of
Christ, the whole question must still remain in
Woubt. The road from the tower of Anionia lead-
ing into the old road from the city to Jaffa would
probably have passed close to the site, and on
this road, outside the Jaffa gate, public executions
have taken place in quite recent years, up to 1868.
There are rock-cut tombs in the immediate neigh-
borhood, including that of the Holy Sepulcher.
"During recent years several sites to the north
of the city have been suggested as the site of
Golgotha, in order, apparently, to comply with
the view that the place of execution should be
situated on the north side of the city (Lev. i:io,
11) ; but. though this may have been necessary
for the Jewish place of stoning, there is nothing
to indicate that the place of crucifixion during
the Roman occupation was located according to
Jewish ritual, or that it was identical with the
place of stoning.
"A knoll above 'Jeremiah's grotto' has been
suggested by Otto Thenius in 1849 (followed by
General Gordon, Colonel Conder, and others) as
the genuine Calvary, on the ground principally
that it is the place of stoning according to mod-
ern Jewish tradition."
GOLIATH (go-li'ath), (Heb. n"'?;, gol-yath\
exile).
1- The giant whom David slew at Ephes-dam-
mim (i Sam. xvii). In the account of the fight
he is spoken of as a Philistine from Gaih. He
was so politically, but it does not follow that he
was of the ordinary Philistine blood. Presum-
ably, he was of the repliaite or giant breed, else-
where spoken of as living at Gath (2 Sam. xxi :
15-22; I Chron. xx:4-8), and was descended
from the ancient Avim or Anakini. (See Ana-
KIM ; Avim; Gi.\nts ; Rapha ; Rephaim.)
The Hebrew text makes him six cubits and a
span in height. Josephus and some MSS. of the
Septuagrint reduce this to four cubits and a span.
On general principles the Hebrew reading is the
more authoritative.and it fits best the figures given
for the tremendous weight of his armor and
weapons. Counting the cubit at twenty-one
inches, this would make him over eleven feet
high, and over nine feet high if we count the cubit
a handbreadth shorter. If he was measured in his
armor, from the ground to the top of his helmet-
crest, this is not incredible, though he is probably
the largest man of whom we have any authentic
record. (W. J. Beecher, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
For forty days he went out from the camp of
the Philistines, and haughtily defied the Hebrews
to produce a man that durst engage him in a sin-
gle combat. He offered to decide the subjection
of the one nation to the other on the victory by
this single combat. The Hebrews were terrified
at the very sight of him; but David, coming to
the camp, undertook to attack him with a staff,
a sling, and a few small stones. With disdain
Goliath cursed him by his idols, and bade him
come on, and he would give his flesh to the fowls
of the air; meanwhile David slimg a stone, which,
penetrating by the hole left in the helmet for the
giant's eye, or while he was tossing up his fore-
head, and leaving it bare, in contempt of his puny
antagonist, .sank into his head, and brought him
to the ground, flat on his face. David then ran
up to him, and with his own sword cut off his
head (i Sam. xvii). Perhaps, on occasion of this
victory, he composed the oth and 144th Psalms.
Four of his brethren were afterward slain by Da-
vid's warriors (2 Sam. xxi; I Chron. xx). (See
Giants.)
2. The Goliath of 2 Sam. xxi: 19 is probably a
different person.
GOME (gom), (Heb. '""^^ go'mek), translated
•rush' and 'bulrush,' is mentioned in four places of
Scripture, from which there is no doubt that it was
a plant growing in moist situations in Egypt, and
employed in the construction of vessels of differ-
ent kinds, intended to float upon the water, such
as the ark in which Moses was hid. and vessels
for transit (job viii:l!; Is. xxxv:;; Exod. iiii; Is.
xviii:2). Though other plants are adduced by
translators and commentators as the ^onie of
Scripture, yet it is evident that only the pixpvrus
can be meant, and that it is well sui'ted to all the
passages.
GOME
726
GOODLY, GOODLINESS
The papyrus is now well known: it belongs to
the tribe of sedges or cyperacece, and is not a
bush or bulrush, as in the Authorized Version. It
may be seen growing to the height of six or
eight feet, even in tubs, in the hothouses of this
country, and is described by the ancients as grow-
ing in the shallow parts of the Nile. The root
is fleshy, thick, and spreading; the stems triangu-
lar, eight or ten feet in height, of which two or so
Papyrus Antiquorum.
are usually under water, thick below but taper-
ing towards the apex, and destitute of leaves;
those of the base broad, straight, and sword-
shaped, but much shorter than the stem. This
last is terminated by an involucel of about eight
leaves, sword-shaped and acute, much shorter than
the many-rayed umbel which they support. The
secondary umbels are composed only of three or
four short rays, with an involucel of three awl-
shaped leaflets. The flowers are in a short spike
at the extremity of each ray.
The papyrus was well known to the ancients as
a plant of the waters of Egypt. 'Papyrum nasci-
tur in palustribus y£gypti aiit quicsccntibus Nili
aquis, ubi cvagattr stagnant' (Pliny, xiii:ii).
Thcophrastus, at a much earlier period, described
it as growing, not in the deep parts, but where
the water was of the depth of two cubits, or even
less. It was found in almost every part of Egypt
inundated by the Nile, in the Delta, especially in
the Scbennytic nome, and in the neighborhood
of Memphis, etc.
The plant is sweet, and was used by the Egyp-
tians for food and for making many sorts of ves-
sels; the root was burned for fuel. The construc-
tion of papyrus boats is mentioned by Theo-
phrastus. That the papyruswzs employed for mak-
ing paper is also well known, and Wilkinson men-
tions that from ancient paper being found at
Thebes and elsewhere, it is evident that this ap-
plication of it was much anterior to the time of
Alexander the Great. (See Papyrus; Reed.)
J. F. R.
GOMER (go'mer), (Heb. ^^^ go'mer, perfec-
tion).
1. The eldest son of Japheth, son of Noah (B.
C. after 2414), whose descendants Bochart {Phal,
iii. 8) supposes to have settled in Phrygia (Gen.
x:3; comp. i Chron. 1:5). Most of the inter-
preters take him to be the ancestor of the Celtae,
and more especially of the Cimmerii, Kimm^P"",
who were already known in the time of Homer
(Odyss. xi:i4). To judge from the ancient his-
torians (Herodotus, Strabo, Plutarch, etc.), they
had in early times settled to the north of the
Black Sea, and gave their name to the Crimea,
the ancient Chersonesus Taurica. But the greater
part of them were driven from their territories by
the Scythians, when they took refuge in Asia
Minor in the seventh century before Christ
(Herod. iv:i2).
They attacked the northern frontier of the
Assyrian empire in concert with the Minni, the
Medes, the people of Sepharad (Saparda), and
other populations whose territories they had al-
ready overrun ; but in B. C. 677 their leader,
Teuspa (Teispes), was defeated by Esarhaddon,
and they were driven partly eastward, where they
overthrew the old kingdom of Ellipi and built
Ecbatana, partly westwards into Asia Minor. Here
they sacked Sinope and Antandros, which they
held for 100 years, and finally invaded Lydia.
Gyges or Gugu, the Lydian king, sent an embassy
to Nineveh for help ; in the end, however, he was
slain in battle, and his capital, Sardis, captured
by the invading hordes. His successor, Ardys,
succeeded in exterminating or driving them out
of the country. (A. H. Sayce, Hastings' Bib.
Diet.)
In the Scriptures, however, the people named
Gomer would seem to imply rather an obscure and
but vaguely known nation of the barbarous north
(Rosenmiiller, Alterth, i. i. 235, sq.).
Josephus (Antiq. i :6, i) says expressly, that
the ancestor of the Galatians, a Celtic colony,
was called Gomer (Michael. Suppl. p. 335, sq.).
The Gomeri are generally considered to have been
identical with the Cimbri of Roman times, and
the Cymry of Wales. Cambria and even Cum-
berland still preserve the memory of their name.
2. The name of the daughter of Diblaim, a
harlot who became the wife or concubine (ac-
cording to some, in vision only) of the prophet
Hosca (Hos. i:3), B. C. about 785.
GOMORRAH (go-mor'rah), (Heb. '^'P\ am-o-
raw', a submersion; Gr. r6/io/5pa, gom'or-rhah.
Matt. x:i5, etc.), one of 'the cities of the plain' de-
stroyed along with Sodom.
Its position along with that of Sodom and the
other three is now pretty generally admitted to
have been in the Arabah. or plain, which lies to
the north of the Dead Sea. Of the five original
cities, all but Zoar (or Bela) were destroyed by
fire from heaven (Gen. xix 13-29). The situation
has been verified by Tristram, who, on placing
himself in the required positions, was able to
recognize the view described as it was regarded
by Lot on selecting his future residence (Gen.
xiii:io), and by Abraham during the destruction
of the doomed cities (xix:27). (See Sodom.)
GOUORRHA (go-raor'rha), the form which ap-
pears (Matt. x:i5; Mark vi:Ii; Rom. ix;29; 2 Pet.
ii:6) for the foregoing place.
GOODLY, GOODLINESS (Heb. "l?*", to'ar;
outline, i. e., figure or appearance, beautiful).
GOODLY TREES
727
GOSHEN
TTiough 'goodly' was at one time used ad-
verbially also, it is employed in A. V. as an ad-
jective only. There it is found with two differ-
ent meanings (and the modern meaning, consid-
erable, pretty large, 'a goodly number,' is not
one of them).
Fair to look upon, fine, handsome. In this
sense it is applied to persons, as Gen. xxxix:6
'Joseph was a goodly person, and well favored :'
of garments, as Exod. xxxix :28 'goodly bonnets
of fine linen;' of trees, as Ps. lxxx:io 'the boughs
thereof were like the goodly cedars' ('?*".n-'
lit. as A. V. marg. and R. V. 'cedars of God') ; of
cities (Deut. vino), mountains (Deui'. iii:25),
horses (Zech. x :3) ; and not only of majestic
things, but of vessels (2 Chron. xxxvi:io, 19),
precious stones (Matt. xiii:45; Luke xxi:s), and
even 'heritages' (Ps. xvi:6; Jer. iiitig). It is
also used of a price (Zech. xi :i3) paid for a slave,
'a handsome price !' spoken ironically there.
(Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
GOODLT TREES (good'lj? tres), (Heb. I?? V?'
a(es haw-dawr' , trees of ornament).
The Israelites were directed to take "boughs of
goodly trees" (i. e., carry about in festive proces-
sion) on the first day of the Feast of Tabernacles
(see Festivals), in memory of their having
dwelt in booths (Lev. xxiii:4o). The expression,
"goodly trees." probably included not only the
orange and citron, which were placed in gardens
for ornament rather than for use, but also myrtles,
olive trees, palms, and others which had beauty
or pleasant odor" (K. and D., Com., in loco).
GOODMAN (good'mSn), (Gr.ofTO5t(nr6T?)5, oy-kod-
es-pot'ace. Matt. xx:li; xxiv:43; Markxiv:i4; Luke
xxiitii), rendered "master of the house" (Matt.
x:25,- Luke xiii:25; xiv:2i); "householder" (Matt.
xiii;27; xx:l, etc.) "Goodman" (Prov. viing) is the
rendering of the Hebrew ""''!?, eesh, man. i. e., hus-
band.
The word is a combination of 'good' and 'mati'
(not, says Skeat, a corruption of Anglo-Saxon
gumman as suggested by Aldis Wright) ; and it
is probable that the meaning 'master' arose from
the meaning 'husband,' in which, it must be re-
membered, it is one of many similar combina-
tions, as good-father, good-sister, etc. ; in fact, all
relatives by marriage were once so designated in
England, and are still so designated in Scotland,
especially when speaking of persons below the
rank of what are called the gentry.
GOFHEB "WOOD (go'fer wood), (Heb. "^K^o'-
fer), is mentioned only once in Scripture, as the
material of which Noah was directed to build the
ark (Gen. vi:i4), 'Make thee an ark of gopher
wood; rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt
pitch it within and without vMth pitch' [khemar,
probably 'bitumen').
In endeavoring to ascertain the particular kind
of wood which is mentioned in the above passage,
we can get assistance only from the name, the
country where the wood was supposed to have
been procured, or the traditional opinions respect-
ing it. That nothing very satisfactory has been
ascertained is evident from the various inter-
pretations that have been given of this word, so
that some have preferred, as in our Authorized
Version, to retain the original Hebrew. The
greatest number of writers have been of opinion
that by the gopher wood we are to understand
the cypress; and this opinion is supported by such
authorities as Fuller in his Sacreet Miscellanies ;
Bochart (Geogr. Sacra); as well as by Celsius,
GOBGIAS (gor'jiis). A Syrian general tinder
Anliucluis l\'.
In 166 B. C. he led a detachment of troops
from Emmaus, in the Philistine plain, where the
main army was encamped, to make a night at-
tack on Judas Maccaba;us ; but Judas, having
learned of the plan, withdrew his forces and led
ihem to a successful attack on Gorgias' own
camp. When Gorgias returned, his followers saw
their camp in flames and lied (1 Mace. iii:38; iv :
25). A little more than a year later Gorgias was
commanding at Jamnia, and he met and defeated
Joseph and Azarias, who in the absence of Judas
had charge of the troops in Judsea, and were ad-
vancing to attack the town (v. 55-62). (Jos.
Antiq. XII. viii :6.)
In 2 Mace, xii ;32-37 this defeat is barely men-
tioned, but we are told how Judas defeated Gor-
gias and how the accursed (tI>v KaTipaTon) Gor-
gias himself was nearly taken prisoner by a
Jewish horseman named Dositheus. The descrip-
tion of Gorgias in 2 Mace, xii 132 as 'governor of
Idumaea' is perhaps an error for 'governor of
Jamnia' (So Grotius, and comp. Jos. Antiq. XII,
vi:8).
GORTYNA (gor-ty'na), (Gr. ToprOva, gor-tu'na,
1 Mace. xv:23). The most important city in Crete,
after Gnossus, situated about midway between the
two ends of the island.
GOSHEN (go'shen), (Heb. W-, go' shen).
1. A province or district of Eg>'pt in which Ja-
cob and his family settled through the instru-
mentality of his son Joseph, and in which they
and their descendants remained for a period of
430 years (Gen. xlv:io; xlvi:28; xlvii:27; 1:8;
Exod. viii;22; ix: 26). The Bible does not pre-
sent any definite information as to the precise
locality of Goshen, and of course later authori-
ties possess only an inferior value. There are,
however, incidental expressions, allusions, and
implications in the scriptures, which afford aid
in determining the spot. That Goshen lay on the
eastern side of the Nile may be justifiably in-
ferred from the fact that Jacob is not reported
to have crossed that river ; nor does it appear
that the Israelites did so in their flight out of
Egypt. With this inference all ihe language em-
ployed (see the passages as given above), to say
the least, agrees, if it does not afford an indirect
evidence in its favor. It would appear from
Exod. xiii:i7, 18, that Goshen bordered on Arabia
(see Gen. xlv:io, .Sept. Tidiii. 'Apaptat, Gos/ien
of Arabia) as well as Palestine, and the passage
of the Israelites out of Egypt shows that the
land was not far removed from the Red Sea. It
appears probable that we may fix the locality of
Goshen in Lower Egypt, on the east side of the
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, in the district around
Heroopolis. (Bellermann, Ilandb. d. Bibl. Lit.
iv. 191-220; Jablonsky, Dissert, viii. de Terra
Gosen.)
This district was suitable for a nomadic people,
who would have been misplaced in the narrow
limits of the valley of the Nile. We are not,
however, to expect evidences of luxuriant fer-
tility. The country was chosen for its pre-emi-
nent fitness for shepherds. If a nomadic tribe
had wide space and good pasture-grounds, they
would have 'the best (for themselves) of the
land,' and these advantages this district abundantly
supplied in ancient times, when the waters of ihe
Nile were more liberally dispensed than at pres-
ent in the eastern side of the country. Nothing
is needed but water to make Ihe desert fertile.
'The water of the Nile soaks through the earth
GOSPEL
728
GOSPEL
for some dist^ince under the sandy tract (the
neighborhood of Heliopolis), and is everywhere
found on digging wells eighteen or twenty feet
deep. Such wells are very frequent in parts
which the inundation does not reach. The water
is raised from them by wheels turned by oxen and
applied to the irrigation of the fields. Whenever
this takes place the desert is turned into a fruit-
ful field. In passing to Heliopolis we saw sev-
eral such fields in the different stages of being
reclaimed from the desert; some just laid out,
others already fertile. In returning by another
way more eastward, we passed a succession of
beautiful plantations wholly dependent on this
mode of irrigation' (Robinson's Palestine, vol i.
p. 36).
2. A district in Southern Palestine (Josh. x;4l ;
xi:i6). According to the first passage it was be-
tween Gaza and Gibeon, and therefore in the low
country ; in the second passage the low country is
mentioned in addition to Goshen. Exact situation
is unknown.
3, A city and the territory around it in the
mountains of Judah (Josh. xv:Si). Exact site
unknown.
GOSPEL (gos'pel), (Anglo-Sax. Godspell—'God
story', not. 'good s,\.ory'),i\\e translation from Anglo-
Sax, times of eiayyiXiov in New Testament. In
Homer, in the sing., and in Attic Gr., in the pi., it
signified a reward or a thank-offering for good
tidings. _ In later Greek (Plutarch, in the pi.,
Lucian, in the sing.) it signified also ihe good tid-
ings itself. In LX.X, 2 Sam iv:io, the Attic mean-
ing and the plural occur. (Hastings' Bih. Diet.)
The central point of Christian preaching was
the joyful intelligence that the Savior had come
into the world (Matt, iv 123 ; Rom. x;i5) ; and the
first Christian preachers, who characterized their
account of the person and mission of Christ by
the term eiayti\iov, gospei, were themselves called
ei>a776XiirTai, evangelists (Eph. iv;ii; Acts xxi.8).
The former name was also prefixed to the written
accounts of Clirist.
Four Gospels. We possess four such ac-
counts ; the first by Matthew, announcing the
Redeemer as the promised King of the Kingdom
of God ; the second by Mark, declaring him 'a
Prophet mighty in deed and work' (Luke xxiv:
19) ; the third by Luke, of whom it might be
said that he represented Christ in the special
character of the Savior of sinners (Luke vii ;36-
50: xv:i8-i9, sq.) ; the fourth by John, who rep-
resents Christ as the Son of God, in whom deity
and humanity became one. The ancient church
gave to Matthew the symbol of the lion, to Mark
that of man, to Luke that of the ox, and to John
lliat of the eagle ; these were the four faces of
the cherubim. The cloud in which the Lord re-
vealed himself was borne by the cherubim, and
the four Evangelists were also the bearers of
that glory of God which appeared in the form
of man.
(1) Order and Chronology. Concerning the
order which they occupy in the scriptures, the
oldest Latin and Gothic Versions, as also the
Codex Cantabrigicnsis, place Matthew and John
first, and after them Mark and Luke, while the
other MSS. and old versions follow the order
given In them in our Bible. As dogmatical rea-
sons render a different order more natural, there
is much in favor of the opinion that their usual
position arose from regard to the chronological
dates of the respective composition of the four
gospels: this is the opinion of Origen, Ircnnens.
and Eiisebius. All ancient testimonies agree that
Matthew was the earliest, and John the latest
evangelist. The relation of the gospel of John
to the other three gospels, and the relation of the
gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke to each
other, is very remarkable. With the exception of
the history of the Baptist, and that of Christ's pas-
sion and resurrection, we find in John not only
narratives of quite different events, but also dif-
ferent statements even in the above sections, the
strongest of which is that relating to the cruci-
fixion of Christ, which — according to the first
three gospels— took place on the first day of the
Passover, while, to judge from John xiii:i, 29;
xviii:28; xix:i4, 3', it would appear that it had
taken place on the eve of the day on which the
passover was to be eaten, but which was either
not eaten at all by our Lord, or was anticipated
by him by a day. On the other hand, the first
three evangelists not only tolerably harmonize in
the substance and order of the events they re-
late, but correspond even sentence by sentence in
their separate narratives (comp. ex. gr. Mark i:
21-28 with Luke iv:3i-37; Matt, viii 131-34 ; Mark
vi:34; v:i7; Luke viii :32-37, etc.) The thought
that first suggests itself on considering this sur-
prising harmony is, that they all had mutually
drawn their information from one another. Thus
Grotius, ex. gr., is of opinion that ALatthew was
the oldest source, and that Mark drew his in-
formation both from Matthew and Luke; again,
according to Biisching. Luke was the oldest, and
Matthew made use of Luke and Mark ; while
most critics in Germany have adopted the view
of Griesbach, that Matthew was the oldest, and
was made use of by Luke, and that Mark derived
his information both from Matthew and Luke.
Following the suggestion of Rore, some of the
most modern critics, such as Weisse, Wilke (in
his work entitled Ur-evangelist. 1838), and Bauer,
are, on the other hand, of opinion that Mark was
the original evangelist, and that Matthew and
Luke derived their information from him. The
difference of these opinions leads to the suspicion
that none of them are right, more especially when
we consider that, notwithstanding the partial har-
mony of the three evangelists in the choice of
their sentences, there is still a surprising differ-
ence in them as regards the zvords of those sen-
tences ; a fact which compelled the critics who
suppose that the evangelists made use of each
other's writings, to account everywhere for such
deviations, and frequently to have recourse to
the most trivial and pedantic arguments. To us
these differences in word and phrase would appear
inconceivable were we disposed to assume that the
evangelists had copied from each other.
(2) Substantial Truth Tinder Circumstantial
Variety. As the three evangelists mutually sup-
ply and explain each other, they were early
joined to each other, by Tatian, about A. D. 170,
and by Ammonius, about A. D. 230, and the ap-
parent discrepancies among them early led to at-
tempts to reconcile them. An essay of this kind
was written by Augustine in his book Dc Con-
sensu Evangclistarum. Starting from the prin-
ciple of a verbal inspiration in the gospels, every
difference in expressions and facts was consid-
ered as a proof that the speeches and facts had
repeatedly occurred. This opinion is advanced
for instance, in Andreas Ossiander's Harmonia
Evangelislarum. The subject is, however, more
freely handled by Calvin, Chemnitz, Kaiser, Ger-
hard, and others, in their respective works, ZJf Har-
monia Evangelistarum. Gerhard's book, in three
folio volumes, is one of the most comprehensive
exegetical works on the four gospels. (See also
Examination of the Testimony of the Evangelists
GOSPELS, SPURIOUS
729
GOSPELS, SPURIOUS
by Simon Greenleaf, LL. D., late Dane Professor
of Law in Harvard University.) Strauss has
drawn his principal argument against the his-
torical character of the gospels from these dis-
crepancies ; but he is in the first instance wrong
in supposing that the Evangelist had the intention
of relating the particulars of events scrupulously
in a chronological order ; nor is he less wrong in
seeing in every deviation a contradiction, and in
the attempts at reconciliation, productions of
mere dogmatic prejudice, while he is himself
guilty of prejudice, by the very aversion he shows
against every attempt at such reconciliation !
When we consider that one and the same writer,
namely. Luke, relates the conversion of Paul
(Acts i.\ :22, 26), with different incidental circum-
stances, after three various documents, though
it would have been very easy for him to Irave
annulled the discrepancies, we cannot help being
convinced that the evangelists attached but little
weight to minute preciscness in the incidents,
since, indeed, the historical truth of a narration
consists less in them, in the relation of minute de-
tails, than in the correct conception of the char-
acter and spirit of the event. An exposition and
refutation of the most recent attacks against the
truth of the Evangelical history on account of this
discrepancy, may be seen in Tholuck's Glaub-
wiirdigkeit der Evangelisclien Geschichte ; and in
his Review of Strauss's Life of Christ in Liter-
arischer Anseiger, 1838; also in Ebrard's IVissen-
schaftliche Kritik der Evangelischen Geschichte,
2 vols. 1842. This last work is a compendium
of all critical investigations into the history con-
tained in the gospels. (Lttcrature: Fisher's Es-
says on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity,
N. Y., 1866; N. C. Burt, Hours Among the Gos-
pels, Philadcl. ; Tischcndorf, IVaiin ll'uerden
unsere Evangelien verfasstf Leipz., Eng. trans,
by Gage, Boston ; Row, I'he Historical Character
of the Gospels tested by an Examination of their
Contents, Journl. Sacred Lit. 1865-6; Warren,
New Testament zvith Notes. Boston; Trench,
Notes on the Parables, Miracles, and Studies in
the Gospels; Lange. Bibclwcrk, Am. ed. ; Nast's
Commentary; Cowper, Apocryphal Gospels; Rush-
brooke, Synopticon, 1880; A. Wright. A Synopsis
of the Gospels in Greek, 1896; S. Davidson, In-
troduction to the Study of the New Testament,
2d ed. 1882, 3d ed. revised and improved, 1894;
Sanday. 'A Survey of the Synoptic Question,' arts.
in the Expositor, 1891, Inspiration, Lect. vi. 1893;
Introductions to the Synoptic Gospels in Book
by Book; A. J. Jolley, The Synoptic Problem for
English Readers, 1893 ; Westcolt, Prolegomena in
Commentary on St John. 1881 ; Sanday, The Au-
thorship and Historical Character of the Fourth
Gospel, 1872; Watkins, Modern Criticism consid-
ered in its relation to the Fourth Gospel, 1890.)
GOSPELS, SPURIOUS (gos'pels, spu'ri-iis).
See Apocrypha.
The canon of the New Testament, as we have
already seen, having been finally settled before
the close of the fourth century, the rejected writ-
ings which bore the names of the Apostles and
Evangelists soon sunk into oblivion, and few, if
any, have descended to our times in their original
shape. From the decree of Gelasius and a few
other sources we have the names and a few de-
tached noticesof a good manyof thcseproductions.
We shall first speak of those which arc still ex-
tant.
(1) Joseph the Carpenter. The history of
Joseph the carpenter, which has been preserved in
the East in an Arabic translation, was first made
known in Europe in the commencement of tiie
sixteenth century by Isidore dc Isolanis in l.i^
Summa de donis Sti. Josephi.
(2) The Gospel of the Infancy was first pub-
hshed by Henry Sike, at Utrecht, in 1697, Irunt
an Arabic MS. Sike's Latm version was ri
published by Fabricius, who divided it into chap-
ters. The Arabic was divided into correspond-
ing chapters by Thilo, in 1832.
There are several MSS. of this gospel extant,
the oldest of which known is that in the Mcdi-
cean Library, written in 1299. The narratives
which it contains were current in the second cen-
tury, and the account contained in this gospel
respecting Christ's learning the alphabet is men-
tioned by Irena;us (Adv. Hares. 1:20) as a fab-
rication of the Marcosians. The Gospel of the
Infancy is found in the catalogue of Gelasius,
and it is especially remarkable from the fact
that it was most probably this gospel which was
known to Mohammed, who seems to have been
unacquainted with any of the canonical scriptures,
and who has inserted some of its narrations in the
Koran. The original language was proliably
Syriac. It is sometimes called the Gospel of
Peter, or of Thomas.
(3) Gospel of Thomas. The gospel of
Thomas the Israelite (Greek), a work which has
flowed from the same source with the former, was
first published by Cotelerius.
This gospel relates the fable of Christ's learning
the Greek alphabet, in which it agrees with the
account in Ircnseus. In other gospels of the In-
fancy (as in that published by Sike) he is repre-
sented as learning the Hebrew letters. It has
been questioned whether this is the same work
which is called the Gospel of Thomas, by Origcn.
Ambrose, Bede, and others. This gospel probably
had its origin among the Gnostics, and found
its way from them, through the Manichees, into
the church.
(4) The Protevangelion of James has de-
scended to us in the original Greek. Although
this work is styled by Postell the Protevangelium,
there is no MS. authority for this title, nor for
the fact' of its being ascribed to St. James the
Apostle. It only appears that the author's name
is James. The narrations of this gospel were
known to Tertullian lAd7/. Giwst., c. viii.), Origen
(CofH. in Malt. p. 223), Gregory N'yssen {Unit,
in diem Aat. Christ. Opp. vol. iii. p. 346), Epiph-
anius (Hcer. 79. sec. 5), the author of the Imper-
fect Work on Matt., Chrysost. [Opp. torn. vi. p.
24), and many others among the ancients.
(5) The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary,
which most probably, in its present form, dates its
origin from the sixth century, has been even rec-
ommended by the pretended authority of St.
Jerome. It is from these Gospels of the Infancy
that we have learned the names of the parents
of the Blessed Virgin, Joachim (although Bede
reads Eli) and Anna. The narratives contained
in these gospels were incorporated in the Golden
Legend, a work of the thirteenth century, which
was translated into all the languages of Europe,
and frequently printed. There are extant some
metrical accounts of the same in German, which
were popular in the era of romance. These leg-
ends were, however, severely censured by some
eminent divines of the Latin church, of whom it
will be sufficient to name Alcuin. in his Homilies,
in the ninth, and Fulbert and Petrus Damianits
(bishop of Oslia) in the eleventh century. 'Some,'
says the latter, 'boast of l)eing wiser th.nn they
should be, when, with superfluous curiosity, they
inquire into the names of the parents of the
GOSPELS, SPURIOUS
730
GOSPELS, SPURIOUS
Blessed Virgin, for the evangelist would surely
not have failed to have named them if ii were
profitable to mankind' (Sermon on the Nativity').
Eadmer, the monk, in his book on the Excellence
of the p'irgin, writes in a similar strain (cap. ii,
Anselm. Opp. p. 435, Paris, 1721). Luther also
inveighs against the readers of these books
(Homil. ed. Walch. tom. xi; and Table -Talk, ch.
vii. tom. xxii, p. 396).
There were several editions of Jerome's pre-
tended translation published in the fifteenth cen-
tury, one of them byCaxion. It is printed by Thilo
from a Paris MS. of the fourteenth century, and
divided by him into twenty-four chapters, after
a MS. of the fifteenth century in the same li-
brary. One of the chief objects of the writer of
these gospels seems to be to assert the Davidical
origin of the Virgin, in opposition to the Mani-
chees.
It has been supposed that the first author of
these ancient legends was a Hellenistic Jew, who
lived in the second century, but that ihey were
added to and interpolated by Seleucus at the end
of the third, who became their reputed author;
and that still further additions were made by the
Nestorians, or some late Christians in India.
Lardner (Credibility, vol. viii) so far differs from
Mr. Jones as to believe the author not to have
been a Jew. The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary
was received by many of the ancient heretics, and
is mentioned by Epiphanius, St. Augustine, and
Gelasius. The Gnostics and Manichees en-
deavored to found on its authority some of their
peculiar opinions (such as that Christ was not
the Son of God before his baptism, and that he
was not of the tribe of Judah, but of that of
Levi).
(6) Gospel of Marcion. Although the gospel
of Marcion, or rather that of St. Luke as cor-
rupted by that heretic in the second century, is
no longer extant. Professor Hahn has endeavored
to restore it from the extracts found in ancient
writers, especially Tertullian and Epiphanius. This
work has been published by Thilo.
(7) Greek Gospel of St. John. Thilo has also
published a collation of a corrupted Greek gos-
pel of St'. John, found in the archives of the
Knights Templars in Paris. This work was first
noticed (in 1828) by the Danish Bishop Muenter,
as well as by Abbe Gregoire, ex-bishop of Blois.
It is a vellum MS. in large 4to, said by per-
sons skilled in palaeography to have been executed
in the thirteenth or fourteenth century, and to
have been copied from a Mount Afhos MS. of
the twelfth. The writing is in gold letters. It
is divided into nineteen sections, which are called
gospels, and is on this account supposed to have
been designed for liturgical use. These sections,
corresponding in most instances with our chap-
ters (of which. however, the twentieth and twenty-
first are omitted, are subdivided into verses, the
same as those now in use. and said to have been
first invented by Robert Stephen (See Verses).
The omissions and interpolations (which latter are
in barbarous Greek) represent the heresies and
mysteries of the Knights Templars. Notwithstand-
ing all this, Thilo considers it to be modern, and
fabricated since the commencement of the eight-
eenth century.
(8) Gospel of Nicodemus. One of ilie most
curious of the apocryphal gospels is the Gospel of
Nicodemus, or Acts of Pilate. It is a kind of
theological romance partly founded on the ca-
nonical gospels. The first part, to the end of ch.
XV., is little more than a paraphrastic account of
the trial and death of Christ, embellished with
fabulous additions. From that' to the end (ch.
xxviii) is a detailed account of Christ's descent
into hell to liberate the spirits in prison, the his-
tory of which is said to have been obtained from
Lenthius and Charinus, sons of Simeon, who were
two of those "saints who slept,' but were raised
from the dead, and came into the holy city after
the resurrection. This part of the history is so
far valuable, that it throws some light upon the
ancient ideas current among Christians on this sub-
ject. It is therefore considered by Birch (Auciar-
lum, Proleg. p. vi.) to be as valuable in this re-
spect as the writings of the Fathers.
(9) Lost Gospels. Of the gospels no longer
extant, we know little more than that they once
existed. We read in Irenaeus, Epiphanius, Ori-
gen, Eusebius, and other ecclesiastical writers,
of the Gospels of Eve or of Perfection, of Barnabas
(ancient and modern), of Bartholomew, of Bas-
ilides, of Hesychius, of Judas Iscariot, of the
Valentinians, of Apollos, of Cerinthus, of the
Twelve Apostles, and several others. Some of
these were derived from the Gnostics and other
heretics; others, as the Gospel of Matthias, are
supposed by Mill, Grabe, and most learned men
to have been genuine gospels now lost. Those
of which we have the fullest details are the Gospel
of the Egyptians and that of the Nazarenes. This
latter is most probably the same with that of the
Hebrews, which was used by the Ebionites. It
was supposed by St. Jerome to have been a gen-
uine Gospel of St. Matthew, who, he says, wrote
it in the Hebrew language and letters. He copied
it himself from the original in the library of
Caesarea, translated it into Greek and Latin, and
has given many extracts from it. Grabe con-
ceived this gospel to have been composed by
Jewish converts soon after our Lord's ascension,
before the composition of the canonical Gospel
of St. Matthew. Baronius, Grotius, Father Si-
mon, and Du Pin, look upon it as the Gospel of
St'. Matthew — interpolated, however, by the Naz-
arenes. Baronius and Grabe think that it was
cited by Ignatius, or the author of the Epistles
ascribed to him. Others look upon it as a trans-
lation altered from the Greek of St. Matthew.
Mr. Jones thinks that this gospel was referred to
by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Galatians. It is
referred to by Hegesippus (Euseb. Eccl. Hist, iv :
22), Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, ii, p. 280),
Origen (Conim. on John; Ham. viii, in Matt.),
and Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iii 125, 27, 39). Epiph-
anius (Hccr. sees. 29, 30) acquaints us that it was
held in great repute by the ancient Judaizing
Christians, and that it began thus : 'It came to
pass in the days of Herod king of Judsa that
John came baptizing with the baptism of repent-
ance in the river Jordan,' etc. It consequently
wanted the genealogy and the first two chapters.
(10) The Gospel of the Egyptians is cited
by Qemens Ale.xandrinus (Strom, iii, pp. 445,
452, 453, 465), Origen (Honi. in Luc. p. i), Am-
brose, Jerome (Prcrf. to his Comm. on Matt.),
and Epiphanius (Hares. Ixii, sec. 2). Grabe. Mill,
Du Pin, and Father Simon, who thought highly
of this gospel, looked upon it as one of the works
referred to by St. Luke in the commencement of
his gospel. Mill ascribes its origin to the Es-
senes, and supposes this and the former gospel
to have been composed in or a little before A. D.
58. It is cited by the Pseudo-Clement (Second
Epistle to the Corinthians, or Chevallier's Trans-
lation, 1833), who is generally supposed to have
written not before the third century. (See Car.
Chr. Schmidt's Corpus omnium vet. Apocr. extra
Biblia; Kleuker, Pe Apoc. Novi Testamenti ;
GOSPELS— OLDEST SYRIAC
731
AND OTHER DOCUMENTS
Hencke, De Pitali actis probab.; W. L. Brunn, Ue
indole, state et usu libr. Apocr. vulgo inscripti
Evangel. Nicodemi, Berlin, 1794; Birch's Auclo-
riutn, Fasc. I, Hafn. 1804. Hone's Apocryphal
New Testament, London, 1820, which in its ex-
ternal form was designed to be an imitation of
the English New Testament, is of no critical use.
The Orthodoxographa of Grynasus, 7 vols, in 2,
fol. Basil, 1569. of which there was formerly a
copy in the British Museum, which exists there
no longer, but there is a fine copy in Mr. Dar-
ling's valuable Clerical Library.) W. W.
GOSPELS— OLDEST SYRLAC, AND OTHEB
DOCTJMENTS.
When in 1894 the oldest version of the
gospels was uncovered amidst the debris of the
Greek Convent of Mount Sinai, it was as much
the result of faithful research as if it had been
found amidst the ruins of buried cities. This
discovery was due to the zeal and faithfulness of
Mrs. Agnes Smith Lewis, who had conceived the
idea that there might be literary treasures here
which had not been noticed by Tischendorf and
other scholars. She therefore took a long and
very tiresome journey accompanied by her sister
only, and took up her abode in this old retreat.
She went well prepared for serious work, carry-
ing with her a camera and a few necessary
books. She could read Syriac and could con-
verse in Greek, and she slowly won the confi-
dence and respect of the monks by her ability to
talk with them in their native tongue, and also
by the evident sincerity of her character and mis-
sion. After a time they gave her access to the
library and her long and patient searching was
at last rewarded by the discovery of an invaluable
palimpsest, which is a manuscript, or rather a
parchment, that has been twice written upon, the
first writing having been erased with more or less
success to make room for the second. Under
the later writing of this old parchment Mrs. Lewis
found a very old Syrian text of the gospels. She
took careful photographs of it and it was after-
ward found that they represented a text of the
gospels not like that of the Peshito Version, but
quite similar to what is known as the "Cure-
tonian Fragments."
Soon after this important discovery was made
known a new expedition was planned for the
study of the manuscripts, and the result is a
valuable publication by the Cambridge Press bear-
ing the endorsement of such men as F. Crawford
Burkitt, Robert L. Bensly, and J. Rendel Har-
ris.
This old manuscript proved to be the most an-
cient version of the four gospels, or the larger
portion of them, representing a translation from
Greek into Syriac which is considerably older
than the Peshitta Syriac, although this had hith-
erto been considered the oldest and most authori-
tative for textual purposes of all the versions of
the New Testament.
The immense importance of this discovery will
be manifest if we consider for a moment the
relations of this Sinaitic Syriac text with other
versions.
The Syriac PeshittS had been considered the
oldest' until Mr. Cureton discovered the most puz-
zling fragments of another Syriac version in a
Nitrian monastery. This Curetonian Syriac version
was accepted as an earlier version than the
PeshittS, but no other very early manuscript was
discovered which contained the larger part of
the gospels until this longer one found by Mrs.
Lewis, if we except the famous Sinaitic manu-
script of the whole New Testament' belonging to
the fourth century.
In the meantime, however, the Diatessaron
of Tatian, or Tatian's harmony of the Four Gos-
pels in Syriac, was found in Armenian and Arabic
versions, and it appeared that in many respects
this Diatessaron agreed with the Curetonian
rather than with the Peshitta. In the opinion of
the scholars who have devoted the most time to
this manuscript the new discovery adds greatly
to the value of the Curetonian by attesting its
purity and fixing its very early age. The PesIiittS
probably goes back to the third century, but
Tatian's Diatessaron apparently came into use in
the Syriac churches between 170 and 180 A. D.
It became so popular that it was read in the
Syriac capital and other churches in various por-
tions of the country.
Whether or not the Curetonian was older than
the Diatessaron has been a problem which is even
yet by no means easy of solution, but the study
of the newly discovered manuscript shows it to
have a text which is purer than the Curetonian
manuscript which is considered older than the
Diatessaron ; that is, it must go back to about
150 A. D., if not earlier.
Destructive criticism has assailed the age of
the manuscripts and has attempted to show that
the gospels belong to a much later period than
the events which they record, but the weight of
scholarship endorses their early production. (See
Historic Origin of the Bible, by Bissell.) Even
Renan admits the force of the arguments along
this line. He says: "About the year 100 . . .
all the books of the New Testament became fixed
very nearly in ihe form in which we read them."
{Life of Jesus, ist page of Int.) Again he says:
"It would appear that we are very near the truth
in supposing that the Acts were written about
the year 80 . . . Striking indeed is the con-
trast between this narrative and the Apocalypse
written in the year 68, replete with memories of
the infamies of Nero." {The Apostles, pp.
21-22.)
Each new discovery has tended to corroborate
the fact of their early composition. The finding
of the text contained in the Diatessaron was a
discovery of great value, for it dated back to a
period which probably considerably preceded 170
A. D., as its author, who was a Syrian Christian
father, died before A. D. 172. But now we have
another version going back to about A. D. 150,
while back of this again we must place the period
during which the sacred books gained their cur-
rency and were translated out of the original
Greek into the Syriac for church use. This brings
us very near to the lifetime of the Apostles, and
quite into the generation of men who, like Poly-
carp, listened to their teachings.
Thus the possibility of error in ascribing these
books to their reputed authors is reduced to a
minimum.
Besides the discoveries which contain the
actual texts of the early manuscripts of the gos-
pels we are now in possession of other parch-
ments which date back to an early period, and
which contain quotations from Biblical books
which of course must have been in existence for
some time before they were quoted.
For instance, we have a complete Greek copy
of the "Epistle of Barnabas," which was discov-
ered in 1859 by Tischendorf, and this work goes
back nearly, if net quite, to the bcgiiming of the
second century. It quotes Matthew under the
formula : "It is written." We have also the
"Philosophumena" of Hippolytus, who was
GO TO
732
GOURD
martyred in the year 235. This important work
gives an account of the heretical sects of the
first and second centuries, and is very valuable for
the quotations it' makes from Valentinus and
Basilides, who were heretics in A. D. 125, and
from whose writings quotations are given from
John's gospel. We have also a valuable work
called the "Teaching of the Apostles" which has
been recently discovered, and which probably
goes back to the early years of the second century,
and very likely to the last part of the first century.
It gives us that which was probably the first
manual which was written for the Christian
churches. This work, which has been so remark-
ably preserved, and at last recovered, casts a clear-
er light than any other on the origin of the offi-
cers in the church, and the early character of its
services and teachings. It also quotes consider-
able portions of the Sermon on the Mount.
But going back to a date earlier than these
is "The Epistle of Clement," of Rome. This
work, which was discovered only a short I .me ago,
was probably written about A. D. 97, and it gives
quotations from the Apostle Paul.
Such discoveries are of the utmost' importance,
and our own generation has been especially rich
with them, even the famous Sinaitic manuscript
of the whole New Testament, which belongs to
the fourth century, having been recovered within
the last thirty years.
The researches of our own times have thus
thrown a flood of light upon the hitherto dark
period which separated the days of the Apostles
from the days of Irenseus and Clement of Alex-
andria. They answer most satisfactorily ques-
tions of critical doubt which have been raised
by skeptical scholars. They remove many difli-
culties and carry the gospel of John, as well
as other portions of the New Testament, back to
the very days of the Apostle John before he
died in Ephesus. Every discovery has only con-
firmed the faith of the church in its accepted
scriptures. To doubt that they are the product of
the same period to which the events which they
record belong, in these days indicates either will-
ful skepticism, or profound ignorance of the sub-
ject. (See Historic Origin of the Bible by Ed-
win Cone Bissell: also Ward, in Horn. Review,
Jan. 189s; Bagster's Bible of Every Land; Re-
vision of Translations of the Holy Scripiiires. by
Henry Burgess; Scholastic History of Canon, by
John Cosin.)
GO TO (too), (Heb. 2?^*. yaiv-hab' , come on,
Gen. xi:3; Gr. «7e, ag'he, lead, or come on, James
iv;i3). An interjection of incitement or exhorta-
tion, as in Gen. xi:3, 4, 7; or challenging attention,
as in Eccl. ii:i; Is. v:5;James iv;l3; v:l.
GOTJIID (gord). 1. (Heb. rT/P. kee-ka-w-yone' ,
nauseous), occurs only in Jonah iv, where it is sev-
eral times mentioned, as in verses 6, 7, p, 10.
It is translated gourd in our Authorized Ver-
sion, probably from the koXok-uvBti of the Sep-
tuagint, often rendered cucurbita. In the Tiargin
of the English Bible, Palm-Christ is given. In the
Vulgate kikayon is translated hcdcra, 'ivy. Nei-
ther the gourd nor ivy is considered by modern
writers to indicate the plant intended; which is
remarkable for having given rise to some fierce
controversies in the early ages of the Church.
The difficulties here, however, do not appear to
be so great as in many other instances. But be-
fore considering these, it is desirable to ascer-
tain what are the characteristics of the plant as
required by the text. We are told. 'The Lord
God prepared a gourd (kikayon), and made it
to come over Jonah, thai' it might be a shadow
over his head,' etc. (ver. 6). 'But God pre-
pared a worm when the morning rose the next
day, and it smote the gourd that it withered'
(ver. 7). And in ver. 10 it is said of the gourd
that it 'came up in a night, and perished in
a night.' Hence it appears that the growth of
the kikayon was miraculous, but that it was prob-
ably a plant of the country, being named specif-
ically; also that it was capable of affording shade,
and might be easily destroyed. There does not
appear anything in this account to warrant us
in considering it to be the ivy, which is a plant
of slow growth, cannot support itself, and is,
moreover, not likely to be found in the hot and
arid country of ancient Nineveh, though we have
ourselves found it in more southern latitudes,
but only in the temperate climate of the Himala-
yan Mountains. The ivy was adduced probably
only from the resemblance of its Greek name,
KuTjos, to kikayon. That the kikayon was thought
to be a gourd seems to have arisen from the
kiki of the Egyptians being the kheriva of the
Arabs, often incorrectly written keroa, that is,
without the aspirate, which makes it very similar
to kura, when written in Roman characters; which
last in the East is applied to the gourd or pump-
kin (Avicenna, c. 622), and is probably the Lage-
naria vulgaris. Many modern authors mistake the
one for the other. To this plant, no doubt, the
following passages refer, 'The Christians and
Jews of Mosul (Nineveh) say it was not the
keroa whose shadow refreshed Jonah, but a sort
of gourd, cl-kcra, which has very large leaves,
very large fruit, and lasts but about four months'
(Niebuhr. Arabia, as quoted by Dr. Harris). So
Volney : 'Whoever has traveled to Cairo or Rosei-
ta knows that the specie.'^ of gourd called kerra
will, in twenty-four hours, send out shoots near
four inches long' (Trav. i:7l).
With regard to the miraculous growth of
Jonah's gourd. Dr. Harris states that the passage
may mean, 'Son of the night it was, and as a
son of the night it died ;' and that, therefore, we
are not compelled to believe that it grew in a
single night, but rather, by a strong Oriental
figure, that it was of rapid growth. This, there
is no doubt, it is highly susceptible of in warm
countries where there is some moisture. It at-
tains a considerable size in one season: and though
in Europe it is only known as an herb, in India
it frequently may be seen, especially at the mar-
gins of fields, the size of a tree. So at Busra,
Niebuhr saw an cl-keroa which had the form and
appearance of a tree. The stems are erect, round,
and hollow ; the leaves broad, palmate, 5 to 8 or
10 lobed, peltate, supported on long foot-stalks.
The flowers in terminal panicles; the lower, male;
the upper, female. Capsule tricoccous, covered
with spines. The seeds are oblong, oval, externally
of a grayish color, but mottled with darker-
colored spots and stripes. From the erect habit,
and the breadth of its foliage, this plant throws
an ample shade, especially when young. From
the softness and little substance of its stem, it may
easily be destroyed by insects, which Rumphius
describes as sometimes being the case. _It_ would
then necessarily dry up rapidly. As it is well
suited to the country, and to the purpose indicated
in the text, and as its name kiki is so similar
to kikayon. it is doubtless the plant which the
sacred penman had in view. J. F. R.
Celsius, on the other hand (Hierob. ii:273),
states that it was the khariva' . Ricinus communis,
L., the castor-oil tree. The grounds for this
opinion are philological. Dioscorides (iv. 164)
GOURD
733
G07.AN
describes the KpOruv, i. e., the castor-oil tree,
under tlie name of (t/xi, and the Talmud calls
castor-oil p"^!? 1??. shemen ktk. The former opin-
ion, however, has the greater weight, that the
plant which God provided to overshadow Jonah,
Castor-Oil Plant [Ricinus Communis).
was a vine, which seems from the context
to have trailed over his arbor, and not a small
tree like the castor-oil plant, which could not,
by any stretch of the iniaginaiion, be regarded
as a vine. (G. E. Post, Hastings' Bih. Diet.)
Colocjmthus. or Wild Gourd {Cilrullut Colx^nlliHi).
2. (Heb. ^^^.^,pak-koo-aw' , bursting or splitting
open).
The wild gourds eaten by the sons of the
prophets (2 Kings iv:38-4i) were doubtless the
handsome fruit of tlie colocynth (Citrullus colo-
cynthus), from which the medicine of that name
is obtained. The plant bears a fruit resembling an
orange in size and shape, but very hard and hav-
ing its yellow rind marbled with green and white.
It resembles the watermelon, and belongs to the
same family. For various reasons it is thought
that the "knops" used in the ornamental work
of Solomon's temple were imitations of
the colocynth (i Kings vi:i8). "This plant is
lery common, and its pulp is a drastic cathartic,
and in large quantities an irritant poison. But
the castor-oil plant cannot, with any propriety, be
called a vine. It is an erect herb, with a brittle,
SI iff stem and branches, and is quite destitute of
tendrils." (G. E. Post, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
GOVERNOB (guv'ern-cr), the translation of
several different Hebrew and Greek words.
1. Al-loof (Heb.
•TVn
gentle, familiar), the
'chief of a tribe or family (Ex. xviii:2i; Num. i:i6;
Gen. xxxiv, 'Dukes' of Edom).
2. Kho-kake' (Heb. """, Judg. vrg), and Mekh-
^-^a^<r' (Heb."""^^, Judg. v:i4), denotes a ruler in
his capacity of lawgiver and dispenser of justice
(Gen. xlix:io; Prov. viii:i5; comp. Judg. v:i4 with
Is. x:i).
3. Mo'shel (Heb. 's", having dominion), a
ruler having power over property and person (Josh.
xii:2; Ps. cv:2o; Gen. xxiv:2; xlv:8, 26; 2 Chron.
xxiii:2o).
4. Naw-gheect (Heb. "i*?^, a commander), sig-
nifies the King^as a military and civilchief (2 Sam.
v:2; vi:2i; I Chron. xxix:22; 2 Chron. xxxii-2l,
xix:ll; I Kings iv:6, xviii:3, etc.).
5. Naiv-see' (Heb. ^'^\, an exalted one), the
headoT chief oi a tribe as (Gen. xvii:2o; Num. ii:3,
etc.).
6. Peh-khaw' (Heb. '^'vl, a petty chieftain,
I Kings x:l5; 2 Chron. ix:i4, etc.).
7. Paw-keect (Heb.'^T?, one who held an office
by appointment. Gen. xli;34; Judg. ix:28; 2 Chron.
xxiv:ii; Neh. xi:l4, 22; 2 Kings xxvMq; Jer. lii:25).
8. Shal-lcef (Heb.
t;-V:
a man of authority,
Gen. xlii:6; Dan. ii:l5; v:29).
9. .Sar (Heb. ''?', a chief in any capacity. Gen.
xxi:22; I Kings xviig; xi:24, etc.).
10. Eth-nar' khace (Gr. iOmpxri', 2 Cor. xi:32),
an officer of high rank.
11. Hayg-evi-ohn' (Gr. rnfy-iir. Matt. xxvii:2,
etc.), a procurator.
12. Oy-kon-om'os (oinoi^juo!). Gal. iv;2, a steward.
13. Ar-kheetree' klee-nos (Gr. dpxiTp(«tXii>os, John
ii:9), a governor of the feast.
14. Yoo-thoo' none (Gr. (idivmv, one leading, a
guide). "[The ships] are turned about with a very
small helm, whithersoever the governor listeth '
(Jas. iii:4). In this passage the word governor
means a //ViJ/, the man at the helm tiXxo governs
the ship.
OOZAN (go'zan), (Heb. '\X''-', go-zawn' , quarry),
a river of Media, to the country watered by which
Tiglath-pileser first, and afterwards Shalmaneser,
transported the captive Israelites (i Chron. v:26;
2 Kings xvii:6).
It is now generally admitted that the Gozan
is no other than the present Ozan, or, with the
prefix, Kizzil-Ozan (Golden River), which is the
principal river of that part of Persia that an-
swers to the ancient Media. This river rises eight
or nine miles southwest of Sennah, in Kurdistan.
It runs along the northwest frontier of Irak, and
passes under the Kafulan Koh. or Mountain of
Tigris, where it is met by the Karanku. These
two rivers combined, force a passage through the
great range of Caucasan, and, during iheir course,
form a junction with the Sharood. The collective
waters, under the designation of Sifeed Rood or
White River, .so named from the foam occasioned
by the rapidity of its current, flow in a meandering
GRACE
734
GRA\'EN IMAGE
course through Ghilan to the Caspian Sea (Sir
John Macdonald Kinneir's Geograph. Memoir of
the Persian Empire, pp. I2I, 122, Morier's Second
Journey, p. 208; Ker Porter's Travels, i. 267).
OBACE (gras), (Heb. IC, khajie ; once, in'Ezxa.
ix:8, ^i^^, tekh-in-naw' ; Gr. x<^P". khar'ece;
once, in Jas. i:li, eiirpiireia, yoo-prep' i-ah), a word
of various meanings.
I- Physical beauty (i. e., grace of form and
person) (Prov. i:9; iii:22).
3. Favor, goodness of God toward man, or
of men toward each other (Gen. vi:8; 2 Sam.
x:2; 2 Tim. i ;9).
3. God's forgiving mercy, as gratuitous and op-
posed to merit (Rom. xi:6; Eph. ii:5; Col. i:6,
etc.)
4. The gospel generally, as opposed to law
(John i:i7; Rom. vi:i4; i Pet. v:i2, etc.)
5. Certain gifts of God, freely bestowed; as
miracles, prophecy, tongues, etc. (Rom. xv:is;
I Cor. xv:io; Eph. iii :8, etc.)
6. Christian virtues ; e. g., charity, liberality,
holiness, etc. (2 Cor. viii:7; 2 Pet. iii:i8).
7. The glory to be revealed, or eternal life
(I Pet. i:i3).
8. Besides the meaning as given above there
are others, among them the following: (i) Spirit-
ual edification of others is called grace; it dis-
plays the favor of God, and conveys his gracious
influences to men (Eph.iv:29). (2) Speech is, with
grace, seasoned with salt, when it is concern-
ing the favor or truths of God, and tends to
promote the edification and holiness of such as
hear it (Col. iv:6). (3) To be called to the
grace of Christ is to have his gospel published
to us ; and to be invited to the enjoyment of the
fullness of God (Gal. i:6).
GBACIOUS (gra'shiis), (Heb. ID khane), kind-
ness, favor (Prov. xi:i6; Jer. xxii:23). Once used in
a passive sense as comely and of fail* proportions;
attractive; winning.
1. How gracious shall thou be, when pains come
upon thee! How comely, how winning, when
the Chaldeans come and murder, or carry thee
away captive (Jer. xxii:23).
2. "A gracious woman retaineth honor" (Prov.
xi:i6), literally 'a woman of grace;' LXX ywTi
eixA'P^afoi; Vulg. ' niulier gratiosa;' 'a gracious
woman' is Wyclifife's translation, and all the ver-
sions agree with him. The meaning is 'a woman
of grace of appearance.'
3. 'The words of a wise man's mouth are
gracious,' literally 'are grace' (Eccl. x:i2), as in
A. V. margin; comp. Luke iv:22 below).
4. 'And all bare him witness and wondered at
the gracious words which proceeded out of his
mouth' (^ir! Tois XA701S ttJs x'^P"'<"> R- V. 'words of
grace'). The meaning here, says Plummer, is
'winning words." He adds, 'The very first mean-
ing of x^/"5 (x°'P") is "comeliness," "winsomeness," '
Horn. 0(/. viii:l75. (Eccl. x:l2; Ps. xliv:3; Sirach
xxi:l6; xxxvii:2i; Col. iv:6); 'and in all these pas-
sages it is the winsomeness of language that is
specially signified.'
Bacon uses the term in tlie sense of winning.
"In beauty that of favor [countenance] is more
than that of color, and that of decent [becoming]
and gracious motion, more than that of favor."
Bacon's Essays. (Hastings' Bib. Diet; Swin-
ton's Bib. Word Book.)
GBAFT, GKAFF (graft, graf), (Gr. ^^xerT-pIfw,
eng-ken-trid zo, Xo prick in).
Grafting is the process in horticulture by which
a portion of a plant is made to unite with another
plant, whether of the same kind or of another
variety or species. The plant upon which the oper-
ation is performed is called the stock ; the portion
inserted or joined with it, the scion or graft.
Hence the figure used by the Apostle Paul (Rom.
xi:i7, 24). It is peculiarly appropriate to the olive
tree. God's word is ingrafted, as it is put into and
planted in our hearts, that it may bring forth the
fruit of good works in our life (James i:2i).
OBAIN (gran), (Heb. "'''"'V, tser-ore' , packed,
i. e., kernel; Gr. k6kkos, kok'kos, kernel), used
(Amos ix:9; Matt. xiii:3i, etc.) in the singular and
not in a collective sense. (See Corn.)
Figurative. The least grain shall not fall
to the earth; the weakest believer in God shall
not be hurt or ruined amidst sifting and trying
providences (Amos ix:9).
OBANABY (grSn'a-ry). See Storehouse.
GBAFE (grap). See Vine.
GBASS (gras), a term used in Scripture in an
indefinite sense, referring to green herbage in
general. All the four Hebrew -worAs, yerek, hdzir,
deshe, and 'esebh, translated "grass," have this
wide meaning.
Grasses are very numerous in Bible lands. In
Palestine and Syria they are represented by 90
genera and 243 species. Few of them grow in
masses. Turf is almost unknown. With the ex-
ception of the cereals, none of the grasses are cul-
tivated in these lands. (See Chatzir; Hay.)
GBASSHOPPEB (gras'hop'-per), (Heb. 3jn,
khaw-gawb').
The creature denoted by this Hebrew word
so evidently belongs to the class of 'Aying creep-
ing things' (Lev. xi :2i, 22) that the grasshopper,
according to the common acceptation of the word,
can scarcely be the proper translation. Other
reasons render it most probable that a species of
/<7c«ji is intended. (See Locust.) J. F. D.
GBATE (grat), (Heb. 1??5, mak-bare'), a net-
work of brass at the bottom of the altar of sacri-
fice (Ex. xxvii:4; xxxv:l6; xxxviii:4, 5, 30; xxxix:
39), to allow a draft.
GBA'VE (grav), (properly Heb. ''?l5, keh-ber, a
sepulcher; Gr. p-vfiiia, tnjiay' mah, or livrnulov, mnay-
mi'on, literally remembrance, and so tomb). (See
Burial and Sepulchers.)
GBAVE CLOTHES (grav kloz), (Gr. Kcipla, ki-
ree'ah, winding sheet). From early times the
body was washed (Acts ix:37), then wrapped in a
linen cloth (Matt. xxvii:59), orthe limbs separately
bound round with strips of linen (John xi;44).
GBAVEL (grav'el), (Heb. Y??, khawisawts' ,
Prov. xx:i7; Lam. iii:l6; '^¥'^, may -aw' , thought by
some to mean interior, belly. Is. xlviii:l9), small
stones or pebbles; comminuted rock, coarser than
sand.
Wycliflfe used 'gravel' as a synonym for 'sand.'
Thus Gen. xxii:i7 'I shal multiply thi seed as
sterris of hevene, and as gravel that is in the
brenk of the see' ; Matt, vii :26, 'And every man
that herith these my wordis, and doth hem nat,
is liche to a man fool, that hath bildid his hous
on gravel, or soond' (Acts xxvii:4i) ; 'And whan-
ne we felden into a place of gravel gon al aboute
with the see, thei hurtliden the schipp.' In A. V.
also there is practically no distinction between
'gravel' and 'sand,' unless it is made by the addi-
tion of 'stones.' (Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
GRAVEN IMAGE (gra'v'n Im'aj), (Heb.
^DB,
peh'sel, or
V»C2
pes-eeV , a carving), a figure made
of wood or stone (Exod, xx:4; Deut. xxvii:i5), to
represent Jehovah (See Idolatry.)
GRAVING, ENGRAVING
735
GREECE
GRAVING, ENGRAVING (grav'Ing, 6n-grav'-
Ing). 1. A'/iazc-isai' (Heb. 2?n^ j^ ^m^ ,„ hg^),
although once translated "graven" (Job xix:24), is
generally used to indicate the rougher work of
hewing stone. (See Hewing.)
2. Khaw-rash' (Heb. '^^C. to scratch), used to
describe "engraving" (Jer. xvii:i).
3. Khaw-kak' (Heb. Pi^C. to hack), a branch of
art more nearly coinciding to our idea of engrav-
ing. The word is used of engraving a plan or map
upon a clay brick (Ezek. iv:l, "portrayed"), of in-
scribing upon a tablet of stone or metal (Job xix:
24), while in Ezek. xxiii;i4 it seems to indicate
painting.
4. Peh-sel' (Heb. •??, graven image) refers to
the operation of the carver or sculptor. For
GREAT SEA (grat se), (Heb. ^''^, gaw-JoW ;
0,, yascm, Num. xxxiv:6). The Mediterranean
Sea; called also "utmost sea" and "the hinder
sea" (Joel ii:2o; Zech. xiv:8). (Sec .Sea.)
The Mediterranean was essentially the 'Great
Sea' and 'Hinder Sea' to the writers of the Bible ;
being the western boundary of the Holy Land,
beyond which their geographical knowledge did
not far extend. Maritime adventure and com-
merce was not the direction in which Israclitish
ambition extended, except perhaps for a short
period during the reign of Solomon ; and although
the lands allotted to the tribes of Judah, Dan,
Ephraini, Manasseh, Zebulun, and Ashcr touched
ilie coast of the Mediterranean at various points,
the waters of the Great Sea were seldom traversed
by their ships. This was due to several causes;
first, the history of the Israelites previous to the
Sketch Map of Greece.
curious details of the fabrication of idols, see
Isaiah (xxx:22, xhig; xliv:i2-i5).
6. Paw-thakh' (Heb. ~"!^f , to open) would ap-
pear to describe figures in relief, rather than stat-
ues, such as the cherubic figures on the temple
walls (2 Chron. iii:7).
6. Mik-lah'ath (Heb.'^?^!;'?, a sculpture) is ren-
dered "carved figures" (i Kings vi:29), (Mc. & Str.
Bib. Cycl.)
Figurative, (i) The fWjfrawwjf of the names
of the twelve tribes in the stones of the high-
priest's shoulder and breastplate denoted Christ's
perpetual remembrance, esteem, and supuort
of his people, and the impossibility of their
separation from him (Exod. xxviii:ii, and xxxix:
14. (2) God's engraving the graving of the choice
stone may denote his conferring on Christ every
saving office, his preparing for him a human
nature adorned with all gracious excellences
(Zech. iii:9). (3) So the saints are graven on
the palms of God's hands ; he perpetually thinks
of, cares for, and does them good (Is. xlix;l6).
GRAY (gra). See Hair.
GREASE (gres), (Ps. cxix:7o), elsewhere ren-
dered fat. See P"at.
GREAT OWL (grat oul). See Owl.
Exodus was essentially of an inland character;
secondly, during and after the invasion of Pales-
line their efforts were too much directed towards
dispossessing the inhabitants and retaining their
hold on the countries they had conquered, to
give ihcm time and opportunity for extending
their sway beyond the coast; thirdly, the absence
of natural commodious harbors on the Mediter-
ranean seaboard ; and lastly, the presence of the
Phoenicians on the north, and of the Philistines on
the south, along the coast-line. These nations,
especially the former, had command of the sea,
and rendered adventure in that direction cither
useless or impracticable to the children of Israel.
(Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
GREAVES (grevz), (Heb. ^'7>''?, mits-khaw',
1 Sam. xvii:6), a piece of defensive armor reach-
ing from the knee to the foot.
GRECIA (gre'ci-a), (Heb. 11', yaw-vawn'), usu-
ally rendered Javan (which see); the Latin form
(Dan viii:2i; x:2o; xi:2) of Greece (which see).
GREECE (grees), (Heb. Il', yaw-vawn' ; Gr.
'EXXds, hel-las''), properly that country in Europe
inhabited by the Greeks (i Mace. i;i), but in Acts
xx:2 apparently designating only that part of it
included in the Roman province of Macedonia
(which see). The relations of the Hebrews with
GREECE
136
GREECE, RELIGION OF
the Greeks were always of a distant kind until the
Macedonian conquest of the East; hence in the
Old Testament the mention of the Greeks is natu-
rally rare.
(1) Occasional Mention. 'Tubal and Javan,'
in connection, are named four times, Dan and
Javan once (Ezek. xxvii:i9), and Javan, trans-
lated by us Greece and Greeks, five times, of
which three are in the book of Daniel. Of these
passages, that which couples Dan and Javan is
generally referred lo a different tribe (see Javan) ;
in the rest Javan is understood of Greece or its
people. The Greek nation had a broad division
into two races, Dorians and lonians ; of whom the
former seem to have long lain hid in continental
parts, or on the western side of the country, and
had a temperament and institutions more ap-
proaching to the Italic. The lonians, on the con-
trary, retained many Asiatic usages and ten-
dencies, witnessing that they had never been so
thoroughly cut off as the Dorians from Oriental
connection.
(2) Dealings of Greeks with Hebrews. The
few dealings of the Greeks with the Hebrews
seem to have been rather unfriendly, to judge
by the notice in Zech. ix:i3. In Joel iii :6, the
Tyrians are reproached for selling the children
of Judah and Jerusalem to the Grecians; but
at what time, and in what circumstances, must
depend on the date assigned to the book of Joel
(See Joel). With the Greeks of Cyprus or Chit-
tim, the Hebrews were naturally better acquaint-
ed ; and this name, it would seem, might easily
have extended itself in their tongue to denote
the whole Greek nation. Such at least is the
most plausible explanation of its use in I Mace,
i :i, and viii:l.
(3) Religious Ceremonies. Whatever the oth-
er varieties of Greek religious ceremonies, no vio-
lent or frenzied exhibitions arose out of the na-
tional mind; but all such orgies (as they were
called) were imported from the East, and had
much difficulty in establishing themselves on
Greek soil. Quite ai a late period the managers
of orgies were evidently regarded as mere jug-
glers of not a very reputable kind (see Demosth.
2?d? Corona, sec. 79, p. 313) ; nor do the Greek
States, as such, appear to have patronized them.
On the contrary, the solemn religious processions,
the sacred games and dances, formed a serious
item in the public expenditure ; and to be perma-
nently exiled from such spectacles would have
been a moral death to the Greeks. Wherever they
settled they introduced their native institutions,
and reared temples, gymnasia, baths, porticoes,
sepulchers, of characteristic simple elegance. The
morality and the religion of such a people natural-
ly were alike superficial ; nor did the two stand
in any close union. Bloody and cruel rites could
find no place in their creed, because faith was
not earnest enough to endure much self-abandon-
ment. Religion was with them a sentiment and
a taste rather than a deep-seated conviction. (See
Greece. Religion of.)
(4) Arts of Peace and War. Among the
Greeks the arts of war and peace were carried
to greater perfection than among any earlier peo-
ple. In navigation they were little behind the
Tyrians and Carthaginians; in political foresight
they equaled ihem ; in military science, both by
sea and land, they were decidedly their superiors;
while in the power of reconciling subject-foreign-
ers to the conquerors and to their institutions,
they perhaps surpassed all nations of the world.
Their copious, cultivated, and flexible tongue car-
ried with it no small mental education to all
who learned it thoroughly ; and so sagacious
were the arrangements of the great Alexander
throughout his rapidly acquired Asiatic empire,
that in the twenty years of dreadful war between
his generals which followed his death, no rising
of the natives against Greek influence appears
to have been thought of. Without any change of
population adequate under other circumstances to
effect it, the Greek tongue and Greek feeling
spread far and sank deep through the Macedonian
dominions. Half of Asia Minor became a new
Greece; and the cities of Syria, North Palestine,
and Egypt, were deeply imbued with the same
influence. Yet the purity of the Hellenic stream
deteriorated in various places ; and some account
of the mixture it underwent will be given in the
article Hellenists (which see).
(5) Missionary Field. When a beginning
had been made of preaching Christianity to the
Gentiles, Greece immediately became a principal
sphere for missionary exertion. The vernacular
tongue of the Hellenistic Christians was under-
stood over so large an extent of country, as
almost of itself to point out in what direction
they should exert themselves. The Grecian cities,
whether in Europe or Asia, were the peculiar
field for the Apostle Paul ; for whose labors a
superintending Providence had long before been
providing, in the large number of devout Greeks
who attended the Jewish synagogues. Greece
Proper was divided by the Romans into two prov-
inces, of which the northern was called Mace-
donia, and the southern Achaia (as 2 Cor. ix :2,
etc.) ; and we learn incidentally from Acts xviii.
that the proconsul of the latter resided at
Corinth.
(6) Cities of Note. Of the cities celebrated
in ■ Greek history, none are prominent in
the early Christian times except Corinth. La-
conia, and its chief town Sparta, had ceased to
be of any importance : Athens was never eminent
as a Christian Church. In Macedonia were the
two great cities of Philippi and Thessalonica
(formerly called Therme) ; yet of these the for-
mer was rather recent, being founded by Philip
the Great'; the latter was not distinguished above
the other Grecian cities on the same coast. Nicop-
olis. on the gulf of Ambracia (or Arta), had
been built by -'\ugustus, in memory of his vic-
tory at Actium, and was, perhaps, the limit of
Achaia on the western coast' (Tacitus, Annal.
ii, 53). It had risen into some importance in
St. Paul's days, and as many suppose, it is to
this Nicopolis that he alludes in his epistle to
Titus. (See further under Achaia and Nicop-
olis.) F. W. N.
GREEK, an inhabitant of Greece.
GREECE, RELIGION OF.
1. Greek Worship: Local Institutions.
The earlier history of Greek worship discloses
a point of view decidedly different' from that of
the Christian church, especially in its Protestant
branches. We have not uncommonly suffered the
idea of the religious community to fall into the
background, in the emphasis that we have laid
on the salvation of the individual. The earlier
established worship of Greece was wholly a mat-
ter for the local community, or for such social
groups as the family, the phratry. or the state.
.\nd when an individual sought help for his own
needs, he naturally turned to the god of some
local sanctuary — the sanctuary where he might
be, if away from home; if at home, the sanctuary
(if the family or state to which he belonged. Thus
all worship centered about particular localities at
GREECE, RELIGION OF
737
GREECE, RELIGION OF
which particular gods were thought to be present.
When one race displaced another, it brought the
worship of its patron gods to the new locality,
but at the same time it adopted from its fore-
runners there the shrines where they had wor-
shiped. Each local slirine had its own forms
of worship, its own priesthood, its own tradi-
tions of the gods there honored. Such local cults
were the starting-point of Greek religion ; they
continued through all its growth to be the ground
in which it was rooted ; and when Christianity
was introduced, some of these local gods were
transformed into Christian saints, still to be wor-
shiped under a new title.
The different stages in the history of Greek
religion may best be understood from this stand-
point'. It began in the worship by wandering
had arisen thus, so that they were expose.d to the
criticism both of philosophy and of a developed
religious sense. Greek religion could not rise out,
of itself. It brought to the religion which sup-
planted it a philosophy about God that reached
far beyond any Greek god, and a sense of religious
need that no Greek worship could satisfy.
The local shrine was very simple in its origin.
In tlie Odyssey (IX., 197) we read of Maron,
priest of Apollo, who frequented Ismaros, dwell-
ing with his wife and child in the wooded grove
of the god. Chryses (Iliad, 1:36-42) served Apol-
lo Siiiinlheus, building temples to please him, and
burning fat thighs of bulls and goats on his well-
built altar at Chryse. The oldest localities of
worship were sacred spots, marked by an altar
and often by a grove where a god was wont 10
Temple of Poseidon, at Paestum.
tribes of their patron gods ; and as soon as a
tribe became attached to any locality, the wor-
ship of its gods was also localized there. As
intercourse developed between the different Greek
tribes or races, these gods became more wide-
ly known. It was the province of civilization to
unify the culture of all the elements which eiitercd
into it. Politically it was attended by the rise of
larger political groups, ihc early kingdoms of
Greece ; it tended to bring the gods also, as well
as men, into one world — e.g., to, bring together
heaven-gods into a Zeus, and herd-gods into an
Apollo, the son of Zeus — so that the way wras
paved for the creation of the pantheon which
appears in the Homeric poems. The life of his-
toric Greece found expression in city-states, and
the religious cults of a city shared all its progress
and glory. .Illicmi became, as we have seen, the
exponent of the highest culture of Athens, and
to her worship pilgrims gathered from all the
Greek world. There remained, however, many
heterogeneous elements in the nature of gods that
be worshiped. The only priests mentioned in
the Homeric poems conducted the worship at such
local shrines.
In the historic period sacred precincts varied
greatly in size and character. The whole Krissaean
plain near Delphi was sacred to Artemis, Leto,
and Athena Pronaia, and its cultivation was en-
tirely forbidden. Or, again, the spot of sacred
ground was scarcely more than large enough
for a small chapel. Entrance into the sanc-
tuary was forbidden to those wlio had not com-
plied with llie local requirements, and some
places were entirely closed. The more sa-
cred spots were carefully marked, and often
enclosed by a wall of stone. Rarely the sacred
land was kept from cultivation : commonly it
was cultivated and the rent derived from its
use was devoted to the maintenance of the
temple and its worship. Such leases were very
carefully drawn up, and describe in detail the
manner of cultivating the sacred land, of car-
ing for its forest ground, and of keeping the
GREECE, RELIGION OF
738
GREECE, RELIGION OF
sacred herds of cattle. From these sources, from
tithes and other taxes levied by the state, and
from gifts consecrated to the gods, ihe income
of a shrine might become very large.
All that was necessary for worship was an altar.
Before the dwelling house and often in each room
was a sort of obelisk, on which fruit and incense
were offered to the family gods ; in the public
squares, in the places of assembly, and on the
acropolis stood altars to the gods of the city ; the
altar was the most important feature of the sa-
cred precinct, and in the temple itself there might'
be a small altar for offerings that were not
burned. The altars for offerings of fruits, flow-
ers, cakes, etc., were small pillars, sometimes
round, sometimes with paneled sides, and capable
of high ornamentation. The altars for burnt of-
ferings were still more various in character. One
sacred altar at Olympia was a heap of ashes from
former sacrifices, on top of which the thighs of
new victims were burned. A pile of stones or a
brick structure served as an altar at some sanctua-
ries, but often the structure was elaborate, with
carved marble sidesand architectural ornaments at
top. The great altar of Zeus at Pergamon was
about forty feet high, and its sides were orna-
mented with a beautiful frieze representing the
battle of the gods and giants.
The temple was situated on some spot already
made sacred by worship, either on the acropolis
of the city, or on some other site a little removed
from the bustle of daily life. Only the more im-
portant cities had temples, and these varied in
size from very small chapels to the great temple
of Artemis at Ephesus. Approaching a temple
from the east, and going up a flight of steps, the
worshiper entered a hall enclosed only by pillars
in front, from which opened the sanctuary proper,
the naos (Latin cella). Larger temples had also a
back room, opisthodomos, opening from the op-
posite end, and they were surrounded by one or
two rows of columns. The front room, Pronaos,
was used for votive offerings, while in the naos
stood the image of the god. At first this was a
rude object of wood or stone, but later the best
art of Greece gave expression to the Greek
thought of its gods in marble or in bronze. In
few instances, as in the Parthenon at Athens,
the statue was constructed of gold, with ivory to
represent the flesh parts.
Ii has been said that the temples existed more
for the god than for man. Originally, they were
built to protect the holy image and the treasure
of the divinity ; and while this continued to be
their main object, they were always centers of
worship, for in them was felt the presence of the
god. The temple differs from the church in that
there is no assembly room for worship. _ The
great altar stood outside, and here the victims
were slain and the thigh pieces burned. Mean-
time, however, the worshiper would visit the god
in his temple, and the feast which was so impor-
tant a part of worship was held about temple and
altar in the sacred precinct.
In regard to priests, but one general statement
holds true, viz., thai' they were public officials
rather than sacred persons. Each shrine had its
own regulations as to age, sex, and other char-
acteristics of its priests. The priesthood might
belong to a particular family, or it might be ac-
quired by lot, by election, or even by purchase.
Selection did not depend on purity of life or re-
ligious devotion, though certain sins might ren-
der a man ineligible. The office of course con-
ferred a certain degree of sacredness on those
who held it, but the priests were primarily the
officials of the city or of the local shrine, whose
duty it was to direct the worship there.
(1) Forms of Worship. Religious worship
in Greece was connected with certain specified days,
as well with definite localities. The Athenians
boasted that they were the most religious people
of Greece because they observed more sacred days
than any other people. Certain days of every
month were sacred, the seventh to Apollo, the
fifth to the Erinyes, if Hesiod's statement (Erg.
802) be true also of Athens, and the great festi-
vals of the gods increased the number to approxi-
mately the number of holy days observed by the
Christian church. In speaking of particular gods,
we have mentioned some of the elements that' en-
tered into the worship of these days. Athletic
games were a very ancient method of honoring
the Greek gods, and the forms of the athlete were
transferred to the types of the gods themselves.
Music was a constant element in worship. Pro-
cessions were accompanied by music, worship at
the altar took the form of song and dance, the
prayer that accompanied sacrifice was commonly
a hymn of praise and supplication ; even the con-
testants for prizes in music were often bound
to sing or play in praise of the god. The drama
was a development' of Dionysos-v/orship, nor
were its religious origin and meaning ever for-
gotten. Processions and splendid pageants were
an important element in worship. They were an
exhibition of the glory of the god, as well as an
indication of man's desire to serve the god. The
central point of worship, however, was the festal
sacrifice.
It is a fair assumption that the pious Greeks
recognized the gods whenever a domestic animal
was slain for food. Certainly, when the farmer
killed his own stock, he burned certain parts to
the gods, just as at' the great religious festivals
animals were slain as a sacrifice, and parts of
them were consumed by fire ; and it is probable
that the pious Athenian would have felt scruples
about the use of flesh bought from a butcher had
not similar rites been observed. (Such flesh was
therefore "food offered to idols," (i Cor. viii:4).
Thus it is true that the sacrifices were feasts, and
also that at every feast the flesh had been in a
sense consecrated to the gods. The religious oc-
casions for sacrifice mcluded, first', the recurring
feasts of the gods; secondly, the fulfillment of
vows made in time of danger, and thirdly, times
when the help of the gods was specially needed,
as before a battle or a journey. The animals
chosen for the sacrifice must be in every way
sound. Farther than this, the choice of the ani-
mal and its age depended on the particular god
to whom it was offered. Poseidon preferring bulls,
Apollo young lambs, Athena heifers, and Diony-
sos goats.
In preparation for the sacrifice the offerers
clothed themselves in fresh garments and put on
wreaths as for a feast, and the animals were
adorned with flowers and garlands. The proces-
sion brought the animals, together with the im-
plements of sacrifice, to the altar, barleycorns
were scattered on the altar and on the animal,
and a lock of the animal's hair was thrown into
the flame. Meantime all present observed silence,
while music of flutes accompanied the prayer-
hymns to the gods. The animal's throat was cut
— in the case of oxen, after they had been stunned
by an axe or club — and the blood was either al-
lowed to flow on the altar, or collected in a ves-
sel and poured on the altar. Parts of the entrails
were burned on the altar, with fat to help the
flame; and after it was entirely cut up, the thigh
GREECE, RELIGION OF
739
GREECE, RELIGION OF
bones, and in particular localities other parts also,
were burned to the gods. All present joined in
pouring libations of wine on the :iltar to the music
of hymns and of (lutes. The remainder of the
llesh was roasted and eaten by priests and of-
ferers in sacrificial meal, with further libalicms to
the gods. On great festal occasions large num-
bers of victims were slain, and thus the worship
culminated in a general feast to the gods.
Other minor sacrifices may be briefly mentioned.
Whenever men were eating or drinking, libations
of wine mixed with water were poured out to the
gods. In Hcimer we read many limes of libation
and prayer, especially before men set out on some
important undertaking. Special libations also
are offered to the dead and to the gods beneath
the earth. In the simple worship of the house-
hold, flowers, fruits, and cakes are placed on al-
tars for the gods. In spite of the general prefer-
ence for animal victims, there were some shrines
to which they would be a profanation, and at
these men offered fruits or sacred cakes. Again,
as the use of incense was introduced into Greece,
and men enjoyed its fragrance in their own
houses, it came to be used both at the feasts of
the gods and in the regular temple ritual.
Sacri6ce to Athena at a Wedding.
Votive offerings, anatlicmata, form a class by
themselves, to which the name sacrifice is not
strictly applicable. They were devoted to a god
in memory of some distinct blessing that had been
received. The sick man, on regaining health,
would dedicate an image of the part that had
been diseased — a foot or an ear. it might be — and
many of these offerings have been recovered by
excavation. After returning from a journey, of-
ferings were brought to the gods. Thus upon
the successful return of the ten thousand, a sum
of money was dedicated, a part of which Xeno-
phon later used to found a shrine in Elis for th«
Ephesian Artemis. Trophies won in the games
were often devoted to the gods; e.g., the tripods
received as prizes in the dramatic contests at
Athens were set up as votive offerings. Slaves were
dedicated to a Divinity, to be his servants; later,
this became a regular method for the manumission
of slaves, in which cases they received the protec-
tion of the god, though no regular service was
required of them. It was always customary to
dedicate to a god small copies of his temple image,
or of the animal that was his symbol, however
we may interpret this iisSge. Finally, the anatli-
cmata included religious taxes, or revenues
which were dedicated by states to their patron di-
vinities.
It is not always easy to determine the religious
intent of this worship. Votive offerings are the
simplest to explain, for clearly they express the
worshiper's desire to honor the god by a gift, just
as a subject would honor his king by bringing
him a gift of value. Libations, cakes, fruits, etc.,
were also gifts, not valuable in themselves, but
nevertheless the correct otTering when ancient cus-
tom declared that they were what the god wanted
then and there of his servant. The last statement
applies equally to all sacrifices; viz., they were the
right way to express one's desire to honor the
god, because they were the way prescribed by tra-
dition. Nevertheless we can analyze somewhat
more closely the religious sentiment expressed in
the sacrificial feast. The banquet still binds to-
gether those who share it, so that it is used by
all sorts of associations to arouse a sentiment of
union : and among many races this bond has in
itself something sacred. Moreover, the banquet
has a direct effect on the disposition, which we
express by saying that it kindles "good feeling."
The physical stimulus of meat and wine is very
powerful on human nature. The sacrificial ban-
quet bound Greek worshipers together, and awak-
ened on each occasion a new feeling of union with
one another and with the god they worshiped. It
was the god who gave the banquet to entertain
his worshipers; he was himself present at the
sacrifice, so that those who shared it gained a
sense of communion with him. The very physical
stimulus of the banquet was utilized to produce
religious feeling. It was combined, however, with
other stimuli, which prevented the sentiment from
becoming gross or material.
The splendid procession, solemnly bearing the
image or some symbol of the god. the music on
some theme consecrated by long use in worship,
the artistic surroundings of the perfect temple
and statue embodying religious ideals in form
for the eye to see them — all these combined to
stir the esthetic nature of this people and to
give fitting expression to the feelin.gs which they
aroused. The study of Greek worship indicates
clearly that religion appealed to the artistic side
of the Greek nature, and that it met any reaching
toward God by the perfect forms of its manifold
art.
(2) Worship in Time of Need. Nowhere is
the objective character of Greek religion more
apparent than in its attitude toward sin. The
normal worship that has just been considered has
been called mechanical because it proceeds on the
supposition that, if man offers food and other ob-
jects to the gods, then the gods will grant him
prosperity ; it may more truly be called soda!, in
that theoretically man honors the gods as he
would honor a human ruler, and regards divine
blessings and the divine rule as he would re-
gard the rule of a righteous king. If, however,
the student uses the word social, he should not
forget that the social relations between man and
the gods in Greece must be conceived as far
broader and far more intimate than those between
man and any human king.
In such a religion it is impossible that the sense
of sin should occupy a ftmdamental place. It
was not indeed difficult or unusual for men to in-
cur the dipleasure of the gods. But' what im-
GREECE, RELIGION OF
740
GREECE, RELIGION OF
pressed the Greek was the judicial side of the
matter, the fact that disaster followed wrong-
doing as its penalty. No stress was laid on re-
pentance ; the Greek gods found no satisfaction in
extreme self-humiliation; the wrong was con-
ceived as in the outward act, not so much in the
disposition from which the act sprang, so that
the only remedy lay in the practice of certain out-
ward rites by which at length divine favor might
be regained.
The origin and motives of wrong-doing were
carefully analyzed in Greek poetry. It was the
presumption of Agamemnon that incurred the
wrath of Artemis, his ambition which led him to
appease her wrath by the sacrifice of his daugh-
ter that he might lead the expedition against
Troy. The ambition and lust of Aigisthos led him
to marry Agamemnon's wife and to slay the king
on his return. Pride, becoming presumption,
brought severe penalty on such heroes of Greek
legend as Marsyas and Niobe. The two great
moral thoughts of Greek tragedy are : that sin
breeds sin as its penalty and that laws some-
times conflict so that the observance of higher
law makes one subject to the penalty of another
law. as in the stories of Orestes and Antigone.
Thus the supplicant did not pray for forgive-
ness of inward guilt, but sought immunity from
the penalty of sin in the same spirit that he asked
the divine help in evils which he had done noth-
ing to bring on himself. Of the rites by which
individuals sought to soothe the anger of the
gods and escape disaster we know but little. When
in peril at sea or in battle, men sought protect-
ing favor by vows of sacrifices to be paid if they
survived. Before a journey they sacrificed to
Hermes, the traveler's god, and to their own
family gods, to prevent disaster. In sickness they
vowed sacrifices to some patron deity or hero, or
had sacrifices performed in their behalf to some
god of healing, such as Paian or Asklcpios.
Sophocles gives us a picture of the rites by
which a city sought relief from the plague. An
embassy is sent' to Delphi to learn what should be
done, and meantime processions kindle sacrifices
on all the altars of the city. In time of extreme
need even human sacrifices were practiced, though
rarely, in the hope that the anger of the gods
might be satisfied by one victim instead of many.
It was the regular practice to offer sacrifices be-
fore battle and before an expedition set out from
home, and the will of the god was ascertained
from the appearance of the victim. The victims
for sacrifice in time of calamity or of peril were
not always domestic animals, as in the case of
ordinary sacrifices, but dogs, asses, wild animals,
and birds were also occasionally offered. Nor
was the ritual of sacrifice the same; for appar-
ently libations were omitted, the animal was slain
in a slightly different manner, and its body was
completely burned, .^t such times men could not
seek communion with the gods, but by peculiar
sacrifices sought to avert their wrath.
These sacrifices were offered not only to the
great gnds that ordinarily protected a city, but
particularly to the special gods of each locality —
the gods closely connected with the soil, and the
so-called heroes. The gods of the soil were wor-
shiped mainly by the peasantry, and often repre-
sented an older type of deity than the Olympian
gods of the ruling classes. To the peculiar rites
of such worship men turned in time of need,
when the customary forms did not seem effica-
cious. The hero may be defined as a god wor-
shiped only in a limited locality, and with no place
among the Olympian gods of mythology. Often
they, too, were old gods whose worship con-
tinued only in one placs, so that they were re-
duced to the rank of local spirits. The myths
about some of these gods were taken up in the
Greek epic, where the term hero (herds) had
something of its English meaning; the general
use of the term, however, in literature as well as
in religion, had to do simply with local divinities.
The worship of heroes filled a large place in prac-
tical religion. Not that cities celebrated great
feasts in their honor, though such was sometimes
the case, but for a smaller group of worshipers
the hero was more of a real divinity than were
the gods themselves. Calamity was attributed to
the anger of some hero who had been neglected;
and on the other hand, special blessings were
expected from their favor. Like the saints of
Europe, they stood much nearer the worshiper
than the great state gods ; they sympathized bet-
ter with his needs, and so he paid them a truer
worship.
Closely related in form to the sacrifices in time
of need (sphagia), which have just been consid-
ered, were the rites of purification for murder and
for sacrilege. In the Homeric poems there is no
trace of these sacrifices. In later times the mur-
derer must flee out of the land, and, unless the
murder were accidental, he could never return.
If, however, the act were unintentional, he must
first seek purification in a foreign land. The man
who conducted the rites slew some animal, pref-
erably a young pig, and applied its blood to the
murderer, after which its body was burned and
other sacrifices were offered to the gods. Before
engaging in certain religious rites, e.g., in the mys-
teries celebrated at Eleusis, it was also necessary
for the individual to purify himself with the blood
of a young pig. In contrast with this, the im-
purity which came from contact with the dead re-
quired only ceremonial washings to set it aside.
If it were a city that demanded purification, the
rites were far more complex. It was first neces-
sary to remove the cause of impurity, as the
graves were all removed from the island of Delos,
or again as the Alkmaionidai were all driven from
Athens before the city could be purified from their
sacrilegious act. In the latter instance, we read,
the next step was to bring black and white sheep
to the altars where the sacrilegious murders had
been committed; there they were released, and
wherever one lay down it was sacrificed on the
spot to the god in whose precinct it was. A hu-
man sacrifice is also mentioned by some writers.
By these means the city was purified and the
plague was stayed.
Thus by water and by blood, as in special cases
by different herbs or by burning sulphur, the taint
of evil was removed, and men might again ex-
pect favor from the gods.
2. General Character of Creeii Religion-
Its Place in the History of Religion.
It is the work of religion to explain the world
in its spiritual meaning as science explains it
from the purely intellectual side.
In the first place, Greek religion furnished a
spiritual interpretation of nature. The nature
side of most of the greater gods has been so ob-
scured that we cannot be confident what it was ;
indeed, in many instances, we cannot be quite sure
that they ever did represent powers of nature.
We do know, however, that the Greek peopled all
nature with spiritual beings ; the hills and the
woods, the rivers, the sea. the winds he regarded
as the expression, in each instance, of a life like
his own, only superior. Thus he felt a kinship be-
tween all that was useful", beautiful, wonderful.
GREECE, RELIGION OF
741
GREECE. RELIGION OF
terrible, in nature and his own spirit. The world
was made intelligible and human by religion; to
use the happy phrase of a recent writer, religion
made man at home in the world. In such a world
not only could his mind work freely and use the
objects of nature with confidence, but the spiritual
side of his nature could also e.xp.-ind. For the
Greek gods were not merely personified powers
of nature, but full and complete persons, with the
emotions and passions of man, so that a broad
spiritual relation connected them with man. Man
felt himself also to be a part of nature, and the
deification of his own powers — his love in Aphro-
dite, his intellect in Atlicna, his warlike impetu-
osity in Arcs — contributed farther to "make him
at home in the world."
Secondly, Greek religion met man's needs di-
rectly by creating beings which watched over
particular phases of his life and activity. Sosipulis,
Orthopolis, Alaikoincucis were "city-protecting
divinities;" Au.icsia, Pliylos, Phorbas, gods of
growth, as Ericlitlionios, "earth-breaker," was a
god of plowing; Mylas, Ilimalis, Alphito were
named from the grinding of the wheat, latros and
Ruin^^ of the Temple of Victory, Athens.
Paian from their aid in healing; Taraxippos kept
the charioteer's horses from fright, and Tclcsid-
romos brought them speedily to the goal of the
race. Such gods find no distinct place in the
Greek pantheon, although as Kourotrophos,
"child-nurturcr," became one phase of Dcmctcr's
being, so many of these special gods were in a
manner taken up into the great gods of Greece.
And these gods, like the divinities of nature, fur-
nished an environment for the development of
man's spiritual nature.
Thirdly, the social order was reflected in the
world of the gods. All the elements of civiliza-
tion and of culture were taken up into the Greek
gods, so thai' they became the embodiment of all
that was truly Greek, the concrete expression of
the excellencies, and the faults also, of Greek life.
The gods were so closely connected with the state
that patriotism received the sanction of religion;
art and literature became all but religions modes
of expression : and at length philosophy made the
daring attempt to re-create the gods— an attempt
that was logical enough, for the gods were what
man had made them, but yet it was necessarily all-
destructive. The result of the intimate relation
between Greek culture and the Greek gods was a
peculiar sympathy between god and worshiper.
Greek religion not only brought order into the
world, but this order was along the lines of every-
day Greek life, and it responded to every act of
the individual, intellectual, a;sthetic, or distinctly
religious. As the natural world developed the
body and the senses, so the divine world was a
home for man's spirit.
With all its beauty and all its harmony with
Greek culture, Greek religion had many weak-
nesses. In fact, its chief weakness lay along the
very line of its strength. The gods were so truly
Greek that they copied the frailties of the
Greek nature all too well ; these ideals of gener-
ous, beautiful life lacked the moral fibre of a
sterner race ; moreover, Greek religion was rooted
in the past, so that popular worship, holding to
traditional rites, could not rise to the idea of the
gods which it had itself suggested. At length it
could no longer satisfy religious thought and
the needs of the religious life, so that the time
was fully ripe for the introduction of Chris-
tianity.
Greek religion fulfilled its mission and in large
measure disappeared. Estimated
historically: (i) It prepared the
way for the introduction of Chris-
tianity; (2) its sacred places and
sacred rites exercised a direct in-
fluence on Christianity; and (3)
it offered a permanent contribu-
tion to the development of re-
ligion.
(1) When Christian missionaries
came preaching that the world was
lost in wickedness, and that men
needed salvation [sitteria) both for
this life and for the life to come,
it was a f.iniili.ir message to their
Greek hearers. Earnest minds in
Greece had been seeking just this
soteria fur centuries. A sense of
spiritual need had been developed
which neither Greek religion nor
Greek art nor Greek philosophy
could entirely satisfy; and what
the Greeks had ignorantly sought,
that Christianity declared unto
them. A conception of God had
been wrought out that was infin-
itely beyond any Greek god; poets and philoso-
phers entertained a firmly-rooted belief in the
righteous government of the universe and in a
moral law at its I'cundation ; Greek worship taught
men to look to the gods for communion and sym-
pathy only to disappoint them, for their gods were
not equal to what men sought in them. These
needs and these ideals were met by Christianity,
and the new religion found a rich soil in the re-
mains of an earlier growth.
(2) Although Greek religion disappeared, many
features of it remained and were taken up into
Christianity. Many local shrines were conse-
crated to the use of Christianity The very
Parthenon became at length a Cliristian church.
Heroes and gods of local worship in many in-
stances continued to be, and still arc, worshiped
as Christian saints. Some of the old feasts and
processions, especially the processions by which
help was sought in time of need, became conse-
crated to Christian use. The old mystery rites
were consistently fought by Christian leaders, but
we can see that before they entirely disappeared
the Christian sacraments of baptism and the
Lord's Supper had come to be celebrated some-
what as the mysteries were celebrated, simply be-
GREEN
742
GUILTY
cause the mysteries had done so much to define
the ideas of solemn ritual for the Greek mind.
Thus there were many threads of connection be-
tween the old worship and the new.
(3) Certain phases of rehgion were developed in
Greece more perfectly than they had been devel-
oped before, and the modern world still has some-
thing to learn from Greece along this line:
Greece developed the human side of religion to a
high degree. Human experiences were reflected
in the Divine world so ihat men might feel a
peculiar sympathy with their gods. The gods
were in closest touch with human life in all its
phases. Their life was in the life of men; the
work of the farmer and the smith, the experiences
of the traveler by land or sea, the daily life of
the market, the activity of the state — all this was
the sphere of Greek religion. It made all of life
brighter and belter by lending to it a spiritual
side. A. F.
GKEEN (gren). See COLORS.
GREETING (gret'ing). See SALUTATION.
GREYHOUND (gra'hound'), a very doubtful
rendering of Heb. ^"iri? "'"'■'?-. zar-zeer' mawth-
na'yeem, slender in the loins (Prov. xxx:3i).
That a "greyhound" does not answer to the
meaning of the Hebrew is generally agreed. The
most probable rendering yet suggested is that
of a "wrestler" girded for the fight ; others ex-
plain it of the war horse, which is so poetically
described in ihe book of Job (xxxix :i9-25).
GRIEF (gref), (Heb. ")?, khol-ee'), disease, sick-
ness, anxiety. Used in a bodily as well as a
mental sense to indicate yiain. The Hebrew word
rendered grief in Is. liii:3, 4, 10, is elsewhere
translated sickness (Deut. viiilj: xxviii:59, 61; 2
Kings i:2). (See Mourning; Sorrow, etc.)
GRIEVANCE, GRIEVOUSLY (grev'ans,
grev'iis-ly), (Heb. '^V, azv-mawl' , wearing effort,
worry, Hab. i:3), human misery either of mind or
body.
GRINDERS (grind'ers),in Eccl. xii;3, represent
the double teeth used in mastication.
GRINDING (grind'ing). See Mill.
Figurative, (i) The millstones were hard,
the nethermost especially, which was fixed; and
so the heart of Leviathan is likened to a piece
of it, to represent his undaunted courage and
obstinacy (Job xli:24). (2) The ceasing of the
sound of the millstones implied the turning of
the place into a desolation (Jcr. xxv:io; Rev.
xviii:22). (3) Christ's falling on men. and
grinding them to powder, denotes his rendering
them utterly miserable for their contempt of him;
thus he did grind the Jewish nation, when their
city and temple were utterly ruined, and multi-
tudes slain and enslaved in the most wretched
manner (Matt. xxi:44). (4) To i;rind the face
of the poor vs, cruelly to oppress and afflict them
(Is. iii:l5). (5) Let my wife grind to another;
let her become a slave to work at the mill ; or
let her be defiled by another (Job x.xxi:io).
GRISIiED or GRIZZLED (griz"ld or grfz'z'ld),
(Heb. "'"'?, baw-rode' , spotted), partly colored or
variegated, as goats (Gen. xxxi:io, 12), or horses
(Zech. vi:3, 6).
GROVE (grov), (Heb. '^1^% ash-ay-raw', for-
tunate.
1. It is generally admitted that this word cannot
mean either a green tree or a grove, for the sim-
ple reason that the word to make (i Kings xiv:
15 ; 2 Kings xvii :i6, etc.), to set up (2 Kings xvii :
10), to stand up (2 Chron. xx.\iii:i9), and to
build (l Kings xiv 123), used to denote the erec-
tion of an Asherah, are not one of them suitable
to a tree or grove. On the other hand the Ashe-
rah is spoken of as being set up under, or by the
side of, the green tree. Asherah is, in all prob-
ability, a name for Ashtoreth (which see), and
the idol (a wooden column) was by the side of
the altars of Baal. This Asherah was often set up
in a grove, because thus would be given that seclu-
sion necessary to the cruel and indecent riles
which marked, among Oriental nations, the wor-
ship of false divinities.
2. Ay'she/(lieh. ■'k^, rendered "grove," Gen.
xxi:33), really means the tamarisk tree, which
with its long life, hard wood, and evergreen leaves,
was a type of the ever-enduring grace of the faith-
ful covenant-keeping God. A celebrated oak
stood by the sanctuary at Shechem (Josh. xxiv:26;
Judg. ix:6).
GRUDGE (gruj), (Heb. 1 :, leen), primitive
root, to stay permanently; hence, in a bad sense,
to be obstinate; not as in our sense, to covet or be-
grudge (Ps. Iix:i5). The Revised Version trans-
lates it, "tarry all night."
The modern meaning of the word is found
twice in A. V., in the phrase 'bear a grudge
against,' and in the adverb 'grudgingly;' Lev. xix:
18 Thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge
against the children of thy people ;' 2 Cor. ix 7
'Everyman according as he purposeth in his heart,
so let him give; not grudgingly, or of necessity:
for God loveth a cheerful giver' {in M-n-qs, literally
'out of sorrow,' as R. V. margin).
GUARD (gard), (Heb. ~?P, tab-bawkh').
1. The words so translated commonly have ref-
erence to the duties of a king's body-guard. Tah-
bawkh' originally meant "cook ;" but as this officer
usually did the butchering it acquired the mean-
ing of 'executioner' and is used of the body-guard
of the kings of Egypt and Babylon (Gen. xxxvii :
36; 2 Kings xxv:8; Jer. xxxix rp; xl:i; Dan.
ii:i4).
2. RatsC^'),?^ runner), also means body-guard
(2 Sam. xv:i; i Kings i;5; i Sam. xxii:i7; 2 Kings
x:25; xi:6; 2 Chron. xii:lo).
3. Mish-meh'reth, J^'^'f?, meant to 'watch,' or
a 'watcher' (Neh. ivig, 22; vii:3; xiiig; Job vii:l2).
GUARDIAN ANGELS (gard'i-an an'jelz).
See Angel.
GUDGODAH (giid'go-dah or gud-go'dah), (Heb.
"^T^h gud-go' daw, cutting, cleft), the fortieth
station of the Israelites, between Mt. Hor and Jot-
bath (Deut. x:7). The name aiipears to be pre-
served in the present wady Ghudhagidh. (See
Hor-Hagidgad.)
GUEST (gest). See Hospitality.
GUEST CHAMBER (gest cham'ber), (Or.
Karakvixa., kat-al' oo-7nah ,\.o\>xeiiY up, i.e., a journey),
any room for the entertainment of guests (Mark
xiv:l4; Luke xxii:li), rendered Inn \n Luke ii:7.
(See Hou.SE.)
GUILT (gill). See Sin.
GUILTY (gilt'y), GUILTY OF BLOOD (Num.
XXXV :27, 31); GUILTY OF DEATH (Matt.
xxvi:66; Mark xiv:64). This phrase in the last
two passages means "deserving of death;" in the
former it means simply"guilty of blood-shedding."
GULF
743
GYMNASIUM
OTTLir (gulf), (Or. x'^'i^"-- khas'mah, chasm),
figuratively an impassable space, such as is rep-
resented to exist between the abode of Abraham
and the lost rich man (Luke xvi;26).
The Rabbinical conception of the separation
between the two parts of Hades was a thin wall,
a mere hand or finger-breadth (Weber, Lchre
des Talm-ud, 326 f.). (Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
GTTNl (gu'ni), (Heb. "*'*, goo-nee', colored,
dyed).
!• A descendant of Gad, and father of Abdiel
(I Chron. v:i5). (B. C. between 109 and 782.)
2. Son of Naphtali, founder of the family of
Gunites (Gen. xlvi:24; I Chron. vii:i3). (B. C.
before 1856.)
GUNITES (gu'niles), (Heb. ''^''^'^, hag-goo-nee'),
a general name of the descendants of GuNi (which
see), of the tribe of Naphtali (Num. xxvi;48).
GTJR (gilr), (Heb. '^M, goor, a whelp as abiding
in the lair), an ascent at which Ahaziah was killed
while Hying from Jehu (2 Kings ix:27), B. C. 883.
It was said to be at Ibleam, between jezreel and
Beth-haggan, but has not been identified.
OXTBBAAIi (gflr'ba'al), (Heb. '>1T''^\ goor-
bah'al), a district inhabited by Arabians (2 Chron.
xxvi:7). It seems to have been situated between
Palestine and the Arabian peninsula.
GUTTER (giit'ter), (Heb, li:V, tsiit-iwor').
1. A dam or trough for watering flocks or herds
(Gen. xxx:38, 41), but the "gutter" through which
one might enter the city of Jerusalem was perhaps
some privy entrance, by which the filth of the city
ran out (2 Sam. v:6-8), or probably a water course.
3. Rah' hat (Heb. ^'"1^, drinking troughs, Exod.
ii:l6), into which Jacob placed peeled rods when
the sheep came to drink (Gen. xxx:38, 40).
In 2 Sam. v:6-8 we have in the Authorized
Version as follows: "And the king and his men
went to Jerusalem unto the Jebusites, the inhab-
itants of the land: which spake unto David, say-
ing, Except thou take away the blind and the
lame, thou shalt njt come m hither: thinking,
David cannot come in hither. Nevertheless
David took the stronghold of Zion; the same is
the city of David. And David said on that day.
Whosoever getteth up to the gutter, and smiteth
the Jebusites, and the lame, and the blind, that
are hated of David's soul, he shall be chief and
captain." This has been considered by all com-
mentators for many years as very obscure, and
while we will not attempt a full discussion of the
subject, we may perhaps understand it better by
observing the following points: (i) The two
clauses "except thou take away the lame and the
blind," and "thou shalt not come in hither" are
improperly transposed, and the transposition ren-
ders the next clause meaningless. (2) Instead
of "except thou take away the lame and the
blind," read, "the lame and the blind shall turn
thee away." (3) In verse 8 there is also a trans-
position of the two clauses, "whosoever getteth up
to the gutter, and smiteth the Jebusites." (4)
Instead of "the Jebusites," with definite article
"the" it should be rendered "a Jcbusite." (5)
The word translated gutter would be here very
properly rendered watercourse. It comes from a
verb expressing the sense of rushing water, and is
found only in one other place in the Bible (Ps.
xlii:8), and is there translated " waterspouts." The
following we believe to be a fair and correct ren-
dering of the same by De Wette:
"And the king and his men went to Jerusalem,
to the Jebusite inhabiting the land. And he spoke
to David, saying : Thou shalt not come in hither ;
but the blind and the lame will turn thee away,
saying, David shall not come in hither. And
David took the stronghold of Zion ; that is, the
city of David. And David said on that day. Any
one that smites a Jebusite and gets to the water
course, and the lame and the blind hated of
David's soul, he shall be chief and captain." The
Jebusites had long held this stronghold and were
so confident that no one could come in thither
that they contemptuously shouted. "The lame men
and the blind men can easily keep the place."
David, however, with a keen, strategic eye saw if
his men only got to the "gutter" or waterway and
shut off the water supply the Jebusite would soon
be compelled to surrender. His men soon took
the gutter, or waterway, and the impregnable
fortress was surrendered and became the strong-
hold of Zion. And by being the first to climb up
to the waterway, Joab became the commander in
chief or captain of David's army, according to
David's promise.
GYMNASimC (jim-na'zi-um), (Gr. yviivdirtov, in
A. V. place of exercise).
A public place in Jerusalem for athletic exer-
cise and exhibitions, below the western cloister
of the- temple (Joscphus, Bell. Jud. iv :9, 12; vi :3,
2; 6, 2), below the palace of the Asmonaeans
(.Intiq. xx:8, 11; Bell. Jud. ii:l6, 3), below the
citadel or acropolis (2 Mace. iv:i2, 27; not the
Syrian fortress called the Acra, which was erected
later, i Mace. i:33). It was situated near the
council house, by the first or innermost wall, and
at the end of the bridge which led from the tem-
ple across the Tyropoeon valley (Bell. Jud. v:4,
2; cp. vi :6, 2). It was erected by Hellenizing
Jews, under the leadership of Jason, by permis-
sion of Antiochus Epiphanes (i Mace. i:lo, 14;
2 Mace, iv :7 sq.). The essential features of a
gymnasium were :
(a) An open court for boxing, wrestling, pitch-
ing quoits and throwing the javelin (2 Mace, iv:
14, palasstra, discus). (b) A stadium or
course for the foot race, (c) .\ colonnade for a
place of recreation and for athletic exercises in
winter. {Atitiq. ax\A Bell. Jud., passim : its Greek
name was xystos). (d) A bathroom.
The gymnasium at Jerusalem was condemned
by strict Jews because it introduced heathen cus-
toms ; led Jewish youth to wear the hat of
Hermes, to exercise stark naked in public, and
to be ashamed of the mark of their religion; and
infected even the priests and caused them to
neglect their official duties (l Mace. i:i4, 15; 2
Mace. iv:i3-i7). It existed until the overthrow
of the city by Titus; and was not only resorted to
for athletic sports, but was also occasionally used
for popular assemblies ( Josephus, Bell. Jud. ii :
16, 3), (Davis, Bib. Diet.)
HA
744
HABAKKUK
H
HA (ha). The Heb. interjection '^¥?i heh-awkh' ,
is once translated 'ha, ha," Job xxxix:25 'He saitli
among the trumpets, Ha, ha," referring to the
neighmg of the war horse.
The revisers have changed this into 'Aha!' and
have been tal^en to taslc for giving the horse a
human cry. The older versions were still more
'human,' as Wycliffe (1382) 'Fy!' or (1388) 'Joie!'
Coverdale 'tush,' Douay, 'Vah.' 'Ha, ha' comes
from the Geneva Bible (Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
HAAHASHTABI (ha'a-hash'ta-ri).
(Heb. 'I'l'fCb'.'^, luiw-akh-ash-taiv-ree' , perhaps
courier, messenger or a mule driver), a man or
family descended from Ashur, by his second wife
Naarah (1 Chron. iv:6), B. C. after 1618.
HABAIAH (ha-ba'yah), (Heb. '"'5?, khab-ah-
yatv', in Neh. '^"^Cl, khab-aw-yaw' , [but MSS.
and editions vary in both places] whom Jehovah
protects), the descendants of Habaiah returned
among the sons of the priests from Babylon with
Zerubbabel, but because tlieir genealogy was im-
perfect they were not allowed to serve (Ezra ii:6l;
Neh. vii:63), B. C. about 536.
HABAKKUK (hab'ak-kiik or ha-bak'kuk), (Heb.
pi|-?0, khab-ak-kook' , embrace, or perhaps the
name of a garden plant).
1. The Prophet. One of the most distin-
guished Jewish prophets, the eighth in order of
the minor class, who flourished about 610 B. C.,
the name denoting, as observed by Jerome, as
well a 'favorite' as a 'struggler.' Of this prophet's
birtliplace, parentage and life we have only apocry-
phal and conflicting accounts. The Pseudo-Epi-
phanius {,De Vxtis Prophet. 0pp.. torn. ii:i8, p.
247) states that he was of the tribe of Simeon,
and born in a place called '&i)9^0Ki)p,Baythzokar ;
that he fled to Ostrarine when Nebuchadnezzar
attacked Jerusalem, but afterwards returned home
and died two years before the return of his coun-
trymen. But rabbinical writers asserts that he was
of the tribe of Levi, and name dififerent birth-
places (Huetius, Dem. Evang. Prop. iv. p. 508).
Eusebius notices that in his time the tomb of
Habakkuk was shown in the town of Ceila, in
Palestine; and this is repeated also by Nicephorus
{Hist. Ecctcs. xii:48), and Sozomen (vii :2o') ;
still there are other writers who name different
places where, according to common opinion, he
had been buried (Carpzov, Introd. ad libros canon-
icos V. T., p. 402).
2. Boofc 0/ Habakkuk. A full and trust-
worthy account of the life of Habakkuk would
explain his imagery, and many of the events to
which he alludes ; but since we have no informa-
tion on which we can depend, nothing remains
but to determine from the book itself its historical
basis and its age!
(1) Contents. Now, we find that in chapter i
the prophet sets forth a vision, in which he dis-
cerned the injustice, violence and oppression com-
mitted in his country by the rapacious and terrible
Chaldaeans, whose oppressions he announces as a
Divine retribution for sins committed; conse-
quently he wrote in the Chald.'ean period, shortly
before the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar which ren-
dered Jehoiakim tributary to the king of Babylon
(2 Kmgs xxivn). (1) When he wrote the first
chapter of his prophecies, the Chaldaeans could not
yet have invaded Palestine, otherwise he would
not have introduced Jehovah, saying (i:5), 'I will
work a work in ,your days, which ye will not be-
lieve, thougli it be told you' (verse 6) ; 'for I raise
up the Chaldsans, that bitter and hasty nation,
which shall march through the breadth of the land
to possess the dwelling-places that are not theirs.'
From verse 12 it is also evident that the ruin of U>e
Jews had not then been effected ; it says 'the Lord
ordained them for judgment, established them for
correction.' (2) Agreeably to the general style
of the prophets, who to lamentations and an-
nouncements of Divine punishment add consola-
tions and cheering hopes for the future, Habakkuk
then proceeds in the second chapter to foretell the
future humiliation of the conquerors, who plun-
dered so many nations. He also there promul-
gates a vision of events shortly to be expected
(verse 3) ; 'the vision is yet for an appointed time,
but at the end it shall speak, and not lie ; though
it tarry, wait for it, because it will surely come;
it will not tarry." (3) This is succeeded in the
third chapter by an ode, in which the prophet
celebrates the deliverances wrought by the Al-
mighty for his people in times past, and prays for
a similar interference now to mitigate the coming
distresses of the nation, which he goes on to de-
scribe, representing the land as already waste and
desolate, and yet giving encouragement to hope for
a return of better times. (4) Some interpreters
are of opinion that chapter ii was written in the
reign of Jehoiachin. the son of Jehoiakim (2 Kings
xxiv :6>^ after Jerusalem had been besieged and
conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, the king made a
prisoner, and, with many thousands of his sub-
jects, carried away to Babylon, none remaining in
Jerusalem, save the poorest class of the people
(2 Kings xxiv:i4). But of all this nothing is
said in the book of Habakkuk, nor even so much
as hinted at; and what is stated of the violence
and injustii : of the Chaldaeans does not imply
that the Je s had already experienced it. The
prophet disti <:tly mentions that he sets forth what
he had discerned in a vision, and he, therefore,
speaks of events to be expected and coming. It is
also a supposition equally gratuitous, according to
which some interpreters refer chapter iii to the
period of the last siege of Jerusalem, when Zede-
kiah was taken, his son slain, his eyes put out,
the walls of the city broken down and the temple
burned (2 Kings xxv:i-io). There is not the
slightest allusion to any of these incidents in the
third chapter of Habakkuk. and from the sixteenth
verse it appears that the destroyer is only coming,
and that the prophet expresses fears, not of the
entire destruction of the city, much less of the
downfall of the state, but only of the desolation of
the country, (j") It thus appears beyond dispute
that Habakkuk prophesied in the beginning of the
reign of Jehoiakim. about the year stated above.
Carpzov (Introduclio ad libr. canon. V. T., pp. 79,
410) and Jahn (Introd. in libros sacros V. T., ii
sec. 120) refer our prophet to the reign of Man'as-
seh, thus placing him thirty odd years earlier: but
at that time the Chaldaeans had not as yet given
just ground for apprehension, and it would have
HABAKKUK
745
HABOR
l)ccn injudicious in Uabakkuk prematurely to fill
tlie minds of the people with fear of them. Some
additional support to our statement of the age of
this book is derived from the tradition, reported
in the apocryplial appendix to Uaniel and by the
Pscudo-Epiphanius, that Habakkuk hved to see
the Babylonian exile ; for if he prophesied under
Manassch he could not have reached the exile at
an age under ninety years; but if he held forth
early in the reign of Jchoiakim he would have been
only fifty odd years old at the time of the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem and of the exile. He was, then,
a contemporary of Jeremiah, but much younger,
as the latter made his first appearance in public
as early as B. C. 629, in the thirteenth year of
Josiah. Ranitz (Introductio in Hab. Vatic, pp. 24,
59), Stirkel (Prolog, ad interpr. tcrtii cap. Hab.
pp. 22, 27J, and De Wette (Leltrbuch dcr Hislor-
isch-kritischcn Einleit. Berlin, 1840, p. 338) justly
place the age of Habakkuk before the invasion of
Judca by the Chald.'cans.
(2) Literary Style. His representations are
not inferior to those of the most flourishing age
of prophecy, in independent strength, in perfect
beauty of arrangement of the parts, and in skill-
fully rounded discourse, and they combine the
greatest force and fullness with tlie loftiest flights
of thought. The style is distinguished by care-
fully selected and unusual words and turns of
expression, which are in some measure quite
peculiar to himself. (Kcil, Introd. to O. T., vol.
i, p. 412.)
Delitzsch Com. on Hab., p. xiii : "Nowhere
else do we find the form of alternate discourse
(between God and the pronhet) carried out so
far, or prophecy so intimately connected with
lyric poetry (to the extent which we see in the
structure of the strophes in chapter ii. and the
musical arrangement in chapter iii). Like Isaiah,
he is comparatively far less dependent than other
prophets on his predecessors, in respect of both
form and matter. Everything still mirrors the
most flourishing age of the prophetic order — that
age in which prophetic poetry took the place of
the holy lyric poetry that had hitherto been the
mode of utterance for the religious life of the
church, and having been laid hold of mightily
by God. came with her trumpet voice to awaken
anew the consciousness of God in the church
now spiritually dead."
(3) Teaching. The central and distinctive
teaching of the book lies in the declaration of
Hab. ii :4, and, as indicated above, the true sense
of this is, that while the wild excesses of the
tyrant carry in them the germ of certain ruin,
the 'faithfulness' of the righteous (not his
faith) will be to him a principle of life. It is evi-
dent that this declaration is no solution of the
moral anomaly which the prophet discerns. The
Chalda:an might indeed, in virtue of his very na-
ture, be doomed ultimately to perish, but his em-
pire survived for seventy years; and meanwhile
Habakkuk's compatriots, so far from abiding in
pence and security, experienced the indescribable
hardships of siege and exile. But 'live' is here
used in the full and pregnant sense which it
sometimes has in the Old Testament (<■. g. Ezek.
xviii), of living in the light and consciousness of
the Divine favor, and what Habakkuk thus prom-
ises is not mere material prosperity, but the moral
security — of course, often not unaccompanied by
material benefits — which righteousness brings with
it even in the midst of external calamities (cf.
Is. xxxiii :I4-t6). and the sense of Divine ap-
proval which even then does not desert it. It
is enough for the prophet if he can mitigate the
difficulty which pressed upon him, as it pressed
no doubt upon many of his contemporaries, by re-
calling to them these two truths of God's provi-
dence, the doom which, at least ultimately, over-
takes the tyrant, and the moral security enj'oyed
by the righteous. (S. R. Driver, Hastings' Bib.
Vict.)
3. Literature. A. B. Davidson, in the Catnb.
liible for Schools; F. \V. Karrar, in the Minor
yr^/Z/f/jCMen of the Biblc'l; A. F. Kirkpatrick,
Doctrine of the Prophets; Kcil, IntroJ. to O. T.
HA-BARKANIM or BARKANOI (ha-bar'-
ka-nira or bar'ka-nim). See ThoKNS.
HABAZINIAH (hib'a-zi-nl'ah), (Heb. ^"?53n.
khab-ats-tsanyatu' ,'oe.x\\ii.^% lamp of Jehovah; ac-
cording to Furst, collection of Jehovah), father of
a certain Jeremiah, and grandfather of the chief
Rechabite Jaazaniah, whom the prophet Jeremiah
tested with the offer of wine (Jer. xxxv;3), B. C.
before 6og.
HABAZZELEXH (ha-b^'ze-letb). See Chab-
AZZELETH.
HABEBGEON (ha-b5r'je-6n), (Heb. ^^v, shir-
yaw' , an old English word for breastplate). See
Ar.m.s; Armor.
HABITATION (hib't-ta'shfln), the rendering of
several Hebrew and Greek words, and used in the
general sense of a place to dwell in (Ps. lxix;25;
civ: 12; Acts i:20, etc.)
Figurative, (i) God is the habitation of his
people; in him they find the most delightful rest,
safety and comfort (Ps. xci:9). (2) Justice and
judgment are the habitation or establishment of
God's throne ; all his royal acts are founded on
judgment and justice ; he takes pleasure to e-xecute
them (Ps. Ixxxix:i4). (3) The land of Canaan,
the city of Jerusalem, the tabernacle and temple,
heaven and the heart of the saints are represented
as the habitation of God ; there he did or does sig-
nally show himself present, work by his power, or
bestow his favor and influence (Jer. xxv:3o; Ezra
vii:i5; Exod. xv:2; Ps. cxxxii :5. 13; Eph. ii:22).
(4) Eternity is represented as his habitation; he is
eternal in a manner no other is, nor does his dura-
tion increase a,s that of angels and men (Is. Ivii:
15)- (5) He inhabited the praises of Israel; he
dwelt in the temple where they praised ; he owns,
deserves, is the object of, and kindly accepts Uie
praises of his people (Ps. xxii :3). (6) Their first
habitation which sinning angels left was their orig-
inal state of holiness and happiness, and their
mansions in heaven (Jude verse 6). (7) A body,
soul or family exercised in holiness is called a
habitation of righteousness (Jobviii:6). (8) The
state of heavenly glory is everlasting habitations
(Luke xvi:Q). (9) The firmament is the habitation
of the sun and the moon (Hab. iii:ii).
EABOB (ha'bor), (Heb. "''29, khawbore' , join-
ing together).
1. A country of Media, to which portions of
the ten tribes were transported, first by Tig-
lath-pileser (i Chron. v:26), and afterward by
Shalmaneser (2 Kings xvii :6, xviii :ii). It is
thought by some to be the same mountainous re-
gion between Media and Assyria, which Ptolemy
(Geog. vi:i) calls Chaboras ( Xo^iipos.) This
notion has the name, and nothing but the name,
in its favor. Habor was by the river Gozan, and
as we accept Major Rennell's conclusions that
(jozan was the present Kizzil-Ozan (see Gozan),
we are bound to follow him in fixing the posi-
tion of Habnr at the town of Abhar. which is sit-
I'atcd on a branch of that river and has the repu-
tation of being very ancient. At this place Mr.
HACHALIA
746
HADADEZER
Morier found ruins composed of large sun-dried
bricks compacted with straw, like some of those
found at Babylon. As this kind of construction is
an infallible sign of remote antiquity, it so far af-
fords a most important corroboration of Major
Rennell's conjecture.
2. A river. There seems to be good ground for
making the river the modern Kliabour, which
empties into the Euphrates (Rawlinson, Ancient
Monarch. i:247). The name of the Habor is
found in the Assyrian inscriptions.
"Tiglath-pileser I (B. C. about 1120) boasts of
having killed ten mighty elephants in the land of
Haran and 'on the banks of the Habor.' Assur-
nazir-apli (B. C. 885-860) crossed the Tigris, con-
quered the district of the Harmis (or Har-rit or
Harsit), then marched to the Euphrates after sub-
jugating the district around the mouth of the
Habor (piate sa n<^r Habtir), 'the mouths of the
river Habor,' from which it would seem that the
river flowed into the Euphrates through several
outlets" (I. A. Pinches, Hastings' Bih. Diet.).
HACHALIA (hak'a-li'ah), (Heb. ^'^?0, Uak-
al-yaw' , the darkness of Jehovah), father of Nehe-
miah (Neh. i:i; x:i), B. C. before 447.
HACHILAH (h5k'i-lah), (Heb. '^r?^. khak-ee-
lazv', dark).
A mountain about ten miles south of Jericho,
where David concealed himself from Saul (1
Sam. xxiii:i9; xxvi:3). Jonathan Maccabaeus
built here the castle of Massada.
HACHMONI (hak'mo-ni), (Heb. '-'-?!!', khak-
mo-nee' , skillful).
A man known only as the father (or ancestor,
comp. I Chron. xxvii .2) of Jashobeam, the chief
of David's warriors (i Chron. xi:ii), where son
of Hachmoni is rendered "Hachmonite," for
which the parallel passage (2 Sam. xxiii :8) has
"Tachmonitc," and also of Jehicl. the companion
of the princes in the royal household (1 Chron.
xxvii :32). (See EzNiTE).
Hachmon, or Hachmoni, was no doubt the
founder of a family to which these men belonged.
Zabdiel was the real father of Jashobeam (l
Chron. xxvii :2), and is said to have been a Kor-
hite (i Chron. xii:6). (See Kennicott, Diss.,
pp. 72, 82.)
HACHMONITE, THE ( hSk'mo-nite). See
Hachmoni.
HADAD (ha'dad), (Heb. ""^IlI, had-acf fierce).
The name of the chief deity of the Syrians,
and borne, with or without additions, as a proper
name, or more probably as a title, like 'Pharaoh'
in Egypt, by several of the kings of Southern
Syria.
(1) Kings of Edom. (i) Hadad, king of Edom,
who defeated the Midianites in the intervening
territory of Moab (Gen. xxxvi :35 ; I Chron. i:
46). This is the only one of the ancient kings
of Edom whose exploits are recorded by Moses.
(2) Another king of Edom of the same name
is mentioned in I Chron. i:si (B. C. before
1618).
(2) King of Syria. Hadad, king of Syria, who
reigned in Damascus at the time that David at-
tacked and defeated Hadadezer, king of Zobah,
whom he marched to assist, and shared in his
defeat (B. C. about 1040). This fact is recorded
in 2 Sam. viii :$, but the name of the king is not
given. It is supplied, however, by Josephus
(Antiq. vii :5, 2), who reports, after Nicolas of
Damascus, that he carried succors to Hadadezer
as far as the Euphrates, where David defeated
them both.
(3) Prince of Edom. Hadad, a young prince
of the royal race of Edom, who, when his coun-
try was conquered by David, contrived, in the
heat of the massacre committed by Joab, to es-
cape with some of his father's servants, or rather
was carried off by them into the land of Midian,
B. C. about 984 (l Kings xi;i4). Thence Hadad
went into the desert of Paran, and eventually
proceeded to Egypt. He was there most favor-
ably received by the king, who assigned him an
estate and establishment suited to his rank, and
even gave him in marriage the sister of his own
consort, by whom he had a son, who was brought
up in the palace with the sons of Pharaoh. Hadad
remained in Egypt till after the death of David
and Joab, when he returned to his own country
in the hope of recovering his father's throne (i
Kings xi:i4-22). The Scriptures do not record
the result of this attempt further than by men-
tioning him as one of the troublers of Solomon's
reign, which implies some measure of success.
After relating these facts the text goes on to
mention another enemy of Solomon, named Rezin,
and then adds (verse 25), that this was 'besides
the mischief that Hadad did; and he abhorred
Israel and reigned over Syria.' The A. V. seems
to make this apply to Rezin, but the Septuagint
refers it to Hadad, reading Edom, instead of
Arawm or Syria, and the sense would certainly
be improved by this reading, inasmuch, as it sup-
plies an apparent omission ; for without it we
only know that Hadad left Egypt for Edom, and
not how he succeeded there, or how he was able
to trouble Solomon. The history of Hadad is
certainly very obscure. Adopting the Septuagint
reading, some conclude that Pharaoh used his
interest with Solomon to allow Hadad to reign as
a tributary prince, and that he ultimately asserted
his independence.
(4) Son of Ishmael. A son of Ishmael (Gen.
XXV :is; I Chron. 1:30), whose descendants prob-
ably occupied the western coast of the Persian
Gulf.
HADADEZEB (had'ad-e'zer), (Heb. l?'l'I'n.
had-ad-eh' zer, Adad his help), or Hadadrezer,
king of Zobah.
He was a powerful monarch in the time of
David and the only one who seems to have been
in a condition seriously to dispute with him the
predominancy in Southwestern Asia. He was
defeated by the Israelites in the first campaign
(B. C. about 984) in the neighborhood of the
Euphrates, with a great loss of men,, war chariots
and horses, and was despoiled of many of his
towns (2 Sam. viii :3; i Chron. xviii:3). This
check not only impaired, but destroyed his power.
A diversion highly serviceable to him was made
by a king of Damascene-Syria (whom the Scrip-
ture does not name, but who is the same with
Hadad, 3), who, coming to his succor, compelled
David to turn his arms against him, and abstain
from reaping all the fruits of his victory (2 Sam.
X :6, sq.; i Chron. xi.x :6, sq.). The breathing-
time thus afforded Hadadezer was turned by him
to such good account that he was able to accept
the subsidies of Hanun, king of the Ammonites,
and to take a leading part in the confederacy
formed by that monarch against David. The first
army brought into the field was beaten and put
to flight by Abishai and Joab, but Hadadezer,
not yet discouraged, went into the countries east
of the Euphrates, and got together the forces of
all his allies and tributaries, which he placed un-
der the command of Shophach, his general. To
confront so formidable an adversary, David took
the field in person, and in one great victory so
HADAD-RIMMON
747
HADES
completely broke the power of Hadadezer that
all the small tributary princes seized the oppor-
tunity of throwing off his yoke, of abandoning
the Ammonites to their fate, and of submitting
quictlv to David, whose power was thus extended
to the Euphrates.
HADAD-MMMON (ha'dad-rlm'mon), (Heb.
V'^11~i), /lad-ad-rim-monc'), a place in the valley
of Megiddo (Zech. xii:i l) where a national lamen-
tation was held for the death o[ King Josiah in the
last of the battles which made the plain of Esdrae-
lon f.imous (2 Kings xxiii:2Q; 2 Chron. xxxv:23).
It is now called Kummaneh, and is about a mile
nortliwcst by west of Taanach.
HADAR (ha'dar), (Heb. TIU., khad-ar' , perhaps
chamber).
1. Sec Hadad, (3).
2. Sec Hadad, (4).
HADABEZEB (had'ar-g'zer), (Heb. 'WW-!
had-ar-eh' zer, Adad his help, 2 Sam. x:l6, 19).
He was a son of Rehob (2 Sam. viii :3). He was
the king of Zobah whom David overtook and de-
feated (I Chron. xviii :3, 4). The captured shields
of gold were taken by David to Jerusalem (xviii:
7) and dedicated to Jehovah (B. C. about 1035).
Hadarezcr made another campaign (i Chron. xix :
16; 2 Sam. x:l5) and was again defeated by Da-
vid. The name is written Hadadezer in 2 Sam.
viii :3-i2 and I Kings xi :23.
HADAS (ha-das'), (Heb. C^n_ )tad-as'), always
translated 'myrtle,' occurs in several passages of
the Old Testament as in Isaiah xliriQ; lv:i3; Neh.
viii:i5; Zech. i:8, 10, 11.
The Hebrew word hadas is identical with the
Arabic hadas, which in the dialect of Arabia
Myrtle.
Felix signifies the myrtle tree (Richardson's Pen.
and Arabic Diet.). The myrtle is. moreover,
known throughout eastern countries.
The repute which the myrtle enjoyed in ancient
times it still retains, notwithstanding the great ac-
cession of ornamental shrubs and flowers which
has been made to the gardens and greenhouses of
Europe. This is justly due to the rich coloring
of its dark-green and shining leaves, contrasted
with the white, star-like clusters of its llowcrs,
affording in hot countries a pleasant shade under
its branches and diffusing an agreeable odor from
its flowers or bruised leaves.
HADASHAH (hid'a-shah), (Heb. ^rlU, ^/lad-
aws/iaw', new), one of the towns of Judah in the
low country placed between Zenan and Migdal-
gad (Josh. xv;37). It has not been satisfactorily
identified. (See Schwarz, /'/lys. Descript. of Pal.
p. 103).
HADASSAH (ha-d5s'sah), (Heb. "?"?, had-
as-saw,' myrtle), the earlier Jewish name of Esther
(Esth.ii7). (See Esther.)
HADATTAH (ha-dit'tah), (Heb. ^T^^-., khad-
al-taw' , new).
One of the towns in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. xv:25) ; but the Masorct accents of the He-
brew connect the word with the one preceding it,
making it "New Razor." Both Eusebius and
Jerome speak of a "New Hazor," and Mr. Tris-
tram (Laud of Israel) speaks of some ruins in
the south of Judah which the Arabs said were
Hadadah. This may be the Hadattah of Joshua
(xv:25). The exact site is unknown.
HADES (ha'dez), a Greek word ?57)S, hah'dace,
not to be seen), by which the Septuagint translates
the Hebrew ''^*''?, sheol.
(1) Definition. It denotes the abode or world
of the dead, in which sense it occurs frequently
in the New Testament, where it is usually ren-
dered 'heir in the English version. The word
hades means literally that zvhich is in datkiiess.
In the classical writers it is used to denote Ureiis.
or the infernal regions.
According to the notions of the Jews, sheol or
hades was a vast receptacle where the souls of
the dead existed in a separate state until the
resurrection of their bodies. The region of the
blessed during this interval, or the inferior para-
dise, they supposed to be in the upper part of
this receptacle ; while beneath was the abyss or
geheniia (Tartarus), in which the souls of the
wicked w^cre subjected to punishment.
(2) Interpretation. The question whether this
is or is not the doctrine of the Scriptures is one
of great importance, and has, first and last, ex-
cited no small amount of discussion. It is a doc-
trine received by a large portion of the nominal
Christian church, and it forms the foundation of
the Roman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, for
which there would be no ground but for this in-
terpretation of the word hades.
The question therefore rests entirely upon the
interpretation of this word, and as the Septuagint
gives this as the meaning of the Hebrew word
sheol, the real question is, what is the meaning
which sheol bears in the Old Testament, and
hades in the New ?
(3) The Grave. A careful examination of the
passages in which those words occur will prob-
ably lead to the conclusion that they afford no
real sanction to the notion of an intermediate place
of the kind indicated, but are used by the inspired
writers to denote the grave — the resting place of
the bodies both of the righteous and the wicked;
and that they are also used to signify hell, the
abode of miserable spirits. But it would be diffi-
cult to produce any instance in which they can be
shown to signify the abode of the spirits of just
HADES
748
HADES
men made perfect, either before or after the resur-
rection.
In the great majority of instances sheol is in
the Old Testament used to signity the grave,
and in most of tliese cases is so translated in
the Authorized Version. It can have no other
meaning in such texts as Gen. xxxvii :35 ; xlii :
38; I Sam. ii:6; i Kings ii:6; Job xiv:i3; xvii:
13, 16, and in numerous other passages in the
writings of David, Solomon and the prophets.
But as the grave is regarded by most persons,
and was more especially so by the ancients, with
awe and dread, as being the region of gloom and
darkness, so the word denoting it soon came
to be applied to that more dark and gloomy world
which was to be the abiding place of the miserable.
Where our translators supposed the word to have
this sense, they rendered it by 'hell.' Some of
tlie passages in which this has been done may be
doubtful; but there are others of which a ques-
tion can scarcely be entertained. Such are those
(as Job xi:8; Ps. cxxxix:8; Amos ix :2) in
which the word denotes the opposite of heaven,
which cannot be the grave, nor the general state
or region of the dead, but hell. Still more de-
cisive are such passages as Ps. ix:i7; Prov. xxiii :
14 ; in which sheol cannot mean any place, in
this world or the next, to which the righteous
as well as the wicked are sent, but the penal
abode of the wicked, as distinguished from and
opposed to the righteous. The only case in which
such passages could by any possibility be sup-
posed to mean the grave, would be if the grave
— that is, extinction — were the final doom of the
unrighteous.
(4) Future Conditions. In the New Testa-
ment the word hades is used in much the same
sense as sheol in the Old, except that in a less
proportion of c^ses can it be construed to signify
the grave. There are still, however, instances
in which it is used in this sense, as in Acts ii:3i;
I Cor. XV :SS, but in general the hades of the
New Testament appears to be no other than the
world of future punishments (e. g. Matt, xi :23 ;
xvi:i8; Luke xvi:23).
The principal arguments for the intermediate
hades, as deduced from Scripture, are founded
on those passages in which things 'under the
earth" are described as rendering homage to God
and the Savior (Philip. ii:io: Rev. v:i3, etc.).
If such passages, however, be compared with
others (as with Rom. xiv:lo, 11, etc.), it will
appear that they must refer to the day of judg-
ment, in which every creature will render some
sort of homage to the Savior, but then the bodies
of the saints will have been already raised, and the
intermediate region, if there be any, will have
been deserted.
(5) Spirits in Prison. One of the seemingly
strongest arguments for the opinion under con-
sideration is founded on i Pet. iii:i9, in which
Christ is said to have gone and 'preached to
the spirits in prison.' These spirits in prison
are supposed to be the holy dead — perhaps the
virtuous heathen — imprisoned in the intermediate
place, into which the soul of the Savior went
at death, that he might preach to them the Gospel.
This passage must be allowed to present great
difficulties. The most intelligible meaning sug-
gested by the context is, however, that Christ by
his spirit preached to those who in the time of
Nnnh, while the ark was preparing, were dis-
obedient, and whose spirits are now in prison,
abiding the general judgment. The prison is
doubtless hades, but what hades is must be de-
termined bv other passages of Scripture; and
whether it is the grave or hell, it is still a prison
for those who yet await the judgment day. This
interpretation is in unison with other passages of
Scripture, whereas the other is conjecturally de-
duced from this single text.
(6) Destruction of Death and Hades. An-
other argument is deduced from Rev. xx:i4,
which describes 'death and hades' as 'cast into
the lake of fire' at the close of the general judg-
ment— meaning, according to the advocates of
the doctrine in question, that hades should then
cease as an intermediate place. But this is also
true if understood of the grave, or of the gen-
eral intermediate condition of the dead or even
of hell, as once more and forever reclaiming
what it had temporarily yielded up for judgment
—just as we every day see criminals brought
from prison to judgment, and after judgment re-
turned to the prison from which they came.
(7) Incomplete Reward. It is further urged,
in proof of Hades being an intermediate place
other than the grave, that the Scriptures repre-
sent the happiness of the righteous as incomplete
till after the resurrection. This must be ad-
mitted, but it does not thence follow that their
souls are previously imprisoned in the earth, or
in any other place or region corresponding to
the Tartarus of the heathen. Although at the
moment of death the disembodied spirits of the
redeemed ascend to heaven, and continue there
till the resurrection, it is very possible that their
happiness shall be incomplete until they have re-
ceived their glorified bodies from the tomb, and
entered upon the full rewards of eternity.
(8) Immediate Transition. A view supported
by so little force of Scripture seems unequal to
resist the contrary evidence which may be pro-
duced from the same source, and which it re-
mains briefly to indicate. The effect of this is
to show that the souls of the redeemed are de-
scribed as proceeding, after death, at once to
heaven — the place of final happmess, and those of
the unredeemed to the place of final wretchedness.
In Heb. vi:i2 the righteous dead are described
as being in actual inheritance of the promises
made to the fathers. Our Savior represents the
deceased saints as already, before the resurrection
(for so the context requires), 'like unto the an-
gels,' and 'equal to the angels' (Matt. xxii:3o;
Luke xx:36), which is not very compatible with
their imprisonment even in the happier region of
the supposed Hades. Our Lord's declaration to the
dying thief, "This day shalt thou be with me in
Paradise' (Luke xxiii :43), has been urged on both
sides of the argument ; but the word is here not
Hades, but Paradise, and no instance can be pro-
duced in which the paradise beyond the grave
means anything else than that 'third heaven,' that
'paradise' into which the apostle was caught up,
and where he heard 'unutterable things' (2 Cor.
xii :2, 4). In the midst of that paradise grows
the mystic 'tree of life' (Rev. ii:7), which the
same writer represents as growing near the throne
of God and the Lamb (xxii:2). In Eph. iii:lS
the Apostle describes the whole church of God as
being at present in heaven or on earth. But, ac-
cording to the view under consideration, the great
body of the church would be neither in heaven nor
on earth, but in Hades — the intermediate place.
In Heb. xii 121-24 we are told that in the city of
the living God dwell not only God himself, the
judge of all, and Jesus, the mediator of the new
covenant, and the innumerable company of angels,
but also 'the spirits of just men made perfect' —
all dwelling together in the same holy and happv
place. To the same effect, but. if possible. sti'I
more conclusive, are the various passages in which
the souls of the saints are described as being.
HADID
7-49
HAGAR
tt hen absent from the body, present with Christ in
licavcn (comp. 2 Cor. v:i-8; Philip, i.23; i Thess.
v:lo). To this it is scarcely necessary to add the
various passages in the Apocalyptic vision, in
which St. John beheld, as inhabitants of the high-
est heaven, around the throne of God myriads of
redeemed souls even before the resurrection (Rev.
v:9, vi:9, vii :9, xiv:l, 3). Now the 'heaven' of
these passages cannot be the place to which the
term Hades is ever applied, for that word is never
associated with any circumstances or images of
enjoyment or happiness. (See Heaven.)
(9) Tartarus. As these arguments seem calcu-
lated to disprove the existence of the more fa-
vored region of the alleged intermediate place, a
similar course of evidence militates with equal
force against the existence of the more penal re-
gion of the same place. It is admitted by the
stanchest advocates for the doctrine of an interme-
diate place that the souls of the wicked, when they
leave the body, go immediately into punishment.
Now the Scripture knows no place of punishment
after death but that which was prepared for the.
devil and his angels. This place they noiv in-
habit; and this is the place to which, after judg-
ment, the souls of the condemned will be con-
signed (comp. 2 Pet. ii:4; Matt. xxv:4i). This
verse of Peter is the only one in Scripture in which
any reference to the word Tartarus occurs. But
from the other text we can be quite certain that
the Tartarus of Peter is no other than the hell
which is to be the final, as it is, in degree, the
present doom of the wicked. That this hell is
Hades is readily admitted, for the course of the
argument has been to show that Hades is hell,
whenever it is not the grave. 'Whether the right-
eous and the wicked, after the judgment, will go
literally to the same places in which they were be-
fore situated, it is not material to inquire. But,
both before and after the judgment, the righteous
will be in the same place with their glorified Sa-
vior and his holy angels, and this will be heaven;
and before and after the judgment the wicked
will be in the same place with the devil and his
angels; and this will be hell.' (Dr. Enoch Pond,
On the Intermediate Place, in American Biblical
Repository for April, 1841 ; comp. Knapp's Chris-
tian Theology, sec. 104 ; Meyer, De Notione Orci
af>. Hebrca-os. Lub. 1793; Ba.hxeni, Freimut/iige
Unterss. tiber d. Orkus d. Hebracr, Halle, 1786;
Bickersteth. Hades and Heaven, 1865; Jour. Sac.
Lit.. 1852-1853.)
The notion repelled in this article was enter-
tained by Justin Martyr, Irenatus, Tertullian and
many other of the early Christian fathers This,
however, proves nothing in its favor, as the same
notion was common among the Jews themselves,
in and before the time of Christ. It may even have
been entertained by the Seventy when they trans-
lated the Hebrew shcol by the Greek hades. The
question connected with Hades has indirectly
brought under view two of the three notions re-
specting the state of the soul after death. The
third notion is that of those who hold that the soul
is in a perfectly quiescent condition until the resur-
rection. This requires notice under another head.
(See Soul; see also Heaven; Heu,.)
HADID (ha'did). or CHADID (Heb. I'l?.
khaw-deecf , pointed), a city of Benjamin (Ezra
ii:3^; Neh.vii:37: xi:34).
Eusebius and Jerome speak of two cities called
Aditha, or Adi. one near Gaza, the other near
Diospolis, or Lydda, which latter was probably
Hadid. Van de Vclde has pretty positively iden-
tified it with the present El-Haditheh,\^itit miles
east of Ludd, or Lydda.
HADT.AI (h5d'la-i), (Heb. "I"?, khadlah ee,
resting, or keeping holiday), a man of Ephraim,
whose son, Amasa, was a chief of the tribe in the
reign of Pekah (2 Chron. xxviii:i2), B. C. before
758.
HADORAM (ha-d5'ram), (Heb. DT'"'^, had-o-
rau'tn' , lladar is high), possibly yfr^- worshipers.
1. A son of Joktan (Gen. x:27; i Chron. i :2i),
whose settlements have not been identified.
2. Son of Tou, or Toi, king of Hamath, who
went as his father's messenger to congratulate
David on his victory over Hadarezer (i Chron.
xviii:io), B. C. about 984. In 2 Sam. viiiao the
iiarne is given as Joram, a contraction of Jehoram,
which is an Israelitish appellation, and Hadoram
is doubtless the correct form of the name (Jos.
Ant. vii :5, sec. 4).
3. The intendant of taxes under David, Solo-
mon and Rehoboam (2 Chron. x:i8). In Kings
the name is Adoniram (i Kings iv:6), but in 2
Sam. XX ;24, Adoram. Josephus writes it Adoram
in both places.
HADBACH (ha'drak), or ADBA (Heb. I'l^.
khadraiL'k' ), a city mentioned by Zechariah (ix:l),
who denounced dreadful thrcatenings against it.
Ptolemy notices a city called Adra, in fat. 68 J,
long. 32 \. It could not be far from Damascus; (or
Zechariah calls Damascus the bulwark, defense
and confidence of Hadrach. Exact situation un-
known. Hengstenberg, Christology of the O. T.
iii, 371 ff.
HAFT (haft), Heb. 2-V?, nits-tsawb' , fixed), an
old form of handle, e. g., of a dagger (Judg. iii:22).
HAQAB (ha'gSb), (Heb. 2in_ khaw-gawf , a
locust).
The sons of Hagab were among the Nethinim,
who returned from the captivity with Zcrubbabel
(Ezra ii:46), B. C. before 536.
HAGABA (h5g'a-ba), (Heb. XJ^q, khag-aw-
baw', also '''?^, a locust, Ez. ii:45).
The sons of Hagaba were among the Nethinim
who returned with Zcrubbabel from Babvlon
(Neh. VII :48). In Ezra ii :45 the name appears
as Hazabah (B. C. before 536).
HAGABAH (hag'a-bah), (Heb. «P,3n, thag-
avj-baw', locust). See Hagaba.
HAGAB (ha'gar), (Heb, ^f!", haw-gawr' , deriva-
tion uncertain, perhaps stranger).
(1) Name. A native of Egypt and ser\-nnf of
Abraham ; but how or when she became an inmate
of his family we are not informed. The name
Hagar, which is pure Hebrew, signifying stranger,
having been probably given her after her arrival.
and being the one by which she continued to be
designated in the patriarch's household, seems to
imply that her connection with it did not take
place till long after this family had emigrated to
Canaan; and the presumption is that she was one
of the female slaves presented to .'\braham by
Pharaoh during his visit to Egypt (Gen. xii:i6).
But some derive the name from a Hebrew word
signifying to Hee. and suppose it tn have been
applied to her from a remarkable incident in her
life, to be afterwards mentioned.
(2) Abraham's Concubine. The long con-
tinued sterility of Sarah suggested to her the idea
(not uncommon in the East) of becoming a
mother by proxy through her handmaid, whom,
with that view, she- gave to Abraham as a second-
ary wife. (See Abraham; Aix)ption : Coxcu-
BIN vhe).
The honor of such an alliance and elevation
HAGAR
750
HAGAR
was too great and unexpected for the weak and ill-
regulated mind of Hagar; and no sooner did she
find herself in a delicate situation, which made her
an object of increasing interest and importance to
Abraham, than she openly indulged in triumph
over her less favored mistress, and showed by her
altered behavior a growing habit of disrespect
and insolence. The feelings of Sarah were se-
verely wounded, and she broke out to her husband
in loud complaints of the servant's petulance;
and Abraham, whose meek and prudent behavior
is strikingly contrasted with the violence of his
wife, leaves her with unfettered power, as mis-
tress of his household, to take what steps she
pleases to obtain the required redress. In all
Oriental states where concubinage is legalized, the
principal wife has authority over the rest ; the
secondary one, if a slave, retains the former con-
dition unchanged, and society thus presents the
strange anomaly of a woman being at once the
menial of her master and the partner of his bed.
In like manner Hagar, though taken into the re-
lation of concubine to Abraham, continued still,
being a dotal maidservant, under the absolute
power of her mistress, who, after her husband had
left her to take her own way in vindication of her
dignity as the principal wife, was neither re-
luctant nor sparing in making the minion reap
the fruits of her insolence.
(3) Plight of Hagar. After a time the mafd
Red from the face of her mistress, starting in the
direction of her own country. This route led her
to what was afterwards called Shur, through a
long tract of sandy uninhabited country, lying on
the west of Arabia Petraea, to the extent of 150
miles between Palestine and Egypt. In that lonely
region she was sitting by a fountain to replenish
her skin-bottle and recruit her wearied limbs,
when the angel of the Lord appeared, and in the
kindliest manner remonstrated with her on the
course she was pursuing, and encouraged her to
return by the promise that she would ere long
have a son, whom Providence destined to become
a great man, and whose wild and irregular features
of character would be indelibly impressed on the
mighty nation that should spring from him.
(4) Birth of Ishmael. Obedient to the heav-
enly visitor, and having distinguished the place by
the name of Beer-lahai-roi, 'the well of the visible
God.' Hagar retraced her steps to the tent of
Abraham, where in due time she had a son ; and
having probably narrated this remarkable inter-
view to Abraham, that patriarch, as directed by
the angel, called the name of the child Ishmael,
'God hath heard' (Gen. xvi:ll).
(5) Birth of Isaac. Fourteen years had
elapsed after the birth of Ishmael when an event
occurred in the family of Abraham by the ap-
pearance of the long-promised heir, which entirely
changed the prospects of that young man, though
nothing rnaterially affecting him took place till
the weaning of Isaac, which, as is generally
thought, was at the end of his third year. Ishmael
was then a lad of seventeen years of age, and
being fully capable of understanding his altered
relations to the inheritance, as well as having felt
perhaps a sensible diminution of Sarah's affection
towards him, it is not wonderful that a disap-
pointed youth should inconsiderately give vent to
his feelings on a festive occasion, when the newly
weaned child, clad according to custom with the
sacred symbolic robe, which war, the badge of the
birthright, was formally installed heir of the tribe
(see Biblioth. Bibl. vol. i. ; Vicasi, Annot. 32;
Bush on Gen. xxvii:i5). The harmony of the
weaning feast was disturbed by Ishmael being dis-
covered mocking. The Hebrew word pO^, tsaw-
khak' , though properly signifying 'to laugh," is fre-
qiiently used to e.xpress strong derision, as in Gen.
xix:i4; Neh. ii:i9; iv:i; Ezek. xxiii :32 ; accom-
panied, as is probable on some of the occasions re-
ferred to in these passages, with violent gestures;
and in accordance with this idea the Chaldee and
Septuagint versions render it by 'I play,' which is
used by the latter in 2 Sam. ii 114-17, as synony-
mous with boxing, whence it might very justly be
characterized as persecution (Gal. iv:29).
(6) Expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael. This
conduct gave mortal offense to Sarah, who from
that moment would be satisfied with nothing short
of his irrevocable expulsion from the family, and
as his mother also was included in the same con-
demnation there is ground to believe that she
had been repeating her former insolence, as well
as instigating her son to his improprieties of be-
havior. So harsh a measure was extremely painful
to the affectionate heart of Abraham; but his scru-
ples were removed by the timely appearance of his
divine counselor, who said : 'Let it not be grievous
in thy sight, because of the lad, and because of
thy bondwoman ; in all that Sarah hath said unto
thee, hearken unto her voice;' 'for,' adds the Tar-
gum of Jonathan, 'she is a prophetess.'
Accordingly, what she said is called the Script-
ure (Gal. iv:30), and the incident affords a very
remarkable instance of an overruling Providence
in making this family feud in the tent of a pas-
toral chief 4,000 years ago the occasion of sepa-
rating two mighty peoples, who, according to the
prophecy, have ever since occupied an important
chapter in the history of man. Hagar and Ishmael
departed early on the day fixed for their removal,
Abraham furnishing them with the necessary sup-
ply of traveling provisions. The Septuagint, which
our translators have followed, most absurdly rep-
resents Ishmael as a child, placed along with the
traveling-bags on the heavily-loaded shoulders of
Hagar. But a little change in the punctuation, the
observance of the parenthetical clause, and the
construction of the word 'child' with the verb
'took' remove the whole difficulty, and the passage
will then stand thus : 'And Abraham rose up early
in the morning, and took bread, and a bottle of
water (and gave it unto Hagar, putting it on her
shoulder), and the child, and sent her away.
In spite of their instructions for threading the
desert, the two exiles missed their way. Overcome
by fatigue and thirst, increasing at every step un-
der the unmitigated rays of a vertical sun, the
strength of the young Ishmael, as was natural,
first gave way, and his mother laid him down in
complete exhaustion under one of the stunted
shrubs of this arid region in the hope of his ob-
taining some momentary relief from smelling the
damp in the shade. The burning fever, however,
continued unabated, and the poor woman, forget-
ting her own sorrow, destitute and alone in the
midst of a wilderness, and absorbed in the fate of
her son, withdrew to a little distance, unable to
witness his lingering sufferings, and there 'she
lifted up her voice and wept.' In this distressing
situation the angel of the Lord appeared for the
purpose of comforting her, and directed her to a
fountain, which, concealed by the brushwood, had
escaped her notice, and from which she drew a
refreshing draught, that had the effect of reviving
the almost lifeless Ishmael (Gen. xxirig).
Of the subsequent history of Ishmael we have
no account further than that he established him-
self in the wilderness of Paran, in the neighbor-
hood of Sinai, was married by his mother to a
HAGAR
751
HAGIOGRAPHA
countrywoman of her own, and maintained both
himself and family by the produce of his bow.
R. J.
For the truthfulness to nature of the story of
Hagar, sec Blunt's I'cracily of the Books of Moses.
On Hagar, see Williams' Holy City, 1:463 ff; Weil,
Bib. Legends, p. 82.
HAOAR (ha'gar), (Gal. iv:25), a local name ap-
plied to Mount Sinai in Arabia.
HAQARENES, HAOABITES (ha'gar-e-oez,
ha'gar-ites), (Ps. lxxxiii:6, Heb. ^"f"^, Hagarenes,
marg. Hagrites; I Chron. v:io, 2*N'?nn^ Hagrites.)
(See Arabia.)
HAGEBITE, THE (ha'ger-ite), (Heb. ""'.J:^?^!.
ha-hag-ree' ,\s2i% an appellation of Jaziz,a descend-
ant of Hagar, who tended David's flocks (1 Chron.
xxvii:3i).
HAGOAI (hag'ga-i),(Heb.'in, /t/(„^-_fa/5V^ fes-
tive).
i. The Prophet. One of the twelve minor
prophets, and the first of the three who, after the
return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile,
prophesied in Palestine.
Of the place and year of his birth, his descent,
and the leading incidents of his life, nothing is
definitely known. He began to prophesy in the
second year of Darius Hystaspes (Hag. i:l). To-
gether with Zechariah, he pressed vigorously the
renewal of the building of the temple, which had
been suspended after the reign of Cyrus, and ob-
tained the permission and assistance of the king
(Ezra v:i, vi:i4). Animated by the high courage
of these devoted men, the people prosecuted the
work with energy and the temple was completed
and dedicated in the sixth year of Darius, B. C.
520.
2. Haggai, "Book of. These prophecies of
Haggai are comprised in a book of two chapters
and consist of discourses, brief and summary
(Eichhorn, Einteitung in das A. T., iii, sec. 598;
Jahn, Introduction in libros sacros Vet. Fad. edit.
2, Vienna;, 1814, sec. 156). Their object generally
is to urge the rebuilding of the Temple, which
had indeed been commenced as early as B. C.
S^-S (Ezra iiirio), but was afterward discontin-
ued, the Samaritans having obtained an edict
from the Persian king, which forbade further pro-
cedure, and influential Jews pretending that the
time for rebuilding the Temple had not arrived,
since the seventy years predicted by Jeremiah
applied to the Temple also, from the time of
the destruction of which it was then only the
sixty-eighth year. As on the death of Pseudo-
Smerdis, and the consequent termination of his
interdict, the Jews still continued to wait for the
end of the seventy years, and were only engaged
in building splendid houses for themselves, Hag-
gai began to prophesy in the second year of Darius
(B. C. 520).
His prophecy is divided as follows: (l) His
first discourse (chap, i), delivered on the first
day of the sixth month of the year mentioned,
foretells that a brighter era would begin as soon
as Jehovah's house was rebuilt; and a notice is
subjoined, stating that the address of the prophet
had been effective, the people having resolved
on resuming the restoration of the Temple. (2)
The second discourse (chap. ii:i-9), delivered on
the twenty-first day of the seventh month, predicts
that the glory of the new Temple would be greater
than that of Solomon's, and shows that no fear
need be entertained of the Second Temple not
equaling the first in splendor, since, in a remark-
able poTiti'-al revolution tie gifts of the Gentiles
would be brought thither. (3) The third dis-
course (chap. ii:io-i9), delivered on the twenty-
fourth day of the ninth month, refers to a period
when building materials had been collected, and
the workmen had begun to put them together, for
which a commencement of the Divine blessing is
promised. (4) The fourth and last discourse
(chap. ii:20-23), delivered also on the twenty-
fourth day of the ninth month, is exclusively
addressed to Zerubbabel, the political chief of the
new Jewish colony, who, it appears, had asked
for an explanation regarding the great politick
revolutions which Haggai had predicted in hi»
second discourse ; it comforts the governor by
assuring him they would not take place very
soon and not in his lifetime.
(1) Style of Writer. The style of the dis-
courses of Haggai is suitable to their contents;
it is pathetic when he exhorts; it is vehement
when he reproves ; it is somewhat elevated when
he treats of future events, and it is not altogether
destitute of a poetical coloring, though a prophet
of a higher order would have depicted the splen-
dor of the second temple in brighter hues. The
language labors under a poverty of terms, as may
be observed in the constant repetition of the same
expression.
(2) Scripture Beferences. The prophetical
discourses of Haggai are referred to in the Old
and New Testament (Ezra v:i; vi:i4; Heb. xii:
26; comp. Hagg. ii :6, 7. 8. 22). In most of
the ancient catalogues of the canonical books of
the Old Testament, Haggai is not, indeed, men-
tioned by name, but as they specify the twelve
minor prophets, he must have been included
among them, as otherwise their number would
not be full. Josephus, mentioning Haggai and
Zechariah {Antiq. xi :4, sec. S, p. 557), calls them
JiJo Tpo(^^Toi, two prophets. (See generally Ro-
senmUllcr, Scholia in Vet. Test. vii:4, p. 74;
Jahn, Einteitung in die gottlichen Biicher des
Allen Bundes, ii:2, p. 658; Bertholdt. Einteitung,
iv, p. 169; Henry Cowles, Minor Prophets, N. T.;
G. R. Noyes, New Trans, of the Heb. Prophets;
J. Pye Smith, Scripture Testimony to the Mes-
siah, i, 283 ff. ; Kcil, Introd. to O. T.)
G. H. A. V. E.
HAGGEKI (hag'ge-rl), (Heb. ""'?'3, hag-ree' ,
Hagarite), whose son Mibhar was one of David's
"thirty" (i Chron. xirjS). This is probably a cor-
ruption of the Hebrew for "Baiii the Ciadite,"
which appears in the parallel passage (2 Sam.
xxiii:36). (See Kennicott Dissert, p. 214.)
HAGGI (hSg'gi), (Heb. "i'^, khag-ghee' , festive),
second son of Gad (Gen. xlvi:i6; Num. xxvi:iO,
the founder of the family by the same name (B.C.
probably before 1784).
HAGGIAH (hag-gi'ah), (Heb. '^V^^, khag-ghee-
yaw' , festival of Jehovah), a Levite, descendant of
Merari (i Chron. vi:30), B. C. before 1043.
EAGGITES (hSg'gites), Heb. *?'^^5, ha-khag-
gee'), were descendants of Haggi, second son of
Gad (Num. xxvi:i5).
HAGGITH (hag'gIth),(Heb. ^^-U.khag-gheeth',
festive), David's fifth wife, mother of Adonijah
(1 Kings i:5. 11; ii.13; i Chron. iii:2; 2 Sam. iii :4),
whose birth happened at Hebron (2 Sam. iii:2, 5).
He was like Absalom, renowned for his handsome
appearance (B.C. before 1053).
HAGIOGBAFHA (ha'jT-6g'ra;fa), (Gr. •A7i*y-
po^a, ha^-ee-og' ra-phah, holy writings, sacred writ-
ings). The word Hagiographa is first found in
Epiphanius (Panarium, p. 58), who used it to de-
HAGIOGRAPHA
7S2
HAIR
note the third division of the Scriptures, called by
the Jews the IVritings, consisting of Jive books
(see Versions of Scripture, Targutns), viz.
the three poems. Job, Proverbs, and the Psalms,
and the two books of Chronicles.
(1) Classifications. These divisions are found
in the Talmud {Bava Bathra, fol. i, ed. Am-
sterd.), where the sacred books are classified
under the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings
{Cetubim). The last are th.us enumerated (/. c.) :
Ruth, the book (scphcr) of Psalms, Job, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes (Kohclelli), the Song of Songs, La-
mentations, Daniel, and the books (mcgillolh) of
Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles. The Jewish writers,
however, do not uniformly follow this arrange-
ment, as they sometimes place the Psalms, or the
book of Job, as the first of the Hagiographa.
Jerome gives the arrangement followed by the
Jews in his time. He observes that they divided
the Scriptures into five books of Moses, eight
prophetical books (viz., I. Joshua ; 2. Judges and
Ruth; 3. Samuel; 4. Kings; 5. Isaiah; 6. Jeremiah;
7. Ezekiel; 8. the twelve prophets), and nine
Hagiographa (viz., i. Job; 2. David, five parts; 3.
Solomon, three parts ; 4. Koheleth ; 5. Canticles ;
6. Daniel ; 7. Chronicles ; 8. Esdras, two books,
viz., Ezra and Nehemiah ; 9. Esther). 'Some, how-
ever,' he adds, 'place Ruth and Lamentations
among the Hagiographa rather than among the
prophetical books.'
(2) Early Notice, (i) The earliest notice
which we find of these divisions is that contained
in the prologue to the book of Ecclesiasticus, writ-
ten B. C. 130, the author of which refers to the
Law, the Prophets, and the other books, by which
last were most probably meant the Hagiographa.
Philo also speaks of the Laws, the Prophets, the
Hymns, and the other books, but without classify-
ing them. (2) In the New Testament we find
three corresponding divisions mentioned, viz., the
Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms, which last
book has been supposed to^ have given its name
to the third division from the circumstance of its
then being the first in the catalogue (Luke xxiv :
44). Havernick, however (Handbtich, p. 78), sup-
poses that Luke calls the Hagiographa by the
name of Psalms, rather on account of the poetical
character of several of its parts (3) The 'book of
the Prophets' is referred to in the New Testament
as a distinct volume (Acts vii:42), where the
passage indicated is Amos v :25, 26. It is well
known that the second class was divided by the
Jews into the early Prophets, viz., Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, and Kings; and the later Prophets, viz.,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel (called the major pro-
phets), and the book of the twelve (minor) pro-
phets. When this division of books was first
introduced it is now impossible to ascertain.
Probably it commenced after the return from
the e-xile, with the first formation of the
canon. Still more difficult is it to ascertain the
principle on which the classification was based.
(4) It has been concluded from Matt. xxiii:35
and Luke xi:5i; comp. with Luke xxiv 144, that
as the Psalms were the first, so were Chronicles
the last book in the Hagiographa (Carpzov. In-
Irod. iv. p. 25). If, when Jesus spoke of the
righteous blood shed from the blood of Abel
(Gen. iv :8) to that of Zechariah. he referred, as
most commentators suppose, to Zechariah the son
of Jehoiada (2 Chron. xxiv:20, 21), there appears
a peculiar appositeness in the appeal to the first
and the last books in the canon. The book of
Chronicles still holds the last place in the Hebrew
Bibles, which are all arranged according to the
threefold division. The late date of Chronicles
may in some measure account for its separation
from the book of Kings ; and this ground holds
good whether we fix the era of the Chronicler,
with Zunz, at about B. C. 260. or with the eminenl
Roman Catholic, Professor Movers, the able de-
fender of the antiquity and authenticity of the
book, we conceive him to have been a younger
contemporary of Nehemiah, and to have written
about B. C. 400 (Kritische Utitersuchung uber <fe
Biblische Chronik, Bonn, 1834). The circum-
stance of the existence of a few acknowledged
later additions, such as i Chron. iii: 19-24, does
not militate against this hypothesis. De Wette
conceives that the genealogy in this passage comes
down only to the third generation after Nehemiah.
(5) The Alexandrian translators have not been
guided by the threefold division in their arrange-
ment of the books of Scripture. Luther was the
first who separated the canonical from the other
books. Not only do the Alexandria!) translators,
the Fathers, and Luther differ from the Jews in
the order of succession of the sacred books, but
among the Jews themselves the Talmudists and
Masorites and the German and Spanish manu-
scripts follow each a different arrangement.
W. W.
HAI{ha'i). SeeAl.
HAIIi(hal), 1. (Gr. xoipe, ^//a/'V^-r<'//, be cheer-
ful, rejoice), a salutation, (Luke i:28); in mockery
(Matt. xxvii:29).
2. Frozen rain (Heb. "^t?, baiu-rawd). When
a very cold current of air encounters a hot and
humid one, the vapor of the latter is suddenly
condensed into drops, and sometimes these are
frozen into irregular spheroids of porous ice, which
fall to the earth as hail.
This phenomenon is more frequent in temperate
than in tropical regions, and usually occurs in
summer and at the hottest hour of the day. Hail
rarely falls except during thunderstorms, and
hence the Bible commonly mentions it in connec-
tion with fire (lightning), as in Ps. cxlviii :8. Hail
occasionally falls in Egypt (Exod. ix:22-25) be-
tween December and April. It is more frequent in
Palestine (Josh. x:ll ; Hag. ii:i7). The area af-
fected by a hailstorm is generally a long, narrow
line, so that of two places near each other one may
be in and the other out of the storm. Thus Goshen
might escape it, whilst the adjacent district of
Egypt to the westward might be in its track and
suffer severely (Exod. ix :26) ; and a pursuing
army might be untouched by the storm and yet
see their fleeing foes beaten down by the falling
stones (Josh. x:ii). (Davis, 5i'&. Diet.).
Figurative. Hail is the symbol of Divine ven-
geance upon kingdoms and nations, as the ene-
mies of God and his people (Is. xxviii :2. 17,
xxxii :i9; Hag. ii :I7).
HAILSTONE (hal'ston), (Heb. ly? 1??, eh'ben-
baw-ravjit , a stone of hail (Josh. x:i 1). See above.
HAIB (har), (properly Heb. "'¥"!?'. say-awr' ; Gr.
6()li, threeks), is frequently mentioned in Scripture
and in scarcely anything has the caprice of fashion
been more strikingly displayed than in the various
forms which the taste of different countries and
ages has prescribed for disposing of this natural
covering of the head.
(1) The Greeks. The Greeks let their hair
grow to a great length, and their natural fondness
for this attribute of beauty has been perpetuated
not only by the frequently recurring references of
Homer, but by the circumstance of the other poets
and the artists of that ancient people representing
even the gods themselves with long hair.
(2) The Egyptians. The early Egyptians,
HAIR
753
HALAH
again, who were proverbial for their habits of
cleanliness, removed the hair as an incumbrance,
and the ahnost unavoidable occasion of sordid and
offensive negligence. All classes amongst that
people, not excepting the slaves imported from for-
eign countries, were required to submit to the
tonsure tGen. xli:i4).
(3) The Hebrews. Different from the custom
both of the Greeks and the Egyptians, that of the
Hebrews was to wear their hair generally short
and to check its growth by the application of
scissors only. The priests at their inauguration
shaved off all their hair, and when on actual duty
at the temple, wore in the habit, it is said, of cut-
ting it every fortnight. The only exceptions to
this prevailing fashion are found in the case of the
Nazarites. whose hair, from religious duty, was
not to be cropped during the term of their vow;
of young persons, who, during their minority, al-
lowed their hair to hang down in luxuriant ring-
lets on their shoulders ; of such effeminate per-
sons as Absalom {2 Sam. xiv:26), and of Solo-
mon's horse-guards, whose vanity affected a puer-
ile extravagance and who strewed their heads
every day with particles of gold-dust (Josephus,
Antiq. viii:7). Although the Hebrews wore their
hair short they were great admirers of strong and
thickset locks, and so high a value did they set on
the possession of a good head of hair that they
deprecated nothing so much as baldness (2 Kings
ii:23). To prevent or remedy this defect they
seem, at an early period, to have availed them-
selves of the assistance of art, not only for beau-
tifying the hair but increasing its thickness; while
the heads of the priests were anointed with an
unguent of a peculiar kind, the ingredients of
which, with their various proportions, were pre-
scribed by Divine authority, and the composition
of which the people were prohibited, under severe
penalties, from attempting to imitate (Exod. xxx:
32). This custom spread till anointing the hair
of the head became a general mark of gentility and
an essential part of the daily toilet, the usual cos-
metics employed consisting of the best oil if olives
mingled with spices, a decoction of parsley-seed
in wine, and more rarely of spikenard (Ps. xxiii :
5, xlv:7; Eccles. ix:8; Mark xiv:3). The ore-
vailing color of hair among the Hebrews was
dark; 'locks bushy and black as a raven' being
mentioned in the description of the bridegroom
as the perfection of beauty in mature nanhood
(Cant. v:ii). Hence the appearance of an old man
with a snow-white head in a company of younger
Jews, all whose heads, like those of other Eastern
people, were jet black — a most conspicuous object
— is beautifully compared to an almond tree which
in the early part of the year is in full bloon- while
all the others are dark and leatiess (Eccles.
xiirs).
(4) Dyeing the Hair. The Romans were in
the habit of using artificial means to disguise the
silver hue of age. From Rome the *; '^hion spread
into Greece and other provino"?. and it arrears
that the members of the church 01 Corinth ivere,
to a certain extent, captivated by the prevailing
taste, some Christians being evidently in the eye
of the Apostle, who had attr.icted attention by
the cherished and womanly decoration of their
hair (i Cor. xi:i4-i6). To them the letter of
Paul was intended to administer a timely reproof
for allowing themselves to fall in with a style of
manners which, by confounding the distinctions
of the sexes, threatened a baneful influence on
good morals; and that not only the Christian
converts in that city, but the primitive church
generally, were led by this admonition to adopt
simpler habits, is evident from the remarkable
48
fact that a criminal, who came to trial under th«
assumed character of a Christian, was proved
to the satisfaction of the judge to be an impostor,
by the luxuriant and frizzled appearance of his
hair (Tertullian, Apo/.; i'\eaTy, Les Ala-urs des
Chri'tiens).
(5) Eastern Women. With regard to w'omen,
the possession of long and luxuriant hair is al-
lowed by Paul to be an essential attribute of the
sex — a graceful and modest covering provided by
nature, and yet the same Apostle elsewhere (l
Tim. ii:9) concurs with Peter (i Pet. iii:3) In
launching severe invectives against the women of
his day for the pride and passionate fondness
they displayed in the elaborate decorations of
their head-dress. As the hair was preiiminently
the 'instrument of their pride' (Ezek. xvi :39,
margin), all the resources of ingenuity and art
were exhausted to set it off to advantage and
load it with the most dazzling finery, and many,
on the approach of death, caused their longest
locks to be cut off and placed separately in an
urn, to be deposited in their tomb as the most
precious and valued relics.
Figurative. Various metaphorical allusionsare
made to hair by the sacred writers, especially the
prophets, (i) Cutting off the hair" is a figure
used to denote the entire destruction of a people
by the righteous retributions of Providence (le.
vii:20). (2) 'Gray hairs here and there on Eph-
raim' portended the decline and fall of the king-
dom of Israel (Hos. vn.g). (3) 'Hair like
U'oinen's' forms part of the description of the
Apocalyptic locusts, and historically points to the
prevailing head-dress of the Saracens, as well as
the voluptuous effeminacy of the Antichristian
clergy (Rev. ix:8). (4) And, finally, 'hair like
fine wool' was a prominent feature in the ap-
pearance of the deified Redeemer, emblematic of
the majesty and wisdom that belong to him (Rev.
i:l4). What was least valuable in man's person
was represented by no hair (l Sam. xiv:45; 2
Sam. xiv:ii; i Kings i:S2; Matt. x:3o; Luke
xii :7; xxi :i8).
HAKKATAN (hak'ka-t5n), or rather KATAN
(Heb. iti^, kaw-lawn' , little or junior). His son,
Johanan, returned from captivity with Ezra (Ezra
viii:i2). He was chief of the Bene-Azgad. The
name is probably Katan with the definite article
prefixed. (B. C. before 459.)
HAXKOZ (hak'koz), (Heb. V?'"", hak-kotse' , the
nimble). 1. The chief of the seventh course of
priests in the Temple service appointed by David
(I Chron. xxiv:io). In Neh. iii:4, 21; Ezra ii;6l,
the name ajipears as Koz, without the article, and
no doubt correctly. (B. C. 1014.)
2. A man of Judah (l Chron. iv:8), B. C. prob-
ably 1612.
HAKTTPHA (ha-ku'pha), (Heb. X?"lpr], khak-
00 fixw' , crooked, incitement). Sons of Hakupha
were among those returning from captivity with
Zerubbabel (Eira ii:5i; Neh. vii:53), B. C. before
536.
HALAH iha'lah), (Heb. "2D,, khal-akh), sig-
nification unknown.
A city or district of Media, upon the River
Gozan, to which, among other places, the captives
of Israel were transplanted by the Assyrian kings
(2 Kings xvii:6; xviii:ii; i Chron. v:26). Many,
after Bochart (^Geog. Sacra, iii:i4, p. 22o), have
conceived this Halah or Chalach to be the Cala-
chene which Ptolemy places in the north of As-
syria. But if the River Gozan be the Kizzil-Ozan
Halah must needs be sought elsewhere, and near
HALAK, THE MOtINT
754
HAM
that river. Accordingly, Major Rennell indicates
as lying along its banks a district of some ex-
tent, and of great beauty and fertility, named
Chalchal, having within it a remarkably strong
position of the same name, situated on one of
the hills adjoining to the mountains which sep-
arate it from the province of Ghilan (Geog. of
Herod, p. 3g5; Rawlinson, Ancient Mon., 1:246).
HALAK (ha'iak), THE MOUNT (Heb. P^?'
khaw'lawk', bare). The Smooth or Bald Moun-
tain named as the southern limit of Joshua's con-
quests. (Josh. xi;i7, xii7).
HALHUL (hai'hul). A city of Judah (Joeh.
xv;58), near Hebron, A hamlet called Alula still
remains about three or four miles north of Hebron.
(\Vi\sun, Lands 0/ Bib., 'wfi^; Schwarz, Palestine,
p. 107.)
HALI (ha'li), CALI or CHALI (Heb. vH.
khal-ee' , jewel, necklace.) A city of Phoenicia, in
Asher (Josh. xix. 25), named between Helkath and
Betcn. Its situation is not known.
HALING (hal'ing), (Gr. Karaffipu, kat-as-oo' ro.
Acts viii;3). It meant to arrest by force, as we use
the word haul.
HALL (bal), (AuX^, dw-lay' , yard.) Open court
used of the high priests' house (Luke xxii;55).
It is an inclosed or fortified space, often un-
covered, into which the apartments of the house
looked. It is incorrectly translated palace (Mark
xiv:66; Matt. xxvi;69).
HALLEL (hai-lel), (Heb. ^^l", hal-lale' ; Or.,
\>)j.v(i^, hoom'nos, praise), the name of a particular
part of the hymnal service chanted at certain
festivals.
The name 'great Hallel' is sometimes given to
this group as a whole, but it is usually applied to
Ps. cxxxvi (or Ps. cxx-cxxxvi), with its twenty-
six times repeated refrain of praise. Ps. cxiii-
cxviii or cxv-cxviii are called the 'Egyptian' or the
'common' Hallel. During the continuance of the
temple the Hallel was recited on eighteen days in
the year, but on one night alone, that of the Pass-
over. On that occasion it was taken in parts, Ps.
cxiii and cxiv being sung before the meal, just be-
fore the drinking of the second cup, and Ps. cxv-
cxviii after the filling of the fourth cup. It is to
this sacred song that reference is made to the
phrase vii.vl]aavrf.%, 'when they had sung an hymn,'
used of our Savior and his disciples in Matt, xxvi:
30 and Mark xiv:26. . ,
HALLELUJAH (hal'le-lu-ya), (Heb. ■'^""I^':'?.
hal-leh-loo'yah, praise ye Jah, i. e., Jehovah; Gr.
&K\i\Ko<iM, al-lay-loo' -ee-ah).
A word which stands at the beginning of many
of the Psalms. From its frequent occurrence in
this position it grew into a formula of praise and
was chanted as such on solemn days of rejoicing.
This expression of joy and praise was transferred
from the synagogue to the church, and is still oc-
casionally heard in devotional psalmody. In the
great hymn of triumph in heaven over the de-
struction of Babylon the large multitude in chorus,
like the voice of mighty thunderings, hurst forth:
"Allelujah, for the Lord God omnipotent reign-
eth," in response to the voice from the throne, say-
ing: "Praise our God, all ye his servants" (Rev.
xix :t-6).
HALLOHESH (hal-16'hesh) or rather LO-
CHESH (lo'kesh), (Heb. '^^'^T^,hal-lo-khaihe' , en-
chanter), one of those who with Nehemiah sealed
the covenant (Neh. x:24). The name is Lochesh
without the article. (B. C. about 410).
HALLO'W, HALLOWED (hal'16, hSl'lod ),
(Heb. '"^iJ, kaw-dasli' , to set apart, consecrate;
Gr. o7idfai, hag-ee-ad' zo, to make sacred).
'Who,' says Trench, 'would now affirm of the
verb "to hallow" that it is even obsolescent? Yet
Wallis 200 years ago observed: "It has almost
gone out of use" {fere desuevit).' He is con-
demning (in English Past and Present, p. 139 f.)
the American Bible Union for dismissing from
their new version words that have a suspicion of
age upon them. And it is still quite true that
'hallow' as a biblical word, is in active use, so that
the revisers felt no necessity for excluding it from
either the New Testament of 1881 or the Old
Testament of 1885. (Hastings' Bid. Diet.)
It is used in the A. V. of a person who conse-
crates himseltto God (Num. vi;ii); of Christ un-
dergoing death to consecrate himself to God (John
xvii:i9; comp. x:36; Gal. i:i5) ; of things, e. g.,
the altar, the temple (Exod. xxix:36; Lev. viii:
is; Num. vii:i; i Kings viii:64) ; the Sabbath in
keeping it holy (Exod. xx :8, etc.) In general
Christians are the hallowed (Acts xx :32, xxvi :i8,
A. V. "sanctified"), as those who, freed from im-
purity, have been brought near to God through
their faith and sanctity. (See Sanctification.)
HALOHESH (ha-lo'hesh), father of Shallum.
The latter was ruler of half of Jerusalem at the
time Nehemiah repaired the walls (Neh. iii;i2).
The Hebrew is identical with Hallohesh in
spelling.
HALT (halt), (Heb. i'^V, iseh'-lah. Gen. xxxii:
31, to limp). (Gr. xi->Kbt, kho-los'. Matt. xviii:8,
crippled).
Figurative, Halting Atnotes falling into snares
and trouble (Ps. xxxviii:i7; Jer. xx:io), or con-
tinuing in doubt which to choose (i Kings xviii:
21). Her that halteth; i. e., Jews weak and unre-
solved to return to their own land (Mic. iv:6;
Zeph. iii:l9).
HAM (ham), (Heb. OQ, kkawm, swarthy, hot).
1- The youngest son of Noah (Gen. v:32;
comp. ix:24), B. C. after 2613. Having provoked
the wrath of his father by an act of indecency
towards him, the latter cursed him and his de-
scendants to be slaves to his brothers and their de-
scendants (ix:25). To judge, however, from the
narrative, Noah directed his curse only against
Canaan (the fourth son of Ham) and his race,
thus excluding from it the descendants of Ham's
three other sons, Cush, Mizrani, and Phut (Gen.
x:6). The general opinion is that all the South-
ern nations derive their origin from Ham (to
which the Hebrew root Khawin, not unlike the
Greek AWloves, burned faces, lends some force).
Cush is supposed to have been the progenitor of
the nations of East and South Asia, more espe-
cially of South Arabia, and also of Ethiopia ; Miz-
raim, of the African nations, including the Philis-
tines and some other tribes which Greek fable
and tradition connect with Egypt ; Phut, likewise
of some African nations, and Canaan, of the in-
habitants of Palestine and Phcenicia (see Rawlin-
son, Five Grt. Mon. i. chap, iv ; Max Miiller, Set.
of Lang. p. 2690). On the Arabian traditions con-
cerning Ham. vid. D'Herbelot (Bibl. Orient, art.
'Ham').
2. A poetical name for the land of Egypt (Ps.
Ixxviii:5i; cv:23, 27; cvi:22).
3. In Gen. xiv :5 occurs a country or place
called Ham. belonging to the Zticim, but its geo-
graphical situation is unknown. E. M.
4. The original inhabitants of the valley of
Gedor are said to be "of Ham" (i Chron. iv:40).
HAMAN
765
HAMMLK
This may indicate either a Hamite tribe or an
Eg>'ptian settlement.
HAMAN (ba'man), (Hcb. T?v',//(iit/-»»aw«, cele-
brated or magnificent, a name of the planet Mer-
cury; Sept. 'Afiif, aman), a favorite of the king of
Persia, whose history is involved in that of Esther
and Mordecai.
He is called an Agagite ; and as Agag was a
kind of title of the kings of the Amalckites (see
Agag), it is supposed that Haman was descended
from the royal family of that nation. He or his
parents probably found their way to Persia as
captives or hostages ; and that the foreign origin
of Haman was no bar to his advancement at court
is a circumstance quite in union with the most
ancient and still existing usages of the East.
Joseph, Daniel and Mordecai afford other exam-
ples of the same kind. His intrigues against Mor-
decai and the Jews, the discovery of his plot, and
his own execution, are graphically delineated in
the book of Esther. Prideaux (Connexion, anno
453) computes the sum which he offered to pay
into the royal treasury at more than two million
pounds sterling (ten million dollars).
In later times, at the Feast of Purim, it seems
to have been customary to hang an effigy of
Haman ; but as the gibbet was sometimes made in
the form of a cross, riots between Jews and
Christians were the result, and a warning against
insults to the Christian faith was issued by the
emperor Theodosius H (,Cod. Theod. xvi. viii:i8;
comp. 21). (See Esther; Mordecai.)
HAIIATH (ha'math), (Heb. ™n. kham-awth' ,
fortress), one of the smaller kingdoms of Syria,
having Zobah on the east and Rehob on the south.
This last kingdom, lying within the greater Mount
Hermon, is expressly said to have been taken pos-
session of by the Israelites, and, like Dan, or Laish,
which is represented to have been in the valley of
Bethrehob (Judg. xviii:28), is used to denote the
northern boundary of the Holy Land (Num. xiii :
21). The approach to it from the south is by an
opening or mountain pass, called 'the entrance of
Hamath,' and 'the entering in of Hamath,' which,
being the passage from the northern extremity of
the land of Israel into Syria, is sometimes used to
describe the boundary of the former in this direc-
tion, as 'from the entering in of Hamath to the
river of Egypt ■ (I Kings viii:65).
The kingdom of Hamath, or, at least, the south-
ern or central portions of it, appear to have
nearly corresponded with what was afterward de-
nominated Coele Syria; but northward it stretched
as far as the city Hamath on the Orontes, which
seems to have been the capital of the whole coun-
try. This city was called Epiphania by the Greeks,
under which name it was known to Josephus
{Antiq. l;6, 2; comp. Michaelis 5/2V/7. ii:S2) and
Jerome (Qiiast in Gen. x:i8; Comment, in Ezek.
xlvii:is, 16); but it has now resumed its more
ancient denomination, which indeed was probably
never lost among the native population. Toi was
king of Hamath at the time when David con-
quered the Syrians of Zobah, and it appears that
he had reason to rejoice in the humiliation of a
dangerous neighbor, as he sent his own son Joram
to congratulate the victor (2 Sam. viii :9, 10). In
the time of Hezekiah the town, along with its ter-
ritory, was conquered by the Assyrians (2 Kings
xvii:24, xviii :34, xix:l3; Is. x Kj, xi:li). and
afterward by the Chaldaeans (Jer. xxxix :2, s).
Abulfeda, the Arabian geographer, who was prmce
of Hamath in the fourteenth century, correctly
states (Tab. Syricr, p. 108) that this city is men-
tioned in the books of the Israelites. Hamath is
still a picturesque town, of considerable circum-
ference and with wide and convenient streets. The
western part of this district forms the granary
of Northern Syria, though the harvest never yields
more than a tenfold return, chietly on account of
the immense numbers of mice, which sometimes
completely destroy the crops.
Ini8i2,when Hurckhardt visited Hamath, he saw
the 'Hamath stones' (so-called Hittite inscriptions
in relief on black close-grained basalt) , and the
enormous water wheels, used for bringing the
waters of the Orontes to the houses and gardens
situated on the hill above the river. He does not,
however, mention the catacombs, said to have ex-
isted high up on the right bank.
The Hamath stones were afterward rediscov-
ered by Sir Richard Burton and Tyrwhitt Drake,
and of which squeezes were shown in London in
1872. The town, which is divided into four quar-
ters, Hadher, el-Jisr, el-Alcyat, and el-.Medine
(the quarter of the Christians), contained at
Burckhardt's visit about 4,446 houses and nearly
11,000 male inhabitants.
Literature. Pococke, Travch, ii;20Q; Burck-
hardt. Travels in Syria, p. 249; Richter, IVall-
fahrten, p. 231; comp. Roscnmiiller's Bib, Geog-
raphy, ii:243-246; Irby and Mangles. Travels, p.
244; Stanley, Sinai and Pal., pp. 406, 407; and
Thomson, Tlie Land and Book, vol. ii, p. 279.
HAMATHITE (ha'math-ite), (Heb. Tyi;], k/iam
aw-thee'), a descendant of Canaan who probably
settled in Hamath (Gen x.iS; I Chron. i;i6).
HAMATH-ZOBAH (ha 'math -z5 'bah), (Heb.
nj'iS nxr)^ kham-ath' tio-baw' , fortress of Zobah,
2 Chron. viii 13), supposed to be the same as
Hamath (which see) a place said to have been
captured by Solomon (2 Chron viii:3).
HAMMATH (hirn'math), (Heb. ^'^^, kham-
math , warm springs), a fortified city in the country
allotted to Naphtali (Josh. xix;35), no doubt near
Tiberias.
This place seems to be called Hammoth-dor
(Josh. xxi:32), and still further altered to Ham-
mon (i Chron. vi:76). (Thomson, Land and
Book, ii -.66.)
HAMMEDATHA (hammed 'a-tha), (Heb.
**?J'V'?'-, hatn-med-aiv-thaw'^, father of Haman and
commonly called the Agagite (Esth. iii:i, 10; viii:
1;; ix:24).
Gesenius takes the name to be Medatha without
the definite article. (See also Fiirst, Handzcb.,
B. C. before 474).
HAJffMELECH (hirn'me-lek), (Heb. '^^'?l', Aam-
meh' lek, the king).
The A. V. renders this as a proper name (Jer.
xxxvi:26; xxxviii:6), but it undoubtedly refers to
Jehoiakim and Zcdekiah. This rendering would
enable Jerahmeel and Malchiah to be connected
with the royal house of Judah, who do not so ap-
pear in the A. V. (B. C. 589.)
HAMMER (ham'mer).
A tool, called in Hebrew ^¥?, pat-teesh',
used for smoothing metals and for breaking rocks
(Is. xli:7; Jer. xxiii:29). It serves as a figure
for any crushing power. Babylon was the ham-
mer of the whole earth (Jer. 1:23), God's word
is like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces
(xxiii:29). Other naimes for an implement of the
same class are '^^iv^, mak-kavj-haw' , and ^??-^'
mak-keh'hcth, whicli was used for driving the tent
pin (Judg. iv;2l) in building operations (I Kings
vi:7), andin the manufacture of idols (Is. xliv:l2:
HAMMOLEKETH
756
HANANEEL
Jcr..x:4). Tiie name Maccabees is generally de-
rived from tins latter word.
HAMMOLEKETH (ham mSl'e-keth). (Heb.
'^?J'2'!', h'lm-mo-leh' keth^ the queen), a woman
given in the genealogies of Manasseh (l Chron.
vii:i7, i8). The Targum translates the word who
reigned.
The Jewish tradition is that she ruled all of
Gilead, and on that account her lineage has been
preserved. (B. C. bet. 1874 and 1658.)
HAMMON (ham'mon), (Heb. 1"'2C', kham-mone' ,
hot or sunny).
1. A Levitical city of Naphtali assigned to the
Gershonites (i Chron. vi:76), and answering to
the similar names of Hamniath and Hamnioth-
dor.
2. A town in Asher (Josh. xix:28). Its site is
uncertain. Schultz suggested 'Ain HamUl, some
10 miles south of Tyre but Robinson lays no great
stress upon this identification. Renan (^Mission
de Phenicie, 708 fif.) found at Khurbet Uininel-
'Amud, near the coast immediately north of the
Ladder of Tyre, two Phoenician inscriptions in
honor of Baal Hammon.
HAMONAH (ha-mo'nah), (Heb. '"'^'^0. Aam-o-
«flw', multitude), a city where Ezekiel (xxxix:i6)
foretold the burial of Gog and his people would
be.
We do not know any town of this name in Pales-
tine. Hamonah signifies multitude; and the
prophet intended to show that the slaughter of
Gog's people would be so great that the place of
their burial might be called Multitude.
"Cornill would read 'and it is all over with this
multitude.' If the words are an interpolation, the
allusion may be to the city of Bethshean, which
may have derived its name Scythopolis from the
Scythian invasion in the seventh century, B. C.
(See Bertholet. Das Buck Hesekiel, 193)." C.
R. Conder, Hastings' Bib. Diet.
HAM:M0TH-D0R (ham'moth-dor), (Heb. "IKT
^*''^, kha7n-moth' dore, hot springs of Dor), a 'Hv
of the Levites, in Naphtali, ceded to the fami'> of
Gershon (josh. xxi:32).
This is identical with Hammath unless there
were two places in Naphtali by the same name.
Hammurabi, Code of — Page 1753.
HAMON-GOG (ha'mon-gog), (Heb. ^''^ r-v".
ha-w-mone' gogh, multitude of Gog, or ravine of
Gog's multitude), the n;ime that was to be given
to a valley where were to be buried "Gog and all
his multitude" (Ez. xxxix:i I, 15).
HAMOR (ha'mor), (Heb. I'-H, kham-ore' , a he-
ass), prince of .Shechem; father of young Shechem,
who ravished Dinah, the daughter of Jacob (Gen.
xxxiv:2). (See Shechem.)
Jacob, returning from Mesopotamia, set up his
tents at Shechem, and bought of Hamor, for the
price of a hundred kesitahs. or pieces of silver
(about £40 or $200), that part of the field where
he had pitched his tents (Gen. xxxiii:i8, sq).
The bones of Joseph were afterwards buried there
(Josh. xxiv:32; Acts vii:i6).
For the wrong which had been done Dinah,
Shechem made an offer to take her as his wife;
and was supported in his claim by his father, Ha-
mor, who proposed also that there should be free-
dom of marriage between the families of Jacob
jnd Hamor (Gen. xxxiv :I4-I7).
To this the sons of Jacob gave their consent on
covcUtion that the Shechemites accept the rite of
circumcision. The Shechemites agreed to the
terms, and were circumcised (Gen. xxxiv 124) .
On the third day, when the Shechemites were un-
able through illness to defend themselves, Simeon
and Levi and their followers fell upon them, mur-
dered Hamor and Shechem, and carried away
Dinah to her own home.
HAMTTEL (ha-mu'el), (Heb. •?!f^"ij, kham-moo-
ale' , heat, angel of God), son of Mishma, a man of
Simeon, of the family of Shaul (i Chron. iv:26).
From him evidently sprang that part of the tribe
of Simeon located in Palestine. (B. C. before
1046.)
HAMTJIj (ha'mul), (Heb. "-?, khaw-moor,
pitied, spared), son of Pharez (Gen. xlvi:i2;
I Chron. ii:5), and head of the family by his name
(Num. xxvi;2i), B. C. Dct. 1870 and 1856.
HATVrtTIilTES (ha'mul-ltes), (Heb. ";"-", khaw
moo-lee'), the descendants (Num. xxvi:2ij of Ha-
mul. The family of Hamul (which see).
HATVTUTAL (ha-mu'tal), (Heb. ^??'"il, kham-
<?«>-/'a/', kinsman of the dew), daughter of Jeremiah
of Libmah, wife of king Josiah, and mother of
Jehoahaz and Zedekiah, kings of Judah (2 Kings
xxiii;3i; xxiv;i8; Jer. lii;l), B. C. 632-619.
HANAMEEL (ha-nara'e-el), (Heb.^?5^in,/J/^a«-
am-ale' , perhaps God has given), the son of Shal-
lum and a kinsman of Jeremiah, to whom, before
the siege of Jerusalem, he sold a field which he
possessed in Anathoth, a town of the Levites
(Jer. xxxii:6-i2).
If this field belonged to Hanameel as a Levite,
the sale of it would imply that an ancient law had
fallen into disuse (Lev. xxv:34) ; but it is pos-
sible that it may have been the property of
Hanameel in right of his mother. The transaction
was conducted with all the forms of legal transfer,
and was intended to evince the certainty of
restoration from the approaching exile, by show-
ing that possessions which could be established
by documents would yet be of future value to
the possessor (B. C. 587).
HANAN (ha'nan), (Heb. I??, khaw-nawn',
merciful).
1. One of the chiefs of the tribe of Benjamin
(i Chron. viii:23), B. C. between 1612 and 1050.
2. Sixth son of Azel, descendant of Saul (i
Chron. viii:38; ix:44), B. C. 588.
3. Son of Igdaliah (Jer. xxxv:4), B. C. before
606.
4. Son of Maachah and one of David's "thirty"
(l Chron. xi:43), B. C. 1000.
5. The sons of Hanan returned, among the
Nethinim, with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra
11:46; Neh. vii:49), B. C. before 536.
6. A Levite who assisted Ezra in instructing the
people in the law (Neh. viii:7). In Neh. x:io,
the same person is doubtless mentioned again
(B. C. about 410).
7. One of the chiefs of the people who took
part in sealing the covenant (Neh. x:26), B. C
about 410.
8. Another chief of the laymen who took part
in sealing the covenant (Neh. .x:22), B. C. about
410.
9. The son of Zaccar who was keeper of
the tithes under Nehemiah (Neh. xiii :i3).
HANANEEL (ha-nan'e-el), (Heb. ^???iO, khan-
an-aie', God has favored), an Israelite who gave
name to one of the towers of Jerusalem (Neh.iiiii;
xii;39; Jer. xxxi;38; Zech. xiv:lo). (See HANAN-
EEL, Tower of.)
HANANEEL. TOWER OF
757
HAND
HANANEEL, TOWEB OF {ba-n5n'e-el. tou'-
er 6v), (Heb. -^f!^~, khan-an-aW , God has favored),
a tower which formed part of the wall of Jeru-
salem (Neh. iii;i; xii:39).
From these two passages, particularly from
the former, it might almost be inferred that
Hanancel was but another name for the Tower
of Meah ; at any rate they were close together,
and stood between the sheep gate and the fish gate.
This tower is further mentioned in Jer. xxxi ijS.
The remaining passage in which it is named
(Zech. xiv:io) also connects this tower with the
"corner gate," which lay on the other side of
the sheep-gate (Smith, Bib. Diet.) (See Hanan-
EEL.)
HANANI (ha-na'ni), (Heb. "^m, khan-aw-nee' ,
gracious).
1. Son of Heman, David's Seer, who was head
of the i8th course in the Temple service (i Chron.
xxv:4, 25), B. C. 1014.
2. A prophet under the reign of Asa, king of
Judah, by whom he was seized and imprisoned
for announcing that he had lost, from want of
due trust in God, an advantage which he might
have gained over the king of Syria (2 Chron. xvi :
7). The precise occasion of this declaration is
not known. This Hanani is supposed to be the
same who was father of another prophet, named
Jehu (i Kings xvi:7) ; but circumstances of time
and place seem adverse to this conclusion, (B. C.
928.)
3. A priest in the time of Ezra who had
'strange' wives (Ezra x:2o), B. C. 459.
4. A brother of Nehemiah, who went from
Jerusalem to Shushan, being sent most probably
by Ezra, and brought that information respecting
the miserable condition of the returned Jews
which led to the mission of Nehemiah. Hanani
came back to Judaea, probably along with his
brother, and, together with one Hananiah, was
appointed to take charge of the gates of Jeru-
salem, and see that they were opened in the morn-
ing and closed in the evening at the appointed
time. The circumstances of the time and place
rendered this an important and responsible duty,
not unattended with some danger (Neh. vii :2, 3),
B. C. <155.
5. A priest, one of the musicians who ofliciated
in the ceremonial of purifying the walls of Jeru-
salem when they had been rebuilt (Neh. xiir.io),
B. C. 445-
HANANIAH (han'a-ni'ah), (Heb. "^X-C-^-., khan-
an-yaw' , Jehovah's goodness).
i. A chief captain of the army of King Uz-
ziah (2 Chron xxvi:ii), B, C. 803.
2. Son of Heman and chief of the i6th course
of Lcvites (l Chron. xxv :4. 5, 23), B. C. 1014.
3. A false prophet of Gibeon, who. by opposing
his prophecies to those of Jeremiah, brought upon
himself the terrible sentence, 'Thou shalt die this
year, because thou hast taught rebellion against
the Lord.' He died accordingly (Jer. xxviiiri,
sq), B. C. 596.
4. Father of Zcdekiah, and a prince in the
reign of Jehoiakim, King of Judah (Jer. xxxvi :
12), B. C. 60s.
5. Grandfather of Irijah (Jer. xxxvii:l3), B. C.
before 589.
6. Head of a Benjamite house (i Chron. viii:
24), B. C. 605.
T- (See Shadr.^ch.)
8. Son of Zerubbabel from whom Christ was
descended (i Chron. iiil9), B. C. after 536.
9- Sons of Bebai who returned from captivity
with Ezra (Ezra x:28), B. C. 459.
10. A priest who had the charge of making the
ointments (Exod. xxx:22-38; i Chron. ix :3o).
He built a part of the wall in the time of Nehe-
miah (Neh. iii:8). Perhaps the same as the one
mentioned in verse 30. (B. C. 446.)
11- The person who was associated with Nebe-
miah's brother Hanani in the charge of the gates
of Jerusalem. The high eulogy is bestowed upon
him, that 'he was a faithful man, and feared God
above many' (Neh. vii:2). (See Hanani 2.)
12. Head of the priestly course of Jeremiah
under Joiakim the high-priest (Neh. xii:i2), B. C.
446.
13. An Israelite mentioned (Neh. x:33). (See
Ananias.)
HAND (hind), Heb. "'^ ,yawd, the open palm
1^, kaph, the hollow of the hand; Gr. x«'Pi k/iire).
The organ of feeling, and rightly denomina-
ted by Galen the instrument of instruments, since
by its position at the end of the fore-arm, its struc-
ture and its connection with the mind, the hand
admirably executes the behests of the human
will, and acquires and imparts to man incompar-
able skill and power. By the peculiarities of its
conformation — the inclination of the thumb to tne
palm, the comparative length of the thumb and
of the fingers, 'the hollow of the hand,' and the
fleshy protuberances by which that hollow is
mainly formed— this member is wonderfully
adapted to the purposes for which it w^as designed,
and serves to illustrate the wisdom and providence
of the great Creator {The Hand, its Mechanism,
and vital Endowments, as evincing Design, by
Sir Charles '5ell).
The hand itself serves to distinguish man
from all other terrestrial beings. No other animal
has any member comparable with the human hand
The trunk of the elephant unites the attributes
of skill and power to a surprising extent, but
yields the palm to the hand.
Of the two hands the right has a preference,
derived from natural endowment. Its universal
use, as the chief instrument in acting, serves to
show that its superiority is something more than
an accident. But the preference which it holds
is only a part of the general advantage which
the right side has over the left, not only in muscu-
lar strength, but also in its vital or constitutioi^al
properties (Bell).
From the properties already described, the
student of Scripture is prepared to see the hand
employed in holy writ as a symbol of skill,
strength, and efhcacy.
As the hand is ihe great instrument of action,
so is it eminently fitted for affording aid to the
mind, by the signs and indications which it
makes. Thus to lay the hand on any one was a
means of pointing him out, and consequently
an emblem of setting any one apart for a partic-
ular office or dignity. Imposition of hands ac-
cordingly formed, at an early period, a part of the
ceremonial observed on the appointment and con-
secration of persons to high and holy under-
takings. (See Num. xxvii 118-23 ; •'^cts viii:i5-l7;
I Tim. iv:i4; 2 Tim. i:6. ) A corruption of this
doctrine was, that the laying on of hands gave
of itself divine powers, and on this account Simon,
the magician (Acts viii:l8). offered money, say-
ing 'Give me also this power, that on whomsoever
I lay hands he may receive the Holy Ghost,' in-
tending probably to carry on a gainful trade by
communicating the gift to others. (See Hands,
Imposition of.) J. R. B.
Customs, (i) Pouring water on one's hands
denoted serving of him (2 Kings iii:ll). (2)
IVashing of hands imported profession of inno-
HAND
758
HAND
cence (Deut. xxi:6; Matt. xxvii:24) ; or a solemn
purgation of one's self in Jesus' blood, and a reso-
lution to maintain a holy practice (Ps. xxvi:6).
(3) Kissing of the hand to a thing imported
adoration of it (Job xxxi :27). (4) The consecra-
tion of the priests was called a filling of their
hands, because part of the consecrated offerings
was put into their hands (l Kings xiii :33J. (s)
Leaning on one's hand imported the familiarity of
a superior with his inferior (2 Kings v:i8, and
vii;i7). (6) Striking of hands imports undertak-
ing as surety for one's debt or good behavior
(Prov. xvii:i8, and xxii:26). (7) Putting the
hand under the thigh was an ancient form, of
swearing and subjection to the person under whose
thigh the hand was put (Gen. xxiv :2, and xlvii:
29). (8) Giving of the hand imports making a
covenant with one, or serving him (2 Kings x:i5;
Lam. v:6; i Chron. xxix:2o). (9) IVitnesses
laid their hands on the head of the person ac-
cused; importing their solemn charging him with
guilt, or their readiness to be the first in stoning
him (Deut. xiii :9, and xvii:7). (10) The He-
brews' laying their hands on their sacrifices before
they were slain denoted the solemn confession of
their sin, and of their deserving to die ; their cere-
monial translation of their guilt on the victim
(Lev. i 1. and xvi:2i). (11) Laying on of
hands was used in setting apart men to an
office ; thus Moses publicly set apart Joshua to
the office of governor (Num. xxvii:i8). So the
Levites under the Old Testament, and ministers
under the New, were set apart to their offices by
laying on of hands (Num. viii:lo; Acts xiii;3; i
Tim. iv :i4). This form was also used in blessing
of persons; so Jacob blessed Joseph's children
(Gen. xlviii:i4), and so Jesus blessed the little
children brought to him (Mark x:i6). (12) The
miraculous gifts of the Holy Ghost were conferred
by laying on of the apostles' hands (Acts viii:l7,
and xix :6). (13) Stretching out the hand to God
imports earnest prayer for his favors, and solemn
dedication of ourselves to him (Ps. lxviii:3l, and
cxliii:6). (14) Lifting up the hand in affirmation
was a form of solemn swearing much used an-
ciently (Gen. xiv:22). (15) Lifting up the hands
in prayer, or by the priests in blessing, denoted
the solemn wishing of blessings to come from
God (Lev. ix :22).
Figurative. (l) To /t// Mp iAe Aatid against a
superior is to rebel against him (2 Sam. xx:2i).
(2) To put forth the hand against one is to kill
him (i Sam. xxivrio). (3) To piU our hand to
our neighbor's goods is to steal them (Exod.
xxii :8, 11). (4) To lay the hand on the mouth
imports silence and an acknowledgment of guilt
(Job xl:4; Mic. vii:i6). (5) To lay hands
angrily on persons is to apprehend and smite them
(Exod. xxivrii); or seize on their country (Is.
xi:i4). (6) Hiding the hand in the bosom de-
notes great inactivity or sluggish aversion to do
or receive anything (Prov. xix:24). (7) Clap-
ping of hands denotes great joy and rejoicing
(Ps. xlvii :i; and the clapping of hands by trees
and floods denotes universal joy and gladness (Is.
Iv:i2; Ps. xcviii:8); but sometimes it denotes
contempt and noisy derision (Ezek. xxv :6 ; Job
xxxiv:37). (8) With respect to station, the seat
on the right hand was honorable, that on the left
not so much so (Matt. xx:2l). (9) With respect
to the points of the heavens, the left hand signifies
the north, and the right hand the south; and yet
sometimes it may only signify different quarters
(Gen. xiii :9) ; and so our not turning from God's
law to the left hand or to the right imports our
following it most exactly in every point, neither in-
dulging ourselves in neglect of what it requires,
nor pretending to go beyond it (Josh, i :7, and
xxiii;6; Prov. iv:27j. (loj God's standing a»
men's right liand imports his regard to them, and
readiness to plead their cause and assist and com-
fort them (Ps. xvi :8, and cix:3i). (11) Satan's
standing at men's right hand imports his accusing
of them, hindering them from their proper work;
and his readiness to torment them (Zech. iii:i;
Ps. cix:6). (12) In giving alms we are not to let
our left hand know what our right hand doth;
i. e. we are to bestow them with all proper secrecy,
and with no proud ostentation (Matt, vi :3). (13)
Though hand join in hand, i. e. though all men
should use their most vigorous and united efforts
to protect a wicked man, he shall not go unpun-
ished (Prov. xi:2l). (14) To be in the hand of
persons is to be in their possession, or under their
management, or under their power and dominion
(Job xii:6; Gen. xxxix:6; 2 Kings xxi:i4; Ps.
xxxi:is). (15) A darling and apparently pleas-
ant and profitable lust to be mortified is likened to
a right hand, or foot, or eye, to be cut off or
plucked out (Matt. v:29, 30, and xviii :8, 9). (16)
To have one's life or soul in his hand is to be in
extreme hazard of death (i Sam. xix:5; Job xiii:
14; Ps. cxix :I09). (17) As hands are the instru-
ments of acting, doing, or receiving, they are often
the emblems of power, and work. God's hand, or
right hand, signifies his power and the exertion
thereof, either in a way of mercy or wrath (Ps.
lxiii:8; Deut. xxxii:40). So his powerful influence
to instruct or support a prophet is called his hand
being on or with him (l Kings xviii :46; Ezek. i:
3, and rii:i4). His judgments executed are called
his heavy hand (l Sam. v:ii). His stretching out
his hand imports the exertion of his power to pro-
tect and deliver his friends, or terribly to punish
his foes (Exod. iii;20) ; or his continuing to
threaten men with further strokes (Is. ix:l2, and
xiv:26, 27). He zvill not stretch out his hand to
the grave, though they cry in his destruction. Let
friends mourn ever so bitterly, God will not by his
power bring me or any other dead man to life
again ; nor will he pursue me further than the
grave with his judgments (Job xxx:24). (18)
God plucks his hand out of his bosom when he
exerts his power for the deliverance of his people,
and withdraws it when he forbears to help, com-
fort, or deliver them (Ps. Ixxiv : 11). (19) Christ
sits at God's right hand; he is enthroned in his
highest favor, and in the highest honor and au-
thority (Rom. viii:34). (20) Christ stretching
out his hands to men, in the offer of the gospel,
denotes his earnest calling of them, his readiness
to receive them and supply them out of his fullness
(Is. lxv:2; Prov. i:24). (21) Length of days is
in his or Wisdom's right hand, and in his left
riches and honor. In receiving and walking in
him in a wise and well-ordered conversation, there
is to be had life and happiness both here and
hereafter (Prov. iii:i6). He has the stars or
ministers in his right hand; he supports, protects,
and governs them (Rev. i:l6). (22) Angels and
ministers have the hands of a man; they act with
knowledge and affection (Ezek. i:8). (23) Hands
weak or hanging down denote persons dispirited
and unfit for action (Job iv:3; Heb. xii:i2). (24)
To lift up the hands to God's commandments is to
be devoted to and earnest in obeying God's law in
our practice (Ps. cxix:48). (25) Clean and holy
hands denote a blameless and holy practice (Ps.
xxiv:4; i Tim. ii:8). (26) Hands defiled and
bloody denote a practice corrupt and murderoua
(Ezeic. xxiii:37; Is. 1:15). (27) Slack hands im-
port a careless inactive practice (Prov. x:4).
(28) To do a thing by the hand of others is to do
it by their assistance (Exod. iv;i3; Lev. viii:36;
HANDBREADTH
750
HANDICRAFT
X.I I, and xxvi :46, etc.): and so wicked imen
are called the hand of God; as by them he exe-
cutes much of his providential work on earth, par-
ticularly in correcting his people (Ps. xvii:i4).
(.29) In Col. ii:i3. 14, 'the law of commandments
contained in ordinances' (Ephes. ii:i5), is desig-
nated 'the handivriting of ordinances that was
against us,' which Jesus blotted out, and took
away, nailing it to his cross ; phraseology which
indicates the abolition, on the part of the Savior,
of the Mosaic law.
HANBBKEADTH (hand'brSdth), (Heb. 1^???.
leh'fakh,2C\\ri)n.\\'.<^: Fs. xx.>iix.5; ~?'^, to'fakh,
Exod. xxxvii;i2).
The breadth of the hand, a palm (Exod. xxv :
25). (See Cubit.) It is used by the Psalmist
figuratively of human life; especially when life
closes prematurely (Ps. xxxixij).
HANDBBOAB (hand'brad).
Measuring a handbreadth (Ezck. xl :43 ; in R. V.
handbreadth). (See Handbreadth.)
HANDICRAFT (hind't-kraft).
In the early periods to which the Scriptural
history refers we do not meet with those artificial
feelings and unreasonable prejudices against hand-
labor which prevail and are so banefuUy intluential
in modern society. The entire circle of achieve-
ment which man had effected in the natural world,
was, in ancient times, too immediately and too
obviously connected with the labor of the hands,
which is, in truth, the great primary source
of wealth, for any feeling regarding it to prevail
but one of high estimation. Accordingly, even
the creation of the world is spoken of as the
work of God's hands, and the firmament is said
to show his handiwork (Ps. viii :3 ; xix:i; Gen.
ii:2; Job xxxiv:l9). (See Hand, Figurative.)
The primitive history, too, which the Bible pre-
sents is the history of hand-laborers. Adam
dressed the garden in which God had placed him
(Gen. ii:l5), Abel was a keeper of sheep, Cain a
tiller of the ground (Gen. iv;2), Tubai-Cain a
smith (Gen. iv:22).
The life which the patriarchs previously led in
t+ieir own pasture-grounds, was not favorable to
the cultivation of the practical arts of life, much
less those by which it is embellished. Egypt, in
consequence, must have presented to Joseph and
his father a land of wonders, of rich and attractive
knowledge.
The maritime and commercial Phoenicians were
to the Hebrews another source of knowledge of
handicrafts. Commerce and navigation imply
great skill in art and science; and the pursuits to
wliish they lead largely increase the skill whence
they emanate. It is not, therefore, surprising that
the origin of so many arts has been referred to
the northeastern shore of the Mediterranean
Sea; nor is there any difficulty in understanding
how arts and letters should be propagated from
the coast to the interior, as well before as after the
settlement of the Hebrew tribes iiT the land of
promise.
The skill of the Hebrews during their wander-
ings in the desert does not appear to have been
inconsiderable ; but the pursuits of war and the
entire absorption of the energies of the nation in
the one great work of gaining the land which had
been given to them, may have led to their falling
off in the arts of peace; and from a passage in
I Sam. xiii :20 it would appear that not long
after they had taken possession of the country
they were in a low condition as to the instru-
ments of handicraft. A comparatively settled
state of society, however, soon led tp the revival
of skill by the encouragement of industry. A
more minute division of labor ensued. Trades,
strictly so called, arose, carried on by persons ex-
clusively devoted to one pursuit. Thus in Jude.
xvii :4 and Jer. x:i4, 'the founder' is mentipned,
a trade which implies a practical knowledge of
metallurgy ; the smelting and working of metals
were well known to the Hebrews (Job. xxxvii :
18) ; brass was in use before iion; arms and in-
struments of husbandry were made of iron. In
Exodus, .xxxv :,?o-3S, a passage occurs which
may serve to specify many arts that were practiced
among the Israelites, though it seems also to inti-
mate that at the time to which it refers artificers
of the description referred to were not numerous.
'See, the Lord hath called by name Bczaleel,
and hath filled him with the spirit of God, in
knowledge and all manner of workmanship, arid
to devise curious works, to work in gold, and iii
silver, and in brass and in the cutting of stones, to
set them, and in carving of wood, to make any
manner of cunning work ; and he hath put in his
heart that he may teach ; both he and Aholiab ;
them hath he filled with wisdom of heart to work
all manner of work of Ihc engraver: and of the
cunning workman, and of the embroiderer in blue
and in purple, in scarlet and in fine linen, and of
the weaver.'
From the ensuing chapter (Exod. xxxiv:34)
it appears that gilding was known before the set-
tlement in Canaan. The ark (E.xod. x.xxvii :2)
was overlaid with pure gold witliin and without.
The cherubim were wrought, 'beaten' (Exod.
xxxvii 7) in gold. The candlestick was of beaten
gold (verses 17, 22). Wire-drawing was probably
understood (E.xod. xxxviii:4; xxxix:3). Cover-
ing with brass (Exod. xxxviii:2) and with silver
(Prov. xxvi :23) was practiced. Architecture and
the kindred arts do not appear to have made much
progress till the days of Solomon, who employed
an incredible number of persons to procure tim-
ber (I Kings v:i3. ^17,) ; but the men of skill for
building his temple he obtained from Hiram,
king of Tyre (i Kings v :3, sq.; I Chron. xiv:i;
2 Chron. ii 7). (Scholz. Handb. der Bib. Archiiol.
p. 390, sq.; De Wette, Lehrb. der Archiwl, p. 115,
sq.; Winer, Rcahvort, art. 'Handwerke').
The intercourse which the Babylonish captivity
gave the Jews seems to have greatly improved
their knowledge and skill in both the practical and
the fine arts, and to have led them to hold them in
very high estimation. The arts were even carried
on by persons of learning, who took a title of honor
from their trade (Rosenmiillcr, Morgenl. vi, 42).
It was held a sign of a bad education if a lather
did not teach his son some h.itidicralt. (Light-
foot, p. 616; Mish. Tr. Pirke .4both, ii, 2; Wagen-
seil's Sola, p. 597; Othon. Lex. Rabb. 491).
In the .Apocrypha and New Testament there
are mentioned tanners (Acts ix:43), tent-makers
(Acts xviii:3); in Josephus (De Bell. Jtid. v: 4.
I), cheese-makers; domestics ((toupeis, barbers
Antiq. xvi:ii, s) ; in the Talmud, with others we
find tailors, shoemakers, blood letters, glaziers,
goldsmiths, plasterers. Certain handicraftsmen
could never rise to the rank of high-priest (Mish.
Tr. Kiddush, 82, i), such as weavers, barbers,
fullers, perfumers, cuppers, tanners ; which pur-
suits, especially the last, were held in disesteem
(Mishna, Tr. Megillah, iii .-2; Othon. Lex. Rabb.
155; Wetstein, N. T. ii : 516). In large cities
particular localities were set apart for particular
trades, as is the case in the East to the present
(lay. Thus in Jeremiah xxxvii :2I we read of
'the bakers' street.' So in the Talmud (Mishna,
v. 169. 225) mention is made of a flesh market;
HANDKERCHIEF, NAPKIN
760
HANGING. HANGINGS
in Josephus (Dc Bel!. Jud. v. 4. i) of a cheese
market; and in the New Testament (John v :2)
we read of a sheep market. (See Iken, Antiq.
Heb. iii-ix. p. 578, sq.; Bellermann Handb. i, 2J,
sq.) J. R. B.
HANDKERCHIEF, NAPKIN (han'ker-chtf,
nap'kin), (Gr. (joviapiov, soodar' ee-on, sweat cloth;
Vulg. siidariion), occurs in Luke xix:2o; John xi:
44; xx:7; Acts xix:l2.
The Greek word is adopted from the Latin, and
probably at first had the same meaning; and,
being derived from sudo, to perspire, corresponds
to our word handkerchief.
In the first instance of its use (Luke xix :20)
it means a wrapper, in which the 'wicked servant'
had laid up the pound entrusted to him by his
master. For references to the custom of laying up
money, etc., in the Soudaria, both in classical and
rabbinical writers, see Wetstein's N. T., on Luke
xix :20. In the second instance (John xi :44) it ap-
pears as a kerchief, or cloth attached to the head of
a corpse. It was perhaps brought round the fore-
head and under the chin. In many Egyptian
mummies it does not cover the face. In ancient
times among the Greeks it did. Nicolaus (^De
Gracor. Ltictu, c. iii; sec. 6, Thiel. 1697). Mai-
monides, in his comparatively recent times, de-
scribes the zi'hole face as being covered, and gives
a reason for the custom (Tract Efcl, c. 4). The
next instance is that of the irovSdpLov, napkin,
which had been 'about the head' of our Lord, but
which, after his resurrection, was found rolled
up, as if deliberately, and put in a place separately
from the linen clothes. 'cvraf>fed ut> apart in a
place by itself. The last instance of the Biblical
use of the word occurs in the account of 'the
special miracles' wrought by the hands of Paul
(Acts xix:ii); 'so that soudaria Uiaiidkenhiefs,
napkins, wrappers, sliaxds, etc.) were brought
from his body to the sick; and the diseases de-
parted from them, and the evil spirits went out
of them.' The Ephcsians had not unnaturally in-
ferred that the apostle's miraculous power could
be communicated by such a mode of contact ; and
certainly cures thus received by parties at a dis-
tance, among a people famed for their addicted-
ness to 'curious arts,' i. e., magical skill, etc.,
would serve to convince them of the truth of the
minds. But it is not said that Paul sent these
napkins.
HANDLE (han'd'l), (Heb. plural ^''"^l, kap-
poth', literally hands), the thumb pieces or latch
to a door. (See Lock.)
HANDMAID (hand'mad), (Heb. '""Vr^ ski/-
khaw' , or "",-?, avj-maw' , Gen. xvi;i; Ruth iii:g,
etc.; .Gr. SowXi;, doo'lay, Luke 1:38, etc.), a maid-
servant. (See Service.)
HANDS, IMPOSITION OF.
(1) Old and ?Tew Testament. Laying on
hands, or nnposi.inn of hands, is understood in
different ways both in the Old and New Testa-
ment. It is often taken for ordination and conse-
cration of priests and ministers, as well among the
Jews as Christians (Num. viii:io; Acts vi:6; xiii :
3; I Tim. iv:i4). It is sometimes also made use
of to signify the establishment of judges and
magistrates, on whom it was usual to lay hands
when they were intrusted with these employments.
"TImis when Moses constituted Joshua his suc-
cessor, God appointed him to lay his hands upon
him (Num. xxvii:iS). Jacob laid his hands on
Ephraim and Manasseh, when he gave them his
last blessing (Gen. xlviii:i4). The high-priest
Stretched out his hands to the people as often as
he recited the solemn form of blessing (Lev. ix:
22). The Israelites, who presented sin-offerings
at the tabernacle, confessed their sins while they
laid their hands upon them (Lev. i:4j. This
testified that the person acknowledged himself
worthy of death, that he laid his sins upon the
sacrifice, that he trusted in Christ for the expia-
tion of his sins, and that he devoted himself to
God. Witnesses laid their hands upon the head of
the accused person, as it were to signify that they
charged upon him the guilt of his blood, and freed
themselves from it (Deut. xiiiig; xvii:/). Our
Savior laid his hands upon the children that were
presented to him, and blessed them (Mark x:l6).
And the Holy Ghost was conferred on those who
were baptized by the laj'ing on of the hands of the
apostles (Acts viii:i7; xix:6).
(2) Ecclesiastical Uses. In the rites of the
early church the imposition of hands was used in
confirmation, which generally was an accompani-
ment of baptism, and symbolized the reception of
the Holy Ghost. It was also practiced in Ordina-
tion (which see). In the modern church the Ro-
man Catholics use the imposition of hands in the
ceremonies which precede extreme unction, in or-
dination and confirmation, in both of which serv-
ices it has received a sacramental efficacy. In the
mass, previous to the consecration of the elements,
the priest extends his hands over the people in
blessing. The Church of England, the Protestant
Episcopal, and the Reformed Episcopal churches
employ it as a symbolical act in baptism and con-
firmation. The Methodist Episcopal, the Presby-
terian, and Congregational Churches employ it
only in ordination. (Barnes' Bih. Diet.) (See
Hand.)
HANDSTAFF (hand'staf), (Heb. ^f!^, mak-
kale', a rod or staff), a javelin (Ezek. xxxix:9).
(See Arms. Armor).
HANDWRITING (hand'rlt'ing), (Gr. x"p47-
patpov, khi-rog' raf-on, what one has written with
his own hand), S[iecially a note of hand, or writing
in which one acknowledges that money has either
been deposited with him or lent to him by another,
to be returned at an appointed time.
Figurative. The ceremonial law is called a
hand-writing against men, R. V. bond; its rites
witnessed guilt and desert of punishment; and
it was a means of shutting out the gentiles from
the church of God (Col. ii:i4).
HANES (ha'nez), (Heb. ^.^V', khaiv-nace"), a
place in Egypt only mentioned in Is. xxx:4, which
has not been definitely located, but probably in
the neighborhood of Zoan. It must not be con-
founded with Taphanes.
HANGING (hang'mg). See Punishments.
HANGING, HANGINGS. Three Hebrew
words are translated thus. In relation to the tem-
ple we find:
1. Keh'lall (Heb. ^^1?., a screen). The "hang-
ings" were used for covering the walls of the
court of the tabernacle, just as tapestry was_ in
modern times (Exod. xxviiig; xxxv:l7; xxxviiiig;
Num. iii:26; iv:26).
2. Maw-saivk' (Heb. "??), the "hanging" was
a curtain or "covering" to close an entrance;
one was placed before the door of the tabernacle
(Exod. XXVI ;36. 37; xxxix :38, etc.). The term is
also applied to the veil that concealed the holy of
holies (Exod. xxxv:i2; xxxix :34; xl :2l ; Num.
iv:S)-
HANIEL
7ol
HAPHRAIM
S. In relation to heathenism bawt-teem' (Heb.
I*?, marg. "houses"), "hangings" (2 Kings xxiii:
7), probably means small tent temples woven by
the women for Asherah (comp. 2 Kmgs xvii:29).
HANIETj (h,uri-el), the form of Hanniel which
is usid in 1 Chron. vii:39. (See Hanniel.)
HANNAH (han'oah), (Heb. '""Jn, khan-naw' ,
grace, favorj, wife of Elkanah (a Levite of £ph-
ratah) and mother of Samuel.
(1) A Childless Wife. She was very dear to
her husband, but being childless was much ag-
grieved by the insults of Elkanah's other wife,
Peninnah, who was blessed with children. The
family lived at Ramathaim-zophim, and, as the
law required, there was a yearly journey to offer
sacrifices at the sole altar of Jehovah, which was
then at Shiloh. Women were not bound to at-
tend ; but pious females free from the cares of a
family often did so, especially when the husband
was a Levite. Every time that Hannah went there
childless she declined to take part in the festivities
which followed the sacrilices,beingthen,asit seems,
peculiarly exposed to the taunts of her rival.
(2) An Earnest Prayer. At length, on one of
these visits to Shiloh, while she prayed before re-
turning home, she vowed to devote to the Al-
mighty the son which she so earnestly desired (i
Sam. ini). It seems to have been the custom to
pronounce all vows at the holy place in a loud
voice, under the immediate notice of the priest
(Deut. x.xiil :23; Ps. lxv:lj; but Hannah prayed
in a low tone, so that her lips only were seen to
move. This attracted the attention of the high-
priest, Eli, who suspected that she had taken too
much wine at the recent feast. From this suspi-
cion Hannah easily vindicated herself, and re-
turned home with a liglilened heart.
(3) Birth of a Son. Before the end of that
year Hannah became the rejoicing mother of a
son, to whom the name of Samuel was given, and
who was from his birth placed under the obli-
gations of that condition of Nazariteship to which
his mother had vowed him. (B. C. 1171.)
(4) Taken to Shiloh. Hannah went no more
to Shiloh till her child was old enough to dispense
with licr maternal services, when she took him up
with her to leave him there, as, it appears, was the
custom when one already a Levite was placed
under the additional obligations of Nazariteship.
When he was presented in due form to the high-
priest, the mother took occa-ion to remind him of
the f^irmer transaction : 'For this child,' she said,
'I prayed, and the Lord hath given me my petition
which I asked of him' (i Sam. i:27). Hannah's
gladness afterwards found vent in an exulting
chant, which furnishes a remarkable specimen of
the early lyric poetry of the Hebrews, and of
which many of the ideas and images were in after
times repeated by the Virgin Mary on a somewhat
similar occasion (Luke i :46. sq.^.
(5) Annual Visits. .After this Hannah failed
not to visit Shiloh every year, bringing a new
dress for her son, who remained under the eye and
near the person of the high-priest. (See Sam-
uel.) That great personage took kind notice of
Hannah on these occasions, and bestowed his
blessing upon her and her husband. The Lord
repaid her abundantly for that which she had, to
use her own expression, 'lent to him ;' for she had
three sons and two daughters after Samuel.
HANNATHON (han'na-th6n), (Heb.Pv':!, khan-
naw-thone' , probably favored), a place on the
northern boundary of 7,cbiilim (Josh. xix:l4), ap-
parently about midway between tlic Sea of Galilee
and the valley of Jiphthah-el.
HANNIEL (h4n'ni-el). (Heb. ^<**iO, khan-nee-
ale', grace of God).
!• Son of Ephod and assistant in the division
of the Promised Land (Num. xxxiv:23j. B.C.
1618.
8. An Asherite, son of Ulla (l Chron. vii :
39, where the name is less correctly Haniel),
before B. C. 720.
HANOCH (ha'nok), (Heb. Ti^, khan-oke' , in-
itiated.
1- The third child of Midian, a descendant of
Abraham and Keturah (Gen. xxv:4). The name
is Henoch in the parallel passage (i Chron.
2. Eldest son of Reuben and founder of the
family by his name (Gen. xlvi:9; Num. xxvi:
5; I Chron. v:3). Hanoch and Enoch are the
same in the Hebrew.
HANOCHITES (ha'nok-its), (Heb. *?-n^!, hak-
khan-o-kee'), a family founded by Hanoch, 2.
HANTTN (ha'nun), (Heb. T-C, khaw-noon',
favored).
1. A son and successor of Nahash, king of the
Ammonites. David, who had in his troubles been
befriended by Nahash, sent, with the kindest
intentions, an embassy to condole with him on
the death of his father, and to congratulate him
on his own accession. The rash young king, how-
ever, was led to misapprehend the motives of this
embassy, and to treat with gross and inexpiable
indignity the honorable personages whom David
had charged with this mission. Their beards
were half shaven, and their robes cut short by the
middle, and they were dismissed in this shameful
trim, which can be appreciated only by those who
consider how reverently the beard has always
been regarded by the Orientals (see Beard).
(B. C. 1038). When the news of this affront
was brought to David, he sent word to the am-
bassadors to remain at Jericho till the growth
of their beards enabled them to appear with de-
cency in the metropolis. He vowed vengeance
upon Hanun for the insult ; and the vehemence
with which the matter was taken up forms an
instance, interesting from its antiquity, of the
respect expected to be paid to the person and
character of ambassadors. Hanun himself looked
for nothing less than war as the consequence of
his conduct; and he subsidized Hadarezer and
other Syrian princes to assist him with their
armies. The power of the Syrians was broken
in two campaigns, and the .Ammonites were left
to their fate, which was severe even beyond the
usual severities of war in that remote age. (See
Ammonites; David). (2 Sam. x; i Chron. xix),
about B. C. 1034.
2. A man who assisted in repairing the ravine-
gate in the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:i3),
B. C. 446. _
3. The sixth son of Zalaph, who assisted in
repairing the wall of Jerusalem, apparently on the
east side (Neh. iii:3o), B. C. 446.
HAP (hSp), (Heb. ^"W^, mik-rek , Ruth ii:3),
generally now used in composition with other
words; as, mishap, perhaps, haply, hapless (2 Cor.
ix;4). It is a Saxon word meaning luck, chance.
HAPHRAIM (haph-ra'ira), (Heb. C^l'^D, khaf-
aw-rah'yim, double pit), a city of Issachar (Josh,
xixilo). Eusebius says there was a place called
Apliaraim six miles from Legio. At present there
i"; T village, el-AfiUeh, about six miles northeast of
Lejun, which may represent the Ancient Haphraim.
HAPLY
762
HARD
HAPLY (hap'ly), (Gr. ipa, ar'ah).
Haply is 'by hap.' 'Happily' is the same word
under a different spelling, and had formerly the
same meaning, though it has now come to mean
'by good hap.' Happily meaning simply 'by hap,'
'perchance,' is common in Shakespeare, though
modern editions usually spell it 'haply.' Thus
Hamlet, H, ii, 402 —
'Ham. That great baby you see there is not yet
out of his swaddling-clouts.
Ros. Happily he's the second time come to them.'
Hence, it will be observed that the word means
by chance.
In Acts v:39 the passage reads: "Lest haply
ye be founde to stryve agaynst God." — Tyndale.
HAP-PIZZEZ (hap-piz'zez), in A. V. Aphses,
(Heb. Y^^ , pits-tsates' , the dispersion).
A descendant of Aaron. His family became
the eighteenth of the twenty-four courses into
which David divided the priests (l Chron. xxiv:
15).
HARA(ha'ra), (Heb. '^^i?, //aTf-rao/', a Chaldee
form for mountain, Gesenius; Vulg. Ara).
One of the places to which the tribes beyond
the Jordan were carried away by Tiglath-pileser.
The word occurs only in a single passage (i
Chron. V :26) ; in the Septuagint and Syriac ver-
sion it is altogether omitted. The Chaldee Para-
phrast renders it mountains of darkness. Bochart
and Gesenius conjecture that it is a name for
the northern part of Media (Herod. vii:62; Bo-
chart, GeO£: Sacra, iii. 14. p. 194; Gesenius, T/ie-
saurus, s. v., Michaelis, Supplementa ad Lex. Heb.,
vol. i, p. 570). J. E. R.
W. Max Miiller, in Hastings' Bib. Diet., ques-
tions the correctness of the conjecture.
HARADAH (har'a-dah), (Heb. 'I^^O, Mar-
aw- daw' , place of terror), the twenty-fifth camp or
station of the Israelites (Num. xxxiii;24). It has
not been identified. (See Wandering, The.)
TTATtAW (ha'ram). See House.
EABAN (ha'ran), (Heb. P'?, haw-rawn' , moun-
taineer).
1. One of the three sons of Terah, brother of
Abraham and Nahor, and father of Lot, Milcah
and Iscah. He died before his father Terah ;
which, from the manner in which it is mentioned,
appears to have been a much rarer case in those
days than at present (Gen. xi 127, sq.), B. C.
2223.
2. A Gershonite Levite of the family of
Shimei, in the time of David (i Chron. xxiii:9),
B. C. 1014.
3.. More properly Charan (Heb. PC, khaw-
rawn', parched), called by the Greeks Charran,
and by the Romans Charrae. It was situated in the
northwestern part of Mesopotamia, on a river of
the same name running into the Euphrates. It
is supposed to have been so called from Haran,
the father of Lot and brother of Abraham ; but
there appears no ground for this conclusion except
the identity of names. Abraham, after he had
been called from Ur of the Chaldees, tarried here
till his father, Terah, died, when he proceeded to
the land of Canaan (Gen. xi :3i, 38; Acts vii:4).
The elder branch of the family still remained at
Haran ; which led to the interesting journeys
thither described in the patriarchal history — first,
that of Abraham's servant to obtain a wife for
Isaac (Gen. xxiv) and next, that of Jacob when
he fled to evade the wrath of Esau ((jen. xxviii:
to). The plain bordering on this town is cele-
brated in history as the scene of a battle in which
the Roman army was defeated by the Parthians,
and the Triumvir Crassus killed.
This place is not at all connected with the
modern Haran-el-awamad, east of Damascus, as
maintained by Dr. Beke. Haran still retains
its ancient name in the form of Harran,. and is
only peopled by a few families of wandering
Arabs, who are led thither by a plentiful supply
of water from several small streams. It is sit-
uated in a flat and sandy plain 36 deg. 40 min.
N. lat., 39 deg. 2 min, 45 sec. E. long.
It is mentioned by Ezekiel (xxvii:23) among
the places which traded with Tyre. This trade
would be very natural, as Haran was the frontier
town of Babylon, commanding both the roads and
fords of the Euphrates. "It was the city of the
moon god, the foundation of whose temple went
back to prehistorical times, and was restored by
Nabonidus" (Sayce, Higher Crit. and Mon., p.
507, sq.)
4. Son of Caleb by his concubine, Ephah (i
Chron. ii:46), B. C. 1618.
HARARITE (ha'ra-rit), (Heb. ""IIQD, ha-hah-
raw-ree').
1- A designation of Agee (2 Sam. xxiii:ii).
2. The name of his son Shammah (2 Sam.
xxiii :33), which Kennicott suggests should be
the reading in I Chron. xi 134.
3. The designation of Sharar (2 Sam. xxiii:
33), or Sacar, which Kennicott regards as more
correct (i Chron. xi:35).
HARBONA (har-bo'na), (Heb. ^t^^T^, khar-bo-
nam', ass driver; in Esth. viiig '^^"lO), one of the
eunuehs of Ahasuerus or Xerxes (Esth. i:io). la
vii:g the name is Harbonah (B. C. 483-473).
HABBONAH (har-bo'nah). The same as above.
HARD (hard). The various meanings of 'hard,'
whether as adj. or adv., may be given as follows:
1. Literally, not soft, only Job xli:24; Ezek.
iii:g; Wisdom of Sol. xi:4; Sirach xl:is, xlviii:
17-
2. Unfeeling, cruel (Ps. xciv:4), 'How long
shall they utter and speak hard things?' (R. V.
'They prate, they speak arrogantly').
3. Trying, exacting (Exod. i :i4) 'hard bond-
age' (R. V. 'hard service') ; (2 Sam. iii:39), 'The
sons of Zeruiah be too hard for me;' (Ps.
lxxxviii:7) 'Thy wrath lieth hard upon me;'
(Prov. xiii:i5) 'The way of transgressors is hard'
(R. V. 'The way of the treacherous is rugged') ;
(Matt. XXV :24) 'Lord, I knew thee that thou
art an hard man ;' (John vi :6o) 'This is an hard
saying; who can hear it?;' (Acts ix:5) 'It is
hard for thee to kick against the pricks').
4. Obdurate (Jer. v:3) 'They have made their
faces harder than a rock;' (Ezek. iii :9) 'As an
adamant harder than flint have I made thy fore-
head." Comp. Shaks. Ani. and Cleop. Ill, xi:
III —
'But when we in our viciousness grow hard,
(O misery un't) the wise gods seal our eyes.'
5. Strenuous only (Jonah 1:13) 'The men rowed
hard.'
6. Difficult as (Gen. xviii:i4) 'Is anything too
hard for the Lord?' (R. V. margin, 'wonderful') ;
(i Kings x:i) 'She came to prove him with hard
questions;' (Mark x :24) 'How hard is it for them
that trust in riches to enter into the kingdom of
God!' (Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
Figurative, (i) Hardnesiof spirit expresses
great inward sorrow and trouble (i Sam. i:is).
(2) Hardness of heart signifies stupidity and ob-
HARDNESS OF HEART
7ti3
HARLOT
stinacy in sinning (Ezek. iii:7). (3) The way
of transgressors is hard; they are obstinate in
their sin, and their course is disagreeable and dan-
gerous (Prov. xiii:i5). (4) Manifold troubles
are called hardness, because difficult to be borne
(2 Tim, ii:3). (5) God's hardening men de-
notes his justly withholding his gracious in-
fluences from them, but not in an arbitrary man-
ner. He permits them in harmony with their own
free wills to go on in the way of sinning (Exod.
iv:2l; vii:3; xiv:4, 17; xix:i2, and x:io, 27).
(6) Men harden their heart, face, or neck when
they grow more and more obstinate and impudent
in wickedness, and refuse to be reclaimed (i
Sam. vi:6; Jer. v:3; Prov. xxix:i). To harden
oneself in sorrow is with bravery to endure vio-
lent pains from an eager desire of death (Job
vi :lo).
HARDNESS OF HEART (hard'nSs 6v hart),
{Gr. cKXripoicapdta, sklay-rok-ar-dee' ah, Matt. xix:8;
Mark iii:5; Gr. vwpw<Tif,po'ro-sis, callousness), des-
titution of feeling. (See Hard, Figurative.)
HARE (bar), (Heb. f^??l^, ar-neh' betli), occurs
in Lev. xi:6, and Deut. xiv:7, and in both in-
stances it is prohibited from being used as food,
because it chews the cud, although it has not the
hoof divided.
The animal which is now called the hare does
not actually chew the cud, but has incisor teeth
above and below, set like chisels, and calculated
for gnawing, cutting, and nibbling, and when in a
state of repose the animals are engaged in work-
ing the incisor teeth upon each other. This prac-
tice is a necessary condition of existence, for the
friction keeps them fit for the purpose of nib-
bling, and prevents their growing beyond a proper
length. As hares do not subsist on hard sub-
stances, like most of the genera of the order, but
on tender shoots and grasses, they have more
cause, and therefore a more constant craving, to
abrade their teeth ; and this they do in a manner
which, combined with the slight trituration of the
occasional contents of the cheeks even modern
writers, not zoologists, have mistaken for real
rumination.
It follows that both with regard to the Shaphan
and the Hare we should understand the original
in the above passages, rendered 'chewing the cud,'
as merely implying a second mastication, more or
less complete. The act of 'chewing the cud' and
're-chewing' being considered identical by the He-
brews, the sacred law-giver, not being occupied
with the doctrines of science, no doubt used the
expression in the sense in which it was then
understood. C. H. S.
"The Arab of the present day regards the hare
as a ruminant, and for that reason eats its flesh.
As Tristram well says, 'Moses speaks of animals
according to appearances, and not with the pre-
cision of a comparative anatomist, and his object
was to show why the hare should be interdicted,
though to all appearance it chewed the cud, viz. :
because it did not divide the hoof. To have
spoken otherwise would have been as unreason-
able as to have spoken of the earth's motion, in-
stead of sunset and sunrise.' " (G. E. Post, Hast-
ings' Bib. Diet.)
There are two distinct species of hare in
Syria, one, Lepus Syriacus. or Syrian hare, nearly
equal in size to the common European, having
the .fur ochery buff, and Lepus Sinaiticus, or hare
of the desert, smaller and brownish. They reside
in the localities indicated by their trivial names,
and are distinguished from the common hare, by a
greater length of ears, and a black tail with white
fringe. There is found in Egypt, and higher up
the Nile, a third species, represented in the out-
line paintings on ancient monuments, but not
colored with that delicacy of tint required for
distinguishing it from the others, excepting that
it appears to be marked with the black speckles
which characterize the existing species.
HAREPH (ha'reph), (Heb. •"I"!'?, khawrafe',
reproachful), the "father" of Bethgader and "son"
of Caleb in the genealogy of Jud;ih by one of his
legitimate wives (i Chron. ii:5l), B.C. about 1 190.
HARETH (ha'reth), (Heb. ^7), kheh'reth,
thicket). This is the place in the wooded mountain
to which David fled from Saul {i Sam. xxii;5).
HARHATAH (har'ba-i'ah), (Heb. ''^"1''!!:'. khar-
hah-yaw'), a man whose son, Uzziel, assisted in
repairing the walls of Jerusalem under Nebemiah
(^leh. iii;8), B.C. before 446
HARHAS(har'has),(Heb.Cnin >t/iar-/t//<K',glit-
ter, splendor), ancestor of Shallum, the husband of
Huldah, a prophetess in the time of Josiah (2 Kings
xxii:i4), called Hasrah in 2 Chron. x.xxiv22. The
two names differ in Hebrew in the second H, and
not merely in transposition 0/ Utters.
EARHTTR (har'hur), (Heb. "'Hin khar-khoor' ,
burning fever), one of the Nethinim whose pos-
terity returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel
(Ezra ii:5i; Neh. vii:53), B.C. before 536.
HARIM (ha'rim), (Heb. D"!?. khawreem', fiat-
nosed).
1. A priest who had charge of one of the di-
visions in the Temple worship under David (i
Chron. xxiv:8), B. C. 1014.
2. The "sons" of Harim to the number of 1,017,
went up from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii :39 ; Neh. vii :42) . The name occurs among those
who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh.
x:5), and among those who had taken foreign
wives (Ezra x:2i). The name also occurs as the
descendants of those who went up with Zerubbabel
in the days of Joiakim son of Jeshua (Neh. xii:
IS).
3. Another family, to the number of 320, who
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii:32; Neh. vii:35). They seem to have been
among those who took foreign wives (Ezra x:
31), and sealed the covenant (Neh. x:27), B. C.
about 446.
HARIPH (ha'riph), (Heb. 'T""'.'?, khaiv-reef ,
autumnal), one early born, strong, autumnal rain).
1. An Israelite, whose descendants (or possibly
a place whose inhabitants), to the number of one
hundred and twelve, returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Neh. vii:24). Probably the same with
Jorah (Ezra ii:i8), B. C. before 536.
2. A chief of the people who gave his hand to
the covenant made by Nehemiah (Neh. xiig), B.
C. 445-
HARLOT (har'lot), (Heb. ^P, zo-naw'; '"^^'Tli?.
ked-ay-shaw' , whore, strange woman, etc.; '''*'5?5'
nok-ree-yavj' ; 'Tt ■ za-raw' , etc.).
The first of these English words, to which
various etymologies have been assigned, signifies
a prostitute for lust or gain. The mercenary mo-
tive is more evident in the second.
The first Hebrew word (zo-naw') occurs fre-
quently and is often rendered in our version by the
first of these English words, as in Gen. xxxiv:3i,
etc., and sometimes, without apparent reason for
the change, by the second, as in Prov. xxiii :27, and
elsewhere. The first English word is also applied
HARLOT
764
HARMONIES
to different Hebrew words, whereby important dis-
tinctions are lost. Thus in Gen. xxxviii:is, the
word is :o>!an'', 'harlot,' which, however, becomes
changed to ked-ay-shaw' , 'harlot,' in vers. 21, 22,
which means, literally, a consecrated woman, a fe-
male (perhaps priestess) devoted to prostitution
in honor of some heathen idol. The distinction
shows that Judah supposed Tamar to be a
heathen: the facts, therefore, do not prove that
prostitution was then practiced between Hebrews.
The following elucidation is offered of the most
important instances in which the several words oc-
cur :
(1) The Veil. First sona-v. From the fore-
going account of Judah it would appear that the
"veil' was at that time peculiar to harlots. Judah
thought Tamar to be such, 'because she had cov-
ered her face.' Mr. Buckingham remarks, in ref-
erence to this passage, that 'the Turcoman women
go unveiled to this day' {Travels in Mesopotamia,
i:77). It is contended by Jahn and others that in
ancient times all females wore the veil {Bibl.
Archiiol.p. 127). Possibly some peculiarity in the
size of the veil, or the mode of wearing it, may
have been (Prov. vii:io) the distinctive dress of
the harlot at that period (see New Translation, by
the Rev. A. De Sola, etc. pp. 116, 248-9). The
priests and the high-priest were forbidden to take
a wife that was {had been, Matt. xxi:3i) a harlot.
Josephus extends the law to all the Hebrews, and
seems to ground it on the prohibition against obla-
tions arising from prostitution (Deut. xxiii:i8)
(Antiq. iv :8, 23).
(2) Bahab. The celebrated case of Rahab has
been much debated. She is, indeed, called by the
word usually signifying harlot (Josh. ii:i; viti/;
Sept. irip^Tj; Vulg. meretrix ; and in Heb. xi;3i;
James ii;25); but the word may also mean an inn-
keeper. (See R.^HAB.)
(3) A Foreigner. The next instance intro-
duces the epithet of 'strange woman.' It is the
case of Jephthah's mother (Judg. xi:2), who is
also called a harlot {irbpvrw 7>ieretri.x)\ but the
epithet 'strange woman' merely denotes foreign
extraction. The representation given by Solomon
is no doubt founded upon facts, and therefore
shows that in his time prostitutes plied their trade
in the 'streets' ( Prov. vii :I2 ; ix :I4, etc. ; Jer. iii :2 ;
Ezek. xvi :24, 25, 31).
(4) Consecrated Prostitute. Kedayshaw, oc-
curs Gen. xx.xviiins, 21, 22; Deut. xxiii:i7; Hos.
iv:i4. It has been already observed that the
proper meaning of the word is consecrated prosti-
tute. The prohibition in Deut. xxiii:i7, 'there
shall be no nnp, "whore," of the daughters of
Israel,' is intended to exclude such devotees
from the worship of Jehovah (see other allusions,
Job- xxxvi:i4; i Kings xiv:24; xv:i2). The
strange woman is further alluded to (l Kings
xi:i; Prov. v:2o; vi:24; vii:s; xxiii:27; Sept.
iWoTpla; Vulg. alicna, exiranea). It seems prob-
able that some of the Hebrews in later times in-
terpreted the prohibition against fornication
(Deut. xxii:i4) as limited to females of their
own nation, and that the 'strange women' in ques-
tion were Canaanites and other Gentiles (Josh,
xxiii :i3).
(5) New Testament. In the New Testament
irbpvq, harlot, occurs in Matt. xxi:3i, 32; Luke
xv:3o; i Cor. vi:is. 16; Heb. xi:3i; James ii ;2S.
In none of these passages does it necessarily imply
prostitution for gain. The likeliest is Luke xv:
30. J. F. D.
(6) Old English Use. In the old English use
of the term harlot meant originally a vagabond.
R. C. Trench says it was used of both sexes alike.
and for the most part a term of .slight and con-
tempt. (See Marriage; Prostitution, Sacred.)
Figurative. (l) It is used symbolically for a
city in Rev. xvii:i, 5, 15, 16; xix :2, where the
term and all the attendant imagery are derived
from the Old Testament. It may be observed in
regard to Tyre, which (Is. xxiii ;is, 17) is repre-
sented as 'committing fornication with all the
kingdoms of the world upon the face of the earth,'
that these words, as indeed seems likely from those
which follow, may relate to the various arts which
she had employed to induce merchants to trade
with her' {Patrick, in loc). So the Sept. under-
stood it, she will be an emporium for all the king-
doms on the face of the earth. Schleusner ob-
serves that the same words in Rev. xviii -.3 may
also relate to commercial dealings. (2) Since the
Hebrews regarded Jehovah as the husband of his
people, by virtue of the covenant he had made
with them (Jer. iii:i) ; therefore, to commit forni-
cation is a very common metaphor in the Scrip-
tures to denote defections on their part from that
covenant, and especially by the practice of idolatry,
(See Fornication.) Hence the degeneracy of
Jerusalem is illustrated by the symbol of a harlot
(Is. i:2i), and even that of heathen cities, as of
Nineveh (Nah. iii:4). Under this figure the
prophet Ezekiel delivers the tremendous invectives
contained in ch. xvi, xxiii. (3) In the prophecy
of Hosea the illustration is carried to a startling
extent. The prophet seems commanded by the
Lord to take 'a wife of whoredoms and children
of whoredoms' (ch. i:2), and to 'love an adult-
eress' (ch. iii:i). It has, indeed, been much dis-
puted whether these transactions were real, or
passed in vision only; but the idea itself, and the
diversified applications of it throughout the
prophecy, render it one of the most effective por-
tions of Scripture. (See Hosea.) (4) Tyre sang
as a harlot when, by fair speeches, the Tyrians
enticed the nations to renew their trade with them
(Is. xxiii :i5). (5) Antichristian Babylon is
called the great whore, and mother of harlots, and
abominations, because of its noted apostacy and
idolatry, and decoying others into it : and such
apostacy is called fornication, whoredom, or
adultery (Rev. -xvii and xix:2).
HABISAGEDON (har-mag'e-don). See Arma-
geddon.
HABKONIES (har'mo-nlz). The object of Har-
monies is to arrange the Scriptures in chronological
order, so that the mutual agreement of the several
parts may be rendered apparent, and the true suc-
cession of events clearly understood. With this
view various scholars have compiled harmonies of
the Old Testament, of the New, and of particular
portions of both. Harmonies of the Old Testa-
ment exhibit the booKS disposed in chronological
order, as is done by Lightfoot in his Chronicle of
the Times, and the Order of the Texts of the Old
Testament, and by Townsend in his Old Testa-
ment Arranged in Historical and Chronological
Order. Harmonies of the New Testament present
the gospels and epistles distributed in like order,
the latter being interspersed among the Acts of the
Apostles. In this way Townsend has proceeded
in his valuable work entitled. The New Testament
arranged in Chronological and Historical Order.
Books, however, of this kind are so few in rium-
ber, that the term harmony is almost appropriated
by usage to the gospels. It is this part of the New
Testament which has chiefly occupied the attention
of those inquirers whose object is to arrange the
Scriptures in their true order. The memoirs of
our Lord written by the four Evangelists have
chiefly occupied the thoughts of those who wish
HARNEPHER
765
HART
to ^hov tliat they all agree, and mutually authenti-
cate one another. Accordingly, such compositions
are exceedingly numerous. To adopt any one im-
plicitly, is more than the enlightened inquirer can
consent to do. We should therefore recommend
a minute examination of the works prepared by
Ncwcnme, Greswcll, Michaelis, De VVettc and
Liicke, Clausen, Robinson, Andrews, etc.
S. D.
HABNEPHEB (har'ne-pher), (Heb. ""r^?--
khnr-neh'fer, derivation uncertain, perhaps snor-
ing), an Asherite,son of Zophah (i Chron. vii:36).
HARNESS, HARNESSED (har'ngs, har'nfisi),
(Heb. ""BX aw-sar', to fasten), the act of fastening
animals to a cart or vehicle, e. g.,yoki7ig cattle (I
Sam. vi7, lo; A. V "tie"), or horses (Jer. xlvi:4).
In A. V. harness always means armor, and to
harness means to put on armor, R. V. gives 'ar-
mor' in 1 Kings xx:ii; 2 Chron. ix :24, and
'armed in Exod. xiii:i8; while R. V. prefers 'ar-
mor' also in i Kings xxii:34; 2 Chron. xviii :33;
both have left Jer. xlvi :4 untouched : 'Harness the
horses.' The meaning is not (as Cheyne and
most others) 'yoke the horses to the chariots,' but
put on their accouterments. (Hastings, Bib. Diet.)
HAROD (ha'rod), (Heb. "^l!, khar-ode' , trem-
bling or terror).
A brook not far from Jezreel and Mount
Gilboa. The name, as given above, means 'palpi-
tation,' and it has been suggested that it originated
in consequence of the alarm and terror of most
of the men who were here tested by Gideon (Judg.
vii:i-3); but this supposition seems very far-
fetched, and the name more probably arose from
some peculiarity in the outflow of the stream.
(Porter Handbook for Sinai and Pal. ii:355.) It
is identical with the present fountain Ain Julad, a
mile east from Jezreel, and opposite SRunem.
HARODITE (ha'rod-It), (Heb. 'T-, iAar-o-
dee'), a designation of Shammah and Elika in
David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii:25), no doubt derived
from the name of a place.
HAROEH (har'o-eh), (Heb. ^!^,ro-ay': Haroeh,
including the article: means prophet), a name
given in the genealogical lists of Judah as son of
Shobal (i Chron. ii:52). (See Reaiah).
HARORITE (ha'ro-rit), (Heb. 'T'l., har-o-
ree' ), a designation of Shammoth, one of David's
guard (l Ciiron. xi:27). In 2 Sam. xxiii:25 the
name appears slightly changed. (See Harod-
ITE.)
HAROSHETH (h5-r6'sheth) OF THE GEN-
TILES (Heb. ^t\, khar-o' sheth), a city in the
north of Palestine.
It was the dwelling place of Sisera (Judg. iv :2),
from which he advanced against Barak (verse 13)
and to which he fled after his defeat (verse 16).
The descriptive epithet 'of the Gentiles' is obscure;
it may have been given to distinguish this place
from a neighboring Israelite Harosheth. Haro-
sheth is generally identified (by Moore rather
doubtfully) with el-Harathiyeh, on the right bink
of the lower Kishon, at a point which commands
the entrance to the Great Plain from the Plain of
Acre and the commercial roads that led through
it. (Thomson, Land and Book ii:i43.)
HARP (harp), (Heb. ^'^^, kin-nore'). See Mu-
sical Instruments.
HARROW (har'ro), (Heb Y.T. khaw-reeW ,
2 Sam. xii:3i; i Chron. x\:3).
The word so rendered in the above passages is
probably a thrashing machine. In Is, xxviii:24;
Job xxxix:io; Hos. x:ii, the word correctly ex-
presses the breaking of clods.
HARSHA (bar'sha), (Heb. "^IC", khar-shaw' .
enchanter), one of the Nethinim whose descend-
ants were among the Nethinim who returned with
Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra ii:52; Neh.vii:54),
B. C. before 536.
HART (hart), the Hebrew ^'^, ahyawf , and
noX yahmlr (V)e.\x\.. xiv:5; i Kings iv:23), is tbeyW-
low deer. The female is called Hind.
Hind.
It was one of the clean animals (Deut. xii:!S;
xiv:5; xv:22). From i Kings iv 123. it seems
to have been frequently killed for food. Its ac-
tivity is referred to (Is. xxxv:6), though the hind
is more often mentioned in such similes. In Lam.
i :6, the true rendering is "rams." (See also Fal-
low Deek.)
Hart.
Figurative, (i) The saints are likened to
harts panting for water-brooks, to mark the ear-
nestness of their desire after God, and the ordi-
nances of his grace, when hunted by Satan, and
persecuted by the world (Ps. xlii:i). (2) The
HARUM
766
HASRAH
Chaldeans were like c/iase/f roes, v/hen with terror
and dread they fled from the fury of the Medes
and Persians, not knowing what to do Is. xiii:i4).
(3) Wives are likened tn hinds and rocs, to mark
their comeliness and affection, and the delight
their husbands should take in them (Prov. v:i9).
HABUSC (ha'rum), (Heb. ^?t, /law-room', ex-
alted).
A name given in a very obscure portion of the
genealogies of Judah (i Chron. iv:8).
HARTJMAPH (ha-ru'maph). (Heb. -"l^l^r], k/tar-
00-maf , slit-nosed).
He had a son, Jedaiah, who assisted in the re-
pairing of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:io),
B. C. before 446.
HARXJPHITE (ha-ru'phit), (Heb. ^P"'1-:,/J/5a/--
oo-fee'), a designation of Shephatiah, the Korhite,
who came to David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:5).
HARUZ (ha'ruz), (Heb. X^-,, khaiu-roots' ,
earnest).
The father of MeshuIIemeth, who was mother
of Amon. king of Judah (.2 Kings xxi;i9), B. C.
before 664.
HARVEST (har'vest), (Heb. "'"'^I^, kaw-tseer' ,
severed).
The period of harvest in ancient Palestine may
be divided mto two portions: that of barley and
that of wheat harvest, the former preceding the
latter by about a fortnight (Ruth ii:23). Its be-
ginning was consecrated by the bringing of the
sheaf of first fruits (Lev. xxiiino). It began in
the lowlands before the crops were ripe on the
hills. In the hot Jordan valley barley harvest com-
menced in April, when the Jordan was full (Josh.
iii:i5; comp. v :io), at the close of the rainy season
(i Sam. xii:i7, 18; Prov. xxvi:i). Wheat harvest
lingered in the uplands to the month of June. It
was a hot time of the year (Prov. xxv:i3; Is.
xviii :4. When the harvest was completed, and the
produce gathered in, there were great rejoicings
(Is. ix:3). The feasts of unleavened bread, of
weeks or harvest, and of ingathering, had all a
relation to the season of reaping. (See Year.)
(Davis, Bih. Diet.)
HAS APT AH (has'a-di'ah), (Heb. 'Tiil, iAas-
ad-yaw' , Jehovah loves), a descendant of the royal
line of Judah, and apparently son of Zerubbabel
(i Chron. iii:2o). Perhaps he was one of those
laorn after the restoration (B. C. about 536).
HASEKTJAH (has'e-nu'ah), (Heb. "¥"^i!', has-
sen-oo-azr' ,riomieA), a man belonging to one of the
chief families of Benjamin (i Chron. ix:/), B. C.
before 536.
HASHABIAH (hash-a-bi'ah), (Heb. 'T?^^'
khash-ab-yaiv' , Jehovah regards).
1. Three Merarite Levites (i Chron. vi:4S; ix :
14; Ezra viii:l9), B. C. before 440.
2. Son of Jeduthun, who had charge of the
twelfth course and was one of David's harp play-
ers (i Chron. xxv :3, 19), B. C. 1014.
3. A descendant of Hebron, who, with the 1700
men of his kindred looked after David's interests
on the west of the Jordan (i Chron. x.xvi:30;
xxvii :i7), B. C. 1014.
4. Son of Kemuel, prince of the tribe of Levi
in the time of David. Perhaps the same as 3
(i Chron. xxvii :i7), B. C. 1014.
5. A Levite, who assisted in the passover-feast
of King Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv :g), B. C. 623.
6. One of the chiefs of the priests wtio returned
with Ezra from Babylon (Ezra viii:24), B. C.
536.
7. A ruler of half the environs of Keilah, who
repaired a part of the wall of Jerusalem under
Nehemiah (Neh. iii:i7), B. C. 446-410.
8. Three Levites : one sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x:ii) ; another was son of Bunni
(Neh. xi:i5; the third was an attendant in the
Temple (Neh. xi:22).
9. A priest of the family of Hilkiah' under Joia-
kim, son of Jeshua (Neh. xii:2i), B. C. before
440.
HASHABNAH (ha-shab'nah), (Heb. ^i?^A,
khash-ab-tiaw' , probably for Hashabiah), one of
the chiefs of the people who sealed the covenant
of reformation (Neh. x:25), B. C. about 410.
HASHABNIAH (hash'ab-nrah), (Heb. '"^^r^^^'
khash-ab-neh-yaiu' , thought of Jah, Jehovah
regards).
1- Father of Hattush, who assisted in repairing
the wall (Neh. iii:io), B. C. before 446.
2. A Levite who assisted in the great fast under
Ezra and Nehemiah when the covenant was sealed
(Neh. ix:5), B. C. before 410.
HASHBADANA (hash-bad'a-na), (Heb. '"'1^?'?'!!.
khash-had-daw' naw , intelligence in judging), one
of those who took part in the reading of the law to
the people by Ezra (Neh. viii:4), B. C. 410.
HASHEM (ha'shem), (Heb. =1??, haw-shame',
wealthy).
His sons were among David's guard (i Chron.
xi:34). In 2 Sam. .xxiii :32, Kennicott suggests
that "sons of Jashen" shouW read "sons of
Hashem" (B. C. before 1014).
HASHMONAH (hash-mo'nah), (Heb. ^'^^t^,
khash-mo-naw' , fatness), a station in the wander-
ing before Moseroth (Num. xxxiii:2q), which latter
was near Mount Hor (Num. xx:28; Deut. x:6).
HASHTTB (ha'shub), (Heb. 3'l?n^ khash-shoof ,
intelligent), properly Hasshub.
1. Son of Pahath-Moab. who rebuilt a part of
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii :23). (B. C. 410.)
2. Another of the same name, who assisted at
another part of the wall (Neh. iii:ll). (B. C.
410.)
3. One who sealed the covenant with Nehe-
miah; perhaps either 1 or 2 (Neh. x:23). (B. C.
446.)
4. A Merarite Levite (Neh. xi:i5). In i
Chron. ix:i4, the name appears as Hasshub.
(B. C. 440.)
HASHTJBAH (ha-shu'bah), (Heb. ^"^x-,, khash-
00-baui' , esteemed or associated), one of the chil-
dren of Zerubbabel, born probably after the
restoration ( I Chron. iii :2o), B. C. about 536.
HASHTIM (ha'shum), (Heb. '^'fP, khaw-shoom' ,
enriched, rich, distinguished).
1. The sons of Hashum to the number of 223
returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:i9; Neh. vu:
22). Seven of them had married foreign wives
(Ezra x:33). The chief of the family sealed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x:i8). B. C. be-
fore 536.
2. One of the priests of the Levites who was
present while Ezj-a read the law to the people
(Neh. viii 14), B. C. 410.
HASHXrPHA (ha-shu'pha), (Neh. vii:46), see
H.^suPHA. One of the families of the Nethinim
who returned from Babylon in the first caravan
(Neh. vii 146. The name appears accurately, Ha-
supha. in E^ra ii :43.
HASRAH (has'rah), (Heb. '^^P'l, khas-raw' ,
poverty). See Harhas.
HASSENAAH
767
HAURAN
HASSENAAH (has'se-na'ah), (Heb. '1'<??C'.
khas-^niaw-aw' , thorny), the sons of Hassenaah
rebuilt the fish-gate (Nch. iii:3). The name is
probably tlie same as the place Sknaah with the
definite article (Ezra ii:35; Neh. vii;38).
HASTE (hast), (Heb. yiX, oots, Exod. v:l3), to
be close, narrow, to hurry; the verb being used
transitively. (Comp. Is. xvi:;.)
HASTTPHA (ha-su'pha), (Heb. ^V^^., khas-oo-
faw', uncovered, naked).
The sons of Hasupha were among the Nethinim
who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:43), B. C.
before 536.
HAT (hit), (Chald. ^^V^, kar-bel-aw' , Dan.
iii:2i).
Hats are mentioned once in A. V. (Dan. iii:2i),
but it is quite certain that this is a mistranslation.
When Shadrach, Meshach and Abed-nego were
about to be cast into the fiery furnace they were
'bound in their coats, their hosen, and their hats'
(R. v., their hosen, their tunics, and their man-
tles').
HATACH (ha'tik)) (Heb. TO, hath-awk'. per-
haps verity, an eunuch in the palace of Xerxes,
appointed to wait on Esther.
By his means Esther learnt from Mordecai the
details of Haman's plot against the Jews (Esth.
iv:s, 6, 9, 10), B. C. about 478.
HATE (hat), (Heb. **^?, saw-nay' ; Gr. niaiw,
mis-eh'o).
In the root of the Hebrew word is the idea
of ugliness, deformity; hence to regard with feel-
ings contrary to love; to loathe, to abhor, to cher-
ish resentment or dislike to. In both the Hebrew
and Greek words we find the above meaning in
several places (e. g., 2 Chron. xviii:7; Ps. xlv:7;
Matt. xxiv:io, etc.) ; while in others the meaning
is "to regard with less love" (e. g., Deut.'xxi:is,
16; Prov. xiii:24; Mai. i :3 ; Rom. ixrij).
The command to hate father and mother, wife
and children, etc., and one's own life (Luke xiv:
26), means that all earthly ties and love must
be subordinate to love for Christ. Real hate to
men is unchristian.
HATHATH (ha'thath), (Heb. ^'^.,, khath-ath' .
terror, as in Job vi:2i), son of Othniel and grand-
son of Kenaz, of the tribe of Judah (i Chron. iv; 13),
consequently also grandnephew and grandson of
Caleb (verse 15; comp. Judg. i:i3), B. C. probably
after 1170.
HATIPHA (hSt'i-pha or ha-ti'pha), (Heb.**?"^!^'
khat-ee-faw' , robber), the sons of Hatipha were
among the Nethinim who returned under Zerub-
babel (Ezra ii:54; Neh. vii;56), B. C. before 536.
HATHA (hat'i-ta or ha-ti'ta), (Heb. ><¥'!-?0.
khat-ee-taw' , exploration). The sons of Hatita
were a division of the Levites who returned under
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:42; Neh. vii:45), B. C. before
536.
HATSI HAM MENXrCHOTH (hSt'si h5mra6n'
u-koth), (I Chron. ii;52, margin). See Manaheth-
/TEs, The.
HATTrL (hit'tn), (Heb. ^'VH, khal-teef , wav-
ing), one of the descendants of "Solomon's ser-
vants" whose descendants returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:57; Neh. vii:59), B.C.
before 536.
HATTTTSH (hit'tusb), (Heb. 1*113" khat-toosh' ,
derivation uncertain).
1. A descendant of the kings of Judah (l
Chron. iii:22), B. C. after 406. (See Lord Her-
vcy, Ucnealogics, pp. 103, 307, 322.)
2. Son of Hashabniah. He assisted in the re-
building of the wall (Neh. iii:io), B. C. 446.
3. A descendant of David who accompanied
Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezra viii:2), B. C. 459.
HAITNT (ham), (Heb. ^?T!, re/i'gel).
To haunt is in older English simply to fre-
quent, to make one's stay, be familiar with, and
conveys no reproach. Thus (John lii :22. Tyndale) :
'After these thinges cam Jesus and his disciples
into the Jewes londe, and (her he haunted with
them and baptised' (A. V. "tarried). (Ps. xxvi :
4) Geneva Version, "I have not haunted with vain
persons." (Comp. i Sam. xxx:3i.)
HAURAN (hau'ran), (Heb. IvP, khav-rawn'),
a province on the northeastern boundary of the
Promised Land (Ezek. .\lvii:l6, 18).
In the passage in Ezekiel the Jordan is made
the border line between Hauran, Damascus, and
Gilead on the one hand, and the Land of Israel
on the other. Hauran is there the whole district
between Damascus and Gilead, from the lip of
the Jordan Valley eastward. This practically
corresponds with the province under the Turkish
governor of Hauran to-day, whose seat is in el-
Merkez, and whose jurisdiction includes Jediir,
Jaulan, and part of the hill country south of the
Jarmuk, as well as the region now specially called
Hauran.
Little was known of Hauran previous to 1854.
The works of Porter, 1855, Graham, 1858, Wet-
stein, i860. Burton and Drake. 1872, and Selah
Merrill of the American Palestine E.xploration So-
ciety, 1877, have thrown much light on its extent,
nature, and history, but a thorough exploration of
th: country yet remains to be made. When the
Israelites conquered the land, the whole of this re-
gion appears to have been subject to Og, the king
of Bashan (Num. xxi 133-35 ; Deut. iii:i-5) and a
large portion of it was alloted to Manasseh. The
district would then include the Argob, the slope
of the Hauran Mountains, where the Israelites
found sixty fortified cities with walls and gates
and a fertile tract. (See Bashan.) In the
Roman period the country was divided into
five provinces, Ituraea, Gaulanitis. Batansea (ap-
plied also to the whole region), Trachonitis, and
Auranitis.
The natives now say that Hauran consists of
three parts, viz.: en-Nukrah, el-Leja, and el-Jebel.
These are clearly defined districts.
The ruins scattered over the region are very
extensive and remarkable : those built in the cav-
erns are regarded by Wetstein as the mojt an-
cient, and possibly reaching back to the times
of the Rephaim (Gen. xiv :$ ; xv :20, and Deut. iii :
11). The villages are chiefly of stone houses,
having gates and doors of large slabs of dolerite;
the gateways of the larger buildings are orna-
mented with sculptured vines and inscriptions.
The Arabs, according to Wetstein, from near
Yemen settled in the Hauran at about the be-
ginning of the Christian era; later, a second im-
migration from south Arabia took place, and
these controlled the country for five centuries, and
they probably erected most of the stone build-
ings now in so good a state of preservation. .\
large number of inscriptions in various characters
are yet to be deciphered, which will throw much
light, no doubt, upon the ancient history of this
wild region. Wetstein states that the eastern
section of the Lejah and the slopes of the Hauran
Mountains contain at least 300 ruined cities and
HAVE
768
HAWK
towns. Selah Merrill -says that an important ruin
is found in every half hour of travel, and that
among these ruins, he has himself visited and ex-
amined sixty ruined churches, and eleven of thir-
teen theaters, including one vast naumachia where
mock sea fights were held. (Schaff, Bib. Diet.)
"In the beginnmg of the first century before
Christ, the western Hauran was under the Jew
Alexander Janneus, while the Nabateans occu-
pied everything else to the east, including Damas-
cus, the rest of Hauran, and the Leja. When the
Romans came, in B. C. 64, besides freeing the
Greek cities of Gaulanitis and Gilead from the
Jews, they drove the Nabateans to the southern
edge of Hauran, but did not occupy Hauran it-
self." (Smith, Bib. Diet.)
Under the Romans, civilization advanced, and,
as evinced by the remains of churches and in-
scriptions, Qiristianity made rapid progress. In
A. D. 632 the Moslem hordes from Arabia burst
over the province like a tornado, and the blight
swiftly fell, which lies heavy on the land to-day.
The latest notice of a Christian building is an in-
scription found by the Rev. William Ewing, D. D..
at el-Kufr, which records the foundation of a
church in A. D. 720.
HAVE (hav), (Heb. ^?t. yaw-tsaw' , 2 Kings xi:
15), to take, conduct, guide, escort, bring, as in
Shakespeare, "Your mistress sent to have_ me
home to dinner." Used with various prepositions;
as, to have away, to have forth, etc. (2 Kings xi:i5;
2 Chron. xxiii:i4; 2 Sam. xiii:9).
Such phrases may be considered as, 'Have in
one's heart to,' (i Chron. xxviii :2 ; comp. Phil, i 7)
'I have you in my heart' ; 'I would have you with
out carefulness' (i Cor. vii 132) : 'I would not
have you ignorant,' (2 Cor. i :8) 'Who will have
all men to be saved,' (l Tim. ii:4), (fis WX«, R. V.
'Who willeth that all men should be saved').
Comp. John xxi :22, Tyndale : 'Yf I will_ have him
to tary tyll I come, what is that to the?'
HAVEN (ha'v'n), (Heb. -^n, khofe). from an
unused root, mean, to cover ; a cove (as a sheltered
bay), coast [of the sea], haven, shore, [sea-] side.
This word is rendered 'haven' by A. V. and R. V.
in Gen. xlix:l3, and by R. V. in Judg. v:l7 (A. V.
'shore').
Havens are seldom mentioned in the Bible,
probably for the reason that Palestine proper
scarcely possesses any harbors, and the Israelites
were not a maritime nation. The harbors in Old
Testament times on the Mediterranean coast were
in possession of the Phcenicians and the Philistines.
(See Great Sea; Sea.)
HAVTLAH (hav'i-lah), (Heb. '"li'lH, khav-ee-
law' , circular).
1. A district in Arabia Felix, deriving its name
from the second son of Cush (Gen. x:7), or, ac-
cording to others, from the second son of Jok-
tan (Gen. x:29; comp. xxv:i8). There can be
no doubt, however, of the existence of a double
Havilah ; one founded by the descendant of Ham,
and the other by that of Shem. Niebuhr (Beschr.
von Arab., pp. 270, 280) actually found in Yemen
two districts called C/tauldn or Haitldn, one be-
tween Saana and Mecca, and the other a few
leagues southeast from Saana ; which latter
Biisching (Rrdbcschr. v. i. 601) considers to be
the Havilah founded by the son of Cush, as meri-
tioned Gen. x;7 (Michaelis, Spicil. i, iSq, sq.; ii,
202). From (jen. xxv:i8, it would appear that
the land of Havilah formed the eastern boundary
of the Israelites, and so likewise from I Sam.
XV :7, where it seems, moreover, to have been a
possession belonging to the Amalekites.
3. A land rich in gold, bdellium, and shoham.
mentioned in Gen. ii;ii in the geographical de-
scription of Paradise. Some identify this with the
preceding, but others take it to be Chwala on the
Caspian Sea, from whence that sea itself is said
to have derived the Russian name of Chwalinskoy
mure ( Sea of Chwala) ; and others suppose it a
general name for India (T. Hieros). E. M.
"A district of Khaulan (Haulan) is mentioned
in the inscriptions of South Arabia ; this is either
Khaulan in Tihamah, between Mecca and Saana,
or another Khaulan southeast of Saana. Nie-
buhr further found a Huwailah on the Persian
Gulf. The name, in fact, was widely spread in
Arabia, and Yakut states that Hawil was the
name of a dialect spoken by the people of Mehri
in the east of Hadramaut. The Mehri is the
modern representative of the language of the Sa-
baean inscriptions." (A. H. Sayce, Hastings' Bib.
Did.)
HAVOTH JArR(ha'vothja'ir),(Heb. Ty; mn,
khav-vothe' yaw-eer' , huts or hamlets of Jair), such
as belonged to the Arabians, and a collection of
which is regarded as forming a hamlet or village.
The district of Havoth-jair (lair's hamlets),
mentioned in Num. xxxii:4i, and Deut. iii:l4,
was beyond the Jordan in the land of Gilead, and
belonged to the half-tribe of Manasseh. (See
also Josh. xiii:30; I Chron. ii :22, 23; I Kings
iv:l3; Judg. x :4.) (See Jair.)
HA"WK(hak), (Heb. Y^. nayis. Lev. xi:i6; Ueut.
xiv:i5; Job xxxix:26; ^^'?'3, takh-mawce' , an un-
clean bird), night hawk, by some rendered os/r/</i,
by others owl.
The English name is an altered form of the old
word fawk or falk. Western Asia and Lower
Egypt, and consequently the intermediate territory
of Syria and Palestine, are the habitation or tran-
sitory residence of a considerable number of spe-
Hawk (Falco Saker).
cies of the order Raptores, which, even including
the shortest winged, have great powers of flight,
are remarkably enterprising, live to a great age,
are migratory, or followers upon birds of passage,
or remain in a region so abundantly stocked with
pigeon and turtle-dove as Palestine, and afford-
ing such a variety of ground to hunt their partic-
ular prey — abounding as it does in mountain and
forest, plain, desert, marsh, river and sea-coast.
HAY
760
HAZAEL
Falcons, or the 'noble' birds of prey nsed for
hawking, have for many ages been objects of
great interest, and still cuntinuc to be bought at
high prices. They are conseciuently nnpnrled Irmn
distant countries, as Central Asia, Iceland, Bar-
bary, etc. Their love of liberty often renders
them irreclaimable when once on the wing; and
their powers and boldness, independent of cir-
cnnistances. and the e.\tent of range which the
long-winged species in particular can take, are
exemplified by their presence in every quarter of
the globe. The Falco communis, or Peregrine
falcon, is so generally diffused as to occur even
in New Holland and South America.
Next we may place Falco Ai'ocris of Sir J. G.
Wilkinson, the sacred hawk of Egypt. This, if it
be not in reality the same as, or a mfre variety
of, the Peregrine, should have retained the an-
cient epithet of Hicrax, and the hawkers' name
of Sacre. Innumerable representations of it occur
in Egyptian monuments.
The llohhy,' Falco subbuteo, is no doubt a sec-
ond or third species of sacred hawk, having sim-
ilar gcrnonia. Both this bird and the tractable
Merlin, Falco icsalon, are used in the falconry of
the inferior Moslem landowners of Asiatic "Tur-
key.
Besides these, the Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus,
occurs in Syria, and Falco tinnunctitoidcs, or
lesser Kestrel, in Egypt ; and it is probable that
both species visit these two territories according
to the seasons.
To the 'noble' birds we may add the Gerfalcon,
Falco gyrfalco, which is one-third larger than the
Peregrine: it is imported from Tartary, and sold
at Constantinople, Aleppo, and Damascus.
HAY (ha), (Heb. '^'"■i^. khatu-tseer'].
This word in Prov. x.xvii :25, and elsewhere,
does not denote dried grass, as it does with
us. The management of grass by the Hebrews
as food for cattle was entirely different from
ours. It was never dried and stored for
winter use, but was cut green as it was
wanted: and the phrase "mown grass" (Ps. Ixxii:
6) would be more properly rendered "grass that
has just been fed off. ' So in Prov. xxvii :25 the
word translated "hay" means the first shoots of
the grass : and the whole passage might jiroperly
be rendered, "The grass appeareth. and the green
herb showeth itself, and the plants of the moun-
tains are gathered." And in Is. xv :6 "hay" is
put for "grass." and "grass" is put for the "green
herb." The tenderness of grass, the rapMity of
its growth, and the early period at which it is
cut down and consumed afford the sacred writ-
ers some striking and beautiful illustrations ( Ps.
ciii :i5 : Is. xl :6: I Cor. iii:l2). (See Chatzir.)
HAZAEL (haz'a-el), (Heb. ^W^., khaz-aw-ale' ,
vision of God).
(1) Consults Elisha. An officer of Benha-
dad, king of Syria, whose eventual accession to
the throtie of that kingdom was made known to
Elijah (1 Kings xix:i5): and who, when Elisha
was at Damascus, was sent by his master, who
was then ill, to consult the prophet respecting his
recovery. He was followed by forty camels bear-
ing presents from the king. When Hazael ap-
peared before the pro|)het. he said. 'Thy son
Benhadad. k-'ng of Syria, hath sent me to thee,
saying, 'Shall I recover of this disease?' The an-
swer was. that he might certainly recover. 'How-
beit,' added the prophet, 'the Lord hath showed
me that he shall surely die.' He then looked
steadfastly at Hazael till he became confused:
on which the man of God then wept ; and when
Hazael respectfully inquired the cause of this out-
hurst, h'lislia replied by describing the vivid pic-
ture then present to his mind of all the evils
which the man now before him would inflict upon
Israel. Hazael exclaimed, 'But what! Is thy
servant a dog that he should do this great thing?'
The prophet explained that it was as king of
Syria he should do it. Hazael then returned,
and delivered to his master that portion of the
prophelie response which was intended for him.
(2) Kills Benhadad. But the very next day
this man, cool and calculating in his cruel ambi-
tion, took a thick cloth, and, having dipped it in
water, spread it over the face of the king, who,
in his feebleness, and probably in his sleep, was
smothered by its weight, and died what seemed
to his people a natural death (2 Kings vui:8,etc.),
B. C. about 885. We are not to imagine that such a
project as this was conceived and executed in a
day, or that it was suggested by the words of Eli-
sha. His discomposure at the earnest gaze of the
prophet, and other circumstances, show that Ha-
zael at that moment regarded Elisha as one to
whom his secret purposes were known. In that
case, his cry, "Is thy servant a dog,' etc., was not,
as some suppose, a cry of joy at the first view o£
a throne, but of horror at tlie idea of the public
atrocities which the prophet described.
(3) King and Wars. The further informa-
tion respecting Hazael which the Scriptures af-
ford is limited to brief notices of his wars with
.■\haziah and Joash, kings of Judah, and with
Jchorani, Jehu, and Jehoahaz, kings of Israel (2
Kings viii:28; ix:i4; x :32 ; xii:i7: xiii:,-?; 2
Chron. xxii:5). It is difficult to distinguish the
several campaigns and victories involved in these
allusions, and spread over a reign of forty years;
but it is certain that Hazael always had the ad-
vantage over the Hebrew princes. He devastated
their frontiers, rent from them all their territories
heyoii'l the Jordan, traversed the breadth of Pales-
tine, and carried his arms into the states of the
Philistines; he laid siege to Jerusalem, and only
retired on receiving the treasures of the temple
:ind the palace. The details of these conquests
redeemed to the very letter the appalling predic-
tions of Elisha. This able and successful, but
unprincipled usurper left the throne at his death
10 his son Benhadad ( B. C. about 815).
Hazael figures more than once in the cuneiform
inscriptions. Slialmaiu-sor II, who in the early
part of his reign had defeated an alliance formed
by Dadidn (Ben-hadad II), Ahab of Israel, and
other kings, and again in the fourteenth year of
his reign had a second time worsted Dadidri,
states that in his eighteenth year (B. C. 842) he
joined battle with Hazael of Damascus, who had
assembled a large army and entrenched himself
upon the mountain of Sanir in the Anti-Lebanon.
Here he awaited the Assyrian onslaught. Six
thousand of his soldiers were killed in battle,
while 1,121 of his chariots and 470 horses, with
his camp equipage, were taken. Hazael fled to
Damascus, and was pursued and besieged by the
.\ssyrians. But it appears that, powerful though
he was, Shalmaneser was not able to take Da-
mascus, and had to content himself with a thor-
oughly characteristic conclusion of the campaign.
He cut down the trees about the city, and then
marching southward, entered Hauran. where he
wasted and burned the cities. (Obelisk, lines Q7-
00 and Fragmentary Text. Ill R. 5, No. 6, 40-65.
See translations by Rogers, op. cit. pp. 220, 221 ;
See Rogers, Hist, of Bab. and Assyr., p. 82.)
««
HAZAIAH
770
HAZEZON TAMAR
HAEAIAH (ha-za'iahor ha-za'ya), (Heb. '^'I--
khaz-aTv yaw' , Jehovali beholds), a man of Judah,
descended from Shelah (Neh. xi:5), B. C. before
HAZAR (ha'zar), (Heb. ^5?^, khaw-t$are' , an
inclosure).
It is a term employed to denote the dependence
of certain towns or villages upon a noted spot.
Gesenius (Heb. Lex. s. v.) states that Hazar is
"spoken also of the movable villages or encamp-
ments of nomadic tribes, who usually pitch their
tents in a circle, or so as to form an inclosure."
The African Arabs, who originally emigrated
from Arabia, have retained many of their ancestral
customs. "When these Arabs are in a region
where they are liable to attacks from enemies,
they pitch their tents in a circle, with their cattle
and goods in the center. The whole is then
fenced in with a low wall of stones, in which are
inserted thick bundles of thorny acacia, the tan-
gled branches and long needle-like spikes forming
a perfectly impenetrable hedge around the en-
campment," Trumbull, Kadesh-Barnea, p. i'8i.
(See Hazar-Addar; Hazar-Enan ; Hazar-Gad-
DAH ; etc.)
HAZAR -ADDAB (ha'zar-ad'dar), (Heb. 1?>?
"'?l1, khats-ar' ad-dawr' , a village of Addar), a
place in the southern desert part of Palestine, be-
tween Kadesh-barnea and Amon (Num. xxxiv:4).
It appears to be the same as Hezron (which
see) of Josh, xv ;3, which in the latter passage is
connected with but separated from Addar.
HAZAR-ENAN (ha'zar-e'nan), (Heb. \T^. "I^r!
khats-ar" ay-fzawn' , village of fountains).
One of the northern boundaries of the Prom-
ised Land (Num. xxxiv:9; Ez. xlvii:i7; xlviii:
i). Mr. Porter (Damascus, 1:252; ii:358) would
identify this with the modern Kuryetcin, sixty
miles northeast of Damascus. Buhl and Bertholet
suggest that it is identical with the well-known
Banias, while Kasteren would locate it at el-Hadr
farther to the east, on the way from Banias to
Damascus, but C. R. Conder says these sites ap-
pear to be too far south.
HAZAR- GADDAH (ha'zar gad'dah),(Heb. ^'i}l
^sD, khats-ar' gad-daw' , village of fortune; Josh.
xv:27), a town in the extreme south of Judah.
Perhaps identified with Wady Mubughik and
its extensive ruins, but exact site is unknown.
HAZAR-HATTICON (ha'zar hat'ti-kon), (Heb.
]i3'.nn n^n_ khatsar' hat-tee-kone' , middle vil-
lage), named in the prophecy of Ezekiel (xlvii:l6)
as the ultimate boundaries of the land. Its site is
not known.
HAZARMAVETH (ha'zar-raa'veth), (Heb.
•'^?.^1?r!, khats-ar-viaw'veth, village of death),
one of the sons of Juktan (Gen. x;26; I Chron. i:2o),
or a district of Arabia Felix settled by him.
Its identity with the modern Hadramaut is cer-
tain, and Hazarmaveth is probably also the same
as the land of the Xarpa/iuiTiTai, one of the
four chief tribes of South Arabia as described by
Strabo (XVI, iv:2). They were celebrated for
their traffic in frankincense. The modern Hadra-
maut is not so extensive as the ancient. (J. A.
Selbie, Hastings' Bib. Diet.) (See Arabia.)
HAZAR-SHTJAL (ha'zar shu'al),(Heb.H'"'''^" ^^'H'
khats-ar' shoo-awl', village of jackals), a town
in southern Judah lying between Hazar-gaddah
and Baersheba (Josh. xv:28;xix:3; i Chron. iv;28).
It is also mentioned after the return from eav
tivity (Neh. .xi:27). Wilton suggested Beni-Shail,
near Gaza, as its site, but Van de Velde and Con-
der, with greater probability, locate it at Saweh,
between Beersheba and Moladah. The ruins are
on a high bluff; a wall built of flint blocks sur-
rounds the site, and justifies the name Hazar
("enclosure").
HAZAR-SUSAH (ha'zar-su'sah), (Heb. '^?1°
"^^*~., khats-ar soo-saw' , village of horses), a
city in the south of Judah allotted to Simeon
(I Chron. iv:3i; Josh. xix:5), also Hazar-su'ini.
Wilton believes it was in Wady es-Sunieh, near
Gaza, but Conder proposes Beit Susin, south of
Beit Jibrin.
HAZAZON-TAHAR (haz'a-zon-ta'mar). See
Hazezon-Tamar.
HAZEL (ha'zl), (Heb. TlV, /ooz), {Gen.-xxx:i7).
It is generally supposed that the almond tree is
intended in this passage. The original word is
thought to be susceptible of this rendering. The
R. V. has almond. (See Lutz.)
HAZELELPONI (haz'e-lel-po'ni), or rather
ZELELPONI (Heb. N"!:':'^?^ hats-tsel-el-po-nee' ,
shade-facing). The name has the definite article,
" the Hazelelponi;" sisters of the sons of Etam in
the genealogies of Judah (i Chron. iv:3), B. C.
about 1612.
HAZER (ha'zer),(Heb. ^^^,khaw-tsare'), an en-
closure), in composition has the form of Hazar
(which see).
HAZERIM (ha-ze'rim), (Heb. ^""^^IS^khats-ay-
ree>n' , villages).
In Deut. ii :28 we read that the Avim dwelt in
Hazerim, even unto Azzah or Gaza; and the notice
of the Avites in Josh, xiii :3, 4 as the most south-
ern of the tribes inhabiting the Canaanitish coun-
try clearly identifies their land with the mountains
of Azazimeh. (See Palmer's Desert of the Exo-
dus, Amer. ed., p. 360).
S. R. Driver, Hastings' Bib. Diet, says: "There
is no doubt that the word is not really a proper
name, but that it should be rendered (as it is in
R. V.) by villages. The clause describes how the
Avim dwelt, until they were expelled by the im-
migrant Caphtorim (or Philistines) ; they did not
dwell in fortified cities, but in villages, or un-
walled settlements (Lev. xxv :3l), consisting, prob-
ably, of rudely-built huts of mud or stone, roofed
with leaves or grass. (See Hazar.)
HAZEROTH (ha-ze'roth), (Heb. HilSq, khats-
ay-roth' , villages), the third station of the Israelites
after leaving Sinai, and either four or five days'
march from that mountain.
It was there that Miriam and Aaron murmured
against Moses (Num. xi :35 ; xii:i6). 'Ayn el_-
Hudera, about 36 miles northeast of mount Sinai,
was suggested by Burckhardt, and adopted by
Robinson and others, as the site. The identifica-
tion rests, however, solely on the similarity of the
name, and is uncertain. Palmer found at the
spot many stone circles, which evidently marked
the site of an encampment formed by a pastoral
people.
HAZEZON-TAMAR (haz'e-26n.ta'mar), (Heb.
"ll;n V'^^!^, khats-ets-otie' taw-mawr' , pruning of
the palm trees), the ancient name of Engedi (Gen.
xiv:7) in 2 Chron. xx;2, called Hazazon-tamar.
It is a city as old as the oldest in Syria, the
contemporary of Sodom and Gomorrah, and al-
HAZIEL
771
HEAD
ready a city when Hebron was first founded
(Tristram's Land of Israel, p. 285). (See En-
CEDI.) ,
HAZIEL (ha'zi-el), (Hcb. -S"!", khaz-ee-aW ,
vision uf God), a "son" of the Gtrslioiiite Shimci,
and chief of tlie family of Laiidin (l Chron.
xxiiiig), B. C. about 960.
HAZO (ha'zo), (Heb. ^^H, kliaz-o , a ^e^;r), one of
the sons of Nahor by Milcali (Gen. .\.\ii;22), B, C.
after 2250.
HAZOB (ha'zor), (Heb. I'^T. khaw-tsore' , vil-
lage, enclosure or castle).
1. A chief city of north Palestine (Josh, xi :io),
near Lake Merom (Huleh), the seat of Jabin, a
powerful Canaanitish king, as appears from the
summons sent by him to all the neighboring kings
to assist him against the Israelites. He and his
confederates were, however, defeated and slain by
Joshua, and the city burnt to the ground (Josh.
xi:i, 10-13; Joseph. Aniiq. v. 5, i). But by the
time of Deborah and Barak the Canaanites had re-
covered part of the territory then lost, had rebuilt
Hazor, and were ruled by a king with the ancient
royal name of Jabin, under whose power the Is-
raelites were, in punishment for their sins, re-
duced. From this yoke they were delivered by
Deborah and Barak, after which Hazor remained
in quiet possession of the Israelites, and belonged
to the tribe of Naphtali (Josh. xix:36; Judg. iv :
2). Hazor was one of the towns rebuilt or much
improved by Solomon (i Kings ix:is), and was
one of the fortified places of Galilee which the
Assyrians under Tiglath-pileser first took, on in-
vading Palestine from the north (2 Kings xv :
29). Several places have been suggested as the
site: Tell Khureibeh, a rocky peak near Kedesh,
by Robin.>ion ; and Conder points out the name
Hadireh, the Arabic equivalent of Hazor, near
this ; modern Hacere, where are ruins, by Thom-
son ; but doubtless it is to be found at Khiirhet
Harrah, two and a half miles southeast of Kedesh,
as proposed by the Palestine Memoirs. Remains
of ancient walls, towers, and a fortress are to be
found, and also broken glass and pottery.
C. R. Conder, Hastings' Bih. Diet., says: From
Hazor two letters of the Tel el-Amarna collection
were written in the 15th century B. C. to the king
of Egypt. They are much damaged, but they speak
of an attack on the place, and ask for aid. In one
of them the king's name is given ; and though the
first syllable is damaged, it may be read I-eba-enu,
I. e., 'Jabin.' Hazor is also noticed, with places in
Upper and Lower Galilee, by the Moliar (an
Egyptian traveler of the 14th .century B. C.) on
his way from the seacoast to the Lake of Tibe-
rias. (See Memoirs of Sur. of IV. Pal. vol. i.
ch. iv.)
2. A city ia the extreme south of Judah (Josh.
xv:23).
3. (Josh. XV :25) "Hczron which is Hazor" prob-
ably means that the name had been changed.
4. The residence of the Benjamites after the re-
turn from captivity (Neh. xi:33), probably north
of Jerusalem.
5. Apparently a region of Arabia (Jer. xlix ■.28-
33).
HAZOR HADATTAH (ha'z8r ha-d5t'tah),
" New Hazor " (Josh. xv:25). (See Hadattah.)
HE (he). The form of this letter is D.
The fifth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The
English letter E has the same origin, but is a
vowel. Where "he" preserves its power as a con-
sonant in Hebrew names, and properly at other
times, it is represented by "h" in the English form;
as in Abraham.
It stands at the head of the fifth secti.op of Ps.
c.\ix. since each verse in the section begins with
this letter in the original.
Through some similarity of form combined
with careless writing and slight effacemcnt of the
text, it was sometimes misread as aleph on the one
hand and tau on the other. (Davis, Bib. Diet.)
HEAD (bed), (Heb. tti"), roshe ; Gr. «0oXii, kef-
al-ay').
As the head is the topmost part of the hu-
man body, it came derivatively to signify that
which is higlust, chief, the highest in position
locally being regarded as highest in ofiice. rank,
or dignity : whence, as the head is the center of the
nervous system, holds the brain, and stands above
all the other parts. Plato regarded it as the seat
of the deathless soul ; and it has geoerally been
considered as the abode of the intellect or intelli-
gence by which man is enlightened and his walk
m life directed; while the heart, or the parts
placed near it, have been accounted the place
where the affections lie (Gen. iii:is; Ps. iii:3;
Eccles. ii:i4). The head and the heart are some-
times taken for the entire person (Is. i:s). Even
the head alone, as being the chief member, fre-
quently stands for the man (Prov. x:6). The
head also denotes sovereignty (i Cor xi:3). Cov-
ering the head, and cutting off the hair, were signs
of mourning and tokens of distress, which were
enhanced by throwing ashes on the head, together
with sackcloth (Amos viii:io; Job i:2o; Lev. xxi :
5; Deut. xiv:i; 2 Sam. xiii:i9; Esther iv:i);
while anointing the head was practiced on festive
occasions, and considered an emblem of felicity
(Eccles. ix:8: Ps. xxiii:5; Luke vii:46). It was
usual to swear by the head (Matt. v:36).
I. Ethiopian; 2. MongolLin; S.Caucasian;
4. Mal.iy; 5. American.
The general character of the human head is
such as to establish the identity of the human
race, and to distinguish man from every other
animal. At the same time different families of
mankind are marked by peculiarities of construc-
ti<in of the head, which, Irhough they run one into
the other to the entire loss of distinctive lines, in
individual cases, and when extremes are compared
together, yet are in the main broadly contrasted
one with the other. These peculiarities in the
HEAD
772
HEAP
structure of the skull give rise to and are
connected with other peculiarities of feature and
general contour of face. In the union of cranial
peculiarities with those of the face, certain clear
marks are presented, bx which physiologists have
been able to range the individuals of our race
into a few great classes, and in so doing to afford
an unintentional corroboration of the information
which the Scriptures afford regarding the origin
and dispersion of mankind.
Physiologists have established five classes of
heads corresponding with five great families.
(i) The Caucasian family, comprising the nations
of Europe, some of the Western Asiatics, etc.,
have the head of the most symmetrical shape,
almost round, the forehead of moderate extent,
the cheek bones rather narrow, without any
projection, but a direction downwards from the
molar process of the frontal bone; the alveolar
edge well rounded; the front teeth of each jaw
placed perpendicularly ; the face of oval shape,
straight, features moderately prominent ; fore-
head arched ; nose narrow, slightly arched ; mouth
small ; chin full and round. (2) The second is
the Mongolian variety. (3) Ethiopian. (4)
Malay and South Sea Islanders. (5) American.
J. R. B.
Customs. Anointing the head was a common
practice amongst the Jews (Ps. xxiii :5 ; Matt, vi :
17; xxvi:7; Mark xiv:3; Luke vii:46). (See
Anointing.)
To coiier (~|C) the head was a token of
mourning '2 Sam. xv:3o). David and his men
when fleeing from Absalom (Jer. xiv :3 ; Esth.
vi:i2). The same was expressed by putting the
hand upon ihe head (2 Sam. xiiitig Tamar after
Amnon's outrage), or putting ashes ("'?^') or
earth (~r?^;) upon it (Josh. vii:6; i Sam. iv:i2;
2 Sam. i:."".; xiii;iQ; Lam. ii:io).
The head of one under a vow was not shaven
till its completion (Num. vi:i8, ff. ; Acts xviii:i8;
xxi:24). (See Nazarite.)
The Israelites were forbidden to 'round the
corners of their heads' (Lev. xix:27) in token
of mourning (comp. Deut. xiv:l, where 'making
baldness between the eyes' refers to the custom of
shaving the front part of the head).
The head was bowed; in worshiping God (Gen.
xxiv:26; Exod. iv:3i), and as a token of re-
spect (Gen. xliii:28).
Figurative, (i) Blessings come on the head,
the whole person of the just (Prov. x:6); and
men have their way recompensed on their head
(Ezek. ix:lo). (2) To endanger one's head,
is to expose hi. life (Dan. i:io). (3) Covering
of the head, imports protection, as with a helmet
(Ps. cxl:7) ; or grief and mourning (2 Sam. xv :
30) ; or modesty and subjection, in the case of
women (l Cor. xi :S, 6). (4) To lift uf om-'s
own head, is to rejoice (Luke xxi:28); or to
grow proud, rebel against God, in a bold and
daring manner (Ps. lxxxiii:2). (=;) To lift up
the head of another, is to exalt him to honor
(Gen. xl:i3; Jer. Iii:3l). (6) Shaking or wag-
ging of the head at one implies contempt, mock-
ery, insult (Ps. xxii;7). (7) Having her crozvn
of tzvelve stars on her head, imports the bold and
open profession of divine truth by the church,
preached by the twelve apostles (Rev. xii:i). (8)
The head of the serpent which Christ bruises,
is his power, authority, and chief interests (Gen.
iii:i5). (9) The head of the leviathan, which
God broke in the waters, is the king of Egvpt,
and his mighty host, drowned in the Red Sea
(Ps. Ixxiv;i3, 14; Is. Ii:ii). (lo) A husband is
the head of a wife, to protect, rule, and direct
her (i Cor. xi:3). Kings and great men are
the heads of a nation, who e-xcel the rest in
power and dignity, and rule and protect them
(Exod. xviii:25; Mic. iii:i; Is. 1:5). (11)
Capital cities are the head of a kingdom (Is.
vii : 8). (12) Iniquities going over our head,
imports that our guilt is very great, and our ap-
prehension of it, and our affliction for it, likely to
sink us (Ps. xxxviii:4). (13) Men riding over
our heads, imports great oppression and slavery
(Ps. Ixvi:l2). (14) Whatever is more excellent,
or has power over, or gives influence and direc-
tion to others, is called the head. (15) God is
the head of Christ ; he set him up in his media-
torial office, and gave him his power and au-
thority (l Cor. xi;3). (16) Christ is the liead of
the earner, and head of his church, excelling in
dignity, governing her, and communicating light,
life, provision, and comfort to her; and he is the
head of all things to her, as he rules and governs
them for her advantage (Col. i:l8; Eph. i:22).
(17) The whole head is sick, and .the whole heart
is faint, there is nothing but wounds and bruises;
men of power, of wisdom, of professed piety, and
the more poor and indigent, are all corrupted, and
every man is thoroughly tainted in all his powers,
with sin (Is. i :$, 6).
HEADBAND (hed'band), the rendering of the
Hebrew "'fi?, kish-shoor' , encircle, band (Is. iii:20,
in R. V. a sash; Jer. ii:32, in A. V. attire). It is an
article 01 lemale attire.
HEADDRESS (hed'dres). See Dress.
HEAD or THE CHURCH (bed, church).
On account of ..he very intimate relation that
exists between Christ and the Church he is called
the head (Eph. iv:i5: v:23), and the Church his
body (iv:i2), inseparably united.
HEADSTONE (hed'ston), (Zech. iv:/). See
Corner Stone.
HEADY (hed'y), (Gr. TrpoiriT-l)$,prop-e/-ace' , fall-
ing forward).
This is the translation in 2 Tim. iii :4 A. V.,
which in Acts xix :36, its only remaining occur-
rence in the New Testament is translated 'rashly'
( R. V. 'rash'). Heady is from Tyndale ; and has
been adopted by all the revises thereafter, except
Rheims V. 'stubburne,' and R. V. which uses its
modern equivalent in this sense, 'headstrong.'
HEAL (hel), (Heb. **?'?, raw-phaw').
1. To cure the ailments of one's body (Matt.
iv:24>.
2. To cure the maladies of men's souls, by for-
giving their sins, turning them from sin to God,
and filling them with spiritual comfort (Ps. vi :2 ;
Rev. xxii:2).
Figurative, (i) God's saving health is his
salvation, or his Son in his saving offices (Ps.
Ixvii -.2) ; and he is the health of his people's
countenances, as by vouchsafing his salvation,
he cheers and exhilarates them ( Ps xliiiii). (2)
To heal nations and churches, is to redress their
grievances, purify their corruptions, and reduce
them to a fixed and regular state (Jer. xiv rip);
and their health and cure, is their civil and re-
ligious prosperity (Jer. viii:22; xxx:i7; li :8, 9).
(3) False prophets heal by flattering men in their
sins, and encouraging them in false hopes of de-
liverance and prosperity (Jer. vi:i4; viii:ii).
HEAP (hep), the translation of several Hebrew
words, with the general meaning of a collection of
things So as to form a pile or elevation.
HEART
773
HEATHEN
The cerm was applied to a mass of earth or
stones covering over or marking the place of a
grave (Josh. vii:26; viii:29; 2 Sam. xviii:i7);
to the ruins of walls and cities (Job viii:i7; Is.
x.\v:2; Jer. ixni) ; a pile (e. g., of rubbish, Neh.
iv:2; of grain, Cant. vii:2; of sheaves, Ruth
ill 7; Hag. ii:i6, etc.).
KEAKT (hart), (Hcb. mostly "^7., labe ; Gr.
KapSia, kar-dce' ah).
The heart, among the Hebrews was regarded
figuratively and poetically not only as the seat of
the passions and emotions, as of love, pleasure,
and grief, but also of the intellectual faculties —
the mind, the understanding. In the original
Scriptures, as well as in the English and other
translations, the word 'heart,' therefore, con-
stantly occurs where 'mind' is to be understood,
and would be used by a modern English writer.
We say modern because the ancient usage of the
English word 'heart' was more conformable thai.
the present to that of the Hebrews.
Figurative. All the phrases, more or less
netaphorical, in which this word occurs, are ren-
dered intelligible by the following examples:
(i) "A perfect heart" follows after what is
true and good with candor and sincerity (Is.
xx.xviii :3 ; Luke viii:i5; Heb. x:22), and it is "of
flesh," when pliable and ready to receive the im-
pressions of God's word and providence (Ezek.
.\xxvi:26). (2) It is "broken and contrite" when
filled with sorrow and perplexity, on account of
guilt, prevalence of corruption, divine hiding,
and the like (Is. lxi:i; lxvi:2). It is "tender"
when easily affected, and afraid of sin (2 Chron.
xiii:7; x,\.xiv:27). (3) It is "large" when one
knows much, or is filled with spiritual liberty and
joy (i Kings iv:29; Ps. cxi,x:32). (4) It is "itoii-
hle. divided, deceitful" when men try to serve God
and idols at once; pretend one thing, and desire
and seek after another (Ps. xii:2; Hos. x:2).
(5) It is "slony, hard, stout, froward, perverse."
when it can scarce be impressed with God's word
or providence, and is obstinate in sinning and re-
belling against the Lord (Ezek. xi:i9; Is. xlvi:
12). (6) If is "gross and fat as grease" when
void of feeling, stupid, filled with sensual pleas-
ure and unconcern about, and inattention to, eter-
nal things (Ps. cxix:7o; Acts xxviii:27). (7)
To "say in the heart" is inwardly to think, rea-
son (Rom. x:6), or earnestly desire (Ps. xiv:i).
(S) To "sfcak to Ihc heart" is kindly to encour-
age, comfort, and persuade (Hos. ii:i4). (9) To
dn a thing "zvilh the heart" is to do it with much
affection and diligence (Matt. xxii:37). (10)
Pcr.sons having their "heart" tow^ards anything, or
having persons in their "heart," denote a fixed
remembrance of, desire after, and care for them
(2 Cor. vii:3). (11) As "heart" denotes a fixed
standing, courage, and activity, the Israelites
were without it. when they had no sense of. no
care and concern about, their real welfare (Hos.
vii:ll). (12) God's "heart" is his will, purpose,
and love (Is. Ixiii :4) ; but the "turning of his
heart" within him. and "kindling of his repent-
ings." denote only the greatness of his mercy and
compassion (Jer. xxxi:2o: Hos. xi:8). (13)
God's law is in Christ and his people's "heart,"
they understand, remember, love, and are care-
ful to fulfill it (Ps. xl:8; cxix:ll). (14) Wh.it
people think, love or purpose, is said to be in
"their heart"; so, false prophets prophesy "out
of their oivn heart", say what their vain imagi-
nations and corrupt affections prompt them to
(Ezek. xiii:2'). (15") In allusion to the heart of
animals being in the midst of the body, the midst
of anything, or being within it, is called the
"heart '; so Tyre was "in the heart" of the sea.
being on an island (Ezek. xxvii :4) ; and Christ,
in the grave, was "in the heart of the earth"
( Matt, xii :4o).
HEARTH (harth). Several Hebrew words are
thus translated:
1. Aivkh (Hcb. '^¥, a brazier, or portable fur-
nace, in which fire was made in the king's winter
apartment (Jer. xxxvi:22, 23).
2. Kee-yore' (Hcb. " -■),A fire pan or basin for
holdingfire (Zech. xii:6), for roasting (i Sam. ii:i4).
3. Mo-kade' (Heb. "'I:. '■2, a burning, so rendered
in Is. xxxiii:i4), a fagot for fuel (Ps. cii;3).
HEAT, HOT (het, hot), the translation of sev-
eral Hebrew and Greek words, having besides
their ordinary meanings several peculiar uses in
Scripture.
Figurative, (i) God's hot wrath, displeas-
ure, or heat of his anger, is his holy and high
displeasure against sin. displayed in the most fear-
ful and tormenting judgments (E.xod. x.xii:24;
Deut. ix:i9; Judg. 11:19}. Such as are lively,
zealous, and active in religion are hot (Rev. iii :
15). (2) 0)ic's heart is hot, when tilled leilh
tormenting trouble, impatience, and passion ( Ps.
xxxix:3); and so Ezekiel went to prophesy in
the heat of his spirit, with great reluctance and
fretting (Ezek. iii:i4). (3) The hottesJ of the
battle, is where it is most fierce, dangerous and
destructive (2 Sam. xi:i5). To pursue one hotly,
is to do it in great wrath, and with much speed
(Gen. xxxi:36). (4) The heat of the sun is sym-
bolical of tribulation, temptation, or persecution
(Matt, xiii :6. 21: Luke viii:6-l3). (5) A gentle
heat of the sun signifies the favor and bounty of
the prince, while a fierce heat denotes punish-
ment (see Ps. cxxi:6). (6) "Heat of the day"
(Matt. xx:i2) is united with burden to denote
severe toil.
HEATH (hetVi), (Heb. I^"'"'**;, ar-o-nyr', Jer.
xvii:6; xlviii:6).
No true heath is found in Palestine. There
is great probability that the dwarf juniper or
savin (Juniperus sabina) , which grows in the
most sterile and desolate parts of the desert, is
the plant intended. "Its gloomy, stunted appear-
ance, with its scale-like leaves pressed close to its
gnarled stems and cropped close by the wild
goats, as it clings to the rocks about Petra. gives
great force to the contrast suggested by the pro-
phet between him that trusteth in man. naked and
destitute, and the man that trusteth in the Lord.
flourishing as a tree planted by the waters."
(Tristram.) (See Oror.)
HEATHEN (he'th'n). The Hebrew words gfy..
'■!.", i^o-yeem', ^''•■, together with their Greek
equivalents fSi-os, fSvi), have been somewhat arbi-
trarily rendered "nations," "gentiles'* and "hea-
then" in the A. V'.
It will be interesting to trace the manner in
which a term, primarily and essentially general in
its signification, ncnuired that more restricted
sen,se which was afterwards attached to it. Its
development is pnr.nllol with that of the Hebrew
people, and its mc.nning at any period may bo
taken as signific.int of their rel.ative position with
regard to the surrounding nations.
(1) The Nations. While as yet the Jewish
n.ition had no political existence, g5yi>n denoted
generally the nations of the world, especially in-
HEAVEN
774
HEAVEN
eluding the immediate descendants of Abraham
(Gen. xviii:i8; comp. Gal. iii:i6). The latter,
as they grew in numbers and importance, were
distinguished in a most marked manner from the
nations by whom they were surrounded, and were
provided with a code of laws and a religious rit-
ual, which made the distinction still more pecul-
iar. They were essentially a separate people (.Lev.
xx:23); separate in habits, morals, and relig-
ion, and bound to maintain their separate char-
acter by denunciations of the most terrible judg-
ments (Lev. xxvi:l4-38; Deut. xxviii). On their
march through the desert they encountered the
most obstinate resistance from Amalek, "chief of
he goyim" (Num. xxiv:2o), in whose sight the
deliverance from Egypt was achieved (Lev. xxvi:
45).
(2) Idolaters. But, even in early Jewish
times, the term goyim received by anticipation a
significance of wider range than the national ex-
perience (Lev. xxvi :33, 38; Deut. xxx;i), and
as the latter was gradually developed during the
prosperous times of the monarchy, the goyim
were the surrounding nations generally, with
whom the Israelites were brought into contact
by the extension of their commerce, and whose
idolatrous practices they readily adopted (Ezek.
xxiii:3o; Amos v:26). Later still, it is applied to
the Babylonians who took Jerusalem (Neh. v:8;
Ps. lxxix:l, 6, 10), to the destroyers of Moab
(Is. xvi :8) , and to the several nations among
whom the Jews were scattered during the Cap-
tivity (Ps. cvi:47; Jer. xlvi:28; Lam. i 13, etc.),
the practice of idolatry still being their charac-
teristic distinction (Is. xxxvi :i8 ; Jer. x :2, 3 ; xiv :
22).
As the Greek influence became more extensively
felt in Asia Minor, and the Greek language was
generally used, Hellenism and heathenism became
convertible terms, and a Greek was synonymous
with a foreigner of any nation. This is singularly
evident in the Syriac of 2 Mace, v :9, 10, 13; comp.
John vii :35 ; i Cor. x:32; 2 Mace. xi:2 (Smith,
Bih. Diet.)
(3) Dwellers in the Heath. As the word
heathen may mean "dweller in the heath." the
word suggests the fact that the gospel first rooted
itself in towns, the inhabitants of which became
Christians, while the dwellers on heaths remained
worshipers of false divinities. The word Pagan,
from Latin Paganus, belonging to a village, rus-
tic, has a somewhat similar reference.
HEAVEN (hev"n),(Heb.'-^^i), gal-gaP, rolling
cloud), the state and place of blessedness in the
life to come.
.\s we can have no distinct conception of those
joys which never have been and never will be ex-
perienced by us here in their full extent, we have
of course no words in human language to express
them, and cannot therefore expect any clear de-
scription of them even in the Holy Scriptures,
Hence the Bible describes this happiness some-
times in general terms, designating its greatness
(as in Rom, viii:i8-22; 2 Cor, iv:i7.i8); and
sometimes by various figurative images and modes
of speech, borrowed from everything which we
know to be attractive and desirable.
(1) Terms for. The following are the prin-
cipal literal terms which are applied in Scripture
to the condition of future happiness:
Among such appellations we find fuij, life, fwi}
aliivws, eternal life, which, according to Hebrew
usage, signify 'a happy life,' or 'eternal well being,'
(Matt. vii:l4; xix:l6,2Q; xxv:46): 56{a, J4|a toD GfoC,
'glory,* 'the glory of God' (Rom. ii:7, 10; v:2); and
cip-^vij, 'peace' (Rom. ii:lo). Also aldmov /Sdpos 64f7)i,
'an eternal weight of glory' (2 Cor. iv:l7); and
o-wTTipla, awTTfpla aiuinos, 'salvation,' 'eternal salva-
tion' (Heb. v:9, etc.).
(2) Conditions in. Besides being exempt
from all earthly trials, and having a continuance
of that happiness which we had begun to enjoy
even here, we have good reason to expect hereafter
other rewards and joys, which stand in no natural
or necessary connection with the present. In the
doctrine of the New Testament, however, positive
rewards are considered most obviously as belong-
ing to our future felicity, and as constituting a
principal part of it. For it always represents the
joys of heaven as resulting strictly from the favor
of God, and as being undeserved by those on
whom they are bestowed. Hence there must be
something more added to the natural good conse-
quences of our actions, something which cannot be
considered as the necessary and natural conse-
quences of the good actions we may have here per-
formed. But, on this subject, we know nothing
more in general than this, that God will so appoint
and order our circumstances, and make such ar-
rangements, that the principal faculties of our
souls — reason and affection, will be heightened
and developed, so that we shall continually obtain
more pure and distinct knowledge of the truth,
and make continual advances in holiness. Some
theologians have supposed that the saints in
heaven may be taught by immediate divine revela-
tions lumen gloria) ; especially those who may
enter the abodes of the blessed without knowledge,
or with only a small measure of it ; e. g. children
and others who have died in ignorance, for which
they themselves were not to blame.
(3) With Christ. In the Scripture revelation
respecting heaven, Christ is always represented as
one who will be personally visible to us, and whose
personal, familiar intercourse and guidance we
shall enjoy. Herein Christ himself places a chief
part of the joy of the saints (John xiv, xvii, etc) ;
and the apostles often describe the blessedness of
the pious by the phrase being with Christ. To
his guidance has God entrusted the human race,
in heaven and on earth. And Paul says (2 Cor.
iv:6), we see 'the brightness of the divine glory
in the face of CThrist,' he is 'the visible representa-
tive of the invisible God' (Col. i:i5). According
to the representation contained in the Holy Scrip-
tures, the saints will dwell together in the future
world, and form, as it were, a kingdom or state
of God (Luke xvi:22; xx 138 ; Rom, viii:io; Rev.
viirg; Heb, xii:22). They will there partake of a
common felicity. Their enjoyment will doubtless
be very much heightened by friendship, and by
their confiding intercourse with each other.
(4) Knowledge of. All that we can with cer-
tainty know or infer from Scripture or reason re-
specting the blessedness of the life to come, may
be arranged under the following particulars: —
We shall hereafter be entirely freed from the suf-
ferings and adversities of this life. Our future
blessedness will involve a continuance of the real
happiness of this life.
(5) Deliverance from Evil. The entire ex-
emption from suffering and all that causes suf-
fering here, is expressed in the Scripture by words
which denote rest, repose, refreshment, after per-
forming labor and enduring affliction. But all the
terms which are employed to express this condi-
tion, define (in the original) the promised 'rest,'
as rest after labor, and exemption from toil and
grief; and not the absence of employment, not in-
.activity or indolence (2 Thess. i:7; Heb, iv:9, 11;
Rev. xiv:i3; comp. vii:i7).
HEAVEN
77S
HEBER
This deliverance from the evils of our present
life includes:
1. Deliverance from this earthly body, the seat
of the lower principles of our nature and of our
sinful corruption, and the source of so many evils
and sufferings (2 Cor. vi:i, 2; i Cor. xviiiiis).
2. Entire separation from the society of wicked
and evil-disposed persons, who, in various ways,
injure the righteous man and embitter his life on
earth {2 Tim. iv:i8). It is hence accounted a
part of the felicity even of Christ himself in
heaven to be 'separate from sinners' (Heb. vii:
26).
3. Upon this earth everything is inconstant, and
subject to perpetual change; and nothing is capa-
ble of completely satisfying our expectations and
desires. But in the world to come it will be dif-
ferent. The bliss of the saints will continue with-
out interruption or change, without fear of ter-
mination, and without satiety (Luke xx:36; 2 Cor.
iv:)6, iS; i Pet. i:4; v:io; i John iii:2, sq.)
Figurative. Among the figurative representa-
tions, we may place the word 'heaven' itself. The
abode of departed spirits, to us who live upon the
earth, and while we remain here, is invisible and
inaccessible beyond the bounds of the visible
world, and entirely separated from it. There
they live in the highest well-being, and in a nearer
connection with God and Christ than here below.
This place and state cannot be designated by any
more fit and brief expression than that which is
found in almost every language, namely, 'heaven,'
— a word in its primary and material signification
denoting the region of the skies, or the visible
heavens. It is there that the highest sanctuary or
temple of God is situated, i. e. it is there that the
omnipresent God most gloriously reveals himself.
This, too, is the abode of God's highest spiritual
creation. Thither Christ was transported: he
calls it the house of his Father, and says that he
has therein prepared an abode for his followers
(John xiv :2).
This place, this 'heaven,' was never conceived of
in ancient times, as it has been by some modern
writers, as a particular planet or world, but as the
wide expanse of heaven; high above the atmos-
phere or starry heavens; hence it is sometimes
called the third heaven, as being neither the at-
mosphere nor the starry heavens.
.\nother figurative name is 'Paradise,' taken
from the abode of our first parents in their state
of innocence, and transferred to the abode of the
blessed (Luke xxiii:43; 2 Cor. xii:4; Rev. ii:7;
xxii :2).
Again, this place is called 'the heavenly Jeru-
salem' (Gal. iv:26; Heb. xii:22; Rev. iii:i2), be-
cause the earthly Jerusalem was the capital city
of the Jews, the royal residence, and the seat of
divine worship; the 'kingdom of heaven' (Matt.
xxv:t; Jam. ii:5) ;the 'heavenly kingdom' (2 Tim.
iv:i8; the 'eternal kingdom' (2 Pet. i:ii). It is
also called an 'eternal inheritance' ( l Pet. i -.4 ; Heb.
ix:i5), meaning the possession and full enjoyment
of happiness, typified by the residence of the an-
cient Hebrews in Palestine. The blessed are said
'to sit down at table with Abraham, Isaac, and Ja-
cob,' that is. to be a sharer with the saints of old
in the joys of salvation ; 'to be in Abraham's bosom'
(Luke xvi:22; Matt. viii:ii), that is, to sit near
or next to Abraham (see Abraham's Bosom) ;
'to reign with Christ' (2 Tim. ii:il). i. c, to be
distinguished, honored, and happy as he is — to en-
joy regal felicities; to enjoy 'a Sabbath,' or 'rest'
(Heb. iv:io, 11), indicating the happiness of pious
Christians, both in this life and in the life to
come.
HEAVE OFFERING. See First Fruit,
Fkstivals.
HEAVE SHOULDER. See First Fruit;
Festivals.
HEAVING and -WAVING. See FlKsr
Fruit; Festivals.
HEAVY, HEAVINESS (hSv'j?, hSv'I-n«s),
(Heb. ""rr?, kaw-bade' , weight).
Many other words are thus translated. Heavi-
ness occurs often, but always with the meaning of
grief. Thus (Prov. x:i) 'A wise son makcth a
glad father; but a foolish son is the heaviness of
his mother;' (Prov. xii:25) "Heaviness in the
heart of man maketh it stoop; but a good word
maketh it glad;' (Is. Ixi:3) 'To appoint unto
them that mourn in Zion, to give unto them
beauty for ashes, the oil of joy for mourning,
the garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness.'
'Ye are in heaviness,' R. V. 'Ye have been put to
grief (I Pet. i :6) ; 'For he longed after you all,
and was full of heaviness", &hT\tMvCiv, R. V'., 'Was
sore troubled' (Phil. ii:26). In their preface the
A. V. translators say of the Scriptures, 'If we be
ignorant, they will instruct us; if out of the way,
they will bring us home ; if out of order, they
will reforme us; if in heaviness, comfort us: if
dull, quicken us; if colde, inflame us.' The older
versions have the word very often, as John xvi :6
Wycliffe's V., "sorwe, or hiuyiiessc, hath fulfillid
youre herte;' Ps. xxx:s Coverdale's V., 'Hevy-
nesse niaye well endure for a night, but joye
commeth in the mornynge."
Figurative. We learn from the preceding pas-
sages that whatever is burdensome or afllicting
to body or mind, is called heavy, (i) As the
hand or judgments of God (i Sam. v:6). (2)
.-1)1 opfiressive Jax ( Neh. v:l8; I Kings xii:4).
(3) Bad iieu's (i Kings xiv:6). (4) And the
outrageous wrath of a foolish man (Prov. xxvii:
3). (5) A heart is heavy, when it is sad and dis-
pleased (l Kings xxi:4). (6) Eyes are heavy
when they can scarce look up for drowsiness
(.Matt. xxvi:43). (7) Ears arc heavy, when men
are dull and inattentive (Is. vi:io). (8) Hands
are heavy, when one is wearied with holding them
up (Exod. xvii:i2). (9) Christ U'as very heavy,
when his spirit was oppressed and filled with
sorrow under the unspeakable pressure of his
Father's wrath (Matt. xxvi:37).
HEBER (he'ber), (Heb. 1.??, ay'ier, of the
other side, i. e., of the river, immigrantl.
1. The son of Salah, who became the father of
Peleg at the age of 34 years, and died at the age
of 464 (Gen. x:24; xi:i4; l Chron. i:25). His
name occurs in the genealogy of Christ (Luke
iii:35), B. C. 2448-1984. There is nothing to con-
stitute Heber a historical personage ; but there
is a degree of interest connected with him from
the notion, which the Jews themselves entertain,
that the name of Hebrews, applied to them, was
derived from this alleged ancestor of -Abraham.
No historical ground appears why this name
should be derived from him rather than from any
other personage that occurs in the catalogue of
Shem's descendants; but there are so much
stronger objections to every other hypothesis,
that this perhaps is still the most probable of any
which have yet been started.
2. Grandson of Asher (Gen. x1vi:i7; I Chron.
vii:3i : Num. xxvi:45), B. C. before 1873.
3. One of the tribe of Judah (i Chron. iv:l8).
B. C. after 1612.
4. A Gadite (i Chron. v:i3), B. C between
1612 and 1093.
HEBERITES
776
HEBREWS
5. A descendant of Hobab, son of Jethro, and
brother of the wife of Moses. His wife was the
Jael who slew Sisera (B. C. 1409). and he is called
Heber the Kenite (Judg. iv:ii, 17; v:24), which
seems to have been a name for the whole family
(Judg. i:l6). Heber appears to have lived sep-
arate from the rest of the Kenites, leading a patri-
archal life, amid his tents and flocks. He must
have been a person of some consequence, from its
being stated that there was peace between the
house of Heber and the powerful king Jabin. At
the time the history brings him under our notice
his camp was in the plain of Zaanaim, near
Kedesh in Naphtali. (See Jael; Kenites.)
6. A Ren)imite (Cliron. viii:i7), B. C. about 518.
7. Also a Benjamite (l Chron. viii:22), B. C.
before 598.
HEBERITES (he'ber-ites), (Num. xxvi:45). See
Heber, 4.
HEBREWESS (he'bru-es), a Hebrew woman
(Jer. xxxiv:g).
HEBREW LANGUAGE (he'bru lan'gwaj).
The Hebrew language is that which was the
notional idiom of those descendants of Eber
which received the distinctive name of the People
of Israel, and, as such, was that in which all the
books of the Old Testament (with the exception
of the few Chaldee passages occurrmg in those
after the Babylonian captivity) were originally
composed.
(1) Semitic. It belongs to the Semitic, or, as
it is more appropriately called, the Syro-Arabian
family of languages ; and it occupies a central
point amidst all the branches of this family, as
well with reference to the geographical position of
rhe country in which it prevailed, as with refer-
ence to the degree of development to which it at-
tained.
(2) Jewish. If we except the terms 'lip or
language of Canaan.' in Is. xix:i8, the only name
by which the Hebrew language is mentioned in
the Old Testament is 'Jewish ^'~" ' , yeh-lioo-deeiW
used adverbially, Judaici, in Jewish (2 Kings
xviii:26, 28; Is. xxxviii i, 13).
In a strict sense, however, 'Jewish' denotes the
idiom of the kingdom of Judah, which became
the predominant one after the deportation of the
ten tribes. It is in the Greek writings of the later
Jews that 'Hebrew' is first applied to the language,
as in the f/ipaiVri, in tlie Hebrew language, of the
prologue to Ecclesiasticus, and in the -iXOiaaa tCiu
Efipaluv, language of tlie Hebrews, of Josephus
The best evidences which we possess as to the
form of the Hebrew language, prior to its first
historical period, tend to show that .Abraham, on
his entrance into Canaan, found the language then
prevailing among almost all the different tribes
inhabiting that country to be at least dialectically
in affinity with his own. This is gathered from the
following facts: that nearly all the names of
places and persons relating to those tribes admit of
Hebrew etymologies ; that, amidst all the accounts
of the intercourse of the Hebrews with the nations
of Canaan; we find no hint of a diversity of
idiom ; and that even the comparatively recent
remains of the Phccnician and Punic languages
bear a manifest affinity to the Hebrew.
(3) History Preceding the Exile. The his-
tory of the Hebrew language, as far as we can
trace its course by the changes in the diction of the
documents in which it is preserved, may be here
conveniently divided into that of the period
preceding, and that of the period succeed-
ing, the Exile If it be a matter of surprise
that the thousand years which intervened between
Moses and the Captivity should not have produced
sufficient change in the language to warrant its
history during that time being distributed into
subordinate divisions, the following considerations
may excuse this arrangement. It is one of the sig-
nal characteristics of the Hebrew language, as
seen in all the books prior to the Exile, that not-
withstanding the existence of some isolated, but
important, archaisms, such as in the form of the
pronoun, etc. (the best collection of which may
be seen in Havernick, Eiiilcit., p. 183, sq.), it pre-
serves an unparalleled general uniformity of
structure. The extent to which this uniformity
prevails may be estimated, either by the fact that
it has furnished many modern scholars, who rea-
son from the analogies discovered in the changes
in other languages in a given period, with an ar-
gument to show that the Pentateuch could not
have been written at so remote a date as is gener-
ally believed (Gesenius, Gcsch. der Hcbr. Slrachc,
sec. 8) : or. by the conclusion, o fortiori.
which Havernick, whose express object it is to
vindicate its received antiquity, candidly concedes
that 'the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah
are the earliest in which the language differs
sensibly from that in the historical portions of the
Pentateuch' {Einlcit. i. p. tSo).
In the canonical books belonging to the first
period, the Hebrew language appears in a state of
mature development. Although it still preserves
the charms of freshness and simplicity, yet it has
attained great regularity of formation, and such a
precision of syntactical arrangement as ensures
both energy and distinctness.
(4) Second Period. The Babylonian captiv-
ity is assigned as the commencement of that de-
cline and corruption which mark the second pe-
riod in the history of the Hebrew language; but
the Assyrian deportation of the ten tribes, in the
year B. C. 720, was probably the first means of
bringing the Aramaic idiom into injurious prox-
imity to it. The Exile, however, forms the epoch
at which the language shows evident signs of that
encroachment of the Aramaic on its integrity,
which afterwards ended in its complete extinc-
tion. The diction of the diflferent books of this
period discovers various grades of this Aramaic
influence; and in some cases approaches so nearly
to the type of the first period, that it has been
ascribed to mere imitation.
HEBREW OF THE HEBREWS (he'bru 6v
the he'bruz), (Gr. 'E/Spaios ii, 'K^paiuv, Hcbraios eks
Hebraion), emphatically a Hebrew, one who was
so by both parents, and that by a long series of
ancestors, without admixture of Gentile or even
proselyte blood. So speaks Paul (Phil, iiiis) of
himself.
Of this the Jews were as proud as were those
Christians in Spain, who called themselves Old
Christians, of having no mixture of Moorish
blood.
HEBREWS (he'bruzl, (Heb."/r^,z*-r^^' ,• plural
D*"!??, ib-reem' ; Gr. 'E^paios, heb-rah'yes), a desig-
nation of the people of Israel.
(1) Its Derivation, (i) Some ascribe the
origin of the word to Ay-ber' (Heb. ''?^"); Eber,
the ancestor (Gen. x:2i); see also the use of
Eber as a national name (Num. xxiv;24). (2)
Others trace the name to the Hlebrew aw-bar'
("^?V, to />ass over"), so that a Hebrew would mean
the "man from the region beyond," and supposed
to have been applied to Abraham, as having
HEBREWS, El'l-STLE TO THE
777
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
crossed the Euphrates to the westward. This last
derivation is generally admiiied. It seems to
imply nothing more than that Abraham was an
immigrant into Canaan — not a native.
(2) Scripttire Application. This name is
never applied in Scripture to the Israelites except
when the speaker is a foreigner (Gen. xxxix:i4,
17; xli :i2; Exod. i:i6; ii:6; i Sam. iv :6, 9, etc.),
or when the Israelites speak of themselves to one
of another nation (Gen. xl:is; Exod. 1:19; Jonah
i :9, etc.), or when they are contrasted with other
peoples (Gen. xliii:32; Exod. 1:3, 7, 15; Deut.
xv;i2; I Sam. xiii :3. 7).
(3) Tribes Embraced, The appellation He-
brews may. indeed, originally have embraced
more tribes than the Israelites, as it appears from
Genesis (x:2i. 25) that the descendants of Jok-
tan had some claim to it. Nevertheless, it was
soon appropriated to the Israelites as their dis-
tinctive name as a nation in the earlier periods
taincd some hints as to the condition of mind or
oilier occasion in the readers whioli called it
forth. It would not be impossible, perhaps, to
account for the lack of one or two of these essen-
tial features of a letter, but the absence of all of
them is not easily conceivable, in case it was
meant to be addressed to a single congregation
or even a circle of congregations.
As a homily, its structure and content are easily
explained. It characterizes itself as "a word of
exhortation" (xiii:22). It begins with a clearly
drawn contrast of the old revelation of God to
the fathers through the prophets, with the new
revelation of God to the times of the writer
through his Son (i:l). This immediately leads
to the pointing nut of the highly exalted character
and office of the Son. He existed in eternity
and took part in the creation of the universe (i:
2), and was the very image and effulgence of
God. but (appearing as man) made purifi.ation
for sin, and was once more exalted (1:3). He
Group of Hebrew Types Showing Costumes.
of their history, and (after giving place, in the
intervening centuries, to that of Israel, and. sub-
sequently to the deportation of the ten tribes, to
that of Jezvs) was at length revived not long be-
fore the Christian era — when, however, it also
served to distinguish the Jews of Palestine from
the Hellenist Jews — and passed over, together
with that of Jezvs, to the classical writers.
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE.
(1) Form and Content. This writing has
always been called an epistle. On closer exami-
nation, however, it is seen to be such only in
form. It is not an epistle in the sense in which
in the New Testament, for instance, the letters
to the Romans, Corinthians, and Galatians are
epistles. It is rather a homily or practical relig-
ious treatise, aimed at a definite end. It is
planned and written with the sole object of pre-
senting and defending a clear idea of the New
Covenant. As an epistle, it should have had, in
accordance with literary customs of its environ-
ment, the name of the writer and the name of the
party addressed. It should have been pervaded
by the sense of personal relationships, and con-
occupies a much higher pl.icc than the angels
(i:5; ii:i8). This last position is established by
a series of citations from the Old Testament
Scriptures. While still in the process of his ar-
gument, the author interrupts it in order to make
a homiletical application of the idea in a practical
exhortation to perseverance (ii:l-4).
But Christ was superior not alone to angels,
but also to others believed to be mediators of the
Old Covenant ; 1. c. to Moses and the Levitical
priesthood (iii:i: viii:i3). His superiority over
Moses is that of the maker of a house to the
house (iii:l-4). and that of the Son to the serv-
?nt (iii:5. 6). At this point the author again in-
terrupts his argument in order to introduce a
practical exhortation, re-enforced by an appeal to
the history of Israel as recorded in the Penta-
teuchal account of the Exodus (iii:7; iv:i3). Re-
turning to the argument, he then proves that
Christ is superior to the Levitical priesthood, be-
cause his order is higher than that of Aaron, be-
ing the same as that of Mclchi^cdek. In order
to establish this position, he first shows that
Christ is a true priest, being taken from among
men (iv:i-3), and appointed by God (iv:4-io).
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
778
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
At this point, once more, the author stops to
make some homiletical uses of what he had al-
ready proved, v:ii; vi :20. After this he pro-
ceeds to show the implications of Christ's ap-
pointment under the order of Melchizedek. Mel-
chizedek entered into the sacred narrative in a
preternatural manner and is therefore above Levi
vii:l-3. Melchizedek was recognized to be of a
higher order than Levi historically ; for the sons
of Levi are allowed to receive tithes of their
kindred only, whereas his authority was broader
in that he tithed Abraham, a stranger. Further-
more, the sons of Levi, as represented in their
ancestor Abraham, paid tithes to him, thus yield-
ing him priority (vii:4-lo). But was such a
broader priesthood necessary? The author ar-
gues from the weakness of the old and the neces-
sity of frequent changes caused by death that it
was (vii:ll-25). He then concludes this part of
the argument by showing Christ's fitness for the
new high-priesthood and recapitulates (vii :25 ;
viii:i3). In the second part of the writing, the au-
thor proves the superiority of the new Covenant
itself to the old. The argument is here mainly
a contrast between the weakness of the old as to
its sanctuary, furniture, and rites, and _ the
strength of the new in its purification, its sacrifice,
its spiritual power, and its finality (ix:i; x:i8).
Having shown this superiority the author sus-
pends argument in order to give opportunity to an
exhortation (x:i9-3g). On resuming the argu-
ment he then enters upon an eloquent presenta-
tion of the emphatic and central principle of faith
as it is fully developed under the new Cove-
nant, showing by a long list of illustrations that
whatever was good in the old was due to the
operation of this principle (xi:i-4o). At this
point, the argument is closed. The rest of the
writing is practical and hortatory. The lessons
of the argument as developed are first enforced
(xii:i-29) and some indirect or inferential les-
sons of conduct appended (xiii:i-i7). The
author then requests prayer from and invokes a
blessing upon his readers (xiii:i8-2i) and closes
with allusion to some personal items and a final
benediction (.xiii 122-25 ).
(2) Design. From this plan and outline, it ap-
pears that the Epistle to the Hebrews is a homily
cast into the mold of a letter for the sake of con-
venience mainly. The question may now be
asked, what the purpose of the epistle was. Bruce
(Epistle to the Hebrews, 1899) takes the ground
that it was put forth as a defense of the Christian
faith and calls it the "First Apology for Christian-
ity." This, however, it can only be in a very
general sense, just as any other writing intended
to show the excellencies of the Christian faith in
order to secure perseverance in it may be called
an apology. It is not an apology in the sense that
it was intended as a vindication of the Christian
faith at the bar of reason, or a defense of it agan-:st
some definite attack made from the intellectual
side. Milligan ( Theology of the Ep. to the Heb.,
1899), finds the design to be the further instruc-
tion of believers in the true character of their
new faith. So also Rciiss takes the view that it
was intended as a theological treatise, expound-
ing in general the nature of the new Covenant as
contrasted with the old. With this view agrees
also substantially that of Menegoz (Thcologie de
I'Epistre aux Heb^eux), who adds to it the idea
of a practical end m view. The author, according
to this scholar, sets himself to prove the superior-
ity of Christianity in order to retain the believ-
ers in the church. Such a view, of course, comes
practically to the same thing as our characteriza-
tion of the writing as a homily with its exposition
of doctrine in order to a practical end. If this be
accepted as the design and nature of the writing,
it will be unnecessary to suppose with B. W.
Bacon (Intro, to the N. T., 1900) that the first
paragraph of the writing was lost, for being not
strictly a letter, but a discourse, it needed no
self-naming and thanksgiving, but begins prop-
erly with a reminder of God's former revelation
of his will. Such a beginning is itself natural, and
only the effort to make it conform to the procrus-
tean ideal of a perfect letter can demand the sup-
position of the omission of a first section.
(3) Audience. The primary audience of the
Epistle, for we may contmue to give it that name
at least out of deference to custom and conven-
ience, may have been (i) the Christian commu-
nity at large (So Biesanthal), or (2) that section
of it which was of Jewish antecedents (Schwegler,
Guericke, Baumgarten), or (3) a circle of con-
gregations such as those in Palestine or in Alex-
andria and Egypt, or at Rome and in Italy, or (4)
finally a particular congregation : i. e., the church
at Jerusalem, or that at Rome, or that in Alex-
andria.
It will be needless to discuss the full merits of
each of these views as to the first community for
whose benefit the Epistle was written. Suffice
it to say that each of them has its advocates and
each is supported by plausible considerations. But
the very possibility of their all being held and
argued for is an evidence that the writer had in
mind a catholic or comprehensive as distinguished
from a local and particular audience. Those
views, therefore, which make some local church,
such as that at Rome or Jerusalem or Alexandria,
the primary audience of the homily may be set
aside' as not fully satisfying the conditions.
Nevertheless, the author of Hebrews was not
writing for the church universal in its broadest
sense. The persons he addresses are a distinct
class living "in the same general circumstances
of age, position, and opinion" (Westcott). They
hold the same views and are exposed to the same
dangers. Such general similarity of circum-
stances is consistent only with a rather restricted
audience, yet not necessarily so narrow as a single
congregation.
When we pass to the question of the nationality
of this audience, we are met at once with the
traditional superscription — "To the Hebrews." But
it is undeniable that this title formed no part of
the original writing. And even if it did, it would
not lead us beyond the conclusion that the persons
addressed were of Jewish antecedents or Jews.
The term Hebrew ('E/S/jaios) is sometimes applied
to the Jews of Palestine who used the Aramaic
language as their vernacular in order to distin-
guish them from the Jews of the dispersion who
spoke Greek, and sometimes to the Jews of
all shades of variety to distinguish them from the
Gentiles also called Greeks or Hellenes. The title
would be consistent with an audience of either
kind of "Hebrews." (See Hebrews.) It enables
us to begin with the understanding that this
audience was of Jewish antecedents.
Against this inference some recent scholars
(Weizsacker, Das Apostolische Zeilalter p. 473,
von Soden, Hand Komment. vi, p. 11; Jiilicher,
Einl. in das N. T. p. no; and McGiffert, Hist, of
Christ in the Apostolic Age, p. 465 ff.) have pitted
the view that the author was addressing an au-
dience either purely of Gentile Christians or of
Christians irrespective of antecedents. The sup-
port for this view is found in passages like vi :
I, 2: ix:i4; xiii:4, 24. But on closer examination,
these passages do not furnish the evidence neces-
sary to establish the new view. On the contrary,
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
779
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
every internal mark points to the corroboration of
the title. The writer, who was evidently himself
a Jew, speaks of "the fathers," of "the seed of
Abraham," and of "the people of God" as the
literal and lineal ancestors of himself and readers
(i:i; ii:i6; ivig). And throughout the whole
work, the nature of the argument is such as would
appeal with fullest force only to those who were
possessed by the feeling of the pride of Jewish
ancestry.
Can we narrow the circle further and locate
the Christian Jews addressed to a special locality
or region of the known world? From the earliest
times, many have pointed at Palestine as the
place in which the Epistle was to be first used.
In favor of this idea, one could, of course, cite
the predominance of the temple-idea and the effort
to build upon the ceremonial so manifest in the
writing. In Palestine and Jerusalem Christians
would be most exposed to the attacks against
which the writer seeks to arm his readers and
here alone, if anywhere, would there exist a gen-
eral Christian community consisting mainly of
converts from Judaism. These considerations are
not absolutely conclusive, and on the contrary,
certain indications, such as the Greek diction of
the writing and the habit of quoting the Old
Testament in the LXX version seem to exclude
Palestine as the destination. Therefore, many
have sought for the more particular location of
the community in question in Egypt and Alexan-
dria. The reasons which are cited against Pales-
tine are naturally arguments for the location of
the destination in Egypt. Here the temple built
by Onias at Leontopolis and the ritual observed
in it furnished the basis for the reasoning of the
writer from the ritual. Moreover the style and
diction and the use of the Alexandrian recension
of the LXX are in favor of this theory. But these
latter considerations point rather to the Alexan-
drian origin of the author than to the Egyptian
destination of the writing. And as against the
view it is to be borne in mind that in Alexandria
the Epistle was always regarded as addressed to
Palestinians. Hence, a third view has recently
found favor among scholars to the effect that
Rome and its Italian environment are the terri-
tory sought for in this inquiry. The facts upon
which this view is based are the allusions to the
persecutions of Christians, which were endured at
Rome, the allusion to Timothy (xiii -.23) in whom
neither the Palestinian nor Egyptian Christians
had, as far as we know, any special interest, and
finally the allusion to them "of Italy" (xiii:24),
this being understood as a message of some exiled
members of the Roman community to their fellow
citizens. To these considerations others of less
weight could be and have been added inclining
many to the view in question. Upon the whole,
however, the arguments for this view are neither
conclusive in themselves nor strong enough to
overbalance those in favor of the Palestinian
destination, and our conclusion must be that the
Epistle was written with the Christian Jewish
public of Palestine and its needs in immediate
view.
(4) Date. The date of the writing of the Epistle
is fixed by those who believe it to have been com-
posed for the benefit of the churches in Italy and
Rome at some time between 50 A. D. — the date
of the expulsion of the Jews from Rome — and 64
A. D. — the date of the Neronian persecution. If
that destination and object be accepted, the date
is a very reasonable one. The sufferings of the
Jews under Claudius may in such a case be re-
ferred to in x -.^2 as the "former days," whereas,
the impending bloody persecution would naturally
be the cause of the fear and probable falling away
against which the audience is warned. But if the
Palestinian destination of the writing be the cor-
rect one, the year 70 A. D., or at the latest one or
two years earlier, would be the most probable date
of the writing. It is not easy to believe that the
author could have omitted all reference to the
great catastrophe of the destruction of the temple
had he written after that event. Neither could he
have written much earlier, for in such a case, he
could not have appealed to his readers as he does
in ii .3 as men of the second generation of Chris-
tians. We shall not be far out of the way there-
fore, if we set aside as untenable those views
which ascribe it to the reign of Domitian (about
90 A. D.), and of Trajan (about 116 A. D.), and
assign the Epistle to 68 or 69 A. D.
(5) Place. As to the place whence the writing
was issued no data are available. The subscrip-
tion in the received te.xt — "written to the Hebrews
from Italy by Timothy" — is manifestly untrust-
worthy. Corinth, Ephesus, Caesarea, and Alex-
andria have all been advocated as seats of the
origin of the writing, but altogether on conjectural
grounds. If the author was living in his native
environment when he wrote, Alexandria would
have better right to the claim set up in us behalf,
inasmuch as the style and quality of his thought
prove the writer to have been an Alexandrian.
(6) Author. But who was the author? This
question is one of the few bequeathed to the mod-
ern world by the earliest biblical students. Of
other similar questions of authorship it may be
said, they are creatures of modern criticism, but
not of the authorship of Hebrews. The question
was evidently discussed in the earliest days of the
church and up to the time of Origen no general
agreement had been reached. Origen himself was
unable to come to a conclusion and sums up the
condition of thought in his day in the words:
"But who it was that wrote the Epistle God only
knows certainly. The account that has reached
us is (manifold) some saying that Clement, who
became bishop of Rome, wrote it, while others
assign it to Luke, the author of the Gospel and
the Acts." (Eusebius, H. E. vi :25.)
The divergence of view reflected in this passage
disappeared to some extent during the middle
ages. But it was rather through lack of real in-
terest in the question that men acquiesced in a
view which they had not thoroughly tested, than
through the power of a conviction based upon
thorough investigations. Accordingly, as soon as
this period of slothful thought in biblical ques-
tions passed away, the original diversity of view
on the authorship of Hebrews revived. At pres-
ent there may be said to be four general theories
on this point: (a) That of Pauline authorship;
(b) that of composite authorship in which Paul is
assigned a share; (c) that of authorship by an-
other than Paul : and (d) that of suspended judg-
ment or inability to reach a conclusion.
(a) That Paul was the author of Hebrews is
still held by many, though not prominent scholars.
The grounds for holding this opinion are partly
traditional and partly a f>'iori. On the traditional
side, it is said that the .Mexandrian Giurch fathers
ascribe the writing to Paul. On the a priori side
it is argued that the importance and dignity of the
thought are consistent only with the composition
of the epistle bv a "man of first magnitude;" and
none other than Paul was such in the Apostolic
age of Christianity. To these considerations is
added the general resemblance of the doctrinal
.system of the Epistle to the doctrinal system
of the genuinely Pauline epistles and also of
some characteristics of style and diction to the
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
780
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
style and diction of Paul. But neither do these
resemblances strike scholars forcibly enough to
convince them, nor are the considerations of a
traditional and o priori nature conclusive.
On the contrary, a large array of facts are point-
ed out as decisively opposed to this view. These
have been generally classified as pertaining to the
style, form and content. First of all, then, the style
of the Epistle is radically different from that of
the Pauline Epistles in several particulars, (a) It
is characterized by rhythm, euphony, and rhetoric.
There is through the writing, a stately movement
and parallelism or balance of clauses and sentences
very different from Paul's abrupt and fragmentary
expressions. Farrar has likened the difference be-
tween the two authors at this point to the differ-
ence between the stately, dignified, and measured
steps of the priest at service in the temple and
the agile and swift movements of the athlete in
the arena. (6) It is less Hebraistic, more literary,
more idiomatic in construction than Paul's. This
feature of it was noticed as early as the days of
Clement of Alexandria and Origen. (c) The
diction is unique. Paul's favorite expressions are
lacking. The phrase iv Xpio-rC), in Christ, which
occurs seventy-eight times in the Epistles of Paul,
does not occur in Hebrews. So also the phrase
Kupios \i\ao\}% XpKTTSi, the Lord Jesus Christ, which
occurs in everyone of Paul's letters (eighty times
in all) is not found in Hebrews. The word
eiayy^Xiov, gospel, used by Paul sixty times, is not
used in this epistle. The word irariip, father, a^-
plied to God thirty-six times by Paul (exclusive
of the instances in which God is called the Father
of Jesus Christ), and occurring in all of his epis-
tles, is used in that sense only once in Hebrews
(xiiig). (rf) The choice of words is also non-
Pauline. There is a frequent use of verbs corn-
pounded with irapd and inrip which is not found in
Paul's writings. The same is true of verbs in
ffw, of substantives in aU, and of the relatives
Adtv, iiiros too-oCtos. Certain words and phrases
finally, which are favorites of the author of He-
brews, are never found in the Pauline Epistles;
SVich as madairoSoala, dtairavrds, ci's rb iTavT(\4^, els t6
Siiji'CKh, liiToxov (hat.. It is not a sufficient explana-
tion to say of these phrases that Paul has no oc-
casion to use them elsewhere, for he does use
their equivalents, as iucr66i, wavTOTc, KOivuvbu ilvat.,
etc. Nor is it satisfactory to say that all of these
peculiarities can be accounted for upon the supposi-
tion of the lapse of a considerable niterval of time.
So far as we are acquainted with the life of the
Apostle, there is no room for such an interval.
Nor again is there a tendency in Paul's style to-
wards the change indicated by the difference.
And, finally, the assumption that Paul, writing to
the Jews, purposely adopted this style is not satis-
factory, inasmuch as the Jews were not especially
in a situation to appreciate finished Greek diction,
certainly not as much so as the Corinthians or
Ephesians. Of the theory which strives to ac-
count lor these facts through the mediation of an
amanuensis, it will not be necessary to speak at
this point; for this view accounts for nothing if
it is construed to mean that the amanuensis sim-
ply wrote down what Paul dictated ; but if more
freedom is given by the supposilicn to the aman-
uensis, he is thereby raised to a joint author and
the theory falls under another class. Secondly.
there are some considerations growing out of the
form of the writing that indicate non-Pauline au-
thorship. Such are: (a) The ab-^cnce of a salu-
tation, self-naming and thanksgiving. The reason
why Paul should have resorted to this change of
form is not apparent and the difference is remark-
able in view of the uniform way in which all his
acknowledged epistles follow the type of his liter-
ary production. (&) The arrangement of the writ-
ing. In his other writings, Paul masses the doctri-
nal, ethical, and practical parts of his message into
sections. In the Epistle to the Hebrews, the
practical or hortatory part is broken and its parts
interspersed through the writing, (f) The con-
fession of dependence upon others for information
(ii:3 f. ). Paul everywhere insists on the original-
ity of his message. This he considers an essential
feature of his apostleship. He has received the
Gospel by revelation. The author of Hebrews has
heard it from those that heard Jesus, (d) The
use of the Old Testament. Both quote from the
LXX. But Paul quotes with reference to the con-
text, whereas this author quotes without such ref-
erence. Paul quotes from the Vatican recension ;
this author quotes from the Alexandrian. Paul
quotes as if from memory ; this author, as if copy-
ing the text from a MSS. before him. Paul intro-
duces his quotations as "Scripture;" this author
as the "word of God." Paul is satisfied simply to
cite the words quoted; this author "improves" or
makes use of the words (ii:6-9; iii:i-4, lo; vii:
1-25) notes silence (vii:3) and supplements tl-.eni
(iv:6-9; xi:i3-i6). In general, the use of the
Old Testament in Hebrews is half mystical, half
spiritualistic in its method. Thirdly, the argu-
ment and type of thought of the Epistle to the He-
brews is unlike that of Paul. There are indeed
resemblances to the Pauline type which have led
many to characterize it as "deutero-Pauline," but
in general, the differences are more striking.
Paul's idea of faith as the sinner's trust in Christ
gives place in Hebrews to faith as an assurance
of the reality of invisible things and therefore
trust in God's word. Paul's idea of justification
as a forensic act declaring the sinner guiltless at
the bar of God, yields to the doctrine of perfec-
tion (tcXcioktis). Vice versa, Paul's conception
of sanctification as a moral process equivalent
to growth in inner holiness finds its parallel in
the doctrine of external sanctification or conse-
cration by a priestly act (a^iaff/nis). Paul's gen-
eral conception of Christianity is that it stands
in sharp antithesis to Judaism, whereas in He-
brews it is the development and consummation of
the Old Testament system. While these differ-
ences are not irreconcilable and might have been
consistent with Pauline authorship if found alone,
their occurrence together with the differences al-
ready pointed out in the other classes leads to the
conclusion that the Epistle to the Hebrews wasnot
written by Paul, to say the least with as little
mediation on the part of amanuenses as the other
letters of the Apostle.
(b) Was Hebrews, then, written by Paul con-
jointly with some assistant? The affirmative an-
swer to this question takes two forms. Accord-
ing to the first, the Apostle dictated the treatise
to some one in Hebrew, and it was translated
by this person to its present Greek form. This
view was propounded by Clement of Alexandria
in order to account for the difference of style be-
tween the Epistle to the Hebrews and Paul's
other letters. But, though it has been and is held
by some, yet it has against it the facts that it is
not in style alone that Hebrews differs from Paul's
writings, but in form and content also. Further-
more, Hebrews was evidently written in Greek
and is no translation.
According to the second variety of the theory
of composite authorship, Paul is supposed to have
delivered the substance of the writing to some
one of his followers, who then worked it over in
his own way, supplying form and diction. To the
HEBREWS. EPISTLE TO THE
181
HKHREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
further question w!io this follower was, some
adherents of this k 'ivimi vi> u answer Luke and
some, Clciiiciil of Rome. That Luke took and re-
Stated Paul's message to the Hebrews is argued
by Delitzsch, upon the ground of the alleged sim-
ilarity of language between this treatise and the
third Gospel and the book of Acts. But this sim-
ilarity is very general, and extends no further
than the use of certain words and expressions
which were probably common to all Hellenistic
writers. Differences between Luke and the au-
thor of Hebrews have also been pointed out, and,
upon the whole, they overbalance the similarities
referred to.
Clement of Rome was first suggested by Ori-
gen as the mediator between Paul and the audi-
ence to which Hebrews is addressed, and has
been accepted as such by some on the ground of
the numerous citations of the Epistle to the He-
brews in the first Epistle of Clement to tlie Cor-
inthians. But a careful study of the two writings
leaves no room for doubt that Clement is using
Hebrews as the work of some other man, and
that, aside from this, there is no other relation-
ship between the two productions. The author
of Hebrews is undoubtedly a more forceful and
original thinker than Clement. Moreover, the ar-
gument from style is fatally against the identifi-
cation of the two.
By way of mere suggestion in more recent
times, Mark and Aquila have been also named as
possible partners with Paul in the writing of
Hebrews. But as these suggestions cannot rise
above the level of mere conjecture, they have not
been seriously considered by scholars.
(c) H Pauline autliorship cannot be ascribed to
Hebrews, cither directly or through the mediation
of an assistant, the question next occurs whether
some Jther well-known person of the Apostolic
age can be identified as the author. Three such
♦ well-known characters have been singled out and
assigned this role. (l) The first of these is Silas
(so Coder). Silas was a prominent member of
the Christian community of Jerusalem, a Jewish
Christian prophet and a Roman citizen. He was
a comp.'i.nion of Paul on his second missionary
journey (Acts xv:4o; xviii-xxii), and associated
with the Apostle in liis letters (i Thess. i:i; 2
Thess. i:i; 2 Cor. ii:i9) under the name of Sil-
vanus. The fact that he was acquainted with
Timothy, taken with the mention of Timothy in
Hcb. xiii .23, has led some to think that he wrote
the Epistle to the Hebrews. But, on the other
hand, no trace of an external tradition ascribing
the epistle to him is to be found, and, as he left
us no other writings, and we cannot thus reach a
conclusion regarding his style and type of
thought, and as we are not informed that he had
an Alexandrian education, it is not possible to
lest the value of the hypothesis that ascribes one
Epistle to him. (2) The second person to whom
the epistle has been ascribed is Apollos. This was
the opinion favored by Lutlier (Works. Ed. of
Erlaugun, Vol. XL p. 130. ad Gen. X\'1II. 20).
Regarding Apollos, the book of Acts informs us
that he was a Jew, an Alexandrian, an eloquent
man, versed in the Old Testament Scriptures,
converted to the faith and active as a preacher
and defender of the Messiahship of Jesus among
the Jews. He joined Paul and his companions
at Ephesus (Acts xviii:24). and was very helpful
to those who had believed. He had been selected
by one of the factions of Corinth as their head
and representative, undoubtedly without his con-
sent or knowledge (l Cor. i:i2). Here arc char-
acteristics which appear also in the author of
Hebrews: 1. c, first of all, independence, taleni
in disinitalion, precision in thought, fervor, gift
of graceful and persuasive use of language,
knowledge of Scripture. On the ground of these,
luany have followed Luther ( Ue Write, Bleek,
Tholuck, Lunemann, Kurtz, Farrar, Alford, Pres-
scnse, Davidson. Hilgenfeld, and, with hesitation,
Pfleiderer) in ascribing the writing to Apollos.
On the other side, however, it is necessary to re-
member that Apollos was not a Christian of the
second generation, as Heb. ii :3 demands that its
author should have been, but of about the same
age as Paul; neither is it likely that, after taking
as important a part in the Judaistic-Pauline con-
troversy, he should have made no allusion to that
subject, especially in writing for Juda;ochris-
tians. (3) The only oilur prominent leader of
the Apostolic age named in this connection is
Barnabas. The view which makes Barnabas the
aullior of Hebrews is perhaps the most widely
.iccepted at the present day (Ullman, Wicseler,
\olkmar, B. Weiss, Keil, Salmon, Kenan, Zahn,
and Il.irnack). The reasons that lead to this
conclusion are, first of all, the ancient tradition
attested by Tertullian that Barnabas wrote He-
brews (de Pudiiitia. 20) ; then Barnabas was
from Cyprus, and thus in close touch with Alex-
andria. He was also a companion of Paul, a fact
that may explain the Pauline elements of the
thought, in Hebrews, and a Levite possessing an
intimate acquaintance with the ceremonial law.
All of these characteristics undoubtedly belong
to the author of Hebrews also. But it may be
asked, Could Barnabas have classified himself
with the second generation of Christian believers?
And, further, as a Levite, was he not better ac-
quainted with the Hebrew than appears to be the
author of Hebrews? Finally, an epistle bearing
the name of Barn,abas is extant. Antiquity ad-
mitted this, whether correctly or not. it is of no
consequence.^ But having admitted one letter,
why should it have scrupled about conceding him
also the Epistle to the Hebrews? These questions
make the claim in behalf of Barnabas a difScult
one to establish.
(d) Accordingly, many scholars, (Eichhorn.
F.wald. Kc'istliii, Lipsius. von Soden, Iloltzmann,
Mcncgoz, Jiilicher, Rendall, Dods, Westcott, A.
B. Davidson, Bruce, and Milligan) feel compelled
to ascribe the writing to an unknown author of
Alexandrian training, if not birth. Bishop West-
cott finds in the anonymousness of the writing an
evidence of the spiritual wealth of the Apostolic
age. In any case, the divine authority and canon-
icity of the epistle are "self-attested and ratified
by the illuminated consciousness of the Christian
Society, and that apart from any certitude as to
the name and identity of the writer."
Helps to the Study of the Epistle to the
Hebrebis.
Of the older commentaries on Hebrews, Cal-
vin's (In Novum Tcslamcntitm Commcntarii,
Herl. 1838) and Owen's ./» lix/'osilion of the
Epistle to the Hebretvs. may still be mentioned
as full of value. The Epistle has been more re-
cently commented on. and foremost in the list of
later works must stand Westcott's Ep. to the Heb.
2nd Ed., London, 1892. Other works of impor-
tance are T. C. Edwards, /?/>. to the Heb. (in the
Expositor's Bible). Liinemann. Handbook to the
/;/). to the Heb. (in Mever's Commentarw Eng.
Tr. Edinb. 1882). Rendall, The Ef. to the Heb.
in Greek, London, 1883, and The Ep. to the Heb,
ill Eng. t888. Delitzsch. Com. on the Ep. in the
Heb. (Eng. tr. t868). A. B. Davidson (in Hand-
HEBREWS, LITERATURE OF THE
782
HEBREWS, LITERATURE OF THE
hooks for Bible Classes) Edinb. 1882. Farrar
(in Catnb. Bible for schcx>ls) Lond., 1883. A. B.
Bruce. The Ef. to the Heb. Edinb., 1899. W. Kay
(in the Sj^eaker's Commentary) Lond., 1881. J.
B. McCaul, Tlie Ep. to the Hcb. Lond., 1S71.
■W. F. Moullon (in EUicott's New Test. Cum.) C.
J. Vaughan, The Ep. to the Heb. Lond. 1890. F.
D. Maurice (Warburton Lectures) Lond., 1846.
Of commentaries in the German language,
Bleek, Der Brief an die Hebr. Berl. 1828-1840, still
holds a prominent place. In addition we may
name Ewald's (Getting. 1870), Holtzheuer (Berl.
1883), Keil's (Leip. 1885), Kurtz (Mitau, 1869),
Schaefer's (Catholic; Miinster, 1893). WeisS;
(Gotting, 1888). On the theology of the Epistle to
the Hebrews, Riehm's Der Lehrbegriff des He-
braerbriefcs, in German. Menegoz, La Theologie
de I'Epitre aux Hebreux, in French, and George
Milligan, The Theology of the Epistle to the He-
erary treatment were ready to their hand in sucli
lyric fragments as the matchless Song of Deborah,
or the poetic utterances of Kmg David (2 Sam.
1:19-27), in the popular stories about the heroes
and leaders of the nation, and in the abundant rec-
ords of one kind and another, traditional, legal
and annalistic, which they seem to have pre-
served.
There is good reason for thinking that at-
tempts had been made in David's time, and even
earlier, to gather up these materials and to unify
them into literary wholes. The book of Jasher
"the Excellent" (Josh. x:i3; 2 Sam. i:i8) and
the book of the Wars of Jehovah (Num. xxi:i4)
were collections of popular poetry. The works
referred to in l Chron. xxix:29 indicate that
minor histories were attempted. The structure
of such books as Leviticus or Exodus indicates
that the Mosaic enactments existed in subordinate
The Sea of Tibenas.
hrews, in English, are the most useful. On the
authorship, date, and design of the epistle consult
the current works on N. T. Introduction.
A. C. Z.
HEBREWS, LITERATtXEE OF THE.
1. Its beginning. The Hebrews have held a
place in the history of nations since about looo
B. C. Prior to David's time the conditions of life
with which the people struggled were such as to
preclude any real unity of action or thinking and
any self-developed activity outside of the arts
of war, agriculture or government. The most im-
portant steps toward a real literature were taken
when the tribes were welded into a united n?tion
tinder David, and the prophetic and priestly orders
became definite and important factors in its de-
velopment. These organized bodies became in
Palestine, as they were in Babylonia and else-
where, a class with the motive impulses and
ideals and with the leisure essential to the develop-
ment of a national literature. Materials for lit-
groupings. Nevertheless it seems clear that these
productions were only preparatory. The distinct-
ive literary development of the Hebrew nation was
in the interest of ideas which did not get hold of
the national mind much earlier than the eighth
and ninth century B. C, the age of the great his-
torians and of the notable quartet of prophets.
Amos. Hosea, Isaiah and ?,Iicah. Lender the stimu-
lus of these brilliant thinkers, the accumubted
records and memories of the past were utilized to
illustrate to the nation the significance of its his-
tory.
2. External Influences. The Hebrews were
so situated as to make a literary development
natural. They belonged to the Semitic family of
nations, each one of which under the proper corj-
ditions has developed a literature. They spoke a
language closely related to that of the Baby-
lonians and Assyrians. Right across the center
of their territory passed the stream of interna-
tional traffic between the two great centers of
culture and commerce in that day, the Tigris-Eu-
HEBREWS, LI IKKATUKE OK THE
7S3
HEBREWS, LllKKAlUKE OK THE
phrates basin and the valley of the Nile. Thus the
more active minds among the Hebrews were kept
in dose touch with the problems and achieve-
ments of the western Asiatic world. The Tel-el-
Aniarna Tablets give evidence that the culture of
Babylonia was paramount in Syria — Palestine in
the fifteenth century B. C. and earlier. During
the centuries that followed this influence was less
direct, but still appreciable. About 600 B. C, dur-
ing the Great Captivity, when the Hebrews were
compelled to make their homes in Babylonia for
half a century, a second great impulse to literary
productiveness was received.
3. Classification. To separate Hebrew liter-
ature into periods of development is unsatisfac-
tory. A less usual but more practical classifica-
tion will be by three artificial groupings, the liter-
ature preserved in the Hebrew or English Old
Testament, the extra-canonical literature and the
Rabbinic literature.
The Old Testament fairly represents the choic-
est productions of the Hebrew mind down to
about the second century B. C. The Great Cap-
tivity (B.C. 586-538) made an alteration in the cir-
cumstances of the nation for the next four hun-
dren years, which marked the literature. In He-
brew literature, however, form is so fully subor-
dinated to idea that the unity of Biblical literature
is far more marked than its diversity. We can
only treat the Old Testament as a literary whole.
The activity of the Hebrew mind did not cease
with the completion of the Canon. Numberless
writings were put forth between the second cen-
tury B. C. and the corresponding date of our era.
Many of these are worthy of mention.
A peculiar development of Judaism is repr«-
sented by the Targums, the Mishna and the Tal-
mud, which will require brief attention.
4. biblical Literature. The literature pre-
served in the Old Testament constitutes the most
representative section of Hebre^v literature. It
is the choicest portion of a literary output of con-
siderable extent through many centuries. Its col-
lections of psalms and proverbs are anthologies
which include specimens, centuries apart in time
of origin. Its histories have grown out of earlier
histories. Its wisdom writings are masterpieces
in their class. Owing to this gradual selection of
the fittest, the literature of the Bible is remarkable
for its permanent and satisfying character. It re-
wards examination from the purely literary point
of view.
(1) The Historical Writings of the Old Testa-
ment are thirteen in number. The Biblical histo-
ries are exactly like modern histories, in that they
are compilations, made from earlier historical
sources long after the date represented by those
sources and intended to instruct the people of
the compiler's day. They differ from modern
histories in that instead of sketching the rise and
progress of a people they illustrate an idea. They
are reviews of religious progress, histories of Di-
vine Providence. To effect this there is large use
of the historic story, which Moulton calls the
"epical style" of narrative. The story of Joseph
is such a prose epic; the narrative of Elijah is
another; the story of Balaam mingles prose, epic
and verse. They do more than store the mind ;
they touch the imagination and the emotions.
One of the finest examples of Hebrew history
is the book of First Samuel. One who fol-
lows closely its treatment of the period of
Saul's reign vvill notice that the historical facts as
such are rapidly passed over, the personal de-
scriptions are mere sketches, stress is laid on crises
and the way in which Jehovah met them by rais-
ing up the right man at the proper time and on
his care of these agents. Thus the whole book
becomes a sermon on God's providential care for
Israel. At the same time it is a model of terse,
instructive narrative.
Closely allied to this type of history is the partly
imaginative narrative represented by the books of
Ruth or Esther or Jonah. In these the historical
or prophetic purpose is attained more strikingly
by the skillful use of the novelist's art. '1 he
prologue of the Book of Job illustrates this. The
story is so skillfully told that we are as certain of
Job s innocence as of his unexampled calamities.
(2) Old Testament Poetry is peculiar. We may
feel its charm without understanding the secret of
it. Only the Hebrew student can catch some of
its minor devices, such as assonance, alliteration
and the alphabetical acrostic. The English reader
may, however, catch the most distinctive element
of form, that symmetrical arrangement of clauses
in a verse called parallelism. Compare Job xxxix :
19-25 or Job xxviii, passages which owe their
rhythmic efTect to this cause. The various poetical
forms were well understood by the Hebrews. The
Song of Deborah (Judges v) or the Song of
Moses (Exod. xv) are notable examples of the
ode. The book of Lamentations, when properly
rendered, illustrates the elegiac rhythm, a long line
followed by a short one. This and other pecul-
iarities are obscured by the method of printing
followed in the English Bible. The Psalter is a
great storehouse of lyrics, elegies, odes and cor-
responding literary forms.
(3) The 'Wisdom or Philosophical writings of
the Hebrews are represented by Proverbs, Job,
Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. Their variety
is such as to indicate that the Hebrews loved to
dwell on the problems of life and developed a
rich literature of reflection, which made free use
of literary devices. The simple proverb, the
proverb cluster (Prov. xxv;2-7), the connected
composition or essay on some theme (Eccles. iii :
I ; iv:8) ; the dramatic dialogue as in the Book of
Job; the dramatic monologue (Proverbs viii) — all
are used with great skill and to good effect.
The most distinctive class of writings in the
Old Testament are those which we call Prophetic.
No other national literature contains their equiva-
lent. They owe their preservation primarily to
their contents rather than their form. They are
sermons. The prophetic writings embody a va-
riety of literary forms, for the prophets were men
of extraordinary versatility, who pressed their
messages home with consummate skill. Notice
the graphic manner in which Joel describes the
deva^-itation of his land and the onset of the locust
army on the Day of Jehovah, the magnificent ora-
tion or rhapsody of Isaiah on Jehovah's Rod and
Reign (xi:4), the stirring ode of judgment in
Habakkuk iii. These writings owe not a little of
their impressiveness to the fact that, while they
preserve the vigor and directness of an address,
they arc actually carefully edited abstracts of the
utterances of a prophet during a considerable pe-
riod of time. Comp. Jer. xxv:3-i3, where the
"book" represents about ten chapters.
5. The Special Value of "Biblical Liter-
ature. Its superiority over contemporary ancient
literature can hardly be disputed. This is not be-
cause it is rich in literary forms, not because it is
distinctively religious in its tone, but because of
its lack of trivialness, the high plane of the mo-
tives which inspired it, the unselfish spirit which
breathes throughout it, and the noble ideals to
which it gives expression. It therefore becomes
by human as well as divine right the literature
of culture, of inspiration and of life.
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
784
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
6. She Extra-Canonical and Rabbinic
Literature, The extra-caiK)iiic;il literature was
copious. M(5st of the works available for us are
those which were admitted into the Greek Old
1 estainent and have come down to us as "Apoc-
rypha." They include such histories as First
and Second Maccabees, such stories as Judith,
Tobit and First Esdras, such wisdom writings as
Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon, such
varied productions as the Psalter of the Pharisees
or the book of Enoch or of Baruch. Some of
these were written in Greek, but they are truly
Hebraistic and belong to an account of Hebrew
literature. With one or two exceptions they are
distmctly below the literary level of the biblical
books.
By the second century A.D. the lines had been
closely drawn between Judaism and Christianity.
Each followed a distinct development. Judaism
dropped out of touch with the world and gave
itself, through its great scholars, to a gathering
up in exact form of the established paraphrasings
of the Hebrew of the Old Testament into the
spoken Aramaic, thus producing the Targums,
and of the decisions of the older Rabbis on sub-
jects of religious importance, thus developing the
chapters of the Mishna. The Talmud is not easily
described. One might call it a vast storehouse of
tradition, interpretation, stories, discussions, medi-
tations— a collection containing much rubbish
along with considerable material of value. It is
a cyclopedia in all but arrangement ; it is a litera-
ture only in measurement. It marks the close of
the literary activity of the ancient Hebrews.
F. K. S.
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE (he'brus
re-lij'in).
(1) The Pre-Mosaic Period, (i) The ancient
Hebrews belong:ed to the Semitic group af na-
tions, having its original home in northern
Arabia, from which region migrations into the
Mesopotamian valley formed the eastern branch,
including the Babylonians and Assyrians. From
Mesopotamia came the northern Semites or
Arameans, and the western Semites, including
the Phoenicians, Canaanites and Hebrews. Of
these westward migrations, that of the Hebrews,
was among the latest, including, as it did, clans
that later broke off into separate nations, such as
Moab, Ammon and Edom. The memorials of
Hebrew history and religion that have been pre-
served are found in the Old Testament. The
books composing that collection are of varying
dates, from the eighth to the second centuries
B. C. But several of them contain documents
much older. Traditions and legends of the past
are incorporated, and the effort is made by later
writers to reconstruct the origins of the nation,
as well as the early history of the world. But
the purpose of these narratives is rather religious
than historical. The materials are chosen seem-
ingly with the object of illustrating the growth of
the religion, and not of giving a connected recital
of the national experiences. It therefore becomes
a matter of difficulty to discover the religious
character of the earliest period, colored as it is by
the ideas of the later days when the narratives
received their present form. But this material
deals with the earliest traditions of the race in a
spirit marked by an earnestness and sobriety in
striking contrast with similar accounts produced
by other nations. (2) The Hebrew people brought
with them from their earlier home in the east the
religious conceptions coinmon to the Semitic
races, and these appear to some extent in the
narratives of the early period, though modified and
given other meanings by later writers. Yet from
th.; first a new force was operating in this national
history. That peculiar factor which distinguished
Israel from other nations appeared early, even be-
fore the days of Moses. Those Seiiiilic elements
which this people had in common with its neigh-
bors were used, modified, or eliminated in the de-
velopment of that particular type of religion which
the Old Testament alone discloses. Two processes
were at work : the natural growth of religious
ideas, as among other nations, and the providential
evolution of those unique elements whose fuller
disclosure appears in Christianity. (3) Studied
in the light of their heredity and environment, the
Hebrews exhibit religious characteristics in strik-
ing contrast to those of their ancestors or the kin-
dred tribes about them. But those peculiar forces
make their appearance but slowly, and under the
leadership of rare men. These men gave to the
national life its chief significance. There is always
a temptation, however, to observe only the unique
features of Israel's religious life and to forget the
thorough Semitism of this people and the features
of its earliest cult, which is possessed in common
with the other races of the Semitic family, These
nations v;ere polytheists, offered sacrific-;s, even
human sacrifices, practiced circumcision, to some
extent at least, erected sanctuaries for their gods,
believed that certain places were sacred to the
gods, had religious festivals like the Sabbath and
other sacred seasons, used images in worship or
as family teraphiin, and believed in a d;in under-
world into which the dead descended. Many, per-
haps it may be said all. of these features are ex-
hibited by the earliest Hebrew religion, and some
continue and are developed, while others fall quite
out of sight. But even from the earliest begin-
nings" of the national life there is a difference be-
tween Jsrael and the rest. This is most strikingly
illustrated in the conceptions of deity held by this
people. From this the higher ethical character of
the nation arose. The earliest ideas may have
been polytheistic, as the plural form of the word
Elohim (God) hints, and there may appear rare
indications of such an idea (Gen. iii:22), but they
are slight. There are no traces of a Hebrew
oantheon. This is the more surprising when it is
observed that the neighboring and kindred tribes
of Edom, Ammon, and Moab, descended indeed
from the traditional ancestors of the Hebrews,
were polytheists. In the case of Moab the evi-
dence is found in the mention of at least two gods
on the celebrated "Moabite Stone" of King
Mesha. But while the worship of more than one
god is not traceable in the religion of Israel, that
religion is not, in its earlier stages, a pure mono-
theism, but rather monolatry, i. e., the worship of
a national God for Israel, while admitting the
existence of other gods for other nations (Judg.
xi:24; l Sam. xxvi:i9). There are certain inter-
esting characteristics of the Hebrew idea of God
which mark the being they worshiped as quite
different from the gods of the nations about them.
He had no goddess or consort, nor was his wor-
ship attended by any of those degrading rites
connected so largely with the worship of god-
desses. Fire was his symbol (Ex. iii 14 ; Judg. xiii :
20; 2 Kings i:io). He could be seen only with
peril to the beholder (Judg. xiii:22), and sacred
places and objects could be approached only with
danger (i Sam. ving; 2 Sam. vi :6 sq.; Ex. xix :
21 sq.) . He led his people in war (Ex. xv:3), and
their rchievements in battle were his own (Num.
xxi:i4), while cities taken in his name and de-
voted to him were destroyed. In these and other
elements of the faith are discerned the harsher
and fiercer characteristics of the age. Righteous-
ness was, however, the dominant feature of his
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THI.
785
HEBREWS, RELIGION Of THE
nature, and to this belief much of the high ethical
tone of the Hebrew religiiui is to be traced. (4)
Abraham is the traditional ancestor of this people,
and the one to whom the earliest disclosures of
the divine character arc made. Whatever the
legendary nature of the traditions regarding this
man. there can be little doubt of Kis reality and
impress upon the national life. Faith in God is
his motive. He comes westward to a new land in
obedience to a divine impulse (Gen. .\ii:i .$<;.). He
erects altars wherever he stops (Gen. xii:8;
.\iii:4), and constantly lives in cornmunion with
God. He is even willing to offer his son in sac-
rifice (Gen. xxii). according to the custom of his
dav, but is forbidden to carry out his purpose, and
thus the ban is placed on the practice, though it
does not disappear. The patriarchs whom the
early traditions introduce to us are not demi-
gods, but men — men of very imperfect character,
like Abraham and Jacob, and typical sheiks of the
Orient, whose counterparts might be found there
to this day, but, withal, men with a moral purpose,
it we may trust the outlines of their lives, a pur-
pose never obscured in Abraham's case, gradually
attained in that of Jacob, and preparing for a ful-
ler disclosure of the divine purpose in later days.
In this period many of the elements of Semitic
religion are discovered. Altars were built on bills
and under trees, sacrificial meals and sacred
festivals were celebrated, circumcision was in-
troduced, and probably abstinence from blood and
the taboo of certain kinds of food were practiced.
With these went the customs of blood revenge,
polygamy, concubinage, and slavery. Images for
worship, called terapliim, wjre not unknown, even
in the families of the patriarchs (Gen. xxxing),
and sacred stones were set up and anointed with
oil (Gen. xxxv:i4, 15; Josh. iv:2o), while certain
places were deemed especially sacred, as Hebron,
Shechem, the Oak of Moreh, and Beersheba.
(2) The Beligion of Moses, (i) After an in-
definite period of residence in Canaan, the Hebrew
clans moved southward into Egygt, following the
leadership of the tribe of Joseph. The monu-
ments mention many migrations of this character
into a country that was the granary of the world
at the time, but no certain identification of the
Hebrews in any inscriptions can be made. A
period of prosperity in which the Joseph clan
came to prominence was followed by a reversal
of policy toward foreigners, and the hardships of
servitude were experienced. After a stay of about
four centuries, the cm.incipntion of the Hebrews
was wrought by a leader named Moses. His first
attempt to rouse the nation to action was unsuc-
cessful, and he was compelled to quit the country
(Ex. ii:ii-i5; Acts vii:2,V25). He betook him-
self to the territory of Midian, and entered into
alliance with that tribe. After a time the divine
impulse came upon him to renew his effort in
behalf of his oppressed countrymen. Mount
Sinai was the mountain of God. the reputed home
of deity (Ex. iii:i-5; xix:2; Judp. v:5). and here
Moseswas commissioned to undertake the difficult
task. He returned to Egypt, and at last succeeded in
the plan of deliverance, which was greatly aided
by a series of disasters that fell upon Eg\'pt at
that time, and which wore ever believed by the
Hebrews to mark the wrath of God against their
oppressors. The departing host made its way
toward the friendly land of Midian. and. crossing
an arm of the Gulf of Suez at low water, the
Egyptian army sent in pursuit was overthrown
and destroyed. This deliverance was celebrated
in perhaps the oldest fragment of Hebrew litera-
ture (Ex. xv), and was forever regarded as the
decisive sign of the divine care of the nation.
&0
Moving on to the sacred mountain Sinai, Mos;:.
whose place as a leader had been firmly estab-
lished by the remarkable experiences of the past,
seized the opportunity to lay the foundations of
national life by the promulgation of certain insti-
tutes of political and religious character suited to
the people he was leading. No attempt was made
to break with the past (Ex. iii:6; iv:5; vi:2, 3;
vii:i6). The Hebrews already possessed a re-
ligion which differed in no small degree from that
of other nations, but in the centuries of serfdom
in Egypt much of the patriarchal practice, simple
as it was, may have been forgotten. But the peo-
ple were passing from clan life to nationality.
The purpose of Moses was to prepare for a future
such as had been foreseen by none of his ancestors.
Looking at the work which Moses accomplished
for this people, taking them at a time of such
utter lack of organization and of such elementary
religious ideas; witnessing the lofty character of
the ideals which he lifted before them, however
little they were realized for centuries, the ques-
tion naturally rises. What is the explanation of his
unique personaliiy and his conceptions of God
and righteousness, so greatly in contrast with the
philosophy of the Eg>'ptian priesthood and the
barbarism and immoralily of the common life in
his day ? The response is to be found alone in
that divine choice of this nation, not for its own
sake, but for the disclosure it might make through
its history of the divine purposes regarding men.
Thisdisclosure could only be made through chosen
men intrusted with leadership, and among these
one of the most conspicuous is Moses. (2) Our
sources tell us that a new name for God sprung
up in this period. The indefinite Etohim no longer
sufficed to represent the covenant God of the He-
brew people, who had made himself known to
their fathers. The new name is Jehovah, or more
correctly Jahveh (also written Yahva or Yahway,
and pronounced in accordance with the latter
form), the living, self-existent (Ex. vi:i-4).
Whether this name originated with Moses, or was
used in Midian and brought back by him, or was
used in his family, as the name of his mother
might suggest (Ex. vi:2o), or in the tribe of
Joseph, as Joshua (Je-Hoshua) might argue, in
any case the name first appears at the time of
Moses' return from Midian, and was connected
in Hebrew traditions with an epiphany at Sinai.
The name continued to be employed to the close
of the Old Testament literature. It is not claimed
as yet that Jahveh is the only God. but that he
alone must be worshiped by Israel. Othe-
nations may have their deities, but the Hebrews
must have no god beside Jahveh, It will be seen
that it is a far cry from this idea of moijolatry
to the pure monotheism of the post-exilic period ;
but the religious education of Israel was a long
and painful process, and one thing had to be
learned at a time. (3) The code of laws promul-
gated by Moses (Ex. xx :2,^. 34) dealt with the
situation in which Israel found itself in the period
of its unsettled life, and served as the basis of
all the legislation that grew up in later times. So
largely was the_ Mosaic spirit preser\'Cd and con-
tinued in all the legislative material ever pro-
duced by Israel that the phrase, "The Law of
Moses" was never felt to be a misnomer in de-
scribing the body of statutes, the most of which,
as a matter of fact, came into existence centuries
subsequent to the time of Moses. The first code,
called the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx:23. ,^4).
and including the Decalogue in its primitive form,
is a striking interpretation of the character of
Jahveh, the national God. There is little in com-
mon with either the nature-worship of the times
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
786
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
or the speculative character of the Egyptian re-
ligion, from which it might be supposed leading
elements would be drawn. Jahveh is righteous
and holy, and he demands these characteristics in
his people. There is an utter lack of the sensuous
elements of other religions. No images are to be
employed. Altars of earth at places selected fur-
nish a sufficient means of worship. But Jahveh
alone must be the object of this service. The ele-
ment of sternness, not to say fierceness, which the
Hebrews associated with the character of God,
appears. Jahveh is capable of fierce wrath when
his will is not honored (Ex. xxii 123, 24; xxxiv :
7), and he will not lightly overlook transgression
xxiii:2l). His jealousy of other gods who may
receive the affection of his people is carried to the
extent of forbidding any covenant with other
nations, and of commanding the total destruction
of all symbols of worship not connected with the
national cult (Ex. xxxiv ;i2-i6). The nations are
to be driven out before Israel (Ex. xxiii :22-24).
This stern spirit appears in certain of the laws
regulating social life. The lex talionis is to be
enforced (Ex. xxi:24). The man who kills an-
other, or smites or curses his father or mother, is
to be put to death. Yet there is a note of great
tenderness in the laws of this primitive code. Care
for the life and honor of servants, mitigation of
the severities of the blood feud, care for the
property and welfare of all the community, kind
treatment of strangers, even help to an enemy in
distress, are enforced. The seventh day and year
are made sacred, and three annual religious feasts
are instituted. The standard of morality and wor-
ship is high for the age. Indeed, it was the first
serious attempt to unite morality with religion.
Justice and purity, as elements in the divine char-
acter, were demoded of the people ; and if there
was a sternness and harshness in the character of
Jahveh which seems incompatible with a moral-
ized idea of deity, they might easily be found to
co-exist in the mind of a teacher like Moses, with
the profound conviction that God is sternly just
and demands justice and holiness in his fol-
lowers. (4) In providing for the future of the
nation Moses made use of those ancestral relig-
ious elements which commended themselves to his
divinely illumined judgment. Circumcision, altar
sacrifice, the sabbatic periods, the fundamental
laws of morality were all accepted as sanctioned
by Jahveh. With them certain features in the
Egyptian and Midianitish religions were incorpo-
rated, such as the idea of the sanctuary and sacred
palladium or ark, the priesthood, and the Urim
and Thummim. Moses established a tent of meet-
ing at Kadesh, and the function of priestly service
he assigned to his own tribe of Levi. This office
of priest and that of judge he probably derived
frorn the practice he had observed in Midian (Ex.
xviii:i, 17-25). The priesthood was much more
than a mere order of sacrificers. The latter func-
tion was not confined to them till a much later
period. Kings, prophets, and common citizens
had the right of sacrifice (Judg. vi:24-26; xiiitig;
I Sam. xiv :34, 35; 2 Sam. vi:i7, 18; i Kings
xviii). The priests were the spiritual teachers
and leaders of the nation, and the interpreters of
the will of God. They had a Torah, or law, which
grew up around the Decalogue and the Book of
the Covenant given by Moses. This Torah grew
as experience widened the application of the prim-
itive code. Moses' actual contribution to the lit-
erature of Israel was probably small. Jesus, the
founder of Christianity, wrote nothing. Never-
theless, Moses stands as the most striking figure
of the early history, a figure so important and
lofty that his influence is plainly traced through-
out all the subsequent history as the great prophet
and spiritual leader, the organizer of Israel's na-
tional life.
(3) The Conquest and the Judges, (i)
About the year 1250 B. C. the Hebrew nation,
having spent some time in the less desirable re-
gions to the south and east of the Dead Sea, be-
gan their entrance and conquest of Canaan. The
experiences of the desert had developed the quali-
ties of national life and prepared a generation of
warriors. After the conquest of the east-Jordan
districts the river was crossed and the serious
business of occupying the rich lands to the west
was undertaken. Canaan was ever the coveted
goal of the desert tribes, and Israel was neither
the first nor last of the nations that attempted its
possession. The inhabitants already represented
a variety of elements, the result of successive in-
roads, and against these older and higher civiliza-
tions Israel prepared to do battle. The success
with which this purpose was attained was the
result, in no small degree, of the hardships of the
desert, which had toughened the national fiber,
and of the personality and work of Moses, who
had given something of form and national spirit
to the band of refugees who had so recently es-
caped Egyptian serfdom. In a series of rapid and
aggressive campaigns, under the leadership of
Joshua, some of the most important cities were
taken, and the united opposition of the Canaan-
ites was broken (Josh. vi:i2-27; viii:io-29; x:
n), while a portion of the population succeeded
in making terms with the invaders (Josh. ix:ii-
19). It is evident, however, that scarcely more
than a foothold was secured at the time, and that
the only thing needed to inspire the native popu-
lation to renewed hostilities was the removal of
Joshua and the decay of the strong military force
organized under his hand. Much of the land was
not really conquered (Josh. xiii:i-6). The best
that could be done was to secure a possession in
the land and wait for greater strength. But this
period was yet far ahead. The strong cities were
in Canaanite hands, and for the most part the
Israelites were obliged to content themselves with
the smaller towns and open country. War was
carried on for many years, but with varying suc-
cess (Judg. i), and not infrequently the people
were reduced to desperate straits (Judg. iv:3; vi:
J sq.). The tribes were not united. Each was
seeking to hold its own ground. Moreover, be-
tween the northern tribes, at whose head, in the
days when any united action was attempted, stood
the strong tribe of Ephraim, and the southern
tribes, the most powerful of which was Judah.
there was little common interest, and neither sec-
tion gave much heed to the welfare of the other.
These sectional jealousies often appeared, and
culminated in the rupture of the nation at the
close of Solomon's reign.
(2) In all this series of national experiences
the belief in Jahveh as the god of the people is
never obscured. It was he who brought them into
the land, after the wanderings in the desert (Josh.
iii:5-7; he gave directions for the campaigns
(Josh. i:i-9), and under his leadership cities were
taken and battles won. Even the laws of nature
were believed to have been set aside in answer to
appeals to him on one memorable occasion (Josh.
x:i2-i4). and the inhabitants of conquered places
were devoted to destruction in his honor by the
imposition of the herein or ban (Josh. vi:i8-2i;
viii:2i-29), the breaking of which, even by one
individual, might cause disaster to the army and
bring upon the offender and his family the ban
itself (Josh. vii). Soon after the arrival in Ca-
naan, Gilgal was selected as a sacred camp, and
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
78-(
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
there circumcision and the keeping of the Pass-
over feast were enjoined (.Josh. iv:i9; \:i2).
(3) The period that followed the first tide of
warfare was one of retrogression and decHne,
both in organization and rehgion. The excite-
ment of the events connected with the last years
of Moses and the leadership of Joshua was fol-
lowed by a reaction. The age of these two lead-
ers was full of stirring experiences that kept the
people measurably united and keyed up to high
enthusiasm for their national honor and their
God. The loosing of ties incident to the removal
of competent leadership permitted much disorder
that would have been impossible before. The
people, unable to conquer the inhabitants of the
country, settled down on friendly terms with
them, and soon, as a matter of course, adopted
from them many of their religious and social
customs, and a fairly close intimacy was pre-
served for generations. The worship of Baal and
his consort Astarte, Phoenician deities, was more
or less prevalent in Canaan, and soon the Israel-
ites were tainted with this practice. Baal was
the god of fire, and his worship was attended
with fire offerings, in which the sacrifice of chil-
dren had a frequent part. Each town where the
worship prevailed had its sanctuary and image of
Baal, and these local Baals or Baalim were a con-
stant temptation to Israel. In connection with the
Baal sanctuary there was usually a grove, tree,
pillar, or obelisk sacred to Astarte or Ashera
(plural Ashtarotb), whose seductive and licen-
tious cult proved the most debasing influence of
the age.
(4) That the Israelites were often led away
into this worship and that of other gods there is
abundant evidence, as well as that later writers
saw in this fact ample explanation of the fre-
quent calamities which overtook the nation (Judg.
ii:ii-i9; iii 7, 8; vi:i-28; viii 133 ; x:6, 7, etc.).
Moreover, even where the worship of Jahveh was
retained, the elements of the Baal worship were
mixed with it. High places like Bethel, Beer-
sheba, Shechcm, Hebron, Gilgal. Penuel, Ramah,
and Mizpeh were resorted to as sacred. Children
were named for Baal even in families where Jah-
veh was worshiped (see Jerubbaal), and it is not
unlikely that the word Baal, i. e., "lord," may
have been applied to Jahveh through custom.
Micah. the Danite, a worshiper of Jahveh, uses
an ephod and a teraph whicli the writer of the
narrative explains as images, the one graven and
the other molten, representing probably Jahveh
and the dead ancestor of the family, as was usu-
ally the case with teraphim (Judg. xvii:i-6).
Gideon is reproached for making an image
(ephod) with the golden spoil of battle, which
was used as an object of worship (Judg. viii :
24-27). The Danites carried off these same
images and set up one in their new sanctuary at
upper Dan (Judg. xviii :i4-3i). At the same
time it must be noted that the pure imageless
worship of Jahveh was carried on at Shiloh,
where the tent of meeting, with its ancient ark
and its Levitical priesthood, was established after
their removal from Gilgal (Josh, xviii :i, .r<7.; I
Sam. i:3). The leadership of Jahveh was recog-
nized, and this was especially the case in times of
war. In peace there might be relapses into the
seductive cult of their neighbors, but when a war
was to be waged Jahveh alone was the God of
Israel (Judg. ing. 22; iv :6, 15). The Song of
Deborah, one of the oldest fragments of the na-
tional literature (Judg. v). bears witness to the
lofty religious enthusiasm of the people on oc-
casion. Indeed such enthusiasm reveals the power
of the true religion manifesting itself in the midst
of such unfavorable conditions ; and in its power
to inspire high ideals, not alone of heroism, but of
moral conduct, lay the supremacy of this faith.
1 he principle of monolatry is recognized.
Jahveh is the God of Israel, and should alone be
worshiped by his people ; but outside of this na-
tion other gods have sway, and bring their people
into possession of their territories, as in the case
of Chemosh and the Ammonites (Judg. xi:24).
(5) It was an age of contradictions. Cruelty,
violence, feuds, license in conduct, polygamy and
deceit were permitted. Yet along with these go
hospitality, even at the risk of life, and ven-
geance taken on an inhospitable city; gentleness
toward neighbors and friends, a forgiving spirit
toward a runaway wife, love for the customs and
ideas of Israel. It is, in a word, an age in which
the normal characteristics of simple and joyous
life appear. However late the Book of Ruth may
be, the picture which it gives of these times seems
truthful and lifelike, and it is like a charming
glimpse into the inner life of the people, whose
career at first glance seems to be marked at this
time only by the elements of storm and struggle.
(6) It has been said that it was a period of re-
trogression ; yet it was also a period of progress.
While the enthusiastic spirit of the days of Moses
and Joshua had passed away, there were in-
fluences at work preparing for better things. The
work of the Judges, disconnected and transient
as it seemed, prepared the people for the closer
organization of the monarchy. The character
and ideals of Jahveh as the true God were more
firmly fixed in the heart of the people. It was
one of those periods of silence when energies are
maturing for a larger activity ahead. Such times
are ever the birth-hours of great forces. With
much that was barbarous and debased there was
also much that was noble and inspiring. Taken
all in all, it may be said that real progress was
made under the Judges, and this progress came
to its full disclosure under the ministry of Sam-
uel, the last of the Judges.
(4) Samuel, David, and Solomon. ( \ ) Un-
der the leadership of Samuel the nation passed
from the anarchy and confusion of the period
of the Judges to the organization and order of
the days of David. Samuel was as prophet a
worthy successor to Moses ; and in him it seems
that the promise of a line of prophets, which may
be as early as the time of Moses, was beginning
to be fulfilled (Deut. xviii :i5). The picture of
worship at the time he first appears is simple and
natural, yet corrupted by the vicious practices of
the priests in oflicc. The tent in which the ark
was kept at Shiloh was lighted at night by a
lamp, and in it slept the priest and his attend-
ants (i Sam. iii:i-3). Samuel, though not of
the tribe of Levi, but of Ephraim (i Sam. i:i),
was taken into the tabernacle service and minis-
tered often throughout his life in priestly offices,
as did others of non-Levitical families (Judg.
xviiri, 5; 2 Sam. viii:i8, R. V.). After the death
of Eli, the priest in office, and the temporary loss
of the ark, Samuel undertook the leadership of
Israel, and for a score of years worked silently
toward the realization of national ideas. Little
appreciated at first, and regarded as a mere clair-
voyant whose advice might be .sought by those in
trouble (l Sam. ix:6-q), he came at length to be
regarded as the real leader of the people. Per-
haps the sincerest compliment ever paid him was
the popular demand for a king, which indicated
the sense of unity, solidarity and national pride
fostered by him, so foreign to the days of the
Judges. Whatever may have been the reluctance
felt by Samuel, as set down in one of our sources
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
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HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
(i Sam. viii:6),the step was a wise one, and Saul,
whatever his limitations, served to set the type
of royalty, tried unsuccessfully and for but a brief
period in the days of Gideon and his son Abime-
lech (Judg. viii :22, 23; ix:5).
(2) It was a period of transition. The old and
the new were meeting, and Saul was not equal
to the emergency. Probably few men would have
been. But above the tall figure of the king towers
evermore Samuel, the prophet of the Lord. His
work is no mere political revolution. It was far
more a religious reformation. From his home in
Ramah he went on visits, almost pastoral in their
character, to places of ancestral sacredness, like
Gilgal, Mizpeh, Bethlehem and Bethel, where sac-
rihcial feasts were held and the sanctions of the
true faith laid upon the hearts of the people (l
Sam. vii :5, 9; x :8 ; xvi 14, 5). No use was made
of the ark in this time. It remained quietly at
Kirjath Jearim. The members of the tribe of
Levi found livings wherever they might, some as
private or tribal priests, as in the case of the
grandson of Moses (Judg. xviii ;30, R. V.). In
connection with the work of Samuel we first learn
of the Schools of the Prophets. These companies
of men present little that is attractive at first.
They seem to have been dervish-like groups of
men devoted to the national God, but closely re-
sembling the similar order of men in the service
of Baal, of whom we catch a glimpse at a later
time (l Kings xvii:22-29). In Israel the bands
of prophets in the early days of Samuel were of
this character, made up of enthusiasts who went
about the country rousing themselves to a high
pitch of ecstasy by means of the wild music of the
time, and no doubt preaching the religion of Jah-
veh in the fierce spirit of the age. In the circle of
such "prophesying" the bystander might be seized
with the same enthusiasm, utter similar words,
and fall unconscious on the ground ; and these
manifestations were believed to be divinely in-
duced (i Sam. X 15-13; xix:i8;24). Nothing
speaks more eloquently for the wisdom of Sam-
uel than the fact that with all his loftiness of
purpose he did not despise the good these bands
of men might accomplish, repulsive as might be
their practices. He even identified himself with
ihem in a measure, and by assuming their leader-
ship (l Sam. xix:20) he gradually made of them
organizations effective in the propagation of the
saner and loftier conceptions of Jahveh and his
religion, which appeared in his own work and
that of his successors. Such prophets as Elijah
and Eiisha in later days made large use of the
Schools of the Prophets. There was, to be sure,
an element of fanaticism and fierce zeal in Sam-
uel's character, as is shown by his command to
Saul to exterminate the Amalekites (i Sam. xv :
1-3), and his killing of Agag, their king, with his
own hands (l Sam. xv 132, a), in both of which
acts he believed himself fulfilling the divine will.
But these are rare blemishes in a splendid career
of many years, in one of the most critical periods
of the history. No loftier prophetic note was
ever struck than that uttered in his famous words,
"To obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken
than the fat of rams" (l Sam. xv:22).
Under divine direction he raised up Saul, and
then rejected him from the kingship, and the
dark close of the gigantic king's career only makes
the character of the great prophet more impres-
sive by contrast. His reforms underlay the throne
of David. New disclosures of divine truth had
come through him, and the vision of God and
righteousness was enlarged.
(3) David's contribution to the religious
'bought of his times is somewhat problematical.
and the solution of the problem depends upon the
amount of Psalm material we may assign him.
Depending alone on the records of his life, how-
ever embellished by later writers, we discover
him to have been a man marked by strikingly
variant qualities. His unfavorable traits are in
ample evidence. Among them are found duplic-
ity (I Sam. xxi:2), a spirit of revenge and cru-
elty in war (l Sam. xxx:i7; 2 Sam. viii :2 ; xii :
29-31), and his sin with Bathsheba (2 Sam. xi),
which wrought such havoc in his family. These
were the faults of his age, and he must be judged
by its standards, not those of our own day. Yet
he was brave, generous (i Sam. xxiv:i-i&; xxvi:
5-9J, and intent upon the establishment of re-
ligion in his capital. He brought up the ark,
which had lain in obscurity through the reign of
Saul, and established it in Jerusalem (2 Sam. vi).
Moreover, he honored Nathan the prophet, and
made instant confession of his sin upon that
prophet's rebuke (2 Sam. xii:i-lo). If the fifty-
first Psalm may be considered Davidic, we have
in that beautiful utterance, which has become the
world's confessional, another proof of his repent-
ance.
(4) There is abundant proof of superstition
and imperfect religious ideas in this time. Saul
gave to his children names compoundea with
Baal. A teraph was owned by Michal, his daugh-
ter, David's wife (i Sam. xix:i3). Saul, though
he had rigorously enforced the law against witch-
craft, consulted a necromancer in his last distress
(I Sam. xxviii). An accident on the journey of
the ark to Jerusalem was interpreted as a sign of
divine wrath (2 Sam. vi :6, 7). In a time of
continued drought David was informed that the
reason lay in an injustice done the city of Gibeon
by Saul, and the king, in response to a demand
made by the citizens of that place, hung seven of
Saul's descendants (2 Sam. xxi:i-i4). The be-
lief that the divine sanction could be given to
such an atrocity marks a degree of superstition
above which even David did not rise.
(5) David was a devoted follower of Jahveh.
There could be no suspicion of idolatry in his na-
ture. The reverence paid to the prophet Nathan
shows that his office was held in higher honor
than even the kingship. Levitical priests were
established by the king at the sanctuary in Jeru-
salem, though he performed their functions at
times and made his sons priests (2 Sam. vi:i2-i4;
2 Sam. viii:i8, R. V.) David's sincere love for
God and desire to promote religious ideals cannot
be questioned. If he as a prophet misjudged in
some degree the divine character, it is only an
added proof of the gradual disclosure of God's
nature through the centuries. The fiercer and
darker elements inherited from the past were
slow to disappear. But little by little the larger
vision came. David's ambition to build a costly
temple to Jahveh was not gratified. Approved at
first by Nathan, it was later discouraged with
reasons that must have satisfied the king, but
back of which there could hardly fail to lie the
fear in the prophet's mind that the inauguration
of the more costly ritual of such a building as
David had in mind would work disaster to the
simpler faith of which Samuel had been the ex-
ponent.
(6) Solomon had no such scruples. The work
committed to him by his father was pushed with
vigor, and soon the temple was complete in all
its beauty, and its ritual inaugurated upon a most
elaborate scale. One need not question the sin-
cerity of the king. A most favorable view is
given us of his early years and the happy choice
he made (i Kings iii :4, 14). Yet it is easy to see
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
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HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
that the result of the temple cult was the seculari-
zation of religion. The building and its surround-
ings became one of the sights of the kingdom.
The enormous sacrifices (l Kings viii:5) empha-
sized the external dements of the religion, but
the essentials were too largely disregarded. Very
soon the same spirit of ostentation led him to erect
shrines to other gods in his capital, under the in-
fluence of his .foreign wives, and the prophets
who saw deepest into the situation perceived that
drastic measures alone could remedy the evil case.
The prophets were neglected and the priests were
elevated in Solomon's reign. There must be a
change or the true faith would suffer beyond
remedy. The older sanctuaries were being for-
gotten. The tendency was to substitute an ex-
pensive iritual in 'one place for righteousness
everywhere. Samuel's words were being forgot-
ten: "To obey is better than sacrifice." If noth-
ing else could avail, the pride of king and people
must be humbled, and the secularization of the
nation by commerce and conquest must cease.
The only question was when the decisive blow
should be struck. The death of Solomon and the
elevation of his son Rehoboam furnished the oc-
casion.
(5) Heligion In the Kingdom of Israel.
(l) Ahijah of Shiloh was at the moment of
Rehoboani's coronation the leader of the pro-
phetic party. He had already set himself to the
work of fomenting rebellion, and had opened his
plans to a young officer of Solomon's building
force — Jeroboam, the son of Nebat of the tribe of
Ephraim. Promising him success in his efforts,
Ahijah had induced him to take up arms against
the king (i Kings xi :26-40) ; but the first attempt
was not successful, and Jeroboam was obliged to
take refuge in Egypt. Returning, however, in
answer to the summons of his friends at the death
of Solomon, he placed himself at the head of the
malcontents from the northern tribes, who de-
manded lighter taxation (i Kings xii:i-2o). The
request was refused, and the breach between the
two sections, which had always been apparent,
was now widened into a chasm that was never
closed, by the election of Jeroboam to the kingship
of the northern tribes. Much was naturally ex-
pected of the new king by the prophets who had
been his advisers in the important steps already
taken. But statecraft was stronger than religion
in Jeroboam's character, and the prophets were
bitterly disappointed. Fearing that the old sanc-
tuaries would not be attractive enough to keep
his people away from the nev/ temple at the capi-
tal of his rival, he organized two sanctuaries at
the extremes of his kingdom. Bethel and Dan,
and, instead of the imageless worship which had
been the only officially recognized order of things
hitherto, he set up two images of Jahveh in the
form of bulls (i Kings xii:26-33). The repre-
sentation of deity in this manner was not new.
As the symbol of strength and creative power the
bull was regarded as sacred in Eg^fpt and among
other nations; and perhaps in remembrance of
Egyptian customs, the Israelites once before fell
into the practice (Exod. xxxii:i-6). It is to be
noticed that in neither case was Jalivch set aside
as the national God. It was simply an effort to
gratify the craving for a visible symbol of deity,
a craving which had manifested itself in the use
of images in previous periods, but against which
the purer idealism of prophets like Moses and
Samuel had set itself like a flint. With this re-
version to a lower type of religion came other de-
partures from the form of worship recognized in
the period, such as the appointment of non-Levit-
ical priests and the designation of other feasts
than those already celebrated.
(2) The prophets were always the advocates of
the policy of national seclusion. All that tended
to bring Israel into contact with other nations,
whether war or commerce, met with their disap-
proval. The secret of this feeling was their fear
of foreign religious ideas gaining a foothold by
such means. To kings like Solomon, intent upon
the enrichment of his realm, this seemed a narrow
policy. National prosperity was to be attained
only through friendly relations with other peo-
ples, and to this end alliances by marriage were
secured with foreign courts. But the purity of
the religion of Jahveh was dependent upon in-
sulation until it should have time to take firmer
hold on the people. The two principles are ad-
mirably represented by Ahab and Elijah. The
former reigned over Israel from 875 to 853.6. C.
He entered into alliance with Ethbaal of Zidon,
and married his daughter Jezebel, giving her re-
ligion, the worship of Baal and Astatic, official
.sanction beside the religion of Jahveh, in his cap-
ital, Samaria (I Kings xvi 129-34), the prophets
of Astarte being supported by the queen (i Kings
xviii:i9). While it is improbable that Ahab went
so far as to renounce the faith of his nation, yet
the worshipers, and especially the prophets, of
Jahveh were subjected to ill-treatment and, per-
haps, actual persecution (l Kings xviii :3, 4).
Under the favor of the court the foreign cult
made rapid progress, till it might have seemed
that the whole nation had been swept away by
the seductive Phoenician worship (i Kings xix :
14).
(3) But the counter-movement came. Its cen-
ter was in the prophetic circle, and its leader was
Elijah. His first effort at reformation was only
partially successful (i Kings xviii :i9), and he
learned that abrupt and bloody methods were not
always wisest (l Kings xix:il, 12). The pro-
phets of Baa/ had been slaughtered, but the queen
lemained. His next plan was a change of rulers
(1 Kings xix:is, 16), and this was accomplished
shortly after (2 Kings ix:i), though not till after
the close of Elijah's career. This prophet repre-
sents the rugged, inflexible character of the proph-
ets of Samuel's type, with the fierce zeal for
their faith that would sanction any deed of blood
in its behalf (I Kings xviii :4o). His relation and
that of his friend Elisha to the prophetic bands is
marked (i Kings xx :3S-43 ; 2 Kings ii :3, s; vi:
1-7; ix:i), and probably these groups of men
were capable of great service in behalf of the
religion of Israel, which was, as a matter of fact,
never so near extirpation as the despondent Elijah
atone time thought (i Kings xix:i8). Its vital-
ity was greater than he knew. But doubtless in
a very true sense he stood for that reaction which
weakened the worship of Baal in the land, and left
its final overthrow as an officially recognized wor-
ship to the violent and bloody measures of Jehu,
who soon came to the throne (2 Kings ix:io).
In a true sense, therefore, Elijah, as the cham-
pion of justice (l Kings xxi) and the defender
of the faith, was the guardian of Israel, its "char-
iots and horsemen" (2 Kings ii:i2). It is no-
ticeable, however, that he is not reported as pro.
testing against the bull worship of Bethel an/;
Dan ; and Jehu, who might be supposed to stand
as the royal patron of the prophetic party, is
upbraided by the later prophets for following to
that extent in the path of Jeroboam (2 Kings
x:29-3i). Perhaps it was considered a sufficient
step to preserve the worship of Jahveh as against
that of Baal without so much regard to its char-
acter.
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
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HEBREWS. RELIGION OF THE
(4) It was in the reign of Jeroboam II (781-
840 B. C.) that the period of greatest importance
for religion in the nortliern kingdom began. This
reign witnessed the work of Amos, and the first
part of that of Hosea, the earliest prophets who
have left writings. This new phase of prophecy
may almost Je called a new beginning, for here
we are able for the first time to study the ma-
terials that reveal the true condition of the king-
dom, and exhibit the new tone of the prophetic
work. Amos and Hosea are not a new order of
men. They recognize the fact that they are con-
tinuing the work of others before them (.Amos
ii:il; iii:?), but the tone of the prophetic minis-
try is higher and the vision of the divine nature
and purpose wider. The Schools of the Prophets
remain, but the fierce enthusiasm of the past has
given way to a professionalism, which makes
preaching a mere source of revenue, and causes
a true prophet to shrink from being classed with
such men (Amos vii:i4). Social and religious
conditions are reflected in their writings. There
is a growing separation between rich and poor,
and the sins that grow out of such conditions are
set down (Amos ii78; iii:i2, 15; \:y, 10, 11;
vi:4-6). The popular religion is of a low and
formal character, and it is hard to tell at limes
whether the description is that of degraded Jah-
vch worship, or the heathen customs that have
crept in (Amos ii:i2; iv :4, sg.; v:2i; viii:s).
Amos was a native of the Southern Kingdom, and
came to Bethel for only a short time (Amos i:i ;
vii:i4). (See Amos.) Hosea was a resident of the
north. (See Hosea.) The one speaks a message
of warning and denunciation of coming judg-
ment ; the other, of the love and mercy of God.
This lesson has come to him through a tragic
experience in his own life which he has come to
feel was providential (Hos. 1:3). To Amos,
Israel is a chosen nation, selected by Jahveh, the
universal ruler of the world. But this cannot be
ground of pride, but rather strict accountability
(ii:n; iii :2, 7). Monotheism is distinctly recog-
nized. Heathen nations are under the govern-
ment of Jahveh (Amos ii),and are condernned for
cruelties that were freely committed by David, while
Israel is held even to a higher law than they (i:3,
6, 9, II, 13; ii:i, 4, 6, 12). Nothing could more
plainly mark the growth of prophetic ideals. In
a similar manner Hosea denounces the slaughter
wrought by Jehu the reformer at Jezreel (i:4).
The worthlessness of religious ritual without
righteousness is emphasized (Amos v:2i-24).
The doctrine of divine love preached by Hosea is
an immeasurable advance over any previous pro-
phetic message and shows the clearer vision
of God now enjoyed. Such ideals were found
nowhere else in this period save in this chosen
nation. Natural development will not produce
an Amos or a Hosea, much less an Isaiah. The
divine purpose is the only explanation. Slowly
disclosing itself in the lives of men as they were
prepared to understand and embody it, the centu-
ries witnessed among the Hebrew people the most
remarkable manifestation of moral and spiritual
development which history records, a develop-
ment whose end was not the elevation of one na-
tion alone, but of all the world. After the days
of Amos and Hosea, the Northern Kingdom hast-
ened to its fall, and the work of the prophets cen-
tered wholly in Jerusalem.
(6) Judah Before the Exile, (i) The relig-
ion of Jahveh had always the advantage in Ju-
dah after the disruption, for the temple without an
image was there, and the regular order of services
under the Levitical priesthood went on without in-
terruption, though probably on a much diminished
scale, owing to the narrower resources of the state.
But the temple never displaced the high places in
popular affection till late in this period, and sacri-
fices were offered to Jahveh both at Jerusalem and
at these ancestral sanctuaries. But along with this
legitimate worship of the high places, which fell
under the ban of disapproval only at a later time,
there were darker features of a heathenish char-
acter mingled with the provincial worship, such
as the use of obelisks, and even sacred prostitution.
(See Prostitution, Sacred.) This was the con-
dition in the reign of Rehoboam (B. C. 937-920)
(i Kings xiv:2i-24). Asa (B. C. 917-876) abol-
ished the more objectionable features, and de-
stroyed an image of Astarte, which the queen-
mother had set up (i Kings xv:9-i4). (See
Asa.) With the accession of Jehoram (B. C. 851-
843) there came the introduction of the Baal wor-
ship from Samaria, through the influence of the
queen, Athaliah, a daughter of Ahab and Jezebel.
A temple was built to Baal, and his images and
shrines were set up in many places. A check was
given to this cult by the zeal of Jehoiada the
priest, who organized a movement centering at th?
temple of Jahveh, and by the overthrow and death
of Athaliah swept away for a time the danger that
threatened the true faith (2 Kings xi:). The
temple was repaired by Joash (B. C. 856-796),
directed by Jehoiada (2 Kings xii). Tn this in-
stance it was the priests, not the prophets, who
organized resistance to the foreign cult.
(2) With Ahaz. however, other foreign elements
appear (B. C. 735-715). The horrible rite of hu-
man sacrifice is enforced by royal example, and
an altar of foreign fashion is introduced into the
temple (2 Kings xvi:i-4, 10-18). The custom of
human sacrifice seems not to have been unknown
in earlier periods (Gen. xxii : Judg. xi 130,31 ; R.
v., margin), and was practiced among neighbor-
ing nations, the Israelites sharing in the opinion
that it was effective (2 Kings iii 127). It also made
its appearance in the northern kingdom, probably
under the influence of the worship of Baal (2
Kings xvii :I7). But at Jerusalem and in the royal
family the practice is suggestive of the inroad of
heathen ideas. With Hezekiah (B. C. 715-686) a
new era of reform was ushered in, suggested, no
doubt, by the preaching of the prophets Isaiah and
Micah. The obelisks and images were over-
thrown and the brazen serpent, now become an
object of veneration, was destroyed (2 Kings
xviii:l-5). Hezekiah is reported to have abolished
the high places as well, though these had remained
undisturbed and seemingly approved through all
the past, including the most strenuous periods of
reform (l Kings xv:i4; xxii:43; 2 Kings xii :3 ;
XV :4, 35; xvi:4). It was only later writers occu-
pying the standpoint of the \?vt of Josiah's time,
who disapproved of the country sanctuaries. Per-
haps their evil effects had begun already to mani-
fest themselves to the prophets.
(3) The work of Isaiah and Micah brings a new
influence to bear on the life of Judah. The former
belonged to the higher circles in Jerusalem, and
for forty years (B. C. 737-701) was prominent in
the religious and political life of the people.
Micah, as a countryman, was not so closely identi-
fied with the life of the court. 'With these preach-
ers prophecy reaches its highest level, as an effort
to save the nation from the consequences of its
misdeeds. The picture of the times is graphic.
Foreign relations have caused the bringing in of
manners and customs unsuitable for the people of
God. Jerusalem is full of luxury and idols (Is
ii:5-ii). Monopolists, skeptics, perverters, and
corrupt judges abound (v:8-24). The images to
which the prophet refers, not so much in wrath
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
791
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
as in contempt, seem not to have been the repre-
sentations of other deities, but the means by
which the worship of Jaltveh was reduced to a
mere superstition. The service of the temple was
kept up carefully, but it could not be accepted as
a substitute for righteousness (Is. i:io-i7). The
vision by which Isaiah had been called to his
prophetic work (Is. vi) gave him the keynote of
his message — the holiness of God. Jahveh is for
him henceforth the "Holy One of Israel," not in
the later sense of mere ceremonial separation,
but of moral purity and spiritual grandeur. The
rising power of Assyria, he predicted, would be
permitted to come against Judah as a chastise-
ment of her oflfenses. The Assyrian king, as
an instrument of God, would be used to humble
the pride of the nation and bring it to repentance
(x:5 sq.; v:26-3o). Throughout the period of As-
syrian activity in the western lands, the prophet
made his sermons revolve about the one theme
of judgment, emphasizing the four points — the
people have sinned, they shall be punished, a
good remnant shall remain, and the future will
be prosperous and glorious under Messianic rule
(viii:i9-22; xi:l; xii:6). The character of God
was disclosed by the preaching of Isaiah as
never before. What he felt and saw of the
divine life he gave to the nation, and it be-
came an inestimably precious spiritual inheritance
for the future. The long reign of Manasseh (B.
C. 686-641) was a time of disheartening reaction.
The king was the patron of every foreign religious
fad. Altars were erected for Baal and Astarte,
the Babylonian planet worship was brought in
and even given a place in the temple, bronze horses
and chariots in honor of the sun were set up, and
every form of divination was encouraged ; the
king himself offered his son in sacrifice, and a
bitter persecution of the faithful began (2 Kings
xxi:i-i6). In such a period little could be done,
and prophecy was silent. The inroad of the
Scythians through the coast-lands (B. C. 627)
gave occasion for the denunciation by Zephaniah
of more terrible judgments to come.
(4) Presently Josiah (B. C. 639-609) came to the
throne, and gave promise of better things. (See
Josiah.) The work of repairing the temple was
undertaken, and during the process discovery was
made of a book of law. This code is now recog-
nized to have been the Deuteronomic law. which.
based upon the Book of the Covenant, had gradu-
ally grown up in the period of the kingship, and
being put into final form by some priest or priests,
and perhaps also prophets, was laid away until the
dark days, which the reigns of Manasseh and
Amon brought, should pass away. The most
radical element in the new code was the centrali-
zation of worship at Jerusalem. Idolatry in its
worst forms was creeping in. Isaiah had only
alluded to idols with the contempt of one who saw
in them a minor source of evil as compared with
the prevailing immorality and corruption of hi'
day. But the days of Manasseh had revealed the
full horror of the worship of false gods, and the
reformers set themselves to meet the evil. The
temple could easily be controlled with a pious king
on the throne. (See Manasseh.) Even the
desecrations introduced by Manasseh could be re-
moved and forgotten. But the local sanctuaries
throughout the land, which had hitherto been
viewed as quite legitimate, were less easily super-
vised, and had shown themselves to be the ele-
ments of danger. The remedy was drastic. The
local sanctuaries, with all their ancestral memor-
ies, were abolished at a stroke, and the temple
alone made the center of all religious service
(Deut. xii:i-28). Other portions of the code that
appear to hint especially at existing conditions
were those referring to pillars and obelisks (xvi:
21 .J<;.), the "host of heaven" (xvii:2-7), Moloch
worship (xviiirio), and religious prostitution
(xxiii:i7 .sjf.). (See Prostitution, Sacrkd.) Laws
already uttered in the legislation of the Mo-
saic age, others growing out of traditions concern-
ing the great lawgiver and his work, and Still others
recent and dealing with the present situation, were
included in the collection, and were set into a
framework of Mosaic exhortation. The effect of
this discovery could be nothing less than startling
to a man of Josiah's nature (2 Kings xxii:ii).
The work of reformation into conformity with the
new law was begun at once, and in this thorough-
going process (2 Kings xxiii) he was ably as-
sisted by the priests, to whose order Jeremiah, the
great prophet of Judah's decline and fall, belonged
(Jer. i:i). (See Jeremiah.) If Josiah could
have lived till his reforms were thoroughly under-
stood and established, the sequel might have been
different. But his untimely death in a needless
battle left the reforming party without assistance,
filled the questioning with doubt, and gave the ad-
vocates of the old regime a strength tliat the better
leaders of the nation could not overcome. The
end came on apace. Jeremiah, the saddest of the
prophets, faced the coming darkness, and gave the
people the only divine message that could come
in such an hour: "Too late! The nation must
die that it may be reborn. Captivity in Babylon is
inevitable."
(7) The Exile, (i) In B. C. 597 Nebuchadrez-
zar, king of Babylon, came westward and laid
siege to Jerusalem. Jehoiachin, the king, a grand-
son of Josiah. gave himself into the hand of the
Babylonian, who took him, together with some
ten thousand captives from the better classes of
Jerusalem, and^ plundering the treasures of the
palace and the temple, returned with the spoil,
leaving Zedekiah (B. C. 597-586). a son of Josiah,
on the throne. In the ninth year of his reign. Ne-
buchadrezzar returned and beseiged the city, re-
ducing it at last and destroying the temple, and
ended the existence of the city for half a century,
taking another company of the people to Babylon.
A wretched remnant was left in the land, and a
company of refugees made their way into Egypt,
taking with them the unwilling Jeremiah. Durmg
these eventful years, he had stood constantly as
the champion of God and righteousness in the
midst of a vicious court and a worldly people, and
more than once his life had been in danger. There
is a deep pathos in the life and writings of this
prophet, whose unhappy lot it was to be placed
at a time when the tide of disaster could not be
turned, and only the experiences of the exile
could avail. His life came to its close among
the refugees in Egypt. Among the exiles who
went out to Babylonia in the first deportation was
a young man named Ezekiel, a priest. (See
EzEKiEL. ) He was taken to Tel-Abib. on the
river Chcbar, where presently the divine call came
to him to be the mouthpiece of Jahveh among his
brethren (Ezek. i :3). Both Jeremiah and Ezekiel
express the conviction that no other prophets of
the true faith are to be found, though both in
Jerusalem and Babylon the professional prophets
were numerous (Jer. xxiii). It is noticeable that
both these prophets are from the priestly order.
(2) The problems which the destruction of the
city and the transportation of the people brought
were perplexing. Few could appreciate the high
spiritual plane occupied by Jeremiah, or his doc-
trine that purification was to be wrought by suffer-
ing. To those who had sunk into idolatry it was
a seeming proof that Jahveh was not as powerful
HEBREWS, RELIGION OP" THE
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HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
as the gods of Babylon, or he would have saved
his city. To the faithful it was a paralyzing
shock, for did it not mean that God had aban-
doned his people? And then the monolatnstic
idea, so largely prevalent, prevented hope that now
the people were removed from the land, they could
be longer under the protection or within the
hearing of Jahveh. for was he not localized at
Jerusalem, above the ruins of the dismantled city?
To such troubled questions the vision by which
Ezekiel was called addressed itself. The chariot
of God, moving about on the wings of the storm,
with the dreadful wheels full of eyes, was a sym-
bol to sliow prophet and people that their God
was no mere local deity, but the Lord of the world,
and that in Babylon they were as near him as in
Jerusalem. During all the years between the first
deportation and the final fall of the city, the two
prophets, Jeremiah in Jerusalem, and Ezekiel upon
the Chebar, labored to convince the misguided
people that the city must fall and the exile be pro-
longed. Jeremiah wrote a letter to the exiles, as-
suring them that their hopes of early return were
delusive, and advising preparations for a perma-
ment stay (Jer. xxix:i sq.) . Ezekiel had labored
with his fellow exiles to the same end, assuring
them that as long as Jerusalem was the scene of
such practices as defiled the true faith she could
not avert the coming doom (Ezek. viii). It was
lot till a refugee from Palestine brought him the
t-idings of the actual fall of the city (Ezek.
xxx;iii:2i) that the tone of the prophet changed.
From that time on, he devoted himself to the
kindling of hope for a final return and future for
the nation, in which the reconstructed temple, to
which he devoted the closing chapters of his book,
plays an important part.
t3) Another voice, even more clear than Ezekiel's,
was raised during the latter portion of the exile,
speaking of the corning redemption. The Evan-
gelical Prophet, whose message is contained in the
last chapters of the book of Isaiah (Is. xl-Ixvi),
brought a much needed encouragement to the peo-
ple. (See Isaiah.) When the days were grow-
ing very long, and the voices of Jeremiah and
Ezekiel had both been long hushed, the promise
comes that the nation shall soon go back to Jeru-
salem, for Jahveh, who is the only God, the Cre-
ator of the ends of the earth, is concerned for his
own sake as well as for his people's sake, to bring
them back to national life in Jerusalem (Is.
xl). This prophet was not a preacher, as his pre-
decessors had been, but only a writer, who, prob-
ably from the necessities of the case, sent out his
exhortations and promises in the form of fly leaves
or tractates. It would hardly be possible to boldly
preach such treasonable doctrines as these chap-
ters contain, and perhaps the anonymity of the
material is thus to be accounted for. But a new
philosophy of history is set forth. Cyrus is al-
ready on the frontier. Through him, as an instru-
ment in God's hands, deliverance is to come to the
nation (Is. xli :25 ; xliv 127, 28 ; xlv :r sq.; .xlvi :i i).
But deliverance is not enough. The nation is a
chosen order of people for a particular purpose.
It is the Servant of Jahveh (Is. xli:8: xliiil sq.;
xlii:l8 sq.; xliii:i-io; xliv:2i; xlv:4). But the
nation as a whole is unable to accomplish the work
of bringing redemption to the world. They can-
not even save themselves, and gradually a select
portion is seen to represent the idea rather than
the full nation. This remnant, or nucleus, is not
only to save the remainder, but the world as
well (Is. xlix:i-6). Then, just as gradually, there
emerges from this remnant the figure of a Mes-
sianic Servant, the representative of the nation
and the remnant, who, personified as the nation,
desp.'sed, rejected, misunderstood, is still success-
ful in the redemptive work to which God had
called him (Is. Iii:i3; Iiii:i2). In this section,
and one or two later which describe the breadth
and character of the Servant's work (Is. Iv and
Ixi), prophecy reaches its very highest levels.
Israel's sufferings are not for its own sins so
much as for the world. All redemption is through
suffering, and thus a philosophy of history was
fashioned which included not one nation alone,
but all, and the Servant of Jalivcli, Israel, remnant
and Messiah successively, as the messenger of a
world-wide ministry of divine love. The possi-
bility, nay, the certainty, of return to Jerusalem;
the national programme which makes such a re-
turn necessary; and the purification of the people,
by which preparation for the return may be ac-
complished— these are the great themes of this
prophet.
(4) The exile was a period of great importance
to the people. Deprived of the temple and law,
the literary spirit in the nation turned back upon
the past and produced history, such as Samuel-
Kings, and recast other narratives of former days;
revised the law on the basis of the existing codes
and the praxis that had grown up since Deuteron-
omy, and codified the so-called Priest Code con-
tained in the latter portion of Exodus and in Le-
viticus and Numbers ; turned in upon its own
spirit and tried to answer doubts, as in Job, or
give expression to praise and longing, as in the
Psalms. There must have been a strong grasp
upon the fundamentals of the faith by large classes
of the people to explain the firmness with which
they clung to it in the midst of the taunts of their
masters and the ridicule of apostate countrymen.
Though many lost faith and hope, and others were
led away into forbidden practices (Ezek. xx:3o),
yet the core of the nation remained sound, and
there may even be said to have been decided pro-
gress in some directions. Monolatry gave way
finally to monotheism, and idolatry was eradicated.
Sabbath observances and circumcision became
more binding, prayer and fasting were recognized
as never before as aids in the religious life, and
the doctrine of individual accountability was em-
phasized. At the same time, a growing tendency
towards particularism and legalism manifested it-
self, the fruit of which appeared later.
(8) The Restoration, (i) The predictions of
the prophets regarding the termination of the ex-
ile came to fulfillment B. C. 538. In that year
Cyrus, having conquered Media and Lydia, en-
tered Babylon, and the map of the world was
again transformed. It is not necessary to sup-
pose that Cyrus was influenced by a special ad-
miration for the religion of that small fragment
of people held captive in his capital province. His
motive in permitting the exiles to return to Jeru-
salem is amply explained by the desire to provide
a strong and friendly base of operations in any
future trouble with Egypt, and such an opportu-
nity was offered by the situation of Jerusalem.
(See Cyrus.) The royal permission was accord-
ingly given, a company of Jews numbering nearly
fifty thousand was gathered for the journey, and
the remaining vessels, brought from the temple at
Jerusalem, were placed in their hands (Ezra i:
2). By no means all the exiles came back. Many
had grown up in their eastern home and preferred
to remain, and among these not a few even of
the priestly class. The company was placed in
charge of a Persian oflicer named Shcshbazzar.
but with him was associated a council of leading
men, chief among whom were Zerubbabel, the
grandson of Jehoiachin, and Joshua, the grand-
son of the last priest in Jerusalem, who lost his
HEBREWS. RELIGION OV THE
7'-J3
HEBREWS. RELIGION OF THE
life at the sack of the city. As soon as the cara-
van reached Jerusalem, an altar was set up on the
site of the temple, and the feasts resumed (Ezra
iii:2-4). As soon as preparations could be made
the foundations of the new temple were laid (B.
C. 534) amid the mingled shouts of the more
hopeful and lamentations of those who contrasted
the meager present with the glorious past of the
city (Ezra iii:7-i2). The work of building was,
however, soon interrupted. The descendants of
the old Israelites on the north desired a share in
the work. But the exclusive spirit prevailed, and
the waiting help was rejected, which fostered a
bitterness that hindered the building of the tem-
ple for many years. Two tendencies must have
manifested themselves among the people. There
was the broader, more tolerant attitude, which
looked on other nations with friendliness .and
would welcome relations with foreigners, for the
sake of the ministry of redemption for the world
with which Israel was charged. Then there was
the more narrow and exclusive spirit, that made
Jewish particularism the fundamental article in
its creed, and was unconscious of any duty to
others. The latter attitude could claim the sanc-
tion of Ezekiel ; the former, of the Evangelical
Prophecy. In the end the narrow party won.
Perhaps this was a necessary phase of the move-
ment. The narrowing of the channel compelled
the deepening of the stream, but the ungracious
features of the more conservative and exclusive
Judaism were the outcome of this tendency.
(2) After nearly twenty years, the work was
resumed under the exhortation of two prophets.
Haggai and Zechariah, and after royal aid had
been given, brought to completion B. C. 515 (Ezra
v:6). But it is evident that conditions were far
from satisfactory. The hopes raised by the proph-
ets were not being fulfilled. The city was small
and poor, and the prospects were disheartening.
It could not be that this meager situation was all
that God intended for his people. The belief
seems to have gained ground that a political crisis
was imminent, a breaking up of the empire, by
which Judah would profit. The horizon was anx-
iously scanned for signs of the coming upheaval
(Zech. i:lo-i2). But no crisis came, and in the
sinking of heart that hope deferred produced
many grew indifferent to all religious obligations.
The worship at the temple, while still carried on,
was not made the first concern, and poor offerings
were presented. It is this situation which is set
before us in the anonymous prophecy named
from its most suggestive word, "My Messenger"
(Mai. iii:i). There was danger of a still deeper
pessimism and despair. The chief comfort lay in
the company of the faithful who continued in the
service of God amid all discouragements (Mai.
iii:i6-i8). (See Malachi.) The appeal of this
prophet, like that of Haggai and Zccliariah. is to
a renewed devotion to the law and the ritual. No
longer are the great sanctions of righteousness
and morality made the first concern, but the
Torah and the temple are the chief consideration
Thus the tone of prophecy has changed since the
days of Isaiah and the great prophet of the exile,
and who could say for the better?
(3) It is evident that a new factor had been
introduced into the national life just previous to
the date of "Malachi." from which assistance
was hoped by the religious leaders in Jerusalem
.^nd this is found to have been the case. There
had been from the time of the first return a bond
of sympathy between the Jews in Jerusalem and
those who remained in Babylonia. Meantime a
company of the latter had been carrying forward
the work of expanding the Divine law in the
spirit of Ezekiel, and now, when tidings reached
them that affairs had approached a serious crisis
in llic luilc community in Judca, another company
was organized to swell the population of Jerusa-
lem, and under the leadership of Ezra, a scribe,
the first named of that important order which
had so much to do with the enlargement, teaching,
and enforcement of the law in the later days, they
left Babylon. li. C. 459, to the number of 1,700.
Their leader brought with him the new law (Ezra
vii:i4, 25, 26), prepared to put it into operation.
(Sec EzKA.) On arrival in Judea Ezra found the
work of reform difficult, for the people did not
take readily to the legal regulations insisted upon,
so much more exacting in some directions than
any known before. Ezra was compelled, indeed,
to give up the effort for a time, and it was not
till the arrival of Nehemiah, a Babylonian Jew,
who, having obtained a position in the Persian
court, requested the vacant governorship of Judea,
that the work of reform could be prosecuted with
a zeal that was backed up with the royal author-
ity, and that overcame all opposition. The city
was repaired, the walls built, and then at a great
gathering of the people, the law was promulgated
by Ezra (Ezra viii) to an audience that requested
the reading, and that was profoundly impressed
by the regulations set forth in the code. The
religious education implied in the popular feeling
of sin, as compared with the strict demands of the
law now proclaimed, is profoundly interesting
(Ezra ix:8-i2). The law that was brought by
Ezra from Babylon, and read to the people, was
the Priest Code, of which mention has already
been made as the work of priests in Babylon dur-
ing and after the exile. The particulars in which
it most vitally differed from the earlier codes, the
Book of the Covenant and Deuteronomy, were
its separation of priests from other Levites and
its emphasis upon the rules of "holiness," «. e.,
ceremonial, not moral, purity. The business of
this law is to make a holy community in which
God may dwell. God is honored by such institu-
tions as secure a regulation of the external relig-
ious life of man. The community has a purely
religious end. The nation, disappointed in its
political hopes, turns now to a purely religious
ideal within itself, and seeks there its satisfac-
tion. The temple became, in a new and deeper
sense, the center of Jewish thought and life. Its
services and its offices were the most important
concerns of the people. Under the direction of
Ezra and Nehemiah the exclusive particularism
of the more conservative party became triumph-
ant, and the community was started on the nar-
row path toward the later Jrdaism.
(9) The Rise of Judaism. (i) The history
of the Old Testament closes with the return from
Babylon, but fortunately the literature which it
comprises gives us some light on the period from
the exile to the advent. The movement which
Ezra had started went on with increased force.
Gradually the literature of the nation was gath-
ered into a collection, to which, however, addi-
tions were made up to within a century and a half
of the Christian era. The love of the Scriptures,
and especially the law which had now been put
into one collection, the Pentateuch, grew in the
hearts of the people, as salvation was more and
more believed to be found in its possession. One
finds expression of this feeling in the psalms of
the period (e. p.. cxix).
(2) Closely related to the pride in ;he Scriptures
was that inspired by the temple and its services.
No other nation had S'ich possessions as these,
^nd all the world miebt well envy the Jew these
Divine gifts. Thus Judaism came to be more and
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
794
HEBREWS, RELIGION OF THE
more the religion of a book and a building. The
'J'orah and the Temple were the visible symbols
of the faith. Nor must it be forgotten that a high
order both of religious conduct and of happiness
resulted from this two-fold culture.
(3J Absolute monotheism had now been at-
tained. There could be no remnant of a belief in
other gods. But if Jahvch was the god of Israel
and also of all the world, what was the relation of
Israel to that world, and how was God himself
disposed toward these other nations? From the
time of the exile there had been two tempers of
mind regarding other nations, as has been already
stated. Both find expression in post-e-xilic days.
The date of the books of Joel and Jonah is still
an open question, but both may be confidently
placed within the limits of this period. (See
Joel.) The former voices the conservative view.
The nations exist only for the sake of Zion.
When trouble visits the land, Jahvch is called
into activity by a solemn fast, and at once prom-
ises to take vengeance on the nations for their
treatment of the chosen people. What are all
these nations compared with Judah and Jerusa-
lem? War is declared against them; Egypt and
Edom shall be desolated, and all Zion's foes shall
perish. Even the beautiful promise of the out-
pouring of the Divine spirit refers to Israel alone
as its recipient. In striking contrast with this
attitude is that of the author of Jonah, a book
much misunderstood and ridiculed, but one of the
most precious in the Old Testament. Jonah rep-
resents the narrow and ungracious spirit of those
Jews who have no desire to give a message of
salvation to other nations. In contrast with the
noble-minded mariners and the repentant Nine-
vites, he plays but a sorry part. (See Jonah.)
The book is a forceful protest against the nar-
rower phases of post-exilic Judaism.
(4) But this very conception of God compelled
the Jew to adjust the heathen to the Divine and
all-ruling law in some manner. Two methods
were open. The one was that of proselyting, i. e.,
admitting the heathen to covenant privileges un-
der the law, through compliance with certain
prescribed forms, viz., circumcision, baptism, and
the offering of sacrifices. The opening of this
door gave rise to an earnest missionary propa-
ganda, especially in the century before Christ.
But there were those who looked with disfavor on
any efforts to widen the embrace of the national
faith, and, while proselytism did not absolutely
cease, it lost its force after a time. The second
view as to the heathen, or gentiles, was that they
should be conquered and brought into subjuga-
" tion at ihe period of Messianic supremacy yet
ahead. Probably this was the more prevalent
view, growing naturally out of the lofty ideas
regarding the law and the temple, and the privi-
leges they conferred on the chosen people.
(5) At what period the synagogue came into
heing, or when Pharisees and Sadducees first
arose, remains uncertain; at some time before the
Maccabean movement, at any rate. Perhaps as
important was the influence of Hellenism upon
Jewish thought. Alexander's conquests produced
a wide diffusion of Greek ideas, and perhaps no
people were more profoundly affected by them
than the Jews. This was especially true outside
of Palestine. The Dispersion, i. e., those Jews
who lived in other parts of the world, Persia,
Asia Minor, and Europe, were less under the
influence of the conservative party than the
Jews of the Holy Land. But even in Jeru-
salem the liberalizing tendency manifested it-
self in a decided manner, and it is impossible to
say to what lengths it might have gone had not
another force interposed. Antiochus IV, called
Epiphanes (see Antiochus;, the overlord of Pal-
estine, whose capital was at Antioch, impatient of
Jewish customs and religious services in Jerusa-
lem, attempted to force the process of Hellenizing
upon the people, and by his profanation of the
temple drove the people to a frantic uprising un-
der the leadership of the Maccabees. (See Mac-
cabees.) In this struggle the older conservatism
asserted itself, and a decisive break with Hellen-
ism occurred. That reaction persisted as perhaps
the most effective force which the Judaism of the
period presents, viz., the Pharisees. The most in-
teresting souvenir of that struggle is the book of
Daniel, written about B. C. 165, and interjded as
an encouragement to the warriors in the struggle,
by its portrayals of heroism and deliverance gath-
ered around the character of Daniel in the captiv-
ity, and the prophecies of eventual victory put
into his mouth. (See Daniel.)
This period is also marked by the appearance
of Chronicles, a work which reconstructs the his-
tory from the priestly point of view, reading back
into remote times conditions and ideals which,
as a matter of fact, were post-exilic. Other books
of the time were Ecclesiastes, Sirach, Judith, To-
bit. Enoch, I Maccabees, etc. (See Apocrypha.)
In this period the belief in a future life took
form, with tlie doctrine of rewards and punish-
ments, the belief in a being called the adversary,
or Satan, and the more definite forms of the Mes-
sianic hope.
(10) iJie Messianic Hope, (i) Israel was a
nation of hope and promise. Unlike other peo-
ples, its Golden Age was in the future, not in the
past. . From the earliest beginning of national
consciousness it was a gradually developing belief
that Israel had a special mission, separate from
the rest of the world, yet in some important de-
gree connected with the spiritual life of the world.
The Divine purpose for humanity was believed to
lie implicit in the unfolding history of this peo-
ple. The Hebrew records preserved the first
promise made to the race (Gen. iii:i5), a prom-
ise that though the struggle between good and
evil should be long and bitter, yet in the end the
good should triumph. This Divine purpose mani-
fested itself in the selection of certain individuals
or tribes through whose life the di'iclosure of the
plans of God was to be made. Such men were
Noah (Gen. vi:8; ix:8-i7); Shem. (Gen. ix 126,
27), and through him the Semites as a race;
Abraham (Gen, xii:i sq.) and his descendants, the
Hebrews; Jacob (Gen. xxviii :io-i6) and his de-
scendants, called after liim Israel ; and Judah, as
the royal tribe, and the one which should stand as
the representative of the nation (Gen. xlix:8-lo).
This process of selecting men for the special pur-
pose of leadership in this nation continued
throughout its history. It was the application of
the universal principle of selection. But it was
not a selection for favor, but rather for service.
Israel was the chosen people of God, but not for
its own sake. It had a ministry for the world.
Its leaders were prophets, priests, and kings, and
these men, especially the prophets, were unique
in their character and work. Their counterpart
is not to be found in any other history. But in
the last analysis the nation as a whole was re-
garded as royal, as priestly, as prophetic (Exod.
xix:6). What these special men did as leaders
for the nation, Israel as a unit was to do for the
world. Herein lay its unique office.
(2) But from the time of Amos and Hosea it
was seen that the nation as a whole was unpre-
pared for such a ministry. (See Amos and
HosEA.) The religion of Jahveh was set aside too
HEBREWS, RELIGION OK THE
7«5
HEBRON
often for that of other gods, or was mixed with
unworthy elements that robbed it of its eflfective-
ness. A purgation was seen to be necessary. A
cleansing process alone could purify the people
and make them worthy of their high ministry ;
and the power through which this regeneration
was to be wrought was recognized by all the
prophets of that period as being: Assyria, and later
Babylonia. Only such a purification as should come
through ivational di.saster and suffering could
avail to prepare Israel for its true mission. But
after this period of suffering had passed, the rem-
nant would be worthy, and a glorious future
would be expected. That future would be the
Messianic age, holy and marked by the presence
of God. Tlii^ consecration of kings and priests
was signified iiy their anointing with the holy oil.
From. this wo'd "Anointed," or "Messiah," grew
up the idea of the future glorious time as
"Anointed," o "Messianic." The conception of
a person, who stands a;, the common denomina-
tor of the new period of national salvation and
purification, is first presented by Isai' h. In his
rebuke of King Ahaz for presumptuo' , disregard
of God and an attempted defense o. his capital
by resort to arms and alliance with Assyria, the
prophet announces the birth of a child, in whose
day, soon to dawn (Is. vii:i4), and under whose
leadership as a conqueror, and yet a Prince of
Peace (Is. ix :6, 7), the national deliverance was
to be achieved ; after which there would come
the period of happiness and peace (Is. xi:i sq.).
That Isaiah expected this child-king of the house
of David in his own day seems certain, otherwise
the predictions of deliverance from Assyrian op-
pression would have been meaningless, and herein
is disclosed one of the interesting factors of proph-
ecy. The outlines of the coming order of things
were apparent to the eyes of the prophet, but the
hour of arrival was not so clear. The drama of
redemption was -contracted into a single scene,
but its larger meaning lay implicit in the slowly
unfolding movements upon which they looked.
Deliverance from Assyria came, but not through
the rise at that time of the Messianic King. Yet
the vision was true, for the larger outlines of the
Messianic time yet ahead fitted in no small degree
the local distress and the certainly foreseen de-
liverance.
(3) It remained for a later prophet to see with
yet clearer vision the true character of the Mes-
sianic work and outlines of the Messianic figure.
The Evangelical Prophet sets forth the Messianic
hope in its fullest light, and he does this under
the figure of the Suffering Servant of God. To
him at first Israel as a whole is the Servant (Is.
xli;8; ,xliv:i sq.). Though fallen upon unhappy
days, yet this very time is one of purification;
and now that the process of purgation is reach-
ing its completion, it is time to prepare for larger
things to come. Redemption is not to be wrought
by war and strife, as was the earlier view, but by
(leaceful methods (Is. xlii:l-4), and therefore the
figure of the King no longer appears, but the Ser-
vant in a humble and yet successful work. Pres-
ently, however, the idea that the nation as a
whole can do the great work appears to be aban-
doned. Too many are indifferent. The remnant,
the best part of the nation, is all that can be
counted upon in such an enterprise. This rem-
nant will save not only the apostate part of the
nation, but the world at large (Is. xlix:5-7).
But even the remnant was weak and unable to
accomplish the Divine work : and at last One
rises from the remnant, a representative of both
it and the whole nation, able to do that which both
had failed to accomplish, the Divine Servant, the
Messiah. From Is. Iii:i3 to liii:i2 the success of
the Servant's mission is set forth in terms that
show the blendmg of the personal and national
ideas about the Messianic figure. That this con-
ception of the Messiah finds its fulfillment in the
historic work of Jesus Qirist is the teaching of
the New Testament. H. L. W.
HEBRON (he'bron). /. (Heh.X'''^0, iAed-rone' ,
a community; alliance).
(1) Location. It was situated in the south of
Palestine and in the tribe of Judah, 18 miles south
from Jerusalem, in 31 deg. 32 nun. 30 sec. N. lat.,
35 deg. 8 min. 20 sec. E. long., at the height of
2664 Paris feet above the level of the sea (Schu-
bert). It is one of the most ancient cities existing,
having, as the sacred writer informs us, been built
'seven years before Zoan in Egypt,' and being
mentioned even prior to Damascus (Num. xiii:
2j; Gen. xiii:i8; comp. xv:2).
(2) Ancient Names. Its most ancient name
was Kirjath-arba. that is, 'the city of Arba.'
from Arba, the father of Anjk and of the Anakim
who dwelt in and around Hebron (Gen. xxiii:2;
Josh. xiv:is; xv:3; xxiiii; Judg. i:lo). It was
peculiarly a Hittite city, although the Hittites and
the Amorites were mingled together within its
confines. It appears to have been also called
Mamre, probably from the name of Abraham's
Amoritish ally (Gen. xxiii;9; x.\xv:27; comp.
xiv :I3, 28).
The name of Hebron has the same origin as that
of the Khabiri who appear in Ebed-Tob's letters
by the side of Labai, Babylonia, and Naharaim
as the assailants of Jerusalem and its territory.
(See Tell Amarna, 'Tablets of.) Consult Sayce,
Patriarchal Palestine, pp. 146-7.
(3) Early History. The ancient city lay in a
valley ; and the two remaining pools, one of which
at least existed in the time of David, serve, with
other circumstances, to identify the modern with
the ancient site (Gen. xxxvii:i4; 2 Sam. iv:i2).
Much of the lifetime of Abraham. Isaac, and
Jacob was spent in this neighborhood, where they
were all entombed ; and it was from hence that
the pariarchal family departed for Egypt by the
way of Beersheba (Gen. xxxvii:i4; xlvi:i).
-After the return of the Israelites, the city was
taken by Joshua and given over to (Taleb, who ex-
pelled the Anakim from its territories (Josh, x:
36, 37; xiv:6-i5; xv:i3-i4; Judg. i:2o). It was
afterwards made one of the cities of refuge, and
assigned to the priests and Levites (Josh. xx:7;
xxi:ii, 13). David, on becoming king of Judah,
made Hebron his royal residence. Here he
reigned seven years and a half; here most of his
sons were born ; and here he was anointed king
over all Israel (i Sam. ii:i-4, 11; i Kings ii:ii; 2
Sam. v:l, 3). On this extension of his kingdom
Hebron ceased to be sufficiently central, and Jeru-
salem then became the metropolis. It is possible
that this step excited a degree of discontent in
Hebron which afterwards encouraged Absalom to
raise in that city the standard of rebellion against
his father (2 Kings xv:9, 10), Hebron was one
of the places fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi :
10) ; and after the exile the Jews who returned to
Palestine occupied Hebron and the surrounding
villages (Neh. xi;a5).
Hebron is not named by the prophets, nor in the
New Testament. Hebron is now called el-Kbulil-
er-Rahman. We learn from the first book of Mac-
cabees, and from Josephus, that it came into the
power of the Edomites, who had taken possession
of the south of Judah, and was recovered from
them by Judas Maccab.xus (i Mace. v:65; Josepli.
Antiq. xii :8, 6). During the great war, Hebron
HEBRON
796
HEBRON
was seized by the rebel Simon Giorides, br> was
recaptured and burnt by Cerealis, an officer of
Vespasian (Joseph. Dc Bell. Ji:d. iv:9; viiip).
Josephiis describes the tombs of the patriarchs as
existing in his day; and bothEusebius and Jerome
and all subsequent writers who mention Hebron
down to the time of the Crusades, speak of the
place chiefly as containing these sepulchers.
Among the Moslems it is still called by the ap-
pellation of el Khiilil, 'the Friend' (of God), the
name which they gave to Abraham. The fiiU
name given above, el-Khulil-er-Rahman, means
'the Friend of the Merciful (God).'
(4) Under Moslem Rule. Since the capture
of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187, Hebron also re-
verted to the Moslem,s, and has ever since re-
mained in their possession. In the modern history
of Hebron the most remarkable circumstance is
the part which the inhabitants of the town and
district took in the rebellion of 1834, and the
heavy retribution which it brought down upon
them. They held out to the last, and gave battle
to Ibrahim Pasha near Solomon's Pools. They
were defeated; but retired and entrenched them-
selves in Hebron, which Ibrahim carried by storm,
and gave over to sack and pillage. The town has
not yet recovered from the blow it then sustained.
In the fou.teenth century pilgrims passed from
Sinai to Jerusalem direct through the desert by
Beersheba and Hebron, and it continued to be
occasionally visited by European travelers down
to the latter part of the seventeenth century; but
from tha.t time till the present century it appears
to have been little frequented by them.
(5) Present Conditioii. (i) The town of
Hebron lies low down on the sloping sides of a
narrow valley (of Mamre), chiefly on the eastern
side, but in the southern part stretches across also
to the western side. The houses are all of stone,
high and well built, with windows and flat roofs,
and on these roofs are small domes, sometimes
two or three to each house.
(2) The shops are well furnished, better indeed
than those of towns of the same class in Egypt,
and the commodities are of a very similar descrip-
tion. The only display of local manufactures is
the produce of the glass-works, for which the
place has long been celebrated in these parts. The
articles manufactured consist almost exclusively
of glass lamps, many of which are exported to
Egypt, and rings of colored glass worn by females
on the arms. Gates are placed not only at the
entrance of the city, but in diff'erent parts of the
interior, and are closed at night for the better
preservation of order, as well as to prevent com-
munication between the different quarters.
(3) There are nine mosques in Hebron, none of
which possess any architectural or other interest,
with the exception of the massive structure which
is built over the tombs of the patriarchs. This is
esteemed by the Moslems one of their holiest
places, and Christians are rigorously excluded
from it. At an earlier period, however, when the
Holy Land was in the power of the Christians, ac-
cess was not denied; and Benjamin of Tudela
says that the sarcophagi above ground were shown
to the generality of pilgrims as what they desired
to see ; but if a rich Jew offered an additional fee,
'an iron dnor is opened, which dates from the
time of our forefathers who rest in peace, and with
a burning taper in his hands the visitor descends
into a first cave, which is empty, traverses a second
in the same state, and at last reaches a third,
which contains six sepulchers. those of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, and of Sarah, Rebekah, and
Leah, one opposite the other. All these sepulchers
b«ar inscriptions, the letters being engraved ; thus
upon that of Abraham: "This is the sepulcher
of our father Abraham, upon whom be peace;"
even so upon that of Isaac and all the other se-
pulchers' (Itinerary, '1:77; ed. Asher, Berlin, 1840).
The identity of this place with the cave of Mach-
pelah is one of the few local traditions in Pales-
tine which even Dr. Robinson sutfers to pass
without dispute, and may therefore be taken for
granted.
The court in which the mosque stands is sur-
rounded by an extensive and lofty wall, formed of
large stones, and strengthened by square but-
tresses. This wall is the greatest antiquity in
Hebron, and even Dr. Robinson supposes that it
may be substantially the same which is mentioned
by Josephus (Antiq. i:l4; De Bell. Jud. iv 19, 7),
and by Eusebius and Jerome {Onomast. s. v. Ar-
boeh) as the sepulcher of Abraham. A common
Moslem tomb in the neighborhood of Hebron
passes as the tomb of Abner. He was certainly
interred in this city (2 Sam. iii:32) ; and the head
of Ishbosheth, after his assassination, was depos-
ited in the same sepulcher (2 Sam. iv:i2) ; but
there is slight evidence in favor of the tradition
which professes to point out this locality to the
modern traveler.
Besides this venerable wall, there is not'hing at
Hebron bearing the stamp of antiquity, save two
reservoirs for rain water outside the town. As
these pools are doubtless of high antiquity, one of
them is in all likelihood the 'pool of Hebron' over
which David nung the assassins of Ishbosheth (2
Sam. iv:i2).
(4) The present population of Hebron is about
5000. Most of the inhabitants are Moslems, of
fierce and intolerant character. There are no resi-
dent-Christians. The Jews amount to about one
hundred families, mostly natives of different coun-
tries of Europe, who have emigrated to this place
for the purpose of having their bones laid near the
sepulchers of their illustrious ancestors. They
have two synagogues and several schools.
(5) The environs of Hebron are very fertile.
Vineyards and plantations of fruit trees, chiefly
Olive trees, cover the valleys and arable grounds;
while the tops and sides of the hills, although
stony, are covered with rich pastures, which sup-
port a great number of cattle, sheep, and goats,
constituting an important branch of the industry
and wealth of Hebron. The hill country of Judah.
of which it is the capital, is indeed highly produc-
tive, and under a paternal government would be
capable of sustaining a large population. That it
did so once, is manifest from the great number and
extent of ruined terraces and dilapidated towns.
It is at present abandoned, and cultivation ceases
at the distance of two miles north of the town.
The hills then become covered with prickly and
other stunted trees, which furnish Bethlehern and
other villages with wood. (See Dr. Robinson,
Dr. Olin. Rev. V. Monro, and Schubert ; Sayce
Patriarchal Palestine; Thomson, The Land and
the Book, vol. ii : pp. 408 sg.)-
2. A town in the territory of Asher (Josh, xix :
28) on the boundary of the tribe, named next to
Hebron, as above. In the original the names are
quite different. Kirjath Arba seems to have been
the name of this place prior to the Israelitish oc-
cupancy (Josh. xv:i3, 14). In the time of Abra-
ham it was honored with another name (Gen.
xxiii :i9 ; xxxv :27) ; but its earliest as well as later
name was undoubtedly Hebron.
3. The third son of Kohath, and a grandson of
Levi : a younger brother of Aniram, father of
Afoses and Aaron (Exod. vi:i8; Num. iii:i9; i
Chron vi:2, 18; xxiii :i2), B. C. before 1290. His
HEBROXITES
797
HEIR
descendants are called Hebronites (Num. 111:27,
etc.). (See Hebronites.)
4. The son of Mareshah, and apparently, grand-
son of Caleb, of the posterity of Jiidah (i Chron.
ii :42, 43), B. C. after 1170.
HEBRONITES (he'bron its), (Heb. V"?C, i-/i£d-
ro-/!t?e'}, descendants of Hebron, son of Koliath
;,N'uin. iii:27; xxvi;58; 1 Chron. xxvi:23j.
HEDGE (hej), (Heb. "'l^', gaw-dari, and Heb.
^t"^^, ghed-ay-raw' , are used of the hedge of a
vineyard (Ps. Ixxxix:40; i Chron. iv;23.)
The word ?nes-oo-kaw' (Heb. '^?^^'?) means a
thorn hedge (Mic. vii:4). Tlie Gr. <t>pa~tiiii, tr.
'hedge' in Matt, xxi :33, Mark xii:i, Luke xiv :23,
denotes a fence of any kind, whether hedge, or
wall, or palings. The purpose of the hedge, as
the term is used in the Bible, is either to protect
that which is enclosed in it (e. g.. Job i:io), or
to restrain and hinder (t?. g.. Job iii :23 ; Hos. ii :
(>). (See Fence.) From the word gadare came
1I1C I'hirnician name of one of their colonies,
Gadir, which has become Cadiz, in Spain.
Figurative. (1) God's protecting providence,
government, or whatever defends from hurt and
danger, is called a hedge (Job i: 10; Is. v :2 ; Ezek.
xiii:6). (2) Troubles and hindrances are called
hedges, as they stop our way and prevent our
doing and obtaining what we please (Lam. iii 7;
Job xix:8; Hos. ii:6). (3) The way of the sloth-
ful is a hedge of thorns; he always apprehends
great difficulties in the way of doing any good,
and often he entangles himself in inextricable dif-
ficulties (Prov. xv:i9).
MinL
HEDtrOSMON (hedu'os-mon), (Gr. 'HSCo<nu>v,
hay-doo'os-inon, i. e., having a sweet smell), trans-
lated mint, is mentioned in Matt. xxiii:23.
'Woe unto you. Scribes and Pharisees, hypo-
crites! for ye pay tithe of mint and anise (prop-
erly diU) and cummin, and have omitted the
weightier matters of the law;' and, again, in
Luke xi:42: 'But woe unto you, Pharisees! for
ye tithe mint and rue, and all manner of herbs,
and pass over judgment and the love of God:
these ought ye to have done, and not to leave the
other undone ' All the plants mentioned in the
above passages belong to the smaller ones culti-
vated in gardens in Europe, and which usually
come under the denomination of sweet herbs. It
is difficult to determine the exact species or va-
riety of mint employed by the ancients. There
are numerous species very nearly allied to one
another. They usually grow in moist situations,
and are herbaceous, perennial, of powerful odor,
especially when bruised, and have small reddish-
colored flowers, arranged in spikes or whorls.
The taste of these plants is bitter, warm, and pun-
gent, but leaving a sensation of coolness on the
tongue ; in their properties they are so similar
to each other, that either in medicine, or as a
condiment, one species may safely be substituted
for another. But the species Mentha sytvestris
and Mentha arvoisis probably yielded the varie-
ties cultivated in Palestine. It is still used there
as a tood-flavoring. J. F. R.
HEGAI (he'gai), (Heb. '^!?, hay-gah'ee, eunuch),
orHEGE (he'ge), (Esth. ii:3, Heb. *'?.i?, hay-gay',
same), one of the chamberlains of Ahasucrus (or
Xerxes), who had charge of the women of the
harem (Esth. ii:8, 15), B. C. 479.
HEIFER, RED (hef'er, red), (Heb. "i^y, eg-
law' , ' 'Vf , paw-raw'). See Sacrifice.
Figurative. (l) Young wives were called
heifers, to mark their gaiety, and expected
fruitfulness (Judg. xiv:i8). (2) Nations are
likened to heifers: Egypt to a fair one; to mark
their glory and prosperity (jer. xlvizo), ^3)
The Chaldeans are compared to a fat one, to
mark their wealth, wantonness, and unconcern
(Jer. l:ii). (4) The ten tribes of Israel are lik-
ened to a backsliding one, to signify their stupid
and perverse revolting from God (Hos. iv:i6).
Also to a taught one, loving to tread the corn,
over whose fair neck God fassed; they were in-
structed by God's oracles and prophets ; they
were expert and skillful in idolatry ; they loved
to riot in such plenty as they possessed under
Jeroboam the Second ; but were quickly after re-
duced to slavery and distress by the Assyrians
(Hos. x:ii). (5) If our version rightly renders
Hagla Shalishiah, a heifer of three years old, Zoar
and Horonaim, cities of Moab, are thus likened
to mark iheir untamcable obstinacy; or, rather,
their terrible outcries, when the inhabitants fled
from the Assyrians and Chaldeans. But perhaps
these words may be the names of cities that
should share in the ruin (Is. xv:s; Jer. xlviii :
34)-
HEIR (ir), (Heb. ^X, yaw-res/i' , a primitive
root, meaning to occupy), one that succeeds to the
inheritance of anything after its present possessor.
In this sense, even enemies succeeding a people
driven out of their own land are called their
"heirs" (Jer. xlix:2; Mic. i:i5).
Figurative, (i) Christ is "/leirof a// //n'ngs;"
as God's Son, he hath an equal right to all things
with his Father; as Mediator, he has, by God's
sovereign decree, been raised to this dignity ; so
that his elect, and all things, are given into his
hand, to dispose of for their good (Matt. xxi:38;
Heb. i: 2). (2) Saints are "heirs" of the prom-
ise; "heirs" of righteousness; "heirs" of salva-
tion; "heirs" of the grace of life; "heirs" of the
kingdom; "heirs" of the world; "heirs of God"
v.nd "Joint-heirs" with Christ ,ns united to Christ,
and by virtue of his death, they have the most
free and honorable title to all the promises, bless-
ings, creatures, and fullness of God (Rom. iv:l3;
viii:i7; Heb. i:i4; vi:i7; xi:7; James iiis; I
HELAH
798
HELL
Pet. iii:7). (3) But perhaps Abraham's being
"heir of (he ivorM," signifies his having Canaan
divinely bequeathed to his seed (Rom. iv:l3).
Perhaps Gal. iii :29 explains this. (4) Christ, the
seed of Abraham, is "heir" of all things; and his
people are heirs with him. (5) A handmaid "heir
to her mistress," cannot be borne with, because of
her muilerable pride (Prov. xxx:23). (See Birth-
right; Inheritance.)
HEIiAH (he'lah), (Heb. J^?;?, khel-aw', rust),
one of the wives of Ashur, the ancestor of the men
of Tekoah (i Chron. ivrs), B. C. about 1612.
HELAM (he'lam),(Heb. O^'O, /t/^aj-Zaww/, place
of abundance), a place celebrated for a defeat of
the Syrians by David, in which he took their
horses and chariots (2 Sam.x:l6, 17), it wouldseem
to have been not far from the Euphrates. Per-
haps it can best be identified with Alamatha.
HEIiBAH (hel'bah), or CHELBA (Heb. ^"t'-
khel-baw' , fatness, a fertile region), a city of
Asher (judg. i:3l); perhaps Helbon in Syria. "It
still exists in the village of Helbon, a place with
many ruins three and a half miles north of Damas-
cus in the midst of a valley of the same name"
(Keil, Com., in loc)
HELBON (hel'bon), (Heb. f'-^?, khel-bone\ fat),
a name which occurs only in Ezek. xxvii:i8, where
'the wine of Helbon' is named among the com-
modities brought to the great market of Tyre.
Helbon is thought to be identical with Chaly-
bon, an old city of Syria, famous for wine.
Now it is generally agreed that the site is at
Helbun, thirteen miles north of Damascus. The
village is situated in a narrow valley shut in by
steep, bare cliff's and long, shelving banks 2,000 to
3,000 feet high. The bottom of the glen is occu-
pied by orchards, and far up the mountain slopes
are terraced vineyards. Along the terraces and
in the valley below are extensive ruins. The wine
was celebrated in Assyria, Babylonia, and Per-
sia (Strabo XV735; Nebuchadnezzar I R. 65, 32).
HEIiDAl (hel'dai or hel'da-I), (Heb. '":?, khel-
dah'ee, worldliness).
1. A Netophathite, descendant of Othniel, who
had charge of one of the courses in the temple
service (l Chron. xxvii:is), B. C. 1014.
2. One of those returning from captivity. Zech-
ariah was instructed to make certain crowns for
him and others as memorials (Zech. vi:io), B
C. 520.
HELEB (he'leb), (Heb. ^^n^ khay-leb' , fat, fat-
ness), a Netophathite, son of Baanah, and one of
David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii:2g).
HELED (he-led') (Heb. "'^'^, khay'led, rortion
of time), the name (I Chron. xi:3o) which appears
as Heleb in 2 Sam. xxiii:29.
HELEK (he'lek), (Heb. il^, khay'lek, a portion),
a descendant of Gilead and founder of a family by
his own name (Num. xxvi:3o). His descendants
were influential in the tribe (Josh. xvii;2), B. C.
about 1612.
HELEKITES (hslek-ites), (Heb. "I^";?, kitel-
kee'), a family descended from Helek (which see).
HELEM (he'lem), (Heb. D.;? khay'lem, dream.
1. Apparently a descendant of Asher (l Chron.
vii:35), B. C. about 1658. See Burrington, 1:26$.
2. A name given in Zech. vi:i4: probably the
same as Heldai in ver. 10. (Ewald, Propheten,
«:536).
HELEPH (he'leph), (Heb. 'l^H, kheh'le/), one of
the boundary marks of the tribe of Naphtali (Josh.
xix:33). Perhaps it corresponds to the modem
Beitlif: Van de Velde, Me7iioir, p. 320: Syria,
i:233.
HELEZ (he'lez), (Heb. V/D, khay'lets, or 't>^
klieh' lets, strength).
1. One of David's "thirty" (2 Sam. xxiii:26; I
Chron. xi:27). In the last passage he is called
an Ephraimite, and captain of the seventh course
in the temple worship (i Chron. xxvii:io), B. C.
1014.
2. Son of Azariah, of the tribe of Judah (l
Chron. ii:39), a descendant of Jerahmeel (B. C.
before 1017).
HELI (he'll), (Gr. 'H\i, hay-lee', for Heb. "^y.
ay-lee' , ascent), the father-in-law of Joseph, and
maternal grandfather of Christ, (Luke iii:23).
Harvey, Genealogies, pp. 130, 138.
HELIOPOLIS (he'li-op'o-lis). See On.
HELKAI (hel'ka-i), (Heb. 'p-(?, khel-kah'ee,
apportioned), a priest in the days of Joiakim the
high priest (Neh. xii:i5), B. C. after 536.
HELKATH (hel'kath), (Heb. ^tl^, khel-kath' ,
smoothness), a town on the boundary of the tribe of
Asher (Josh. xix:25), which was allotted to the
Gershonite Levites (xxi:3i).
HELKATH-HAZZTJRIM (hel'kath-haz'zu rim).
(Heb. C"(Sn n]?^n khel-khath' hats-tsoo-reem' ,
smoothness of the rocks; others, field of the sharp
edges), a plot of ground near the pool of Gibeon
(2 Sam. ii:l6). The name was given from the
bloody duel fought there (Van de \^\A^,AIe7noir,
P- 320)- ,.,,.,,
HELIi (hel), (Heb. ^''^"f, sheh-ole' , the unseen
state.)
The term used in Old English to designate the
world of the dead generally, with all the sad and
painful associations of the dark region into which
the living disappear. In modern English it has
the specific sense of the place and condition of
penalty destined for the finally impenitent among
the dead. With this it expresses also the abode
of evil spirits.
I. Scripture Terms. Much that belongs to
this subject has already been considered under
the head Hades. It is there shown that hell is
represented by the word Sheol in the Old
and by dSrjs {Hades) in the New Testament. But
as both these words mean also the grave or the
condition of the dead, hell, as the place of final
punishment for sinners, is more distinctively indi-
cated by the term GeheJina (yhym), which is
the word translated 'hell' in Matt, v :22, 29, 30;
x:28; xviiirg; xxiii:i5, 33; Mark ix:43, 45, 47;
Luke xii ;5 ; James iii :6. It is also distinctively
indicated by such phrases as 'the place of torment'
(Luke xvi:28; 'everlasting fire' (Matt. xxv:4i);
'the hell of fire, where the worm dieth not, and
the fire is not quenched' (Mark ix:44). The
dreadful nature of the abode of the wicked is
implied in various figurative expressions, such as
'outer darkness, 'I am tormented in this flame,'
'furnace of fire,' 'unquenchable fire,' 'where the
worm dieth not,' 'the blackness of darkness,' 'tor-
ment in fire and brimstone,' 'the ascending smoke
of their torment,' 'the lake of fire that burneth with
brimstone' (Matt. viii:l2; xiii:42: xxii:i3; xxv:
30; Luke xvi:24; comp. Matt, xxv :4i ; Mark ix:
43-48; Jude 13; comp. Rev. xiv:io. 11; xix:2q;
xx:i4; xxi:8). The figure by which hell is
HELL
799
HELLENIST
represented as burning with fire and brimstone is
probably derived from the fate of Sodom and
Gomorrah, as well as that which describes the
smoke as ascending from it (comp. Rev. xiv:io,
II, with Gen. xix :24, 28). To this coincidence
of description Peter also most probably alludes in
2 Pet. ii:6.
2. Figurative illusions. The names which
in many of the other instances are given to the
punishments of hell, are doubtless in part figura-
tive, and many of the terms which were commonly
applied to the subject by the Jews are retained in
the New Testament. The images, it will be seen,
are generally taken from death, capital punish-
ments, tortures, prisons, etc. And it is the obvious
design of the sacred writers in using such figures,
to awaken the idea of something terrible and
fearful. They mean to teach that the punishments
beyond the grave will excite the same feelings of
distress as are produced on earth by the objects
employed to represent them. We are so little ac-
quainted with the state in which we shall be here-
after, and with the nature of our future body, that
no strictly literal representation of such punish-
ments could be made intelligible to us. Many of
the Jews, indeed, and many of the Christian
fathers, took the terms employed in Scripture in
an entirely literal sense, and supposed there would
be actual fire, etc., in hell. But from the words
of Christ and his apostles nothing more can with
certainty be inferred than that they meant to
denote great and unending miseries.
3. Punishments of Sin. The punishments of
sin may be divided into two classes: (i) Nat-
ural punishments, or such as necessarily fol-
low a life of servitude to sin. (2) Positive pun-
ishments, or such as God shall see fit, by his sov-
ereign will, to inflict.
(1) NaturaL Among the natural punishments
we may rank the privation of eternal happiness
(Matt. vii:2i, 23; xxii:i3; xxv:4i; comp. 2
Thess. i :9) ; the painful sensations which are the
natural consequence of committing sin, and of an
impenitent heart ; the propensities to sin, the
evil passions and desires which in this world fill
the human heart, and which are doubtless carried
into the world to come. The company of fellow-
sinners and of evil spirits, as inevitably resulting
from the other conditions, may be accounted
among the natural punishments, and must prove
not the least grievous of them.
(2) Positive. The positive punishments have
been already indicated. It is to these chiefly that
the Scripture directs our attention. 'There are
but few men in such a state that the merely nat-
ural punishments of sin will appear to them
terrible enough to deter them from the commission
of it. Experience also shows that to threaten
positive punishment has far more eflfect, as well
upon the cultivated as the uncultivated, in deter-
ring them from crime, than to announce, and lead
men to expect, the merely natural consequences
of sin, be they ever so terrible. Hence we may
see why it is that the New Testament says so little
of natural punishments (although these beyond
question await the wicked), and makes mention
of them in particular far less frequently than of
positive punishments ; and why, in those passages
which treat of the punishments of hell, such ideas
and images are constantly employed as suggest
and confirm the idea of positive punishments
(Knapp's Christian Theology, sec. 136).
(3) Varying. As the sins which shut out from
heaven vary so greatly in quality and degree, we
should expect from the justice of God a corre-
sponding variety both in the natural and the
positive punishments. This is accordingly the
uniform doctrine of Christ and his apostles. The
more knowledge of the divine law a man pos-
sesses, the more his opportunities and inducements
to avoid sin, the stronger the incentives to faith
and holiness set before him, the greater will be
his punishment if he fails to make a faithful use
of these advantages. "The servant who knows his
lord's will and does it not, deserves to be
beaten with many stripes:* To whom much is
given, of him much will be required' (Matt, x:
is; xi:22, 24; xxiii:i5; Luke xii:48). Hence St.
Paul says that the heathen who acted against the
law of nature would indeed be punished; but that
the Jews would be punished more than they, be-
cause they had more knowledge (Rom. 11:9-29).
In this conviction, that God will, even in hell,
justly proportion punishment to sin, we must
rest satisfied. We cannot now know more ; the
precise degrees as well as the precise nature of
such punishments are things belonging to an-
other state of being, which in the present we are
unable to understand (Knapp's Christian Theol-
ogy, translated by Leonard Woods, Jun., D. D.,
sees. 156-158; Storr and Flatt's Biblical Theology,
with Schmucker's Additions, sec. iii. 58; Alger's
Critical Hist, of the Doctrine of a Future Life,
N. Y.)
HELLENIST (hel'len-ist), (Gr. 'EWiji-wrTijj, hel-
iay-nis-tace' , one who talks Greek).
This word is derived from the Greek verb
AXT/Wfw, hel-lay-nid 30, which in Aristotle means
'to talk (good) Greek' (Rhetoric, iii:5,l; 12:1); but,
according to the analogy of other verbs in — Ifu, it
might mean 'to favor the Greeks,' or 'to imitate
Greek manners.' In the New Testament it seems
to be appropriated as the name of those persons
who, being of Jewish extraction, nevertheless
talked Greek as their mother-tongue ; which was
the case generally with the Jews in Egypt, Syria,
Asia Minor, and Greece; and in fact, through the
influence of the Greek cities in northern Palestine
(Decapolis), it would appear that the Galilearvs
from their childhood learned nearly as much
Greek as Hebrew. The appellation Hellenist is
opposed to that of Hebrew in Acts vi:i; in Acts
ix :29 the reading is not so certain, yet probably it
should there also be "Hellenists,' meaning uncon-
verted Jews.
The fact that so large a portion of the Jew-
ish nation was Hellenistic was destined to work
great results on the Christian cause. Indeed, in
some sense, Christianity itself may be said to have
had its human birth among Hellenists, since Jesus
himself and the majority of his disciples were
reared in Galilee, and were probably nearly as
familiar with the Greek as with the Hebrew
tongue. Nevertheless, during the early times
which followed the day of Pentecost, no striking
result appears from this, except that it must have
facilitated communication with the Jews of the
dispersion. The important part which the Hel-
lenists were to sustain, was first indicated by th*
preaching of Stephen ; who discerned the lower
place which must be assigned to the national law
of Moses in the kingdom of Messiah. Stephen,
indeed, was abruptly cut off by the odium which
his principles caused ; but the same were soon
after adopted, and yet more efficiently inculcated,
by his persecutor Saul, to whom the high office
was allotted of establishing the peculiar system
of doctrine which thenceforward distinguished the
Gentile from the Jewish church.
The Epistle of James (whether written, as
Ncander thinks, before the development of the
Pauline views or not) exhibits to us undoubtedly
HELMET
800
HEMLOCK
the state of Christian doctrine in the mother-
church of Jerusalem. We see in it the higher
spirit of Christ struggHng to put down the law
into its right place, but havmg by no means as
yet brought out into their full clearness the dis-
tinguishing doctrines of the gospel. All of these
were preached and established by Paul in his
own churches, founded among Gentile proselytes
to Hellenistic Judaism, and from them in no
long time were imbibed by all Gentile Christen-
dom. But, simultaneously, the struggle began
within the church itself between the Hebraic and
the Hellenistic spirit.
The (so-called) first council at Jerusalem (Acts
xvj decided, for the time at least, that the
Mosaic law was not to be enforced upon the
Gentiles, but it did not lessen the importance of
it to Jewish Christians; and it would appear
that the Hebrew spirit became afterwards even
stronger still within the Jerusalem church, if we
may interpret literally the words of James (Acts
xxi :2o) : 'Thou seest, brother, how many thou-
sands of Jews there are which believe, and they
are all zealous of the lazv.' At any rate it ap-
pears certain that the resistance to the Pauline
doctrine continued intense in the great body of the
Hebrew Christians : for they show themselves in
ecclesiastical history only under the names of
Nazarenes and Ebionites, and are always re-
garded as (more or less) heretical by the Gentile
churches, since they held only the bare rudi-
mental creed on which the original Pentecostal
church was founded; and pertinaciously rejected
the distinguishing tenets of Paul, which were con-
firmed by Peter, and perhaps extended by John.
This first and greatest of controversies ended in
the extinction of the Hebrew churches, which
had refused to grow with the growth of the
(Thristian spirit in its highest and most favored
leaders. But long before that event the Hellen-
istic Jews had been swallowed up in the mass of
Gentile believers; and to follow the further devel-
opment of the Grecian mind within the bosom of
Christianity, belongs, not to this article, but to a
history of Gentile Christendom. F. W. N.
HELMET (hel'met), (Heb. i'?'!?, /C-o'*a//), a cap
made of brass, iron, or other metal, for protecting
the head of a warrior, i Sam. xvii:;.
Figurative, (i) The salvation of his people
is God's "Itclmet;" the deliverance he intends
and works for them, will appear conspicuous as
if on his head, and he will have the glory of it
(Is. Iix:i7). (2) Eternal salvation, and the hope
of it, are the saints' "helmet;" they defend and
render them bold and courageous in their spiritual
warfare (Eph. vi:i7; I Thess. v:8). (See
Arms, Armor.)
HEIiON (heTon), (Heb. 1^1, khay-lone' , strong),
the father of Eliab, who was a man of influence in
the tribe of Zebulun (Num.iig; ii:7; vii;24, 29; x:i6),
B.C. before 1658.
HEIiP(help). Besides its usual meaning of a^«i/-
ance, a technical application is given the term in
the instances below riled:
"Helps" (Gr. jSoiJtoa, bo-ay' thi-ah), an apparatus
for securing a leaking vessel, by means of ropes,
chains, etc., forming a process of undergirding
(Acts xxvii:i7). The helm is now the han-
dle which moves the rudder, but it was for-
merly used loosely for the whole steering ap-
paratus. Hence in James iii :4 it is translated a
rudder. It was Tyndale who introduced 'helm'
here, and he was followed by all the versions
except Geneva, which has 'rudder,' and Rheims
which has 'sterne.' The R. V. follows Geneva.
HELPMEET (help'mgt'), (Heb.'*^^? '!?, heh'-
zer keli-neg-doiv' , a help as his counterpart), i. e.,
an aid suitable and supplementary to him.
A beautiful and delicate designation of a wife
(Gen. ii:i8-2o). (See M.\kri.\ge.)
HELPS (helps), (Gr. ayrlXrjxpm, an-til' ape sis,
aids; supports); \\i\%. opitulationes ; i Cor. xii:28).
The Greek word, signifying aids or assistances,
has also this meaning, among others, in the
classical writers {e. g. Diod. Sic. i:87). In
the Sept. it answers to the Heb. "''?, ( Ez-raw'),
(Ps. xxii:l9). It is found in the same sense Ecclus.
xi:l2; 2 Mace. xi:26; and in Josephus {De Bell.
Jud. iv:5, i). In the New Testament it occurs
once, viz. in the enumeration of the several orders,
or classes of persons possessing miraculous gifts
among the primitive Christians (ut supra), where
it seems to be used by metonymy, the abstract for
the concrete, and to mean helpers; like the words
Svvd)ieis, 'miracles,' i. e. workers of miracles; Kv^ep-
vriaeii, 'governments,' that is, governors, etc., in
the same enumeration. Great difSculty attends
the attempt to ascertain the nature of the
office so designated among the first Christians.
(Harrington's Muft'/Zaia'a Sacra, i:i66; Mack-
night on I Cor. xii: 10-28). After all it must be
confessed, with Doddridge, that 'we can only
guess at the meaning of the words in question,
having no principles on which to proceed in fix-
ing it absolutely.' J. F. D.
HELVE (helv), (Heb. V?, ates, wood), the
handle or wooden part (Deut. xix:5) of an ax
(which see).
HEM (Gr. Kpdc-ireSov, kras'ped-on. Matt. ix:2o,)
R. \'., "border." "Entomb'd upon the very hem
o' the sea." — Shakespeare.
HEMAM (he'mam), son of Lotan, the eldest son
of Seir (Gen. xxxvi:22), in I Chron.i :39, the
name is Homan which is doubtless correct. (B.C.
after 1964.)
HEMAN (he'raan), (Heb. Ir'^, hay-mawn,
faithful).
1. A member of the tribe of Judah named with
others celebrated for their wisdom, to which that of
Solomon is compared (I Kings iv:3i; i Chron.ii:6).
The considerations stated under Ethan will distin-
guish this Heman from the following, with whom
he is sometimes confounded. (B. C. after 1856.)
2. A Kohathite of the tribe of Levi, and one
of the leaders of the temple music as organized by
David (i Chron. vi :33 ; xvi:4i, 42), B. C. 1014.
This, doubtless, is the Heman to whom the 88th
Psalm is ascribed.
HEMATH (he'math), (Heb. p-^.,, kham-awth' ,
fortress).
K name found in i Chron. ii :5S, in the genea-
logical lists of Judah. but whether of a place or
person cannot be determined.
HEMDAN (hem'dan), (Heb. Ivr?. khem-dawn' ,
pleasant), son of Dishon, son of Anah the Horite
(Gen. xxxvi;26). The name is changed to Hauram
(Heb. Chamram' , I Chron. i:4i), B. C. about 1964.
HEMLOCK (hem'lok), a wrong rendering of the
Heh. -iS", roshe (K. V. Hos. x:4) (see Gall), and
of '"'?<-, lah-an-aiv' (Amos vi:i2), which should
be rendered as in the R. V. Wortnivood.
Figurative. The figurative use of it is ex-
plained by comparing the above passage with Deut.
xxix:i8; Amos v:7; Heb. xii: 15. The evils of
perverted judgment resemble the springing up of
useless and poisonous plants where we look for
and expect valuable and nutritious vegetation.
HEM OF A GARMENT
801
HEKUMAN
HEM OF A GARMENT (li^m 6v a gar'mrat),
(Heb. /1-, slwol, to hang down; Gr. Kpiatteiov.
kras'pedon), the extremity; border of tlie outer
garment; fringe (Kxod. xxviii:33; xxxix:24-26;
Matt. ix.2o; xiv:36).
The importance attached to this by the later
Jews, especially Pharisees (Matt. xxiii:5) was
founded on Num. xv :38, 39. The fringe owed its
origin to the ends of the woof being left in order
to prevent raveling.
HEN (hiJn), (Heb. ''^, khane, grace), son of
Ze[)lianiah (Zech. vi:i4). Apparently the same as
Josiah of verse 10. Perhaps we should read "for
the favor of the son of Zepliaiiiah."
HESTA (he'na), (Heb. "«■!, hay-nah'), a city of
Mesopotamia, the same, probably, which was
afterwards called Ana, situated on a ford of the
Euphrates (2 Kings xviii:34; xix;l3; Is. xxxvii:l3).
HENADAD (hen'a-dad), (Heb "'7?'!!', khay-naw-
daw:i , favor of Hadad), Hadad, a Levite, who
with his family, helped to rebuild the Temple
under Jcshua (Ezra iii:9), B. C. before 535.
HENOCH (he'nok), (Heb. T'-H, k/iati-oke' , in-
itiatedi.
1. The form in which Enoch appears (i (Thron.
1:3). The Hebrew is Chanoch, both here and in
Genesis.
2. The form in which Hanoch appears in i
Chron. 1:33. (See Enoch.)
HEPHER (he'pher), (Heb. '?n. khay'fer, a
pit, well;.
1. A Canaanitish city with a king, subdued by
Joshua (Josh. xii:i7). Situation unknown.
2. Youngest son of Gilead (Num. xxvi:32),
and head of the family by his name. (B. C. before
1618.)
3. Son of Naarah, one of the two of Ashur's
wives (l Chron. iv;6), B. C. 1612.
4. One of David's guard, called the Mecherath-
ite (i Chron. xi :36).
HEPHEBITE (he'pher-ite), (Heb. "l.?n, khef-
ree' , a descendant of Heplier 2 (Num. xxvi:32).
HEPHZIBAH (heph'zl-bah), (Heb. •'^?""'?''r?'
khej Isee'baiu. my delight is in her).
!• The queen of Hezekiah and mother of King
Manasseh (2 Kings xxi:i), B. C. before 690.
2. A name to be borne by the restored Jeru-
salem (Is. Ixii :4).
HERAKLES (her'a-klez), ( HpaitX^j, her-ak-
lace.',) is mentioned in 2 Mace. iv;lQ, as the Tyrian
gt)d to whom the Jewish high-priest Jason sent a
religious embassy (tftupof), with the offering of 300
drachmas of silver.
That this Tyrian Hercules (Herod. ii:44) is the
same as the Tyrian Baal, whose worship pre-
vailed in the time of the Judges, and was put
down by Samuel (i Sam. vii:4). The effects of
that suppression appear to have lasted through the
next few centuries, as Baal is not enumerated
among the idols of Solomon (i Kings xi:5-8; 2
Kings xxiii:i3). The power of nature, which was
worshiped under the form of the Tyrian Hercules.
Melkarth, Baal (see Baal) Adonis, Moloch, and
whatever his other names are, was that which
originates, sustains, and destroys life. These
functions of the deity, according to the Phce-
nicians, were represented, although not exclu-
sively, by the sun, the influence of which both
animates vegetation by its genial warmth, and
scorches it up by its fervor. Pliny expressly tes-
tifies that human sacrifices were oflfered up every
year to the Carthaginian Hercules (Hist. Kat.
&1
xxxvi v:i2), which coincides with what is stated
of Baal in Jer. xix :5 and with the acknowledged
worship of Moloch. J. N.
HERALD (herald), (Heb. ''1?, kaw-roze').
The only occurrence of the mention of this
officer in the Old Testament is (Dan. iii:4). In
the New Testament "Herald" might be substi-
tuted in I Tim. ii:7; 2 Tim. i:n; 2 Pet. ii :S for
"preacher."
HERBS, BITTER (erbs, bit'ter), (Heb. 0'"i"l^,
mer-o-reem' ).
The Israelites were commanded to eat "bitter
herbs" with the Passover bread (Exod. xii:8;
Num. ix:ii) to remmd them of the bitterness of
their bondage in Egypt (Exod. 1:14). "The
Mishnah mentions these live as falling within the
designation of 'bitter herbs,' viz., lettuce, endive,
succory, what is called "Charchavina (urtica,
beets?), and horehound' " (Edersheim, The Tem-
ple, p. 204).
HERD (herd). (Heb. 'R?, baw-kawr' \ Gr.
iyi\ri, ag-el'ay).
"The herd was greatly regarded both in the
patriarchal and Mosaic period. This word is
generic for oxen. It is not like sou, applicable to
two or more species. Wherever it is used, there-
fore, it might without loss, and with sensible ad-
vantage, be translated oxen. Other Hebrew words
are translated herds of cattle, and Hocks of sheep.
The ox was the most precious stock next to
horse and mule. The herd yielded the most es-
teemed sacrifice (Num. vii:3; Ps. Ixix 131 ; Is.
l.xvi:3); also fresh meat and milk, chiefly con-
verted, probably, into butler and cheese ( Dcut.
xxxii:l4; 2 Sam. xvii:29), which such milk yields
more copiously than that of small cattle. The
full-grown ox was hardly ever slaughtered in
Syria ; but, both for sacrificial and convivial pur-
poses, the young animal was preferred ( Exod.
xxix;i). The agricultural and general usefulness
of the ox, in plowing:, thrashing, and as a beast
of burden (i Chron. .\ii:40; Is. xlvi:i), made such
a slaughtering seem wasteful. The animal was
broken to service probably in his third year
(Is. xv:5; Jer. xlviif:34). In the moist season,
when grass abounded in the waste lands, espe-
cially in the "south' region, herds grazed there.
Especially was the eastern table-land (Ezek.
xxxix:i8; Num. xxxii :4) 'a place for cattle.'
Herdsmen, etc., in Egypt were a low, perhaps the
lowest caste ; but of the abundance of cattle in
Egypt, and of the care there bestowed on them,
there is no doubt (Gen. xlvii :6, 17; Exod. ix 14,
20). So the plague of hail was sent to smite
especially the cattle ( Ps. Ixxviii:j8), the first-
born of which also were smitten (Exod. xii:29).
The Israelites departing stipulated for (Exod. x:
26) and took 'much cattle with them' (xii:38).
Cattle formed thus one of the traditions of the
Israelitish nation in its greatest period, and became
almost a part of that greatness. When pasture
failed, a mixture of various grains (Job vi:5)
was used, as also 'chopped straw' (Gen. xxiv:25;
Is. xi:7; lxv:25), which was torn in pieces by the
thrashing machine and used probably fo> feeding
in stalls. These last formed an important adjunct
to cattle keeping, being indispensable for shelter at
certain seasons (Exod. ix :0, 19)." (Smith, Bib.
Diet.)
HERDMAN (herd-man), (Heb. "^r'^, bo-karf\ a
tender of oxen; in distinction from ^y^- * feeder of
sheep).
Nothing more strikingly brings out the contrast
between the Egyptians and the Hebrews than their
different estimation of the pursuit of cattle-raising
HERES
802
HERMAS
While the latter hqd large herds and flocks, and
considered their possession and keep lionorable,
the former, quite as dependent upon them for
food and labor, despised the herdsman as "an
abomination" (Gen. xlvi:34_). By the influence
of Joseph his brethren were made Pharaoh's chief
herdsmen (Gen. xlvii:6). The patriarchs were
great herdsmen. The occupation was not incon-
sistent with state honors; thus, Doeg, "the chief-
est of the herdsmen," was high in Saul's favor (l
Sam. xxi:7). David's herdmasters were among
his chief officers of state. In Solomon's time, al-
though commerce decreased its relative impor-
tance, the pursuit was still extensive (Eccl. ii:7;
I Kings iv:23). "It must have sufifered greatly
from the inroads of the enemies to which the
country, under the later kings of Judah and
Israel, was exposed. Uzziah, however (2 Chron.
xxvi;io), and Hezekiah (xxxii:28, 29), resuming
the raising of cattle, had great herds; their prin-
cipal feeding grounds were Sharon (i Chron.
xxvii :29), the Carmel (i Sam. xxv :2),and Dothan,
(Gen. xxxvii:i7), but doubtless all the unculti-
vated lands were used for this purpose. But for
food they did not use, as we do, full-grown beeves,
but killed the calves. Fattening for beef is indeed
not practiced in the East. The oxen were broken
for service in the third year (Is. xv:5). When the
heat had dried up all the pasture, the oxen
were stalled (Hab. iii:i7); hence the figure "a
stalled ox" for stately magnificence, which is used
in Prov. xv:i7. "Calves of the stall" were watch-
fully cared for (Mai. iv:2). Cattle feed upon
foliage as well as upon grass (Ps. l:io). A mix-
ture of various grains, as also chopped straw, is fed
when the pasture gives out. See Job vi :$, "fod-
der;" Is. XXX :24, "provender;" Gen. xxiv 125 ; Is.
xi:7; Ixv :2S. (See Agriculture; Flock; Pas-
turage; Ox) {SchaB, £i6. £>zci.)
HERES (he'rez), (Heb. Or!?"^'"^, har-khek res,
mountain of the sun), Mount Heres near Aijalon
on the borders of Judah and Dan, inhabited by
Amorites (Judg. i:35). (See Ir-haheke;,.)
HERESH (he'resh), (Heb. ^'C, kheh'resh, work,
silence, or artificer), a Levite who, with others,
was assigned to look after the tabernacle (l Chron.
ix:l5), B C 536
HERESY (hgr'e-sy). This word is derived from
the Greek word oipftru, hali-ee rei-is, which orig-
inally meant simply choice, (or example o( a set
of opinions, but is generally used to signify some
fundamental error adhered to withobstmacy.
In I Cor. xi :i9, on margin of R. V., the word
is rendered "sects, factions." On margin of Gal.
V :20, R. v., it is rendered "parties." It is also
used to denote a doctrine or a sect consequent
upon departure from sound doctrine (2 Pet. ii:i,
margin of R. V. "sects of perdition").
The heresies chiefly alluded to in the apostolic
epistles are: (l) Those of the Judaizers, or
rigid adherents to the Mosaic rites, especially
that of circumcision. (2) Those of converted
Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, who held the Greek
eloquence and philosophy in too high an estima-
tion, and corrupted, by the speculations of the
latter, the simplicity of the gospel. (3) Those
who endeavored to blend Christianity with a
mixed philosophy of magic, dcmonology, and Pla-
tonism, which was then highly popular in the
world.
With respect to the latter, the remarks of Hug
will tend to illustrate some passages in the writ-
ings of St. Paul: Without being acquainted with
the notions of those teachers who caused the
apostle so much anxiety and so much vexation,
a considerable part of these treatises must neces-
sarily remain dark and unintelligible. From the
criteria by which the apostle points them out, at
one time some deemed that they recognized the
Gnostics; others perceived none but the Essenes ;
and every one found arguments for his assertions
from the similarity of the doctrines, opinions and
morals. It would, however, be as difficult to
prove that the Gnostic school had at that time in-
deed perfectly developed itself, as it is unjust to
charge the Essenes with that extreme of immor-
ality of which St. Paul accused these seducers,
since the contemporaries and acquaintances of
this Jewish sect mention them with honor and
respect, and extol its members as the most vir-
tuous men of their age.
The similarity of the principles and opinions,
which will have been observed in both parties,
compared with St. Paul's declarations, flows from
a common source, from the philosophy of that age,
whence both the one and the other have derived
their share. We shall therefore go less astray if
we recede a step, and consider the philosophy
itself as the general modeler of these derivative
theories. It found its followers among Judaism
as well as among the heathens ; it both introduced
its speculative propositions into Christianity, and
endeavored to unite them, or to adjust them to it,
as well as they were able, by which means Chris-
tianity would have become deformed and unlike
to itself, and would have been merged in the
ocean of philosophical reveries, unless the apos-
tles had on this occasion defended it against the
follies of men. An oriental, or, as it is commonly
called, a Babylonian or Chaldean, doctrinal sys-
tem had already long become known to the
Greeks, and even to the Romans, before Augus-
tus, "and still more so in the Augustan age, and
was in the full progress of its extension over
Ki\3. and Europe. It set up different deities and
intermediate spirits in explanation of certain phe-
nomena of nature, for the office of governing the
world, and for the solution of other metaphysical
questions, which from time immemorial were
reckoned among the difficult propositions of philos-
ophy. The practical part of this system was occu-
pied with the precepts by means of which a per-
son might enter into communication with these
spirits or demons. But the result which they
promised to themselves from this union with the
divine natures, was that of acquiring, by their
assistance, superhuman knowledge, that of pre-
dicting future events, and of performing super-
natural works. These philosophers were cele-
brated under the name of magi and Chaldeans ;
who, for the sake of better accommodating them-
selves to the western nations, m.odified their sys-
tem after the Greek forms, and then, as it ap-
pears, knew how to unite it with the doctrine of
Plato, from whence afterward arose the Neo-
Platonic and in Christendom the Gnostic school.
HERETIC (her'e-tik). See Heresy.
HERITAGE (her'it-aj). See Inheritance.
HERMAS (her'mas), (Or. 'EpMas, her-tiias' , Met-
cury, interpreter), one of the Christians at Rome,
to whom Paul addressed special salutations in hij.
Epistle (Rom. xvi:l4).
Of his history and station in life nothing is
known. By several writers, ancient and modern,
he has been reputed to be the author of a work
entitled The Shepherd of Hennas, which from
its high antiquity and the supposed connection of
the writer with St. Paul, has been usually classed
with the epistles of the so-called Apostolic Fa-
thers. It was originally written in Greek, but we
possess it only in a Latin version (as old as the
time of TertuUian), a few fragments excepted,
HERMES
803
HEROD
uhich are found as quotations in other ancient
authors. It has been divided by modern editors
(for in the manuscript copies there is no such
division) into three books; the first consisting
of four visions, the second of twelve commands,
and the third of ten similitudes. It is called the
'Shepherd' {i noi^'ii', Pastor), because the Angel
of Repentance (Nuntius Pccnitenlia), at whose
dictation Hermas professes that he wrote the sec-
ond and third books, appeared in the garb of
a shepherd. Impartial judges will probably agree
with Mosheim, that 'The Shepherd' contains such
a mixture of folly and superstition with piety,
of egregious nonsense with momentous truth, as
to render it a matter of astonishment that men
of learning should ever have thought of giving
it a place among the inspired writmgs.
The Shepherd of Hermas was first published at
Paris in 1513, and is included in the editions of
the Apostolic Fathers by Cotelerius, Galland, and
Hefele. Fabricius also published it in his Codex
Apocryphus, Hamburgi, 1719. Archbishop Wake's
translation is well known. J. E. R.
HEBHSS (her'mez), (Gr. 'EpM^s, her-mace' , i. e.,
the Greek Mercury), the Mercurius of the Ro-
mans, was the messenger of the gods, and was
equally characterized by adroitness of action and
readiness of speech.
He was also the customary attendant of Jupiter
when he appeared on earth (Ovid, Fast v:4gs).
These circumstances explain why the inhabitants
of Lystra (Acts xiv:i2), as soon as ever they
were disposed to believe that the gods had visited
them in the likeness of men. discovered Hermes
in Paul, as the chief speaker, and as the attend-
ant of Jupiter.
HERMOGENES and PHYGELLTJS, (her'moj'
e-nez and ff-gel-lus), (Gr. 'Ep/xoy^yTii, /wr-mo^-en'ace,
Mercury-born, *i>7e\\os, foog-cl-los, a fugitive), dis-
ciples cf Asia Minor, and probably companions in
labor of St. Paul.
They abandoned him during his second im-
prisonment at Rome, doubtless from alarm at
the perils of the connection (2 Tim. i:l5), A. D.
64.
HERMON (her'mon), (Heb. 1"-"?^. kher-moru' ,
the peak).
A mountain which formed the northernmost
boundary of the country beyond the Jordan which
the Hebrews conquered from the Amoritcs (Deut.
iii :8), and which, therefore, must have belonged to
Anti-Libanus.
Since modern travelers have made us acquainted
with the country beyond the Jordan, no doubt
has been entertained that the Mount Hermon of
those texts is no other than the present Jebel
Es-sheikh, or the Sheikh's mountain, or, which
is equivalent. Old Man's Mountain, a name it is
said to have obtained from its fancied resemblance
(being topped with snow, which sometimes lies
in lengthened streaks upon its sloping ridges) to
the hoary head and beard of a venerable sheikh
(Elliot, 1:317). This Jebel Es-shcikh is a south-
eastern, and in that direction culminating, branch
of Anti-Libanus. It is probably the highest of all
the Lebanon mountains, and is thought to rival
Mont Blanc, though, as Elliot observes, the high
ground on which it stands detracts considerably
from its apparent altitude, and makes it a less
imposing object than that king of European moun-
tains as viewed from the Italian valley of Aosta.
The mention of Hermon along with Tabor
in Ps. !xxxix:i2, led to its being sought near the
latter mountain, where, accordingly, travelers
and maps give us a 'Little Hermon.' But that
passage, as well as Ps. cxxxiii :$, applies better
to the great mountain already described ; and
in the former it seems perfectly natural for the
Psalmist to call upon these mountains, respect-
ively the most conspicuous in the western and
eastern divisions of the Hebrew territory, to re-
joice in the name of the Lord. Besides, we are
to consider that Jebel Es-sheikh is seen from
Mount Tabor, and that both together are visible
from the plain of Esdraelon. There is no reason
to suppose that the so-called Little Hermon is at
all mentioned in Scripture. Its actual name is
Jebel ed-Duhy; it is a shapeless, barren, and un-
interesting mass of hills, in the north of the val-
ley of Jezreel and opposite Mount Gilboa.
(Thomson, The Land and the Book, vol. i, p.
458).
Hermon was perhaps the 'high mountain' of
Matt. xvii:i; Mark ix :2 ('the mountain' of Luke
ix:28) near Caesarea Philippi, which was the
scene of the Transfiguration and of the cloud
which covered the disciples. In the Roman pe-
riod it was a sacred center, and small temples
were built on the slopes on every side, while the
highest point was encircled with a masonry wall,
and seems to have supported an altar. Close by is
a rock-cut chamber on the plateau. In the fourth
century .\. D. (see Onomas,!. s. v. 'Aermon')
there was still a temple at which the people of
Paneas and Lebanon worshiped, on the summit
of Hermon. In the tenth century it became the
center of the Druze religion, and to it Sheikh
ed-Derazi, the founder of the latter creed, re-
tired from Egypt. At Hasbeya, on its western
slopes, the sacred books of the sect were found
by the French in i860. Hermon is called Jebel
esh-Sheikh, or 'mountain of the chief,' for this
reason, being the residence of the religious Sheikh
of the Druzes. The translation sometimes sug-
gested, 'chief of mountains,' is grammatically im-
possible. Hermon was visited by the present
writer in 1873 (when the height and geographical
position were determined) and in 1882. (R. C.
Conder, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
Kitto says : "There can be no doubt that one
of the southern peaks of Hermon was the scene
of the Transfiguration. Our Lord traveled from
Bethsaida, on the northwest shore of the Sea
of Galilee, to the coasts of Ca;sarea Philippi;
thence he led his disciples 'into a high mountain
apart, and was transfigured before them.' After-
ward he returned, going toward Jerusalem
through Galilee (comp. Mark viii:22-28; Matt.
xvi:i3; Mark ix-.2-i3, 30-33). For many cen-
turies a monkish tradition assigned this honor to
Tabor, but it is now restored to its proper lo-
cality."
HERMONITES (hSr'mon-ites). (Heb.''C''i'i'2^.D,
kher-mo-Jteevi'), properly "the Hernions," with
reference to the tnree surnmits of Mount Hermon
(Ps. xlii:6).
HEROD (her'od^; this was not a personal name,
but the family or surname.
It belonged alike to all the generations of the
Herodian house as known to the Scriptures.
Much confusion has arisen from not having cog-
nized this simple fact. Hence some have even
questioned the inerrancy of Luke in that he called
Herod Antipas "Herod." when Josephus uni-
formly calls him "Antipas." But the point as-,
sumed is itself a mistake. For Luke mentions
him as "Herod," and "Herod the tetrarch," and
as "Herod the tetrarch of Galilee" in the same
chapter (iii:i, 19); and Josephus repeatedly calls
him "Herod llie tetrarch," and "Herod the
tetrarch of Galilee," and "that Herod who was
HERODIAN FAMILY
804
HERODIAN FAMILY
called Antipas" (Ant. xviii, ch. 2, sec. 3; ch. 7,
sec. i). (See Herodi.\n Family.)
HEBODIAN FAMILY (he-ro'di-an fam'i-lj),
(Gr. 'HpuSiavoi, hay-ro-dee-an-oy'].
Josephus introduces us to the knowledge of the
Herodian family in the fourteenth hook of his
Antiqiaties. He there tells us (ch. i, sec. 3) that
among the chief friends of Hyrcanus the high-
priest was an Idumaean, named Antipater, dis-
tinguished for his riches, and no less for his turbu-
lent and seditious temper. He also quotes an au-
thor who represented him as descended from one
of the best of the Jewish families which returned
from Babylon after the captivity, but adds that
this statement was founded on no better grounds
than a desire to flatter the pride and support the
pretensions of Herod.
(1) Herod the Great was the son of Antipater
and Cypros and bore the titles of "Herod the
King," "King of Judea," and "Herod the Great."
In 47 B. C. Julius Cxsar gave the procuratorship
of Judea to .Antipater, who divided the territory
among his four sons, giving Herod Galilee. He
was then only about twenty-five years of age.
His first act was to repress the brigands who
were infesting his province, many of whom he
executed. Se.xtus Cxsar appointed him governor
of Coele-Syna, which he also held under Cassius,
and for some time was very efficient in raising
mone.y for military purposes. In 41 B. C, when
Antony came to Syria, Herod made him valuable
presents and gained his favor. He and Phasael
were appointed tetrarchs of Judea ; but war
breaking out, Herod fled to Rome, where, by
the aid of Antony, he was made king of Judea.
He was not acceptable, however, and the As-
monean family contested his right to their king-
dom. Herod made preparations to take Jerusa-
lem, and after si.x months' siege, the Romans
entered the city, and the Asmonean dynasty
passed away. Herod executed all the members
of the Sanhedrim except two, confiscated their
property, and put a new priest in power.
After the defeat of Antony at Actium, Herod
obtained an audience with Octavius. and obtained
assurances of security in his realm; and nearly
all of Palestine was added to his territory.
In his domestic life Herod had endless trouble.
His father died by poison. The poisoner was as-
sassinated. His brothers Phasael and Joseph fell
in wars. His Satanic sister Salome urged him to
crime. His brother Pheroras, while plotting with
Antipater against Herod, was poisoned by his own
wife. When Herod went to meet Mark Antony,
and again to meet Octavian, he gave orders to
put his wife Mariamne, the Asmonean, to death
if he should not return. His uncle Joseph in one
case, and his minister Sohemus in the other, let
the woman worm the secret from them. Both
were executed for that. He murdered but one
of his wives; others he cast aside. Doris was
cast off, recalled, again stripped of honors and
wealth, and banished. The first Mariamne learned
of his murderous orders concerning her, and of
his crafty murder of her brother Aristobulus, a
pretended accident. She hated him and flouted
him. In a frenzy he charged her with adultery,
for he dared not dispose of her secretly. She
marched to death with the proud dignity of a
Maccabean. Her two sons, Aristobulus and Alex-
ander, were educated at Rome in the imperial
family of Augustus. Herod brought them home.
He admired them, but found them too popular. .-K
charge of treason put the strangler's cord upon
their necks. Antipater, eldest son. had much rea-
son to hate his father, for his mother's sake and
his own. He laid plots for assassination. The
Roman judge condemned him. Augustus left final
sentence to Herod. The son was put to death'
five days before the father died. The emperor is
said to have made the remark, "I had rather be
plerod's sow than Herod's son." His diseased
body,, no doubt, helped to make him the monster
of crime that he was.
At the visit of the Magi, and the announcement
of the birth of some great personage in his king-
dom, he was greatly stirred, and all Jerusalem
with him. The massacre of the children in Beth-
lehem was no strange act for a man who had
murdered so many of his own household. When
nearing death he gave orders that the principal
Jews, whom he had shut up in the hippodrome nt
Jericho, should be killed immediately after his
death ; but they were released, and the day was
GENEALOGY OF THE FAMILY OF HEROD THE GREAT.
1. Herod tlie Great, son of .\ntlpater; born B. C. 72; died 4 B T.; Kins. B C. 37 (Matt, il and Luke 1). Nine wives.
1. Poriif, motker of Antipater. uhom his father executed a few dar//t before his own death.
2. Mariamne, daughter of Alexander and . 1 lexnniira. both of the Maccabees or Asmoneans; motker of .irieto-
Prlncipal bulus and Alexander. Put to death by //erod, B. C. 29.
Wives. 3. Mariamne, second; daughter of .s'imon. hii/h-priest; mother of Herod Philip, the disinherited. No. 7, below.
4. Malthake, of Samaria, mother of .Ireh^taus 11 ml Iterod .intipa.t. {Some say of No. 6 also.)
5. Cleopatra, of , Jerusalem, mother of Herod Philip, the tetrarch.
2. Antipater; see
Doris, above.
Not In N. T.
!i. Aristobulus, ex-
ecuted H. C. 5
with his bro-
therAloxander
Not In N. T.
Archelatis depo. 5.
A. D. 6 (f). Matt.
ii:22.
I
I
Herod Antipas, 6. Herod Philip, the 7. Herod Philip. In
t A. D. 44. Matt. ~ . . J .
xlv, Mark vi,
vlll, Luke Hi,
Tilt, ix. xill.
xilll, .\cts iv,
xlli. Dethrcned.
Tetrarch, Luke
lli:l. t A. D. 34.
Acts xiil.
■Salome, No. 11.
8. Herod Agrlppa 0. Herod of flialeis.
I. t A. D. 44. married nieces.
Acts xll. 1 Bernice; she left
him (below)
2. Salome, the dan-
cer.
0. Herodias, Matt.
xlv, Mark vi,
Luke lil:19.
;. llerod Philip,
No. 7 She
left him
2. Berod Antipas.
1. Dau. of Aretas, the
King.
2. Herodias, No. 10,
wife of No. 7;
Antipas and she
died exiles in Oaul.
I I
12. Herod Agrlppa 13. Bernice, .\cis 14. Drusllla: Acts xxlv. Perished %<
II. Acts XX T, XXV. xxvi. with son In erupnon of Ves-
xxvl, t A. D. Herod of Chaf- uvius, A \) l\i
100. cis. (Not in 1. Azizus, Kingof Kmeta.wttom
N. T). :ihe deserted.
'£. .intonius Felix, governor,
-Vets XXiil. XXV.
15. Agrlppa, sonot Felix: t 7U with mother
private life only.
Matt, xlv, Mark
vi, Luke iii:I9.
Herodias. who de-
serted him. See
Nos.JOandS.
11. Salome, the dan-
cer. Matt. xlv:6.
Mark vi :22.2S.
Berod No. 9.
All other descendants of Herod
not noticed in N. T. or con-
cerned with these are omit'ed
from this table, which includes
ail N.T. references.
S. W.
HERODIAN FAMILY
805
HERODIAN FAMILY
celebrated as a deliverance rather than as a
funeral. He died, aged sixty-nine, a few days
before the Passover, B. C. 4, and the death scene,
as reported, was awful, both as regards his mind
and body. "And so, choking as it were with
blood, desiring massacres, as in its very delirium,
the soul of Herod passed forth into the night." —
Fanar.
Though he had married ten wives, had nine
sons and five daughters, yet within one hundred
years not a relative of the great Herodian family
was left to curse the earth. He left three sons
as heirs of his immense estates — Archelaus, An-
tipas, Philip II ; and two grandsons. Agrippa I
and Agrippa II. Despite all his mhuman vil-
lainy, he did much for Judea and his kingdom.
His greatest work was the rebuilding of the
temple in Jerusalem, the main part of which
was completed in less than two years ; but addi-
tions continued for "forty and six years." It
stood complete but a short time, when Herod's
great work fell before the legions of Titus; and
the beautiful house where the Divine Master
walked and talked was no more.
(2) Archelaus ("Apx^Xaos) was the elder of
the two sons of Herod by Malthace, a Samaritan
woman (Ant. xvii, I, 3). He was brought up
at Rome with his own brother Antipas, at a
private house. He had been accused by Anti-
pater of disloyalty, and so had been at first
kept out of any inheritance. His visit to Rome
has been narrated above. After he had acquired
the kingdom, there is little related of him. He
outraged Jewish sentiment by marrying Glaphyra,
widow of his brother Alexander, although she
had had children by him, and had another hus-
band (Juba of Mauritania) living, and his own
wife was alive. He built a palace at Jericho,
and a village in his own honor, of the name of
Archelais. He was the worst of all Herod's
sons that survived, and, after nine years of his
rule, the people of Judaea and Samaria could no
longer endure his cruelty and tyranny. They
complained to Augustus, who summoned Arche-
laus to Rome, and, after hearing the case, ban-
ished him to Vienne. From this time to the year
A. D. 41 Palestine was under Roman procura-
tors.
Archelaus is mentioned once in the New Testa-
ment, in Matt, ii :22.
(3) Herod Antipas, of Galilee and Peraea.
This Herod was first married to a daughter of
King -Gretas of Arabia; but forming an unholy
attachment for Herodias, the wife of his brother
Philip, he soon became involved in a course of
guilt which ended in his utter ruin. Aretas. to
avenge his daughter, sent a considerable army
against Herod, whose generals in vain attempted
to oppose its progress. The forces which they
led were totally destroyed, and instant ruin
seemed to threaten both Herod and his domin-
ions. An appeal to the Romans afforded the only
hope of safety. Aretas was haughtily ordered
by the emperor to desist from the prosecution of
the war, and Herod accordingly escaped the ex-
pected overthrow. But he was not allowed to
enjoy his prosperity long. His nephew Agrippa
having obtained the title of king. Herodias urged
him to make a journey to Italy and demand the
same honor. He weakly assented to his wife's
ambitious representations; hut the project proved
fatal to them both. Agrippa anticipated their
designs; and when they appeared before Caligula
they were met bv .iccusations of hostility to Rome.
the truth of which they in vain attempted to
disprove. Sentence of deposition was accordmgly
passed upon Herod, and both he and his wife
were sent mto banishment and died at Lyons m
Gaul.
(4) Philip (*i\iir7rot) was the son of Herod
the Great by Cleopatra, a woman of Jerusalem
(Ant. xvii :i, 3). He had been educated at Rome,
like the remainder of Herod's sons. The terri-
tory to which he succeeded on the death of his
father and by the decision of Augustus (see
above), consisted, according to Josephus, of Ba-
tanea, Trachonitis, Auranitis, Gaulanitis, and
Pancas (Ant. xvii, viii, I, xi, 4, xviii, iv, 6; BI II,
vi:3), according to St. Luke (iii:i) the country
of Ituraea and Trachonitis.
Unlike the rest of his family, he was distin-
guished for justice and moderation. He married
his niece Salome, the daughter of Herodias and
his brother Herod (Philip), who was the young
woman that danced before Herod Antipas. Philip
is referred to twice in the New Testament (Luke
iii :i ; Acts xiii :i).
He ruled for 38 years from his accession in
B. C. 4. His character is summed up by Josephus
(Ant. xviii, iv, 6) : 'He was moderate and peace-
ful in his rule, and spent his whole life in his
country. He went out with only a small retinue,
always taking with him the throne on which he
might sit and judge. Whenever he met any one
who had need of him, he made no delay, but set
down the throne wherever he might be and heard
the case.'
(5) Herod Agrippa, or Agrippa I, al-
luded to above, was the son of Aristobulus,
so cruelly put to death by his father Herod
the Great. The earlier part of his life was spent
at Rome, where the magnificence and luxury in
which he indulged reduced him to poverty. After
a variety of adventures and sufferings he was
thrown into bonds by Tiberius, but on the succes-
sion of Caligula was not only restored to liberty,
but invested with royal dignity, and made te-
trarch of Abilene, and of the districts formerly
pertaining to the tetrarchy of Philip. His in-
fluence at the Roman court increasing, he subse-
quently obtained Galilee and Pcrsea, and at length
Judsea and Samaria, his dominion being thus ex-
tended over the whole country of Palestine.
To secure the good-will of his subjects, he
yielded to their worst passions and caprices.
Memorable instances are afforded of this in the
apostolic history, where we are told that 'He
stretched forth his hands to vex certain of the
church, and he killed James, the brother of John,
with the sword ; and because he saw it pleased
the Jews, he proceeded further to take Peter also'
(Acts xii:i-3). His awful death, described in
the same chapter, and by Josephus almost in the
same words (Antiq. xix, 8), occurred in the fifty-
fourth year of his age.
(6) Herod Agrippa, or Agrippa II, the son
of the above named, was in his seventeenth year
when his father died. The emperor Claudius, at
whose court the young .■Xgrippa was then residing,
purposed conferring upon him the dominions en-
joyed by his father. From this he was deterred,
says Josephus. by the advice of his ministers, who
represented the danger of trusting an important
province of the. empire to so youthful a ruler.
Herod was, therefore, for the time, obliged to
content himself with the small principalitv of
Chalcis. but was not long after created sovereign
of the tetrarchies formerly belonging to Philip
and Lysanias ; a dominion increased at a sub-
sequent period by the grant of a considerable por-
HERODIANS
806
HERON
tion of Peraea. The habits which he had formed
at Rorpe, and his strong attachment to the peo-
ple to whose rulers he was, indebted for his pros-
perity, brought him into frequent disputes with
his own nation. In Acts xxv and xxvi we have
an account of the speech of St. Paul before
Agrippa, Bernice, and Festus. St. Paul's compli-
ment, that Agrippa was 'expert in all customs and
questions which are among the Jews,' was well
deserved, and the somewhat enigmatic 'Almost
thou persuadest me to be a Christian' may be in-
terpreted according to our conception of Agrippa's
character. He died, at the age of seventy, in the
early part of the reign of Trajan. H. S.
HERODIANS (he-ro'di-anz), (Gr. 'BpaSiayol,
hay-ro-dee-an-oy'), a class of Jews that existed in
the time of Jesus Christ, whether of a political or
religious description it is not easy, for want of
materials, to determine.
The passages of the New Testament which re-
fer to them are the following (Mark iii:6; xii:i3;
Matt. xxii:i6; Luke xx :2o). The particulars are
these: The ecclesiastical authorities of Judaea
having failed to entrap Jesus by demanding the
authority by which he did his wonderful works,
especially as seen in his expurgation of the tem-
ple ; and being incensed in consequence of the
parable spoken against them, namely, 'A certain
man planted a vineyard,' etc., held a council
against him, and associating with themselves the
Herodians, sent an embassy to our Lord with the
express but covert design of ensnaring him in his
speech, that thus they might compass his destruc-
tion. The question they put to him was one of the
most difficult — 'Is it lawful to pay tribute to
Caesar?' The way in which Jesus extricated him-
self from the difficulty and discomfited his ene-
mies is well known.
Do these circumstances afford any light as to
what was the precise character of the Herodians?
Whatever decision on this point may be arrived
at, the general import of the transaction is very
clear, and of a character highly honorable to
Jesus. That his enemies were actuated by bad
faith, and came with false pretenses, might also
be safely inferred. Luke, however, makes an ex-
press statement to this effect, saying (xx:i8-2o),
'they sought to lay hands on him ; and they feared
the people ; and they watched him, and sent forth
spies which should feign themselves just men,
that they might take hold of his words, that so
they might deliver him unto the power and au-
thority of the governor.' The aim, then, was to
embroil our Lord with the Romans. For this
purpose the question put -had been cunningly
chosen. These appear to have been the several
feelings whose toils were around Jesus — the hatred
of the priests, the favor of the people towards
himself, and their aversion to the dominion of the
Romans, their half faith in him as the Messiah,
which would probably be converted into the vex-
ation and rage of disappointment, should he ap-
prove the payment of tribute to Rome ; another
clement of difficulty had in the actual case been
deliberately provided — the presence of the He-
rodians. Altogether the scene was most perplex-
ing, the trial most perilous. But what additional
difficulty did the Herodians bring? Herod An-
tipas was now tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea,
which was the only inheritance he received from
his father Herod the Great. As tetrarch of
Galilee he was specially the ruler of Jesus, whose
home was in that province. The Herodians then
may have been subjects of Herod, Galilaeans,
whose evidence the priests were wishful to pro-
cure, because theirs would be the evidence of fel-
low-countrymen, and of special force with Antipas
as being that of his own immediate subjects (Luke
xxiii:7).
Herod's relations with Rome were in an unsafe
condition. He was a weak prince, given to ease
and luxury, and his wife's ambition conspired
with his own desires to make him strive to obtain
from the Emperor Caligula the title of king. For
this purpose he took a journey to Rome, and was
banished to Lyons in (jaul.
The Herodians may have been favorers of his
pretensions : if so, they would be partial hearers,
and eager witnesses against Jesus before the Ro-
man tribunal. It would be a great service to the
Romans to be the means of enabling them to get
rid of one who aspired to be king of the Jews. It
would equally gratify their own lord, should the
Herodians give effectual aid in putting a period to
the mysterious yet formidable claims of a rival
claimant of the crown.
We do not see that the two characters here
ascribed to the Herodians are incompatible; and
if they were a Galilasan political party who were
eager to procure from Rome the honor of royalty
for Herod (Mark vi:i4, the name of king is
merely as of courtesy), they were chosen as asso-
ciates by the Sanhedrim with especial propriety.
The deputation were to 'feign themselves just
men,' that is, men whose sympathies were entirely
Jewish, and, as such, anti-heathen : they were to
intimate their dislike of paying tribute, as being
an acknowledgment of a foreign yoke ; and by
flattering Jesus, as one who loved truth, feared
no man, and would say what he thought, they
meant to inveigle him into a condemnation of the
practice. In order to carry these base and hypo-
critical designs into effect, the Herodians were ap-
propriately associated with the Pharisees; for as
the latter were the recognized conservators of
Judaism, so the former were friends of the ag-
grandizement of a native as against a foreign
prince. J. R. B.
HEBODIAS (he-ro'di-as), (Gr.'Hpu5(os, hay-ro-
dee' us, feminine of Herod), the daughter of Aristo-
bulus — one of the sons of Mariamne and Herod
the Great — and sister of Herod Agrippa I. (See
Herodian Family, and Table, page 804.)
HEBODION (he-ro'di-6n), (Gr. "S.pwUav, hay-
ro-dee'oh7i, derived from Herod), a Christian at
Rome to whom Paul sent a salutation as his kins-
man (Rom. xvi:n). A. D. 55. According to Hip-
polytus he became Bishop of'^Tarsus, but according
to others, of Patra.
HEBON (her'iin), (Heb. ^V^\ an-aw-faw' , Lev
xi:l9: Deut. xiv:l8).
The original is a disputed name of an unclean
bird, which has also been translated kite, woodcock,
parrot, and crane. For the first of these see Glede;
the second is rare and only a momentary vis-
itor in Palestine; the third surely required no
prohibition where it was not a resident species,
and probably not imported till the reign of Solo-
mon ; and, as to the crane, we have already shown
it to have been likewise exotic, making only a mo-
mentary appearance, and that rarely, in Syria. If
the Hebrew name be derived from anaph, 'to
breathe short,' or 'to sniff through the nostrils
with an irritated expression,' the most obvious
application would be to the goose, a bird not. per-
haps, otherwise noticed in the Hebrew Scriptures :
though it was constantly eaten in Egypt it was not
held unclean by the Jews, and, at some seasons,
must have frequented the lakes of Palestine. The
heron, though not so constantly hissing, can utter
a similar sound of displeasure with much more
meaning, and the common species Ardea cinerea
HESED
807
HEXATEUCH
is found in Egypt, and is also abundant in the
Hauran of Palestine, where it frequents the mar-
gins of lakes and pools, and the reedy water-
courses in the deep ravines, striking and devour-
ing an immense quantity of fish. C. H. S.
H£S£D (he'sed), (Heb. 1?'l,/(-/i^/i'i<»</, kindness),
a man whose son was Solomon's commissary officer
in Aruboth, Sochoh and Hepher (i Kings iv:io),
B.C. 955.
HESHBOIi (hesh'bdn), (Heb. V'^yO, khesh-hone' ,
intelligence), a town in the southern district of the
Hebrew territory beyond the Jordan, jiar^illel with,
and twenty-one miles east of, the ponil where the
Jordan enters the Dead Sea, and nearly midway
Detween the rivers Jabbok and Arnon.
It originally belonged to the Moabites ; but when
the Israelites arrived from Egypt, it was found
to be in the possession of the Amorites, whose
king, Sihon, is styled both king of the Amorites
and king of Heshbon, and is expressly said to
have 'reigned in Heshbon' (Josh. ix:lo; comp.
Num. xxi;26; Deut. ii:24). It was taken by Moses
(Num. xxi:23-26), and eventually became a
Levitical city (Josh. x.xi:.i9; 1 Chron. vi:8i) in
the tribe of Reuben (Num. xxxii:37; Josh, xiii:
17) ; but being on the confines of Gad, is some-
times assigned to the latter tribe (Josh. x.xi:39; t
Chron. vi :8i). After the ten tribes were sent into
exile, Heshbon was taken possession of by the
Moabites, and hence is mentioned by the prophets
in their declarations against Moab (Is. xv 14 ; Jer.
xlviii :2, 34, 45). Under King Alexander Jannsus
we find it again reckoned as a Jewisfi city (Jo-
seph. Antiq. .xiii, 15, 4).
At the present day it is known by its ancient
name of Heshbon, in the slightly modified form
of Hesb-in. The ruins of a considerable town
still exist, covering the sides of an insulated hill,
but not a single edifice is left entire. The view
from the summit is very extensive, embracing
the ruins of a vast number of cities, the names
of some of which bear a strong resemblance to
those mentioned in Scripture. (Burckhardt,
George Robinson, Lord Lindsay, Harper, Bih.
and Mod. Dis., p. 374.)
Figurative. In Cant. vii:4 the eyes of the
Shulamite are compared to the "fishpools of Hesh-
bon," by the gate of Bath-rabbim. The bright
pools in the stream which runs beneath Hesfen
on the west are perhaps intended (Harper).
HESHMON (hgsh'mSn), (Heb. T'^tO, khesh-
mone' , fatness), a city of Judah (Josh. xv:27), in the
extreme southern part.
SESBON (hes'ron). See Hezron.
HESRONITES, THE (hes'r6n-ites, thu). See
Hkzronitks.
HETH (heth), (Heb. nn khayth. terror, dread),
fath r of the Hittites, was eldest son of Canaan,
and dwelt south of the promised land, at or near
Hebron (Gen. x:i 5; xxiii:3, 7; xxviio).
Ephron, of Hebron, was of the race of Heth :
and that city, in Abraham's time, was peopled by
the children of Heth. Some think there was a
city called Heth ; but we find no traces of it in
Scripture (Gen. x; i Ohron. i). (See Hit-
tites.)
HETHIiON (h6th'16n),(Hcb. -PP.vl, kheth-lone',
wrapped up), a city mentioned in Ezek. xlviiiiq;
xlviii ;i; comp. Num. xxxiv:8), as limiting the land
of promise, north.
It is not fully identified, though it may be men-
tioned that Kasteren proposes to identifj Hethlon
with the modern Adltin N. of the mouth of th«
Kasimiych. which he takes to have been the
ideal northern boundary of Israel. licrtholet
(Hcsekiei, ad loc.) and Buhl are inclined to
favor Kastcrtn's identification.
HEWING (hu'ing), (Heb. -SQ, kftaw-tsaf).
The Gibconitcs, having deceived Joshua, were
sentenced to serve as "hewers of wood and draw-
ers of water unto all the congregation" (Josh.
ix:2l), a service which was performed by the
menial portion of the people (Ueut. xxi.x:ll).
In I Kings v:i5 it is recorded that Solomon
"had fourscore thousand hewers in the moun-
tains."
HEXATEUCH (heks'a-tuk), (Gr. i^, six, and
TfCxos, a book), the first six books of the Old Testa-
ment.
Many questions have arisen concerning the
six books which are included in the above term,
and great liberties have been taken in the direc-
tion of speculations upon this subject. Results
are one thing and scienti/ic results are quite an-
other. There is a form of Higher Criticism
which claims to seek "the solution of all ques-
tions relating to origin, form and value of lit-
erature" chiefly by the examinations of internal
phenomena, and especially claims to be able to
reconstruct and rearrange compositions, to re-
determine authorship, revise statements and re-
arrange dates of the several portions of the Hexa-
teuch.
(1) Principles of Scientific Criticism. Sci
ence, however, consists in the exact observation
of certain facts, and a careful interpretation of
them without prejudice under the following prin-
ciples or laws of thought :
1. Facts must be observed, not assumed.
2. They must be observed without pre-judg-
ment.
3. All relevant principles must be considered.
-4. There must be no forcing of facts by either
rejection or assertion.
5. There must be logical inductions from the
whole body of facts, and these deductions must
be unhampered by theories, and unconfuted by
grave exceptions.
6. There must be a substantial agreement
in conclusions which exclude conflicting explana-
tions.
How far the criticism in question has con-
formed to these principles of science will appear
from even the casual notice of certain points which
brevity requires.
(2) Unwarranted Assumptions. In order to
harmonize the facts with certain theories, it is
necessary to make unwarranted assumptions, and
subordinate methods arc often employed, which
it is difficult to justify in the light of science:
1. Some critics assume the privilege of re-
constructing narratives at their own discretion,
and they make peremptory challenge of words
and phrases which they claim belong to redactors.
This process is too common to require an ex-
ample.
2. They deny the plain statements of the nar-
rative, as when Wellhausen pronounces Abraham
to be "a free creation of unconscious art."
3. They transplant words, phrases, sentences
and long paragraphs hither and thither, abso-
lutely without restriction, and assign them to
certain writers, which they denominate either J.
E. or P.
4. With the same freedom, and for the same
purpose, they assert the former existence and
loss of considerable portions of the work of these
hypothetical writers.
HEXATEUCH
808
HEXATEUCH
S. They claim the right to identify two trans-
actions which the narratives make entirely dis-
tinct, and they also disintegrate a single trans-
action into two, and in each case they claim to
find contradictions or proofs of diverse author-
ship.
When these results are obtained by speculation,
by the forcing of facts, and by unwarranted as-
sumptions without proof, we must inquire where-
in such methods differ from that of the miner
who introduces ore into his claim by arti-
ficial methods, or those of the chemist who adul-
terates a product before analysis?
(3) Varied Results. But even under these
principles and processes, there is very little agree-
ment in results, and there is scarcely one im-
portant theory which has been advanced by the
so-called Higher Critics which has not been more
or less discredited by some other member of
the same school. This system allows the great-
est diversity of opinion on the one hand, and
a general copying from each other at the same
time.
Dr. Briggs epitomizes "a general agreement
of the ablest biblical scholars" as to the follow-
ing writers: viz.. P., J., E., D. and three redactors,
making seven, but in the same treatise he finds
it "necessary to distinguish" five more, making
twelve.
Cornill specifies no less than eighteen writers
and editors of the Hexateuch. Wellhausen wants
twenty more, while Dillmann, the strongest
scholar of them all, sturdily rejects seven or
eight of these imaginary personages; for who
could surely distinguish the various parts of the
work which might have been done by twenty,
twelve, or even six, writers in one composition
which was fairly well combined?
The whole literary public has been unable to
identify the portions of a collaborated novel
which was prepared by even two writers, and
that, too, in a vernacular whose every shade of
meaning was familiar to the critics. What, then,
can we think of the success of an effort of this
kind after centuries have intervened, and the
tongue in which the work was written has be-
come practically a dead language?
(4) The Poiychrome Bible. The only way
in which the Polychrome Bible can furnish its
variegated texts is by assigning each book to a
single editor. It may be doubted whether Pro-
fessor Cheyne could find seven scholars of high
repute in England, America or Germany who
would fully accept his di.smemberment of Isaiah
into more than one hundred and sixty fragments,
with scores of transpositions, numerous lacuna?
and rejections, together with the assignment of
some twenty dales, ranging over a period of four
hundred and sixty-five years. A very striking
peculiarity meets us also in the fact that, after
this elaborate specification of sources, ihe fabric
which has been so laboriously constructed is de-
molished at a stroke by some of the leaders of
the enterprise, when they declare the alleged
writers to be. not individuals, but processes ex-
tending through long periods. Some notice
shntild be taken of the liberty which is used in
alleging glosses, later text changes, and erroneous
statements, in order to maintain the recent theo-
ries as to the tribe of Levi and the priesthood,
the history of the law and the sanctuary, but for
such particulars there must be a resort to more
extended discussions. (See "The J^crarily of the
Pentateuch." by Dr. Samuel Colcord Bartlett, p.
,128)
(5) Assigned Dates. In regard to the as-
signed dates of the alleged constituents of the
Hexateuch, it may be said that although there are
considerable differences, still there is more or
less agreement in the tendency to bring them
down to a period some five hundred years later
than Moses to the Exile, and even later, with
allowances for fragments of earlier origin.
(6) Contemporaneous History. But a con-
clusion, however elaborately argued, is not scien-
tifically established unless it excludes other valid
explanations. This complicated and unrestrained,
and yet unstable analysis of the Hexateuch has
not, in the judgment of many sound and scholarly
thinkers, excluded the more simple and formerly
accepted view, which is a history substantially
contemporaneous with the authorship though in
part drawn from previous authentic sources, and
inevitably somewhat modified, and perhaps mod-
ernized in the transmission through a period of
a thousand years. Those earlier sources may
also have undergone some changes in the transfer
from the tongue which was native to Abraham
in Babylonia, into the Hebrew which became the
language of Israel.
(7) Older Documents. The fact that some
older documents were used in the Hexateuch is
not a discovery of modern investigators ; that it
embodies contents hundreds of years older than
Moses is not a matter of speculation, but of
record. The history itself refers to "The Book
of the Wars of the Lord" and also to "The Book
of Jasher," although the latter was merely a
collection of poems rather than history.
(8) Opinions of Recent Scientists. The pos-
sibility of the Deluge by the method described, is
sustained by such recent scientists as Miller,
Howarth, Dawson and Prestwich, De Girard and
others, and is still further confirmed, though un-
intentionally, by the testimony of Le Conte and
other specialists to the effect that "a great inKtnd
sea" once submerged the whole region that in-
cludes the Caspian Sea, Lake Aral and other
lakes. (See also "Deluge, Illustrative Facts Con-
cerning," by Sir J. W. Dawson.)
(9) Archseological Facts. Increasing attention
is also directed to the indications corresponding
to the still earlier portions of the biblical nar-
rative. That the fourteenth chapter of Genes s
deals with actual persons and conditions at least
two thousand years before Christ is now well
sustained, in spite of the strenuous opposition of
the critics. (See Chedorlaomer ; Arioch ; Am-
RAPHEL, etc.)
(10) Separate Histories. The eleven sets of
generations in Genesis were well described a
century ago by Lord Arthur Hervey as "markinir
the existence of separate histories from which the
Book of Genesis was compiled," not only in ac-
cordance with the obvious facts of the cnse, and
the unquestionable fact of Jewish genealogies ex-
tending back into very remote times, but with
the definite statement in the narrative itself, con-
cerning the genealogical list from Adam to Nonh
and his sons. "This is the book of the generations
at Adam" (Gen. v:i.)
(11) Founder of the Nation. That Moses
was the great founder and moldcr of the nation
of Israel, of its character and institutions, is
necessarily admitted by the critics (with a few-
sporadic exceptions), and emphatically so by
W^ellhauscn and Driver. This admission is made
because of the undeniable historic testimony, ami
especially the incorporation of his mighty per-
sonality into the whole life and composition of
the Jewish people. In a word, nothing in the
theories of modern criticism has been so provd
as to disprove the authenticity of the Hexateuch,
HE7.EK1
809
HEZEKIAH
or to exclude the essential features of the view
so long held by the Hebrew nation and the Chris-
tian world. , _
(12) Historical Character of the Hexateuch.
Every decade is making it more unsafe to im-
pugn the historical character of the Hexateuch.
It is a question of interest whether that which
has been announced as "the greatest Biblical
work of the age," the Polychrome Bible, so far
as it conforms to Professor Cheync's standard,
may not prove to be a heavy ordnance, more
effective in the recoil than the aim.
Andrew Lang, in Longmans Magazine, com-
ments upon it as follows: "The method is simple
and Teutonic. You have a theory, you accept
the evidence of the sacred writers as far as it
suits your theory, and when it does not suit, you
say that the inconvenient passage is an interpola-
tion. // must be. for if not. zvliat becomes of
your theory ? So you print the inconvenient
passage in green, or what not. and then the
people know all about it. (See "The l-'eracity of
the Hexateuch," by Samuel Colcord Bartlett,
D.D., LL.D. ; The Documents of the Hexateuch,
by VV. E. Addis, M. A.. 1898.)
HEZEKI (hez'e-ki), (Heb. *r.!r', i'/i/j-zfi'^', strong),
one of the "sons" of Elpael, a chief resident of
lerusalem (I Chron. viii;i7, 18); a Benjamite.
In R. v., Hiiki.
HEZEB3AH (hez'e-ki'ah), (Heb. '"''ptn, kAiz-
/{•^<'-j'(7a'', strengthened of Jehovah, 2 Kings xviii:
I, 10, 14, 15).
/. Son of Ahaz and Abi (Abijah), born B. C.
about 744 (2 Kings xviii:l, 2; 2 Chron. xxix:l).
(1) Inauguration of Reform.. From the
commencement of his reign the efforts of Heze-
kiah were directed to the reparation of the effects
of the grievous errors of his predecessors; and
during his time the true religion and the theocrat-
ical policy flourished as they had not done since
the days of David. The Temple was cleared and
purified ; the utensils and forms of service were
restored to their ancient order; all the changes
introduced by Ahaz were abolished ; all the monu-
ments of idolatry were destroyed, and their re-
mains cast into the brook Kedron. Among the
latter was the brazen serpen' of Moses, which had
been deposited first in the Tabernacle, and then
in the Temple, as a memorial of the event in
which it originated: and it is highly to the credit
of Hezekiah, and shows more clearly than any
other single circumstance the spirit of his opera-
tions, that even this interesting relic was not
spared when it seemed in danger of being turned
to idolatrous uses. Having succeeded by his acts
and words in rekindling the zeal of the priests and
of the people, the king appointed a high festival,
when, attended by his court and people, he pro-
ceeded in high state to the Temple, to present sac-
rifices of expiation for the past irregularities, and
to commence the reorganized services. A vast
number of sacrifices evinced to the people the zeal
of their superiors, and Judah, long sunk in idol-
atry, was at length reconciled to God (2 Kings
xviii :l-8; 2 Chron. xxix).
The revival of the great annual festivals was
included in this reformation. The Passover,
which was the most important of them all. had
not for a long time been celebrated according to
the rites of the law ; and the day on which it
regularly fell, in the first year of ffezekiah. being
already past, the king, nevertheless, justly con-
ceiving the late observance a less evil than the en-
tire omission of the feast, directed that it should
be kept on the 14th day of the second month, be-
ing one month after its proper time. Couriers
were sent from town to town, inviting the people
to attend the solemnity ; and even the ten tribes
which formed the neighboring kingdom were in-
vited to share with their brethren of Judah in a
duty equally incumbent on all the children of
Abraham. Of these some received the message
gladly, and others with disdain; but a considerable
number of persons belonging to the northern-
most tribes (which had more seldom than the
others been brought into hostile contact with
Judah) came to Jerusalem, and by their presence
imparted a new interest to the solemnity. A pro-
found and salutary impression appears to have
been made on this occasion ; and so strong was the
fervor and so great the number of the assembled
people, that the festival was prolonged to twice its
usual duration ; and during this time the multi-
tude was fed abundantly from the countless offer-
ings presented by the king and his nobles. Never
since the time of Solomon, when the whole of the
twelve tribes were wont to assemble at the Holy
City, had the Passover been observed with such
magnificence (2 Chron. xxx).
The good effect of this procedure was seen when
the people carried back to their homes the zeal for
the Lord which had thus been kindled, and pro-
ceeded to destroy and cast fortli all the abomina-
tions by which their several towns had been de-
filed, thus performing again on a smaller scale, the
doings of the king in Jerusalem. Even the 'high
places," which the pious kings of former days had
spared, were on this occasion abolished and over-
thrown ; and even the men of Israel, who had at-
tended the feast, were carried away by the same
holy enthusiasm, and. on returning to their homes,
broke all their idols in pieces (2 Chron. xxxi:l).
The attention of this pious king was extended to
whatever concerned the interests of religion in his
dominions. He caused a new collection of Solo-
mon's proverbs to be made, being the same which
occupy chaps, xxv-xxix of the book which bears
that name. The sectional divisions of the priests
and Levites were re-established; the perpetual
sacrifices were recommenced and maintained from
the royal treasure; the stores of the temple were
once more filled by the offerings of the people,
and the times of Solomon and Jehoshaphat seemed
to have returned (2 Chron. xxxi).
(2) Military Ventures. This great work hav-
ing been accomplished and consolidated (2 Kings
xvii :7, etc.) Hezekiah applied himself to repair
the calamities, as he had repaired the crimes, of
his father's government. He took arms and re-
covered the cities of Judah which the Philistines
had seized. Encouraged by this success, he ven-
tured to withhold the tribute which his father had
paid to the Assyrian king; and this act, which the
result shows to have been imprudent, drew upon
the country the greatest calamities of his reign.
Only a few years before, namely, in the fourth
of his reign, the Assyrians had put an end to the
kingdom of Israel and sent the ten tribes into
exile, but had abstained from molesting Hezekiah.
as he was already their tributary.
(3) Assyrian Invasion. Seeing his country
invaded on all sides by the Assyrian forces under
Sennacherib, and Lachish, a strong place which
covered Jerusalem, on the point of falling into
their hands. Hezekiah. not daring to meet them in
the field, occupied himself in all necessary prep-
arations for a protracted defense of Jerusalem, in
hope of assistance from Eg\-pt, with which coun-
try he had contracted an alliance (Is. xxx:i-7).
(See LArmsH.) Such alliances were not favored
by the divine sovereign of Israel and his prophets.
HEZEKIAH
810
HEZEKIAH
and no good ever came of them. But this alliance
did not render the good king unmindful of his true
source of strength, for m quieting the alarms of
the people he directed their attention to the con-
sideration that they in fact had more of power
and strength in the divine protection than the
Assyrian king possessed in all his host. 'There
is more with us than with him ; with him is an
arm of flesh, but with us is the Lord our God to
help us and fight our battles.' Nevertheless, Hcze-
kiah was himself distrustful of the course he had
taken, and at length, to avert the calamities of
war, sent to the Assyrian king offers of submis-
sion. Sennacherib, who was anxious to proceed
against Egypt, consented to withdraw his forces
on the payment of three hundred talents of silver
and thirty talents of gold (see Sennacherib),
which the king was not able to raise without ex-
hausting both his own treasury and that of the
Temple, and stripping off the gold with which the
doors and pillars of the Lord's house were over-
laid (2 Kings xviii:7-i6).
But after he had received the silver and gold
the Assyrian king broke faith with Hezekiah and
continued to prosecute his warlike operations.
While he employed himself in taking the fortresses
of Judaea, which it was important to secure be-
fore he marched against Egypt, he sent three of
his generals — Rabshakeh and Rabsaris, besides
the Tartan, or commander-in-chief — with part of
his forces to threaten Jerusalem with a siege un-
less it were surrendered, and the inhabitants sub-
mitted to be sent into Assyria ; and this summons
was delivered in language highly insulting not
only to the king and people, but to the God they
worshiped.
(4) Assyrian Defeat. When the terms of the
summons were made known to Hezekiah he gath-
ered courage from the conviction that God would
not fail to vindicate the honor of his insulted
name. In this conviction he was confirmed by the
prophet Isaiah, who, in the Lord's name, promised
the utter discomfiture and overthrow of the blas-
phemous Assyrian: 'Lo, I will send a blast upon
him, and he shall hear a rumor and shall return
to his own land, and I will cause him to die by the
sword in his own land' (2 Kings xix:;). The
rumor which Sennacherib heard was of the ad-
vance of Tirhakah the Ethiopian to the aid of the
Egyptians, with a force which the Assyrians did
not deem it prudent to meet; but, before with-
drawing to his own country, Sennacherib sent a
threatening letter to Hezekiah, designed to check
the gladness which his retirement was likely to
produce. But that vev}^ night the predicted blast
^probably the hot pestilential south wind — smote
180.000 men in the camp of the Assyrians, and re-
leased the men of Judah from all their fears (2
Kings xviii:i7-37; xix:i-34; 2 Chron. xxxii:i-23;
Is. xxxvi :37).
(5) Illness of Hezekiah. It was in the same
year, and while Jerusalem was still threatened by
the Assyrians, that Hezekiah fell sick of the
plague , and the aspect which the plague-boil as-
sumed assured him that he must die. In this he
was confirmed by Isaiah, who warned him that his
end approached. The love of life, the condition of
the country — the Assyrians being present in it, and
the throne of David without an heir — caused him
to grieve at his doom, and to pray earnestly that
he might be spared.
(6) Prayer Answered. And his prayer was
heard in heaven. The prophet returned with the
assurance that in three days he should recover,
and that fifteen additional years of life should be
given to him. This communication was altogether
so extraordinary that the king required some
token by which his belief might be justified; and
accordingly the 'sign' which he required was
granted to him. The shadow of the sun went
back upon the dial of Ahaz, the ten degrees it
had gone down. (See Dial.) This was a marvel
greater than that of the cure which the king dis-
trusted, for there is no known principle of as-
tronomy or natural philosophy by which such a
result could be produced. A cataplasm of figs
was then applied to the plague-boil, under the
direction of the prophet, and on the third day, as
foretold, the king recovered (2 Kings xx:i-ii; 2
Chron. xxxii:24-26; Is. xxxviii). (See Plague.)
The destruction of the Assyrians drew the at-
tention of foreign courts for a time towards
Judaea, and caused the facts connected with Heze-
kiah's recovery, and the retrogression of the
shadow on the dial, to be widely known.
(7) King of Babylon. Among others Mero-
dach-Baladan, king of Babylon, sent ambassadors
with presents to make inquiries into those matters
and to congratulate the king on his recovery.
Since the time of Solomon the appearance of such
embassies from distant parts had been rare at
Jerusalem; and the king, in the pride of his heart,
made a somewhat ostentatious display to Bala-
dan's ambassadors of all his treasures, which he
had probably recovered from the Assyrians, and
much increased with their spoil. Josephus (Antig.
X. 2, 2) says that one of the objects of the em-
bassy was to form an alliance with Hezekiah
against the Assyrian empire; and, if so, his readi-
ness to enter into an alliance adverse to the theo-
cratical policy, and his desire to magnify his own
importance in the eyes of the king of Babylon,
probably furnished the ground of the divine dis-
approbation with which his conduct in this matter
was regarded. He was reprimanded by the proph-
et Isaiah, who revealed to him the mysteries of
the future, so far as to apprise him that all these
treasures should hereafter be in the possession of
the Babylonians, and his family and people exiles
in the land from which these ambassadors came
(see Isaiah). The intimation was received by
the king with his usual submission to the will of
God, and he was content to know that these evils
were not to be inflicted in his own days. He has
sometimes been blamed for this seeming indiffer-
ence to the fate of his successors; but it is to be
borne in mind that at this time he had no children.
This was in the fourteenth year of his reign, and
Manasseh, his successor, was not born till three
years afterwards (2 Kings xx:i2, 19; 2 Chron.
xxxii :3i ; Is. xxxix).
(8) Death. The rest of Hezekiah's life appears
to have been peaceable and prosperous. No man
before or since ever lived under the certain knowl-
edge of the precise length of the span of life before
him. When the fifteen years had expired Heze-
kiah was gathered to his fathers, after a reign of
twenty-nine years. He died sincerely lamented
by all his people, and the public respect for his
character and memory was testified by his corpse
being placed in the highest niche of the royal
sepulcher (2 Kings xx :20, 21; 2 Chron. xxxii:
32. 33). Dean Stanley, Hist, of the Jewish Ch. ii.
505-540.
2. Son of Neariah, of the royal family of Judah
(i Chron. iii:23). B.C. after 536.
3. A person mentioned in connection with Ater
(Neh. vii;2l). B. C. before 536.
4. An ancestor of the jirophet Zephaniah (ZepK
i:i; in A. V. Hizkiah), B. C. before 630,
HEZION
811
HIGH PLACE
HEZION (he'zi-6n), (Heb. FI?. khes-yone',
vision), a king of Aram and father of Tabrimon (l
Kings xv:i8). It is probable that he is identical
with Rezon (i Kings xi:23). as the names in the
original are very similar. (B. C. before 928.)
HEZIB (he'zir), (Heb. ^'"!^, khay-zeer' , swine).
1- A priest who had charge of the seventeenth
course in the Temple service, in the time of David
(i Chron. xxivns), B. C. 1014.
2. One of those who sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x:20), B. C. 410.
HEZBAI (hez'ra-i), (Heb. "-^'C, khets-rah'ee,
walled in, 2 Sam. xxiii:35), the same as Hn;zRO
(which see).
A native of Carmel and one of David's guard
of "thirty" (2 Sam. xxiii:35), B. C. 1046.
HEZBU (hez'ro), (Heb. "V?, khets-ro' , enclo-
sure), the form in which Hezrai appears (I Chron.
xi:37). Kennicott gives Hetzrai as the original
form of the name. (B. C. 1046.)
HEZBON (hez'ron), (Heb. I^'V", khets-rone',
enclosed; walled, Gesenius).
1. Son of Reuben (Gen. xlvi:9; Exod.vi:i4;
I Chron. iv:i; v:3). He was the founder of a
family by his name (Num. xxvi:6), B. C. 1874.
2. Son of Pharez, and ancestor of David (Gen.
xlvi:l2; Ruth iv:i8), B.C. 1856.
3. A place on the southern boundary of Judah
(Josh. XV :3).
HEZBONITES (hez'ron-ites), the descendants
of Hf.zron, I (which see).
HIDDAI (hid'da-I), (Heb. "!!'?, kid-dah'ee, deri-
vation uncertain), one of the "thirty" heroes of
David, "of the brooks of Gaash" (2 Sam. xxiiii^oi.
Kennicott (Dissert., p. 194) thinks this a corruption
of Hurai found in the parallel lists (l Cnron.
Ki:32).
HTDDEKEL (hid'de-kel), (Heb. 'R'H'?, khid-delV-
kcl), one of the rivers of Eden (Gen. ii;l4). It
seems to be identical with the "Great River" (Dan.
k:4). It is identified with the Tigris.
HIEL (hi'el), (Heb. ^^fH, khee-ale' , life from
God).
A native of Bethel, who rebuilt Jericho, above
500 years after its destruction by the Israelites,
and who, in so doing, incurred the effects of
the imprecation pronounced by Joshua (l Kings
xvi:34), B. C. 915.
Accursed the man in the sight of Jehovah.
Who shall arise and build this city, even Jericho,
With the loss of his firstborn shall he found it,
And with the loss of his youngest shall he fix
its gates (Josh. vi:26). J. E. R.
HIEBAPOLIS (hi'erap'o-lls), (Gr. •Upi.iroXit,
hec-er-ap'ot-is, sacred city).
A city of Phrygia, not far from Colossae and
L.iodicea, where there was a Christian church
under the charge of Epaphros, as early as the
time of St. Paul, who commends him for his
fidelity and zeal (Coloss. iv:i2, 13). The place
is visible from the theater at Laodicea, from
which it is five miles distant northward.
Smith, in his journey to the Seven Churches
(1671), was the first to describe the ancient sites
in this neighborhood. He was followed by Po-
cocke and Chandler; and more recently by
Richter, Cockerell, Hartley, and Arundell.
The place now bears the name of Pamluck-
kale (Cotton-castle), or Pambouk-Kalessi, from
the white appearance of the clilTs of the moun-
tain on the lower summit, or rather an extended
terrace, on which the ruins are situated. It
owed its celebrity, and probably the sanctity indi-
cated by its ancient name (Holy City), to its
very remarkable springs of mineral water, the
singular effects of which, in the formation of
stalactites and incrustations by its deposits, are
shown in the accounts of Pococke (ii, pt. 2, ch.
13) and Chandler (/Isia Minor, ch. 68), to have
been accurately described by Strabo (xiii. p. 629).
A great number and variety of sepulchers are
found in the different approaches to the site,
which on one side is sufficiently defended by the
precipices overlooking the valleys of the Lycus
and Masander, while on the other sides the town
walls are still observable. The magnificent ruins
clearly attest the ancient importance of the place.
HIEBOGLYPHICS (hi'er-6-gUt'rks), (from Gr.
Iep6s, hee-er-os', sacred, and y\i(pui; gloo'feh. to
carve).
Pictures of objects, as of an animal, tree, bird,
etc., representing a word, syllable, or single sound,
and intended to convey a meaning.
HIGGAION (hig-ga'yon), (Heb. P'J^I, hig-gaw-
yone' : Ps. ix:l6; xix:i5; xcii:4; Lam. iii:62). Per-
haps the best view is that of Gesenius, who takes
it from ^\"\, haiv-gaw', to murmur; meditate.
HIGH DAY (hi da), (Heb. '1^, gaw-dole' . Gen.
xxix:7), great, i. e., broad daylight.
Shakespeare uses the word great iii the same
way, thus, "It is great morning" ("Troilus and
Cressida").
HIGHEST (hi'est) (Heb. T^Ti, el-yone' . ele-
vated), a title ascribed to Jehovah (Ps. xviii:i3;
lxxxvii:5), and in the New Testament (Gr. C'/'iffToj,
hoop' sis-tos) of the highest region, i. e., heaven
(Matt. xxi:9); it denotes rank, as the Most High
God (Mark v:7, Luke viii:28).
HIGH MINDED (hi'rain'ded) (Gr. v^r,\ai>i>ovlw,
hoop-say-h-fron-eh' -o Rom. xi;20; I Tim. vi:l7),
lofty in mind; arrogant.
HIGH PLACE (hi plas), (Heb. i^??, baiv-maw' ,
elevation).
.As high places and groves are almost con-
stantly associated in Scripture, it seems unde-
sirable to separate them in our consideration.
Idolatrous Hi^h Place, with Grove and Worshipers.
By 'high places' (.baw-matv') we are content
to understand natural or artificial eminences,
where worship by sacrifice or offering was made,
usually upon an altar erected thereon.
By a 'grove' we understand a plantation of trees
around a spot in the open air set apart for worship
and other sacred services.
HIGH PLACE
812
HILL COUNTRY
(1) After the Deluge. We find traces of
these customs so soon after the deluge, that it is
probable they existed prior to that event. It ap-
pears that the first altar after the deluge was
built by Noah upon the mountain on which the
ark rested (Gen. viii:20), Abraham, on entering
the Promised Land, built an altar upon a moun-
tain between Beth-el and Hai (xii:7, 8). At
Beersheba he planted a grove, and called there
upon the name of the everlasting God (Gen. xxi :
35). The same patriarch was required to travel
to the mount Moriah, and there to offer up his
son Isaac (xxii:2, 4). It was upon a mountain
in Gilead that Jacob and Laban offered sacrifices
before they parted in peace (xxxi:s4). In fact,
such seem to have been the general places of
worship in those times: nor does any notice of
a temple or other covered or enclosed building
for that purpose, occur. Thus far all seems clear
and intelligible. There is no reason in the mere
nature of things why a hill or a grove should be
an objectionable, or, indeed, why it should not be
a very suitable, place for worship. Yet by the
time the Israelites returned from Egypt, some
corrupting change had taken place, which caused
them to be repeatedly and strictly enjoined to
overthrow and destroy the high places and groves
of the Canaanites wherever they found them
(Exod. xxxiv:i3; Deut. vii :$ ; xii:2, 3). That
they were not themselves to worship the Lord on
high places or in groves is implied in the fact
that they were to have but one altar for regular
and constant sacrifice; and it was expressly en-
joined that near this sole altar no trees should
be planted (Deut. xvi:2i).
(2) Iniquity of the Canaanites. It is possi-
ble that the Canaanites had not yet fallen into
rank idolatry in the time of Abraham, at least,
not into such idolatries as defiled the very places
in which they worshiped. We know, at all events,
that their iniquity was not full in those earlier
times, but that when the Israelites invaded the
land their iniquity was full to overflowing. As
included in this, we may with tolerable certainty
infer that their religion had become so grossly
erroneous and impure, that it was needful to place
under ban even their places of worship, which
might otherwise bring the Israelites into danger
by the associations which had become connected
with them.
(3) Abominable Rites. The groves which
ancient usage had established around the places
of sacrifice for the sake of shade and seclusion,
idolatry preserved not only for the same reasons,
but because they were found convenient for the
celebration of the rites and mysteries, often ob-
scene and abominable, which were gradually
superadded.
Ji) Injunctions Imperfectly Obeyed. The
injunctions, however, respecting the high places
and groves were very imperfectly obeyed by the
Israelites: and their inveterate attachment to this
mode of worship was such that even pious kings,
who opposed idolatry by all the means in their
power, dared not abolish the high places at which
the Lord was worshiped. And it appears to us
likely, that this toleration of an acknowledged
irregularity arose from the indisposition of the
people living at a distance from the temple to
be confined to the altar which existed there ; to
their determination to have places nearer home
for the chief acts of their religion— sacrifice and
offering: and to the apprehension of the kings
that if they were prevented from having places
for offerings to the Lord in their o.wn neighbor-
hood, they would make the offerings to idols.
This view of the case seems to be strongly con-
firmed by the fact that we hear no more of this
proneness to worship in high places and in groves
after synagogues and regular religious services
had been established in the towns and gave suffi-
cient operation to the disposition among men to
create a local interest in religious observances.
It is more difficult to explain how it happens
that, in the face of the prohibition against sacri-
ficing at more than one altar, many persons of
piety, and even prophets, not only did so. but, in
some instances, did so in high places : Gideon,
for instance, at Ophrah (Judg. vi:25), Manoah
in Dan (Judg. xiii:i6-2g), Samuel at Mizpeh (l
Sam. vii:io), and at Bethlehem (xvi:5), David in
the threshing-floor of Oman (i Chron. xxi:22),
and Elijah on Mount Carmel (I Kings xviii :30,
sq.).
HIGH-PRIEST (hi'prest), (Heb. Wl^, kak-
kohane' , the priest). (See Priest.*
HIGHWAT (hi'wa), (usually Heb. '^^?^, 7nes-il-
law'). (See Road.)
HILEN (hi'len), (Heb. l^TI, /{■,4/-/<i)'«', perhaps
fortress), a city of Judah allotted to the priests
(I Chron. viijS). (See HoLON).
HILKIAH (hil-ki'ah), (Heb. ^W)^, khil-kee-
yaw' , portion of Jehovah), several persons cf this
name occur in Scripture, of whom the following
are the chief :
1. The father of Jeremiah (Jer. i:i), B. C. 628.
2. A high-priest in the reign of Josias (2 Kings
xxii 14, 8, 10).
3. The father of Eliakim (2 Kings xviii :i8,
26; Is. xxii:2o; xxxvi:22), B.C. 713.
4. A Merarite Levite, son of Amzi and ances-
tor of Ethan (i Chron. vi:45), before B. C. 1014.
5. A Merarite Levite, son nl Husah, and a door-
keeper in the tabernacle under David (i Chron.
xxvKii), about B.C. 1014.
6. One of those who assisted Ezra in instruct-
ing the people in llie law (Neli. viii:4), about B.C.
410.
7. Father of Gemariah (Jer. xxixij), before
B.C. 587.
HILIi (hn), (Heb. '^J'??, ghib-aiv\ high), a con-
spicuous natural elevation of land.
The name is generally applied to a natural
eminence smaller than a mountain and larger than
a mound : but the terms are relative, the same
height being sometimes known by both names (Is.
xxxi:4), or called a mountain in one locality and
a hill in another (Rev. xviiig). Hill is chiefly
the rendering of the Hebrew Gib'ah and the Greek
Bounus. Not infrequently it is also employed in
the A. v., and much less frequently in the R. V.
( Ps. ii :6 : iii :4 : xv : i ; xxiv 13 ; xlii :6 ; Matt, v : 14 :
Luke iv:29J, to translate Hebrew ''^'^. harar' , and
Greek 'Oros. which are usually rendered moun-
tain. (Davis, Bib. Diet.)
HILIi COUNTRY (hri kun'try), the rendering
in the Old Testament (Josh. xxi:ii) of Har (see
Hill); and in the New Testament of the Gr.
or-i-nos' (ipavos, mountainous : Luke i:39, 65); and
meaning Mount Ephraim.
The rendering "hill country" is misleading.
"With their usual exactness the Hebrews saw
that these regions (i. e., the mountains of Judah,
Ephraim and Naphtali) formed part of one range,
the whole of which they called not _by a collective
name, but singularly — the mountain" (Smith, Hiit.
Geog., p. 53)-
HILLEL
813
HIRE
HILLEL (hn '181), (Heb ^^•"l, ^lA/ay/, praising),
B Piratlionite, and father of the judge Abdon
ijudg. xii:l3, 15), B. C. before 1070.
HIN (hin). Sec Weights and Measures.
HIND (hind), (Heb. 'I^'**, ah-yaw-law' , Gen.
xlix:2i; 2 Sam. xxii:34; Job xxxix:i; Ps. xviii:33,
etc.), the female of the hart or stag, doe being the
female of the fallow-deer, and roe being some-
times used tor that ol the roebuck.
All the females of the Cervidce, with the ex-
ception of the reindeer, are hornless. It may be
remarked that the emendation of Bochart on the
version of Gen. xlix:2t. where for 'Naphthali
is a hind let loose, he giveth goodly words,' he,
by a small change in the punctuation of the orig-
inal, proposes to read 'Naphthali is a spreading
tree, shooting forth beautiful branches,' restores
the te.Kt, to a consistent meaning, agreeing with the
Sept., the Chaldee paraphrase, and the Arabic
version. (See Hart.)
HINGE (hinj), (Heb. HE, pohth, an interstice, the
female pudenda).
In ancient times in the East heavy doors turned
on pivots, which were constructed on the upper
and lower corners of one side and inserted in
sockets. The socket is probably more especially
referred to in I Kings vii:5o. (See also Prov.
xxvi '.14.)
HIIfNOIC (hiniiom), (Heb. ^-'^, hin-nome' , per-
haps abundant.)
1. An unknown person whose name is given
to the "Valley of Hinnom" (Josh. .xviii:i6; Neh.
xi :30) ; elsewhere (.Josh, xv :8 ; 2 Kings xxiii:io;
2 Chron. xxxin :6, etc.) called "the valley of the
son," or "children of Hinnom."
2. The valley which bounds Jerusalem on the
south, below Mount Zion, and which in Scrip-
ture is often mentioned in connection with the
horrid rites of Moloch, which under idolatrous
kings were there celebrated (Josh. xv:8; xviii :
16; Neh. xi:30; Jer. vii:3l; xix:2). When
Josiah overthrew this idolatry he defiled the
valley by casting into it the bones of the dead,
the greatest of all polluiions among the Hebrews;
and from that time it became the common jakes
of Jerusalem, into which all refuse of the city
was cast, and where the combustible portions of
that refuse were consumed by fire. Hence it came
to be regarded as a sort of type of hell, the Ge-
henna of the New Testament being no other than
the name of this valley of Hinnom (Ge-Hinnom) ;
see Mat. v:22, sq.; Mark ix:43; Luke vii:5; John
iii:6.
The name by which it is now known is Widy
Jehennam. or Wtidy er Rubeb (Smith, Bib. Diet.,
s. v.). (See H.ADES; Jerus.'vlem.)
HIP AND THIGH (hip and thi), (Heb. p'*,
shake), a proverbial expression for a f^reat
slaughter (Judg. xv;8l, like the Arabic "war in
thigh fashion," or the German " cutting arm and
leg in two."
HIPPOPOTAMTTS (hip'pS-pdt'a-raiis). (See Be-
HE.MOTH.)
HIRAH (hl'rah), (Heb. '"'T'^, khee-raiv', splen-
dor), an Adullamite, and friend of Judah (Gen.
xxxviii:!, 12; comp. verse 20).
HIBAK (hi'rara), (Heb. "^"'ri, khee-rawm' , high-
born); generally in the Chronicles ^^^", khoo-
rawm' , ' Huram."
1. King of Tyre, who sent an embassy to
David after the latter had captured the strong-
hold of Zion and taken up his residence in Jeru-
salem. It seems that the sway of this ruler ex-
tended over the western slopes of Lebanon ; and,
when David built himself a palace, Hiram mate-
rially assisted the work by sending cedar-wood
from Lebanon and able workmen to Jerusalem
(2 Sam. v:ii; i Chron. xiv:l), B. C. about 1055-
1044.
2. King of Tyre, son of Abibaal, and grand-
son of the Hiram who was contemporary with
David, in the last years of whose reign he
ascended the throne of Tyre. Following his
grandfather's example, he sent to Jerusalem an
embassy of condolence and congratulation when
David died and Solomon succeeded, and con-
tracted with the new king a more intimate alli-
ance than ever before or after existed between
a Hebrew king and a foreign prince (1 Kings v:i).
The alliance seems to have been very substan-
tially beneficial to both parties, and without it
Solomon would scarcely have been able to realize
all the great designs he had in view. In consid-
eration of large quantities of corn, wine, and oil,
furnished by Solomon, the king of Tyre agreed
to supply from Lebanon the timber required for
the temple, to float it along the coast, and deliver
it^ at Joppa, which was the port of Jerusalem (i
Kings v:l, sq.; ix:lo, sq.; 1 Chron. ii :3, sq.). The
vast commerce of Tyre made gold very plentiful
there ; and Hiram supplied no less than 500 tal-
ents to Solomon for the ornamental works of the
temple, and received in return twenty towns in
Galilee ; which, when he came to inspect them,
pleased him so little that he applied to them a
name of contempt, and restored them to the Jew-
ish king (2 Chron. viii:2). (See Cabuu) It
does not, however, appear that the good under-
standing between the two kings was broken by
this unpleasant circumstance; for it was after this
that Hiram suggested, or at least took part in,
Solomon's traffic to the Eastern seas — which cer-
tainly could not have been undertaken by the He-
brew king without his assistance in providing
ships and experienced mariners (i Kings ix :27 ;
x:ii, etc.; 2 Chron. viii:i8; ixrio, etc.). B. C.
1007. (See Ophir; Solomon; Phcenicians.)
3. Hiram, or Huram, son of a widow of the
tribe of Dan, and of a Tyrian father. He was
sent by the king of the same name to execute
the principal works of the interior of the tem-
ple, and the various utensils required for the
sacred services (i Kings vii:i3, 14, 40). It is
probable that he was selected for this purpos
by the king from among others equally gifted,
in the notion that his half Hebrew blood would
render him more acceptable at Jerusalem. He
is called "Huram" in 2 Chron. ii:l3; iv:li, 16;
and "Hirom" in the margin of I Kings vii:40.
(B. C loio.)
HIKE (hlr), (Heb. 1=?, saw-kar", wages; hire-
reward).
Hire in A. V. is equivalent always to modern
wages. Thus Gen. xxxi :8. 'The ring-straked shall
be thy hire;' Is. xxiii:i8, 'And her rnerchandise
and her hire shall be holiness to the Lord' (De-
litzsch, 'her gain and her wages become holy unto
Jehovah'); Mic. iiirii, 'The heads thereof judge
for reward, and the priests thereof teach for hire;'
Luke, X :7, "the laborer is worthy of his hire.' Tyn-
dale has the word very much as in the modern use
in Mark ii :i. '.And let yt out to byre unto husband-
men." The plural 'hires,' now obsolete, occurs
once in .\. V. (Mic. 1:7), 'All the hires thereof
shall be burned with fire.'
HIRELING
8U
HISTORY
HIRELING (hir'lmg), (Heb. 1"'?, saw-keer' \
Gr. iii(rewT6s, mis-tho-tos'), a laborer employed on
hire for a limited time (Job. vii:i; xiv;5; Mark
i:2o), as distinguished from one belonging to his
master.
"A hireling is a hired servant, and properly
carries no suggestion of unfaithfulness. Thus
Tyndale, Works, i, 146, 'Hereby mayest thou not
understand that we obtain the favor of God, and
the inheritance of life, through the merits of good
works, as hirelings do their wages.' So Rhcims
has 'hireling' in Luke xv:i7, 19, where all the
other versions have "hired servant.' " Hastings'
Bih. Diet.)
HISS (his), (Heb. p^f, shaw-rak' , to whistle).
This term usually expresses insult and con-
tempt (Job xxvii:23), and mingled wonder and
contempt, as by beholders of the ruined temple
(i Kings ix:8; 2 Chron. vii:2i).
It is also used in the sense of to allure, to
entice; as a beekeeper, who, by hissing (whistling)
to the sound of a flute, induces the bees to come
to a hive or settle on a bnsh or some other object
(Is. v:26; vii:i8).
HISTORY (his't6-r5;).
The subject matter contained in the Biblical
history is of a wide and most extensive nature.
In its greatest length and fullest meaning it comes
down from the Creation till near the close of the
first century of the Christian era.
The Jewish history contained in the Bible em-
braces more and less than the history of the
Israelites; more, since it begins with the beginning
of the earth and narrates with extraordinary
brevity events which marked the period terminated
by the flood, going on till it introduces us to
Abraham, the primogenitor of the Hebrew race;
less, since, even with the assistance of the poetical
books, its narratives do not come down to a later
date than some 400 years before the birth of
Christ. The historical materials furnished _ re-
lating to the Hebrew nation may be divided into
three great divisions: i. The books which are
consecrated to the antiquity of the Hebrew nation
— the period that elapsed before the era of the
ji'dges. These works are the Pentateuch and the
book of Joshua, which, according to Ewald {Ge-
schxchte des Volkcs Israel, i, 72), properly con-
stitute only one work, and which may be termed
the great book of original documents. 2. The
books which describe the times of the judges and
the kings up to the first destruction of Jerusalem;
that is, Judges, Kings, and Samuel, to which
belongs the book of Ruth; 'all these,' says Ewald,
'constitute also, according to their last formation,
but one work, which may be called the Great
Book of Kings.' 3. The third class comprises
the books included under the head of Hagio-
grapha, which are of a much later origin. Chron-
icles, with Ezra and Nehemiah, forming the
great book of general history reaching to the
Grecian period. After these books come those
which are classed together under the name of
Apocrypha, whose use in this country we think
unduly neglected. Then the circle of evangelical
record begins, which closed within the century
that saw it open. Other books found in the Old
and New Testaments, which are not properly of a
historical character, connect themselves with one
or other of these periods, and give important aid
to students of sacred history.
(1) Sources of Biblical History. The sources
of Biblical history are chiefly the Biblical books
themselves. Any attempt to fix the precise value
of these sources in a critical point of vie^v would
require a volume instead of an article. Whatever
hypothesis, however, may eventually be held
touching the exact time when these books, or any
of them, were put into their actual shape, as also
touching the materials out of which they were
formed, one thing appears very certain, that (to
take an instance) Genesis, the earliest book (prob-
ably), contains most indubitable as well as most
interesting historical facts ; for though the age,
the mode of life and the state of culture differ so
widely from our own, we cannot do otherwise
than feel that it is among men and women, parents
and children — beings of like passions with our-
selves— and not with mere creations of fancy or
fraud, that we converse when we peruse the nar-
ratives which this composition has so long pre-
served. The conviction is much strengthened in
the minds of those who, by personal acquaintance
with the early profane writers, are able to com-
pare their productions with those of the Hebrews,
which were long anterior, and must, had they
been of an equally earthly origin, have been at
least equally deformed by fable. The sole com-
parison of the account given in Genesis of the
creation of the world with the Cosmogonies of
heathen writers, whether Hindoo, Greek or Latin,
is enough to assure the impartial reader that a
purer, if not a higher, influence presided over the
composition of Genesis than that whence pro-
ceeded the legends or the philosophies of heathen-
ism ; nor is the conclusion in the slightest degree
weakened in the writer's mind by any discrepancy
which modern science may seem to show as be-
tween its own discoveries and the statements in
Genesis. The Biblical history, as found in its
Biblical sources, has a decided peculiarity and a
great recommendation in the fact that we can
trace in the Bible more clearly and fully than in
connection with any other history, the first crude
elements and the early materials out of which all
history must be constructed. How far the litera-
ture supplied in the Bible may be only a relic of
a literary cyclus called into being by the felici-
tous circumstances and favorable constitution of
the great Shemitic family, but which has perished
in the lapse of ages, it is now impossible to deter-
mine; but had the other portions of this imagined
literature been of equal religious value with what
the Bible offers, there is little risk in affirming
that mankind would scarcely have allowed it to
be lost.
(2) Other Books Than the Bible. The Bible,
however, bears traces that its were not the only
books current in the time and country to which
it relates; for writing, writers, and books are
mentioned without the emphasis and distinction
which always accompany new discoveries or pe-
culiar local possessions and as ordinary, well-
known and matter-of-course things. And it is cer-
tain that we do not possess all the works which
were known in the early periods of Israelite his-
tory, since in Num. xxi:i4 we read of 'the book
of the wars of the Lord,' and in Josh, x :i3 of 'the
book of Jasher.' 'Without writing, history, prop-
erly so called, can have no existence. Under the
head Writing may be traced the early rudiments
and progress of that important art ; here we mere-
ly remark that an acquaintance with it was pos-
sessed by the Hebrews at least as early as their
Exodus from Egypt— a fact which shows at least
the possibility that the age of the Biblical record
stands some thousand years or more (see Chro-
Noi.ncv) prior to the earliest Greek historian,
Herodotus.
(3) Thfi Bible a Commemorative Book.
There is another fact which has an important
msTORY
816
HISTORY
bearing on the worth and credibility of the Bib-
lical narratives, namely, that the people of which
they speak were a commemorative race, were, in
other words, given to create and preserve memo-
rials of important events. Even in the patriarchal
times we find monuments set up in order to com-
memorate events. Jacob (Gen. xxviii:i8) 'set
up a pillar' to perpetuate the memory of the
divine promise; and that these monuments had a
religious import and sanction appears from the
statement that 'he poured oil upon the top of the
pillar' (see Gen. xx.xi:45; Josh. iv:9; I Sam. vii.'
12; Judg. i.x:6). Long-lived trees, such as oak
and terebinth, were made use of as remembran-
cers (Gen. XXXV :4; Josh. xxiv:26). Commem-
orative names also were given to persons,
places, and things; and from the earliest peri-
ods it wns usual to substitute a new and de-
scriptive for an old name, which may in its
origin have been descriptive too (Exod. ii:io;
Gen. ii :23 ; iv:i). Genealogical tables appear,
moreover, to have had a very early existence
among the people of whom the Bible speaks, being
carefully preserved first memoriter, afterward by
writing, among family treasures, and thus trans-
mitted from age to age. These, indeed, as might
be expected, appear to have been the first begin-
nings of history — a fact which is illustrated and
confirmed by the way in which what we should
term a narrative or historical sketch is spoken of
in the Bible, that is, as 'the book of the genera-
tion' ('of Adam,' Gen. v:i) : a mode of speaking
which is applied even to the account of the Crea-
tion (Gen. ii:4), 'these are the generations of the
heavens and the earth when they were created.'
The genealogical tables in the Bible (speaking
generally) are not only of a very early date, but
are free from the mixtures of a theogonical and
cosmogonical kind which are found in the early
literature of other primitive nations, wearing the
appearance of being, so far at least as they go,
true and complete lists of individual and family
. descent (Gen. v:l).
(4) The Use of Poetry. But perhaps the most
remarkable fact connected with this subject is
the employment of poetry at a very early period
to perpetuate a knowledge of historical events.
Even in Gen. iv :23, in the case of Lamech, we find
poetry thus employed, that is, by the great-grand-
son of the primitive father. Other instances may
be found in Exod. xv ; Judge, v; Josh. x:i3; 2
Sam. i:i8. This early use of poetry, which must
be regarded as a considerable step in civilization,
implies a still earlier pre-existent culture ; con-
futes the notion that human society began with a
period of barbarism ; looks favorably on the
hypothesis that language had an immediately di-
vine origin ; explodes the position that the He-
brews were at first an ignorant, untutored, and
unlettered race, and creates a presumption on be-
half of their historical literature. Poetry is a
good vehicle for the transmission of great leading
facts ; for, though it may throw over fact a color-
ing borrowed from the imagination, yet the form
in which it appears gives warning that such hues
are upon its details, which hues, besides being
themselves a species of history, are then easily re-
moved, while the form shuts up and holds in the
facts intrusted to the custody of verse, and so
transmits them to posterity without additions and
without loss. By means of these several forms of
commemoration much knowledge would be pre-
served from generation to generation, and to their
existence from the first may be ascribed the brief,
but still valuable, notices which the Bible presents
of the primitive ages and condition of the world.
(5) Other Sources, Josephus, Ete. Other
sources for at least the early Biblical history are
comparatively of small value. Josephus has gone
over the same periods as the Bible treats of, but
obviously had no sources of consequence relating
to primitive times which are not open to us, and
in regard to those times does little more than add
here and there a patch of a legendary or tradi-
tional hue which could have been well spared. His
Greek and Roman predilections and his apologeti-
cal aims detract from his value, while in relation
to the early history of his country he can be re-
garded in no other light than a sort of philo-
sophical interpreter; nor is it till he comes to his
own age that he has the value of an independent
(not even then an impartial) eyewitness or well-
informed reporter. In historical criticism and
linguistic knowledge he was very insuflficicntly
furnished. The use of both Josephus and Philo
is far more safe for the student of the New Tes-
tament than for the expounder of the old.
(6) The Talmud and tne Rabbins. The Tal-
mud and the Rabbins afford very little assistance
for the early periods, but might probably be made
to rendei' more service in behalf of the times of
the Savior than has been generally allowed. The
illustrations which Lightfoot and Wetstein have
drawn from these sources are of great value ; and
Gfrorer, in \\\&JahrJtundert.des Heils (Stuttgart,
1838), has made an ample use of the materials
they supply in order to draw a picture of the first
century, a use which the learned author is at no
small pains to justify. The compilations of the
Jewish doctors, however, require to be employed
with the greatest caution, since the Rabbins were
the depositaries, the expounders and the apologists
of that corrupt form of the primitive faith and the
Mosaic institutions which has been called by the
distinctive name of Judaism, which comprised an
heterogeneous mass of false and true things, the
flood wood of the East as well as truth from the
Bible, and which, to a great extent, lies under the
express condemnation of Christ himself. How
easy it is to propagate fables on their authority,
and to do a disservice to the Gospel records, may
be learnt from the fact that older writers, in their
undue trust of Rabbinical authority, went so far
as to maintain that no cock was allowed to be
kept in Jerusalem because fowls scratched unclean
things out of the earth, though the authority of
Scripture (which in the case they refused to ad-
mit) is most express and decided (Matt. xxvi:34;
Mark xiv : 30, 60, 72). On the credibility of the
Rabbins see Ravii Diss. Phil. Theol. dc eo qund
Fidei mercnttir, etc., in Oel rich's Collect. Opusc.
Hist. Phil. Theol; Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. ii. 1095; Fa-
bricius, Bibliog. Anliq. 1:3, 4; Brunsmann, Diss,
de ludaica levitate, Hafniae, 1705.
The classic authors betray the grossest igno-
rance in almost all cases where they treat of the
origin and history of the Hebrew people; and
even the most serious and generally philosophic
writers fall into vulgar errors and unaccountable
mistakes as soon as they speak on the subject.
What, for instance, can be worse than the blunder
or prejudice of Tacitus, under the influence of
which he declared that the Jews derived their
origin from Mount Ida in Crete ; that by the ad-
vice of an oracle they had been driven out of
Egypt, and that they set up in their temple at
Jerusalem as an object of worship the figure of an
ass, since an animal of that species had directed
them in the wilderness and discovered to them a
fountain (Tacit. Hist. v:i, 2). Dion Cassius
(xxxvii:i7) relates similar fables. Plutarch
(Qu<rst. Symfios. iv:s) makes the Hebrews pay
HITTITES
81 G
HITTITES
divine honors to swine, as being their instructors
in agriculture, and affirms that they kept the Sab-
bath and the Feast of Tabernacles in honor of
Bacchus. For a collection of these gross misrep-
resentations, together with a profound and suc-
cessful inquiry into their origin, and a full ex-
posure of their falsehoods, see articles by Dr. J. G.
Miiller, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1843,
vicrtcs Heft. p. 893.
HITTITES (hJt'tites), (Heb. "•';'!<, khiftee).
The fact that the Hittites were unknown to
classic history encouraged a certain class of critics
in the assertion that there was no truth in the
Biblical statements concerning them.
(1) Early Inscriptions. But as soon as the
key was found to the hieroglyphs of Egypt and
the cuneiforms of Assyria another great people
began to emerge from the darkness of secular
history. They appeared chiefly as a nation of
warriors in constant conflict with the kings
around them, and the picture thus presented was
century before Christ, the Hittites are regarded
as a formidable power." (Trans, of Soc. Bib.
Arch., vol. vii., part 2, p. 261.)
And Mr. Pinches, of the British Museum, has
deciphered an inscription which would seem to
place the reign of Sargon of Agade or Agane I.
about 3800 B. C.
(2) Extent of the Empire. We may estimate
the extent of the Hittite Empire from the num-
ber of local Hittite names mentioned in the Scrip-
tures and the inscriptions, and also from the vast
extent of country over which Hittite inscriptions
and sculptures are scattered. In the Egyptian and
Assyrian inscriptions there have already been dis-
covered over 300 geographical Hittite names, only
a few of which have as yet been identified. We
can better realize how much this means when we
consider that in the Royal History of England
there are only about 133 names of places men-
tioned in all of England, Scotland and Ireland.
The inscriptions of Egypt and Assyria are com-
paratively few and fragmentary, and of these few
Monument of a Hittite King. Accompanied by an Iii-^ci iption in Hittite Hierogtypltics,
in perfect harmony with that found in the Penta-
teuch. The inscriptions show the Hittite kings
to have been rivals of the Pharaohs from the
twelfth to the twentieth dynasty. The shock of
Egyptian invasion exhausted itself on the frontier
cities of Kadesh and Carchemish, and there were
still fresh armies and abundance of wealth to
enable the Hittite empire to withstand the might
of Egypt for a thousand years.
In the British Museum there are many in-
scribed objects belonging to the library of Assur-
bani-pal, and some of them are known as the
As.syrian Astronomical Tablets. These are the
later editions of the clay books which had been
prepared for the ancient kings of Babylon. In
one of these comparatively modern editions of a
much earlier work we find the following state-
ment : "The king of the Hittites lives and on the
throne seizes" (Records of the Past, 1:159). And
again we read : "The king of the Hittites plun-
lers and the throne seizes" (Ibid. p. 160).
It is difficult to assign a date to these and other
similar documents, but Professor Sayce conjec-
tures that : "Already in the astrological tables of
Sargon of Agade or Agane. in the nineteenth
which have come to light many are still unread.
They are chiefly concerned with their own na-
tional achievements and the glory of conquerors,
and yet these stone and clay records preserve for
us twice as many names of places in the Hittite
empire as are to be found of English geo-
graphical names in a thousand pages of our stand-
ard geography and history combined.
In the Bible we first meet the Hittites at He-
bron, where they are recognized as the rightful
owners of the place. Four hundred years later
the spies found the sons of Anak in Hebron and
the Hittites dwelling in the mountains (Num.
xiii:29), whither they had doubtless been driven;
and in a parenthetical clause it is stated : "Now
Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in
Egypt" (Num. xiii:22). This isolated and inde-
pendent clause, which always seemed out of the
way, now comes into prominence and helps us to
knit together the scattered fragments of long lost
history. Zoan or Tanis was the capital of the
Hyksos, invaders and conquerors of Egypt.
According to Mariette one of the Hyksos dy-
nasties was Hittite; and it is proved by an in-
scription now in the Louvre, which records the
HITTITES
an
HITTITES
destruction of their palaces on the borders of
Egypt, that they had once been a settled people
in this region.
It would thus appear that, as the Hittites bore
down upon Egypt from the north, they occupied
the fertile plain of Mamre, and built Hebron
seven years before they had secured sufficient foot-
hold in Egypt to found their capital city of Zoan.
When David sent "Joab and the captains of the
host" to number the people (2 Sam. xxiv), it is
recorded that they came to Gilead, and to the land
of Tahtim-hodshi, and this is the Hittite Kadesh
on the Orentes, the southern capital of their em-
pire.
The description given in the Book of Joshua
(Josh. i:4), which was long thought to be exag-
gerated, may now be taken as strictly accurate.
In the war with Rameses II., Kheta-sira, the
king of the Hittites. had under his command the
Dardanians and the Trojans, and ten or more
other peoples, either as subjects or allies. It is
clear that a mighty host was brought into the field
by a voice of command that must be obeyed.
(3) Geographical Position of Hittite In-
scriptions. The existence of their inscriptions
and sculptures over a very large extent of coun-
try bears witness to the wide extent of their em-
pire.
All the inscribed stones in Hamath must have
been carved near where they were found, for all
but one (the fragment No. H. I.) were very large
and could not have been carried from a distance
unless at great cost. Even the fragment was large
enough to require a camel to carry it, and the
Hamathites had not regarded it as of any im-
portance until the attention of scholars gave them
an idea that it had a marketable value.
At Jerabis, the ancient Carchemish, on the
Euphrates, a number of these inscriptions have
been discovered, and the inscribed stones have
been obtained for the British Museum.
On the old road from Carchemish and Marash
Colonel C. W. Wilson discovered two Hittite in-
scriptions at Gurum, within the frontiers of Cap-
padocia. They have been found also far to the
north of this point, and in the northwest of Asia
Minor.
"That their empire extended," says Dr. Isaac
Taylor, "as far as the Euxine and the Mgean, is
shown by hieroglyphics and sculptures in the un-
mistakable style of Hittite art which are scattered
over Asia Minor, more especially in Lydia, Lyca-
onia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia. Scholars are only
just beginning to realize the vast extent of their
dominion and their important place in primitive
history. Until the rise of Assyria they were the
most powerful nation of northwestern Asia."
{The Alphabet, Dr. Isaac Taylor, vol. ii., p. 121.)
(4) Art and Literature. In the Egyptian in-
scription concerning the great battle the enemy is
called "the miserable king of the Hittites," be-
fore the battle contest, while afterward he is
called "the great king of the Hittites," show-
ing that he won a partial, if not a decided, victory
over the Egyptian forces. When the ambassadors
of Kheta-sira, "the great king of the Hittites,"
went down to Egypt to make a treaty with Ram-
eses II they carried with them a silver plate on
which the Hittite text of the treaty was engraved
in their own language and character. This text
has been lost, but a copy of it in hieroglyphics ap-
pears on the walls of the temples of Rameses.
This people was well acquainted with silver,
and attention has frequently been called to their
presence in the vicinity of silver mines. Their
bargain with the patriarch Abraham at Hebron
62
involved the earliest money transaction on record,
and the "shekel" referred to in the phrase "cur-
rent money with the merchant," was doubtless the
forerunner of the coin with which we are ac-
quainted. We find among them considerable
progress in commerce, law, and civil institu-
tions.
They use silver as the standard of valu^ bal-
ances for weighing it, and a regular recognized
form of sale and conveyance.
Professor Sayce says their art was a modifica-
tion of that of Babylon before the rise of the
Assyrian empire. This, somewhat modified by
Egypt, was borne by the Hittites throughout Asia
Minor. "The art and culture, the deities and
rites, which Lydia owed to Babylon, were brought
by the hands of the Hittites, and bore upon them
a Hittite stamp. This artistic culture and writings
were carried by them into Asia Minor, which they
overran and subdued." (Sayce, "Herodotus," pp.
426-432).
Their art was characterized by solidity and
roundness and work in relief. "The mural crown
was a Hittite invention; the animal forms in
which their artists especially excelled were fre-
quently combined to form composite creatures,
among which may be mentioned the double-headed
eagle, afterwards adopted by the Seljukian Sul-
tans. This Hittite art is the source of the pecu-
liar art of Asia Minor, which forms a well-marked
element in that of primitive Greece" (Idem. pp.
426-432).
In relation to the science of letters, scholars
have long been perplexed by a number of alpha-
bets which existed in different districts of Asia
Minor. They were neither Greek nor Phoenician,
but they seemed to come from the same source
as did the Greek.
Dr. Isaac Taylor recognizes five distinct alpha-
bets— the Lycian. the Carian, the Cappadocian,
the Phrygian and the Pamphylian. To these he
thinks may be added three more — the Lydian, the
Mysian and the Cilician. Inscriptions found by
Mr. Hamilton Lang, in Cyprus, supplied the key
to the mysterious alphabets of Asia Minor, and
they proved to be distantly related even to the
whorls discovered by Dr. Schliemann in the lower
stratum of Hissarlik.
This and other important discoveries carried
the question farther back towards the parent stem,
which seems to be recognized by the existence
throughout Asia Minor of numerous inscriptions
similar to those Hittite records which were found
in Hamah.
"These monuments," says Dr. Isaac Taylor,
"are those of a people who have been identified
with the Hittites of the Old Testament, the Kheta
of the Egyptian monuments, the Khattai of the
Assyrian records, and the Ketcioi of Homer. They
were one of the most powerful peoples of the
primeval world, their empire extending from the
frontier of Egypt to the shores of the /l^gean. and,
like the Babylonians and the Egyptians, they pos-
sessed a culture, an art and a script peculiar to
themselves (The Alphabet, ii. pp. 1 15-120).
We learn from the Egyptian records that the
Hittites were far in advance of their neighbors
in the arts of war as well as of peace. Indeed,
they were formidable in making war because they
excelled in peaceful pursuits.
(5) Beligion. This people, like the Canaanites.
imported theii gods and goddesses from Baby-
lonia. Wherever the Phoenicians steered their
ships and carried their arts and merchandise the
rites and worship of Baal and .'\starte (see Baal)
accompanied them. In like manner wherever the
Hittites extended their empire, there we find und«r
HITTITES
818
HITTITES
some form the goddess who was called Atargatis
(Ashtoreth or Ishtar) at Carchemish.
The Hittite goddess appears in connection with
Attys or Sutekh, accompanied by the horrible rites
with which Ishtar (see Ashtoreth) and Tammuz
(see Tammuz) had been honored in Babylon. In
the capital of the Hittites we see one of the numer-
ous shrines where Hittite girls were devoted to
wickedness in the name of religion. The wor-
ship of these deities took many repulsive forms.
Devotees surrendered their children to Baal in the
flames v.-hile the screams of the victims were
drowned by trumpet and drum.
(6) Nationality. Who were the Hittites ? To
what race or people did they belong?
Outside the Bible our two sources of informa-
tion on this subject are the Hittite names and
sculptures.
It is now pretty generally conceded that the
language of the Hittites was not Semitic ; that is,
it was not of the same family as the language
spoken in varying dialects by the Jews and other
Semitic people.
There are several eminent linguists who believe
that the Hittite language was Semitic, and there
should be no dogmatism where our certain knowl-
edge is so limited, but with the most careful bal-
ancing of the facts the weight of evidence seems
to be on the side of the non-Semitic character of
this peculiar tongue. This conclusion is supported
by the Hittite and also by the Egyptian sculp-
tures.
Captain Conder draws attention to the distinct
characteristics of the Hittites and their allies as
pictured on the temple at Ibsamboul : "In this
picture the Hittites and their allies are represented
as distinct races w-ith different kinds of weapons.
The one race is bearded, the other beardless, and
the Chinese-like appearance of the Hittites is very
remarkable" (Heth and Moab. p. 22). Thfs would
seem to point to a Tartar or Mongolian people.
Colonel Sir Charles Wilson, who has recently re-
turned from Asia Minor, says : "The sculptures
show that the Hittites did not belong to a Semitic
race. The features are rather those of a northern
people, and on the temple of Ibsamboul the Hit-
tites have a Scythic character, with shaven head
and a single lock of hair on the crown. Hence it
would appear from the testimony of the sculptures,
as well as of the proper names, that the Hittites
were non-Semitic.
(7) Hittites from a Biblical Standpoint.
Thus it has been seen that the Biblical state-
ments are fully confirmed by the cumulative evi-
dence of modern discovery.
We find this people among the settled inhab-
itants of Canaan while as yet Abraham was only
a wandering sheikh. They lived in and about
Hebron, and Abraham, when he abode in that
neighborhood, was treated by them with respect
and consideration (Gen. xxiii :3-7, 11, 12).
He obtains his first possession in Canaan by pur-
chasing a grave for Sarah of the sons of Hetfi
(Gen. xxiii). The story as told in Genesis is
true in all the formal details v/hich embellish the
framework of a shrewd Oriental bargain. "In
fact," says Dr. Thomson, "up to the present day,
in this very city of Hebron, a purchase thus wit-
nessed is legal, while the best drawn deeds of a
modern lawyer, though signed, sealed and attested,
would be of no avail without such living wit-
nesses" {The Land and the Book, p. 249).
In the Book of Exodus the Hittites had grown
in importance. The promised land is described
by an enumeration of the peoples who inhabit it,
and the Hitties, who are never absent from that
enumeration, occupy the place of distinction
(Exod. iii :8, 17; xiii:5; xxiii :23).
In the Egyptian hieroglyphics they occupy ex-
actly the same position which is assigned them in
the Book of Exodus. They are first in order and
first in importance among the peoples in the prom-
ised land. (See Rawlinson, History of Ancient
Egypt, vol. i., p. III.)
During the weary years spent in Egypt the
Israelites were often encouraged by the promise
that they should return to the land of the Hit-
tites. Later Jehovah not only promised to send
his angel to lead them there, but also declared he
would send before them hornets to drive out the
Hittites (Exod. xxiii :28). This promise seems
to have been largely fulfilled by the devastating
border wars between the Pharaohs and the people
of Southern Palestine, who were always the first
to feel the shock of Egyptian arms. We can
trace the march of Seti I on his first campaign,
from Khetam (the Etham of the Bible) past Re-
hoboth to the fortress of Kanaan, which he
stormed, and became the suhduer of the whole
Edomitish Negeb. On the northern side of the
great temple of Karnak this conquest is recorded
thus : "In the first year of King Seti there took
place, by the strong arm of Pharaoh, the annihila-
tion of the hostile Shasu, from the fortress of
Khetam of the land of Zaiu as far as Kanaan;
the king was against them like a fierce lion. They
were turned into a heap of corpses. They lay
there in blood." (Brugsch's Egypt Under the
Pharaohs, vol. ii., p. 14.)
In such fierce border encounters the hand of
Pharaoh would press heavily upon any Hittite
colonies which occupied advance positions. Hence
Joshua found the Anakim at Hebron, and the spies
found the Amalekites dwelling in the south and
the Hittites driven back to the mountains (Num.
xiii :29).
(8) Cities Identified. The remains of the
Hittite cities have been long buried ; but the ef-
forts of Mr. Skene and Mr. George Smith have
identified the two chief capitals of the south, Car-
chemish (to which reference has already been
made) and Kadesh; the formei on the Euphrates,
known as Jerablils, the latter on the Orontes (see
Carchemish; Kadesh). These two places were
'Holy Cities,' that is, under the protection of a
goddess and wholly devoted to her worship.
These 'Holy Cities' were a characteristic peculiar
to the Hittite people. Besides being devoted to
the goddess, they were places of 'refuge.' The
homicide could escape to them, and once within
the protection of its deity he was safe from his
pursuers and could not be injured or slain. The
debtor and political outcast were equally safe.
(9) Hebrew Cities of Refuge. Palestine also
contained "cities of refuge." These Hebrew cities
of refuge were six in number. One of them was
Hebron, once occupied by the Hittites and .-\mor-
ites. Another was Kedesh, of Galilee, the name
of which shows it to have been a 'holy city' like
Kadesh. Shechem, too, had been taken from the
Amorites by Jacob (Gen. xlviii :22), and the other
three cities were in the region long held by the
Amorites. These facts might raise the question,
as suggested by Mr. Sayce. in The Story of a
Forgotten Empire, whether these cities had not
already been places of refuge long before God
enjoined Moses to make them such for the Israel-
ites. (See Sayce. The Hittites, The Story of a
Forgotten Empire, 1888; The Mon. and the O. T.,
Ira M. Price.)
(10) Later Biblical Mention. During the
history of Israel from the time of Abraham to
HITTITES
819
HOBAB
the captivity, the Hittites are frequently referred
to by the sacred writers. Bath-sheba, the wife of
Uriah the Hitlile (2 Sam. xi:3, 6; i Kings ix:20),
was the mother of Solomon and a distant ances-
tress of Christ. In connection with the siege of
Samaria, as recorded in 2 Kings vii, we have an
important reference to this people. The Israel-
ites, under Jehoram, were hard pressed in their
capital by Benhadad of Damascus. Then, ac-
cording to Elisha's prophecy, deliverance came.
"For the Lord made the host of the Syrians to
hear the noise of chariots, and a noise of horses,
even the noise of a great host ; and they said one
to another, Lo the king of Israel hath hired
against us the kings of the Hittites and the kings
of the Egyptians to come upon us. Wherefore
they arose and fled in the twilight, and left their
tents, and their horses, even their camp as it was,
and fled for their life" (2 Kings vii :6, 7).
^ Usher places the siege of Samaria at about B.
C. 892, and Assyriologists agree in fixing the reign
of Assur-natsir-pal about H. C. 883-858.
(11) Other Records. Of this king, who added
new vigor to the wars against the people of
Northern Syria, there are ample records. He
levied tribute upon the conquered Hittites. "To
Carchcmish, in Syria, I directed my steps. The
tribute due from the son of Bahiani, swift char-
iots, horses, silver, tin, * * ♦ I received."
(Records of the Fast. iii7o).
He passed from Carchemish "to Hazazi, the
town of Lubarna of the Khatti," and levied
tribute.
From these inscriptions and several others it is
clear that at the time of the siege of Samaria the
Hittites were still a mighty people spread over the
north from Carchemish to Lebanon, and so in the
time of the siege of Samaria the Hittite chiefs
were distinguished among the nations for "their
swift chariots, their horses and their engines of
war."
The Hittites who appear for the first time in the
inscriptions of Sargon I, to whom Mr. Pinches of
the British Museum assigns the possible date
3800 B. C, do not disappear from history in the
inscriptions until the time of Sargon II, B C
717..
Lieutenant Conder says : "The veracity of the
Old Testament account of the Hittite princes con-
temporary with Solomon had been deemed as pre-
senting insuperable difficulties, but the indisputable
testimony of the granite records of Thothmcs and
Ramcses has left no doubt of the contemporary
rule of this powerful race in Northern Syria in
the times of the Hebrew Judges and kings" (see
Empire of the Hittites, by William Wright, D.D.,
F. R. G. S.. 1886. pp. 36-123; The Hittites, A. H.
Sayce. LL.D., 1888).
(12) A Summary of the names of the individ-
ual Hittites mentioned in the Bible as follows is:
Adah (woman), Gen. xxxvi :2.
Ahimelech, i Sam. xxvi :6.
Bashemath, accurately Ba.^'math (woman) ; pos-
sibly a second name of Adah. Gen. xxvi -.34.
Beeri (father of Judith, below). Gen. xxvi :34.
Elon (father of Basmath), Gen. xxvi :34.
Ephron. Gen. xxiii:io, 13, 14. etc.
Judith (woman), Gen. xxvi :34.
Uriah, 2 Sam. xi :3. etc.; xxiii:3g, etc.
Zohar (father of Ephron). Gen. xxiii :8.
They are all susceptible of interpretation as He-
brew words, which would lead to the belief cither
that the Hittites spoke a dialect of the Aramaic or
Hebrew language, or that the words were He-
braized in their transference to the Bible records.
In addition to the above, Sibbechai, who in the
Hebrew text is always denominated a Hushathite,
is by Josephus (Ant. vii:i2, sec. 2) styled a Hittite
(Smith. Wi'fc. Did.).
HIVITES (hi'vites), (Hebrew always in the form
'^'^P, hakh-iv-vee' , "the Hivite").
One of the nations of Canaan, which occu-
pied Palestine before the Israelites (Gen. x:i7; i
Chron. 1:15; Exod. iii :8, 17; xxiii 123 ; Josh, iii:
10). They occupied the northern and northeast-
ern part of the country. In Judg. iii .-3, it is stated
that 'the Hivites dwelt in mount Lebanon, from
mount Baal-hermon unto tiie entering in of Ham-
ath;' and in Josh, xi :3, the Hivites are described
as living 'under Hcrmon in the land of Mizpeh.'
The 'cities of the Hivites' are mentioned in 2 Sam.
xxiv 7, and, from being associated with Sidon and
Tyre, must have been in the northwest. A rem-
nant of the nation still existed in the time of Solo-
mon, who subjected them to a tribute of personal
labor, with the remnants of other Canaanilish na-
tions which the Israelites had been unable to ex-
pel (l Kings ix:20). A colony of this tribe was
also found in Northern Palestine, occupying the
towns of Gideon, Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kir-
jath-jearim; and these obtained from Joshua a
treaty of peace by stratagem (Josh. ix:3-i7; xi :
I he Hivite form of government is not described,
but the mention of "our elders and all the in-
habitants of our country" (Josh. ix:tl) certainly
indicates one in which the people had consider-
able voice, since the sending of an embassy of
unconditional peace is one of the highest acts of
sovereignty. So Hamor and Shechem "com-
muned with the men of their city" (Gen. xxxiv ;
20-24), and reasoned, but did not attempt to com-
mand.
The scarcity of Hivite names prevents our judg-
ing of their language; but it was in all probability
like that of the other Canaanite tribes, quite near
the Hebrew. It is not probable that they were
the same with the Kad.monites (which see), since
these, as their name implies, are more likely to
have been "children of the East," Bene-kedem;
nor with the Avim. since these had been destroyed
by the Caphtorim (Rev. W. Haskell, Barnes' Bih.
Diet.)
HIZKIAH (hizki'ah), (Heb. i^;~I'?, Uiz-iee-
yaw', strengthened of Jah), an ancestor of Zeph-
aniah the prophet (Zeph. i;i), B. C. before 630.
HIZKIJAH (hiz-ki'jah), (Heb. same as above).
According to the punctuation of the A. V. a
man who sijaled the covenant of reformation with
Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. x:i7). But there is
no doubt that the name should be taken with that
preceding it, as "Ater-Hizkijah," a name given in
the lists of those who returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Smith, Bib. Diet.). (See Heze-
KIAH.)
HOAB (Heb. '"?"?, say-baw', i Kings ii:6;
"hoary," Job xli:32; Prov. xvi:3i), said of hair, gray.
"As hoor as an hawethorn." Piers Ploughman.
HOARFROST (hor'frSst), (Heb.
kef-ore'.
Ex(]d. xvi:i4; I's. cx!vii:i6; Job xxxviii:29,"hoary.")
(See Frost.)
HOARY (Heb. ^"^, kef-ore'. Job xxxviii:29),
white frost, as covering the ground.
HOBAB (ho'bab), (Heb. ^5", kho-bawf , be-
loved).
A kinsman of Moses and priest or prince of
Midian, a tract of country in Arabia Petrsea, on
the eastern border of the Red Sea, at no great dis-
tance from Mount Sinai. The family of this indi-
HOBAB
820
HOGLAH
vidua! seems to have observed the worship of the
true God in common with the Hebrews (Exod.
xviii :ii, 12).
Considerable difficulty has been felt in determin-
ing who this person was, as well as his exact rela-
tion to Moses; for the word which, in Exod. iii:
I ; Num. x:29; Judg. iv:ii, is translated father-in-
law, and in Gen. xix:l4, son-in-law, is a term of
indeterminate signification, denoting simply re-
lationship by marriage; and besides, the transac-
tion which in one place (Exod. xviii :27) is related
of Jethro, is in another related of Hobab. (B. C.
1657.) The probability is, that as forty years had
elapsed since Moses' connection with this family
was formed, his father-in-law (Exod. ii:i8) Reuel
or Raguel (the same word in the original is used
in both places) was dead, or confined to his tent
by the infirmities of age, and that the person who
visited Moses at the foot of Sinai was his brother-
in-law, called Hobab in Num. ■x.-.zg, Judg. iv:ii;
Jethro in Exod. iii:i ; and "-'p in Judg. i:i6,
which, in chap. iv:ii, is rendered improperly 'the
Kenite.'
About a year after the Exodus he paid a visit
to Moses, while the Hebrew camp was lying in
the environs of Sinai, bringing with him Zipporah,
Moses' wife, who, together with her two sons, had
been left with her family while her husband was
absent on his embassy to Pharaoh. The interview
was on both sides affectionate, and was celebrated
first by the solemn rites of religion, and after-
wards by festivities, of which Aaron and the elders
of Israel were invited to partake. On the follow-
ing day, observing Moses incessantly occupied in
deciding causes that were submitted to him for
judgment, his experienced kinsman remonstrated
with him on the speedy e.xhaustion which a per-
severance in such arduous labors would superin-
duce; and in order to relieve himself, as well as
secure a due attention to every case, he urged
Moses to appoint a number of subordinate officers
to divide with him the duty of the judicial tribun-
als, with power to decide in all common affairs,
while the weightier and more serious matters were
reserved to himself. This wise suggestion the
Hebrew legislator adopted (Exod. xviii).
When the Hebrews were preparing to decamp
from Sinai, the kinsman of Moses announced his
intention to return to his own territory; but if
he did carry that purpose into execution, it was
in opposition to the urgent solicitations of the
Jewish leader, who entreated him, for his own ad-
vantage, to cast in his lot with the people of God ;
at all events to continue with them, and afford
them the benefit of his thorough acquaintance with
the wilderness. 'Leave us not, I pray thee,' said
Moses, 'forasmuch as thou knowest how we are to
encamp in the wilderness, and thou mayest be to
us instead of eyes;' which the Septuagint has
rendered Kal f<rri iv r\)xiv ■trpiij^<rri\^, — 'and thou
shalt be an elder amongst us.' But there can be
little doubt that the true meaning is that Hobab
might perform the office of a hybeer or guide.
(See Caravan.)
That Jethro and Reuel (Raguel) were names of
the same person seems evident from Exod. ii:i8.
21 ; iii:i. Hobab would, therefore, be the brother-
in-law of Moses. When Jethro returned to his
home (Exod. xviii :27) Moses prevailed upon
Hobab to remain (as seems implied by the absence
of any refusal to his second importunity in Nurn.
x:32) and act as guide through the desert; his
influence as an Arab chief, his knowledge of the
routes, the situation of the wells, the places for
fuel, the prognostics of the weather, and the most
eligible stations for encamping, rendering him pe-
culiarly qualified to act in that important capacity.
It is true that God was their leader, by the pillar
of cloud by day and of fire by night, the advance-
ment or the halting of which regulated their jour-
neys and fixed their encampments. But beyond
these general directions the tokens of their heaven-
ly guide did not extend. And as smaller partie.s
were frequently sallying forth from the main body
in quest of forage and other necessaries, which
human observation or enterprise were sufficient to
provide, so Moses discovered his wisdom and
good sense in enlisting the aid of a native sheik,
who. from his family connection with himself, his
powerful influence, and his long experience, prom-
ised to render the Israelites most important serv-
ices.
HOBAH (h5'bah), (Heb. "?'", kho-baw\ hid-
ing place), (Gen. xiv;i5), is probably some hollow,
between mountains, which effectually secludes
those who occupy it.
It lay north of Damascus, and was the place
to which Abraham pursued the kings who had
plundered Sodom. Perhaps it was the modern
Jobar.
HOD (hod), (Heb. Tin, hode, majesty; splendor;
ornament), son of Zophar, descendant 01 Asher,
(I Chron. vii:37), B. C. before 1017.
HODAIAH (hod'a-i'ah), (Heb. '"""1''^, ho-dah-
■ veh-vaiv' hoo, majesty of Jab), son of Elioenai in
the royal line of Judah (1 Chron. iii;24), B.C. about
406.
HODAVIAH (hod'a-vi'ah), (Heb. "'P''"", ho-
dav-yaw' , praise of Jehovah).
!• A head of the half-tribe of Manasseh, east of
the Jordan (I Chron. v:24), B. C. about 720.
2. A Levite who gave his name to a large family
(Ezra ii:40), B. C. 536. (See Lord Hervey,
Genealogies, p. 119.)
3. Son of Hath-sennah, a Benjamite (i Chron.
ix:7), B. C. before 588.
HODESH (ho'desh), (Heb. '^"}", kho'desh, a
month, new moon or time of the new moon), one
of the wives of Shaharaim, in the genealogies of
Benjamin (i Chron. viiiig). Hodesh may have
been a second name of one of the wives (ver. 8).
HODEVAH (ho-de'vah), (Heb. '"'IT'"', ho-dev-
aw' , brightness; ornament of Jehovah), a Levite
family which returned with Zerubbabel from cap-
tivity (Neb. vii:43). In parallel lists the name is
HoDAviAH, 3; and Judah (Ezra iii:9).
HODIAH (ho-di'ah), (Heb. '^™-"^, ho-dee-yaw' ,
splendor of Jehovah), wife of Ezra, of Judah, and
mother of the founders of Keilah and Eshtemoa,
(l Chron. ivag).
The name is the same as Jehudijah of verse 18
except for the article which the A. V. disre-
gards.
HODIJAH (ho-di'jah), (Heb. •^t"^"'"', ho-dee-yaw',
majesty of Jehovah).
1. The name of two Levites in the time of Ezra
and Nehemiah. The first is mentioned in Neh.
viii:7. and probably ix:5; x:io; the other in Neh.
X :i3 (B. C. about 410).
2. One of the heads of the people in the time of
Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. x: 18). B. C. about
410.
HOG (hog). See Boar; Swine.
HOGIiAH (hog'lah), (Heb. ' V^?, khog-law' , per-
haps partridge), third of the four daughters of
Zelopnehad, for whom the law of inheritance was
so altered that a daughter could inherit her father's
property if he had no son (Num. xxvi:33; xxviirl.
HOHAM
821
HOLY GHOST
xxxvi:ii ; Joshua xvii:3K (Sec Gilead and
Bashan).
HOHAM (ho'ham). (Heb. CHin^ ho-hawm\
whom Jehovah incites), king of Hebron, one of
the five who besieged Gibeon, with Adoni-zcdek,
and were hanged by Joshua's orders (Josh. x:3).
about B. C. 1612.
HOISE (hoiz), (Gr. iwatpu, ep-ahee'ro. Acts
xxvii:4o), to lioist up.
HOLD (hold), (Heb. '''^"''^t, mets-oo-daw' , fort-
ress, as often rendered), the term especially ap-
plied to the lurking places of David (I Sam. xxii:
4, 5; xxiv:22, etc.)
HOLINESS (ho-Ii-nes), (Heb. S^'Tlp, ko'desh\Qx.
oYiwiTuiT), hag-ee-0-soo' nay\ in both cases "separa-
Jon," or "seuing apart," holy, from Saxon "halig,"
"whole," "sound").
(1) Holiness of God. By this is meant the
purity and rectitude of his nature. It is an essen-
tial attribute of God, and what is the glory, luster,
and harmony of all his other perfections ( Ps.
xxvii:4; Exod. xv:ii). He could not be God
wi'hout it (Deut. xxxii:4). It is infinite and 10;-
boundcd; it cannot be increased or diminished.
Immutable and invariable (Mai. iii:6). God is
originally holy ; he is so of and in himself, and
the author and promoter of all holiness among
his creatures. The holiness of God is visible by
his works; he made all things holy (Gen. i:3iV
By his providences, all which are to promote holi-
ness in the end (Heb. xiiiio). By his grace,
which influences the subjects of it to be holy
(Tit. ii:io, 12). By his 'word, which commands
it (l Pet. i:i5). By his ordinances, which he
has appointed for that end (Jer. xliv:4, 5).
"In the absolute sense God alone is holy, and
His holiness is the ground of the requirement of
holiness in His creatures (i Pet. i:i6). Holiness
is the attribute of God, according to which He
wills and does only that which is morally good.
In other words, it is the perfect harmony of His
will with His perfect ethical nature. But the
divine holiness is not to be thought of as a mere
passive quiescent state. It is an active impulse,
a forthgoing energy. In God's holiness, that is, in
the expression of His perfect ethical nature. His
self-revelation is grounded. Nay, creation itself,
as well as redemption, would be inconceivable
apart from the divine holiness, the energizing of
God's absolutely good will.
"By some theologians holiness and love are iden-
tified, more commonly they are sharply distin-
guished— holiness being regarded as the self-pre-
servative or retributive attribute of God and love
as His beneficent self-imparting attribute." (See
article on God.) (G. B. Stevens, Hastings' Bib.
Diet.)
(3) Holiness in Man is freedom from sin, or
the conformity of the heart to God. It does not
consist in knowledge, talents, nor outward cere-
monies of religion, but hath its seat in the heart,
and is the effect of a principle of grace implanted
by the Holy Spirit (Eph. ii :8, 10; John iiiiv;
Rom. vi:22). It is the essence of happiness and
the basis of true dignity (Prov. iii:i7; )v:8). It
will manifest itself by the propriety of our con-
versation, regularity of our temper, and uniform-
ity of our lives. It is a principle which may be
instantaneous in its reception, although progres-
sive in its operation (Prov. iv:i8), and abso-
lutely essential to the enjoyment of God here and
hereafter (Heb. xii:T4). (See SANCTiFirATiON. )
(3) Holy Place, Things, etc. The Scriptures
also ascribe holiness to places (e. g., the Temple,
and the "most holy place therein"). Abo to
things, as the altars and other accessories of wor-
ship. By holiness in such instances is meant "sep-
aration" or dedication to holy uses, and of course
there is implied no moral quality or inherent sanc-
tity in the objects themselves. They were to be
treated with reverence, as should churches and
accessories of worship in these days, because of
the holiness of God. to whose service they are
dedicated. (Dr. E. McChesney, Barnes* Brd. Diet.)
HOLON (ho'lon), (Heb. 'frh or '^>T\, kho-lone' ,
sandy).
1. A town in the mountains of Judah (Josh.
xv:5i) given to the priests (xxiiij). Location
is unknown.
2. A city in the plain of Moab upon which
judgment was pronounced by Jeremiah (xlviii:
21). Not identified. alt'-"ugh named in connec-
tion with Jahazah, Dibon, and other known places.
HOLFEN (hol'p'n), (Heb. ^T'l, zer-o-aw' , Ps.
lxxxiii:8), helped; Anglo-Saxon helpan.
HOLYDAY (ho'iy da).
1. The rendering of the Heb. ^5^, k haw-gag" ,
to dance, a festival celebrated by sacred dances
(Exod.xxxv;2 , and so a public solemnity I i's. xlii:4).
2. In Col. ii:i6 "holyday" is the rendering of
the Gr. heh-or-tay' (iopri)), a feast, and often so
translated.
HOLY GHOST (holy gost), the third person in
the trinity.
/. Scriptural Vesignations (Yiehy''^'^, ~'"l.
roo'akh el-o-hee7ii' , spirit of God; or -^i^' C^l, roo'-
akh yeh-ho-vaw' , spirit of Jehovah; Gr.ri irwi/^o t4
47(01/, tdpjtyoo' inah to hag'ee-on, "the Holy Ghost,"
or the "Holy Spirit").
(i) Frequently the term is simply "the Spirit,"
or "the Spirit of the Lord," or "the Spirit of
God," or "the Spirit, of Jesus Christ" (Matt iii:
16; Luke iii 122; iv:i8; Acts v:9; Phil. i:i9). (2)
He is called "seven Spirits," because of His per-
fect and diversified fullness of gifts, graces, and
operations (Rev. i:4). (3) He is called the
"Spirit of God;" His nature is Divine, and He is
sent by (jod to perform His economic operations
(2 Chron. xv:l). U) He is the"Spirit of Christ,"
as He proceeds from Him as the Son of God,
qualifies Him, and rests on Him as Mediator, and
is sent by Him to execute the application of our
redemption (Rom. viii :oV
2. Theological Statements.
(1) Procession from the Father and Son.
(a) The orthodox doctrine is. that as Christ is
God by an eternal filiation, so the Spirit is God
by procession from the Father and the Son. ".\nd
I believe in the Holy Ghost." says the Nicene
Creed, "the Lord and Giver of life, who procced-
cth from the Father and the Son, who. with the
Father and the Son together, is worshiped and
glorified." And with this agrees the Athanasian
Creed, "The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of
the Son, neither made, nor created, nor begotten,
but proceeding." In the articles of the English
Church it is thus expressed: "The Holy Ghost.
proceeding from the Father and the Son. is of one
substance, majesty and glory with the Father
,nnd the Son, very and eternal God." The L,atin
Church introduced the term spiration. from spiro,
"to breathe," to denote the manner of this pro-
cession : on which Dr. Owen remarks : ".\s the
vital breath of a man has a continual emanation
from him, and yet is never separated utterly from
HOLY GHOST
822
HOMEBORN
hLs person, or forsaketh him, so doth the Spirit
of the Father and the Son proceed from them by
a continual divine emanation, still abiding one
with them." On this refined view little can be
said which has clear scriptural authority ; and
yet the very term by which the third Person in
the Trinity is designated, Wind or Breath, may,
as to the third Person, be designed, like the term
Son applied to the second, to convey, though im-
perfectly, some intimation of that manner of be-
ing by which both are distinguished from each
other, and from the Father ; and it was a remark-
able action of our Lord, and one certainly which
does not discountenance this idea, that when he
imparted the Holy Ghost to his disciples, "He
breathed on them, and saith unto them, Receive
ye the Holv Ghost" (John xx:22). (b) The direct
scriptural doctrine rests on such passages as John
XV ■.26: Matt. x:2o; i Cor. ii:n, 12; John xiv:
26, etc.
(2) Personality and Deity, (a) In establish-
ing the proper personality and deity of the Holy
Ghost, the first argument may be drawn from the
frequent association, in Scripture, of a Person
under that appellation with two other Persons,
one of whom, the Father, is by all acknowledged
to be Divine ; and the ascription to each of them,
or to the three in union, of the same acts, titles,
and authority, with worship, of the same kind,
and, for any distinction that is made, of an equal
degree, (b) The manifestation of the existence
and divinity of the Holy Spirit may be expected
in the law and the prophets, and is, in fact, to be
traced there with certainty. The Spirit is repre-
sented as an agent in creation, "moving upon the
face of the waters," and it forms no objection to
the argument, that creation is ascribed to the
Father, and also to the Son, but is a great con-
firmation of it. That creation should be effected
by all the three Persons of the Godhead, though
acting in different respects, yet so that each
should be a Creator, and, therefore, both a Person
and a Divine Person, can be explained only by
their unity in one essence. On every other hy-
pothesis this scriptural fact is disallowed, and
therefore no other hypothesis can be true, (c)
If the Spirit of God be a mere influence, then he
is not a Creator, distinct from the Father and
the Son, because he is not a Person ; but this is
refuted both by the passage just quoted, and by
Ps. xxxiii:6: "By the word of the Lord were the
heavens made ; and all the host of them by the
breath (Heb. Spirit) of his mouth." This is fur-
ther confirmed by Job xxxiii:4: "The Spirit of
God hath made me, and the breath of the Al-
mighty hath given me life :" where the second
clause is obviously exegetic of the former; and
the whole text proves that, in the patriarchal age,
the followers of the true religion ascribed crea-
tion to the Spirit, as well as to the Father; and
that one of his appellations was, "the Breath
of the Almighty." Did such passages stand alone.
there might, indeed, be some plausibility in the
criticism which resolves them into a personifica-
tion ; but, connected as they are with the whole
body of evidence, as to the concurring doctrine
of both Testaments, they are inexpugnable, (d)
Again: If the personality of the Son and the
Spirit be allowed, and yet it is contended that
they were but instruments in creation, through
whom the creative power of another operated,
but which creative power was not possessed by
them — on this hypothesis, too, neither the Spirit
nor the Son can he said to create, any more than
Moses created the serpent into which his rod was
turned, and the Scriptures are again contradicted.
(e) To this association of the three Persons in
creative acts, may be added a like association in
acts of preservation, which has been well called
a continued creation, and by that term is ex-
pressed in the following passage : "These wait
all upon thee, that thou mayest give them their
meat in due season. Thou "hidest thy face, they
are troubled : thou takest away their breath, they
die, and return to dust : thou sendest forth thy
Spirit, they are created ; and thou renewest the
face of the earth" (Ps. civ:27-3o). It is not
surely here meant that the Spirit by which the
generations of animals are perpetuated is wind;
and if he be called an attribute, wisdom, power,
or both united, where do we read of such attri-
butes being "sent," "sent forth from God ?"
(3) Office and Work, (i) He is the "Spirit of
promise," because promised to men, and he ap-
plies the promises of the new covenant to our
heart (Eph. 1:13). (2) He is the "Spirit of
truth;" he is the "true God," and teacheth noth-
ing but truth (John xiviiy). (3) He is a "holy,
good, and free Spirit ;" being holy and good in
himself, he works holiness and goodness in us,
of his own sovereign will, and renders us of a
noble and benevolent temper (Ps. li:io, 11 ; cxliii:
10). (4) He is a "Spirit of judgment," counsel,
wisdom, and understanding; being infinite in
knowledge and wisdom himself, he qualified
Christ's manhood, and qualifies his people with
wisdom and understanding (Is. xxviii:i6; xi:2;
Eph. i:i7). (s) He is a "Spirit of bondage and
fear," when, by the application of the broken law
to men's conscience, he fills their mind with great
pressure and fear (Rom. viii:i5). (6) He is the
"Spirit of adoption," that brings us into the fam-
ily of God, dwells in every one of God's children,
and renders them conform to his image (Rom.
viiiiis). (7) He is the "Spirit of Life in Christ
Jesus," as, by uniting men to Christ, he bestows
life on them, and by maintaining their fellowship
with Christ, he restores, increases, and perfects
their spiritual life (Rom. viii:2). (8) He is the
"Spirit of Power," and "of faith," and "of love,"
and "of a sound mind," and "of supplication;" by
his almighty power he works faith, love, and
sound wisdom in the heart, and he directs and
enables to pray and to wait for the answer there-
of (Zech. xii:io; Rom. viii:27; 2 Cor. iv:i3; 2
Tim. i:7). And the "love of the Spirit." is love
of him, or gracious love produced by him (Rom.
xv:3o). (9) He is the "Spirit of grace" and
"of glory;" as, from the fullness of Christ he con-
veys to the saints their gracious endowments and
glorious happiness (Heb. x:29; i Pet. iv:i4).
(10) He is the "Spirit of the living creatures,"
which is in the wheels, as he actuates angels and
ministers, and the church, and the world man-
aged by them (Ezek. i:2o). (JValson; Brown;
Buck; Hastings.)
HOLY GHOST, SIN AGAINST THE. See
Sin, 3.
HOLY OF HOLIES. See Tabernacle;
Temple.
HOLY PLACE. See Tabernacle; Temple.
H0L"5P SPIRIT. See Holy Ghost; Para-
clete.
HOIiIAM (ho'mam), (Heb. ^?^'^, ho-}nawm\
destruction), the name of an Edomite (i Chron.
i:3ol. In Gen. xxxvi:22 it is given Hemam, incor-
rectly, Geseuius thinks {Theo. p. 385, a).
HOME. See Family; Household.
HOMEBORN. See Service.
HOMER
823
HONEY
HOB[£B (ho'mer), (Heb. ""?n, kho'mer, a heap).
A measure for dry substances and liquids. It
contained ten baths or ephahs (Ezck. xlv:ii, 14),
and one hundred omers (Exod. xvi:36). It
held about thirty-six pecks, U. S. measure. (See
Ephah ; Weights .and Measures.)
HONEST, HONESTY (6n'esty), (Gr. kcXU,
kal-os' , excellent), "Honest" is generally rendered
in the R. V. "honorable" and "seemly." Sem-not'-
ace (Gr. <tiiivlyr-i\%) has the meaning of gravity ; prob-
ity ; purity (I I'et. ii:i2; I Tim. ii:2).
These words have greatly deteriorated in the
three centuries that lie between us and the issue of
A. V. What they mean now we know ; then they
meant something nearly approaching the meaning
of the Latin words from which they come. Hon-
estus from honos, 'honor,' had two meanings
in Latin: (i) "Regarded with honor,' 'honor-
able.' (2) "Bringing honor,' "becoming,' and
those are just the meanings of "honest' as it is
used in A. V. The word had at the time a special,
one might almost say technical, meaning when
used of woineti ; it meant 'chafte.' Thus in his
chapter in The Profane State (v. I, p. .35c) on
'The Harlot,' T. Fuller speaks of her crisping and
curling and the like, and then adds. "I must con-
fesse some honest wimen may go thus, but no
whit the honester for going thus.' (Hastings'
Bib. Diet.)
HONEY (hiin'y). In the Scripture there are
three words denoting different sweet substances,
all of which are rendered by 'honey' in the Author-
ized Version. These it is necessary to distinguish.
1. ^^-> yah'ar, which only occurs in 1 Sam.
xiv:2S, 27, 29; Cant. v:i; and denotes the honey
of bees and that only.
Z. ^■', no'feili, honey that drops, usually as-
sociated with the comb, and therefore bee-honey.
This occurs in Ps. xix:io; Prov. v:3; xxiv:i3;
xxvii:7; Cant. iv:il.
3. *^5')i deb-esh'. This is the most frequent
word. It sometimes denotes bee-honey, as in
Judg. xiv :8, but more commonly a vegetable
honey distilled from trees, and called manna by
chemists; also the syrup of dates, and even dates
themselves. It appears also bometimes to stand
as a general term for all kinds of honey.
It is very evident that the land of Canaan
abounded in honey. It is indeed described as
'a land flowing with milk and honey' (Exod. iii :
8, etc.) ; which we apprehend to refer to all the
sweet substances which the different Hebrew
words indicate, as the phrase seems too large to
be confined to the honey of bees alone. Yet the
great number of bees in Palestine has been noticed
by many travelers ; and they were doubtless still
more common in ancient times when the soil was
under more general cultivation.
The wild honey, which, with locusts, formed
the diet of John the Baptist, was probably the
vegetable honey. (See M.\nn.\.)
Honey was not permitted to l>e offered on the
altar (Lev. ii:ii). .^s it is coupled with leaven
in this prohibition, it would seem to amount to
an interdiction of things sour and sweet. Aben
Ezra and others allege that it was because honey
partook of the fermenting nature of leaven, and
when burnt yielded an unpleasant smell — quali-
ties incompatible with offerings made by fire of
a sweet savor unto the Lord. But Mnimonides
and others think it was for the purpose of making
a difference between the religious customs of the
Jews and the heathen, in whose offerings honey
was much employed. The first-fruits of honev
were, however, to be presented, as these were des-
tined for the support of the priests, and not to be
offered upon the altar.
The remarkable incident related in i Sam. xiv:
24-32, requires to be here noticed. Jonathan and
his party coming to the wood, find honey drop-
ping from the trees to the ground, and the prmce
extends his rod to the honeycomb to taste the
honey. On this the present writer is unable to
add anything to what is said by Kitto (FiV-
torial Bible, in loc), which is to the following
effect : First, we are told that the honey was
on the ground, then that it dropped, and lastly,
that Jonathan put his rod into the honeycomb.
From all this it is clear that the honey was bee-
honey, and that honeycombs were above in the
trees; from which honey dropped upon the
ground ; but it was not clear whether Jonathan
put his rod into a honeycomb that was in the
trees or shrubs, or into one that had fallen to
the ground, or that had been formed there.
Where wild bees are abundant they form their
combs in any convenient place that off'er.s, par-
ticularly in cavities or even on the branches of
trees : nor are they so nice as is commonly sup-
posed in the choice of situations. In India par-
ticularly, and in the Indian islands, the forests
often swarm with bees.
We have good reason to conclude, from many
allusions in Scripfjre, that this was also, to a con-
siderable extent, the case formerly in Palestine.
The woods on the western coast of Africa,
between Cape Blanco and Sierra Leone, and par-
ticularly near the Gambia, are full of bees, to
which the negroes formerly, if they do not now,
paid considerable attention for the sake of the
wax. They had bee-hives, like baskets, made
of reeds and sedge, and hung on the out-boughs
of the trees, which the bees easily appropriated
for the purpose of forming their combs in them.
In some parts these hives were so thickly placed
that at a distance they looked like fruit. As to
the other supposition, that the honeycomb had
been formed on the ground, we think the context
rather bears against it ; but the circumstance is
not in itself unlikely, or incompatible with the
habits of wild bees. For want of a better resource
they sometimes form their honey in any tolerably
convenient spot they can find in the ground, such
as small hollows or even holes formed by ani-
mals.*
Figurative, (i) Whatever is sweet, delight-
ful, and healing is likened to "honey:" as the
word of God (Ps. xix:io; cxix:i03); the pray-
ers, praises, and edifying talk of the saints —
Christ's gospel truths, and his people's graces, and
the knowledge of wisdom (Prov. xxiv :13). (2)
•Editor's Note: — A distinction should l>e made, however,
between different sorts of bees called wild. The tnie A/^is
fiiciti/u-a, the kind whose culture in Italy is described b/
VerRiliu the third book of the Orcr^ics, and which has been
appropriated by mankind from time immemorial, generally
sends forth a swarm from each hive at least once a year.
The bee-keeper, if on his guard, captures this swarm' and
gives it a hive. But swarms escape from man, and following
their nature make their homes in hollow trees, in clefts in
rocks, in under-roof spaces in houses, in short, in any place
that is hive-like to which they may first come. These, al-
though called wild, are identical in habit with their kindred
under human care. They nrz'er occupy holes in the ground.
On the other hand, the various species of Bomhus, famil-
iarly known as the humble-bee or bumble-bee, make their
nests on the ground, in clumps of weeds, in wood-piles, or
under the surface of the ground. They never make very
large communities, nor accumulate great stores of honey.
Their cells are large, as is the bee, but few in number, since
they lay up nothing for winter. Only the mother-bees of the
Bomhus hibernate, the males and workers all perishing: but
of the .4//^, the mother-bee or queen (Vergil called her the
king) and many workers survive: hence their habit of storiajf
honey in numerous combs for winter use. S. W-
HONORABLE
824
HOPHNl AND PHINEHAS
The lips of harlots drop as a "honeycomb," and
their mouth is smoother than oil ; their speech
is soft, flattering, and enticmg (Prov. v:.?). (3)
The full soul loatheth the"/ioiirjfOHi6;" but to the
hungry even bitter things are pleasant ; persons
full of goodness in their own conceit, or full of
worldly cares, loathe the sweetest promises and
blessings of God; but such as are sensible of their
wants and unworthiness are glad to obtain the
very least of God's mercies (Prov. xxvii 17) .
HONOBABLE (6n'er-a-b'l), (Gr. erriMoi, en'iee-
mos, Luke xiv:8), having rank in society.
HOOD (hood), (Heb. "T^?, tsaw-neef , Is. iii:23).
See Headdress.
HOOF (hoof), (Heb. "51?, par-saw', to split;
divide), the cleft foot of neat cattle (Exod. x:26;
Lev. xi:3, etc.), and also of the horse, though not
cloven (Is. v:28; Jer. xlvii;3). The parting of the
hoof is one of the main distinctions between clean
and unclean animals.
HOOK, HOOKS (hoSks).
1. Khawkh (Heb. ^^, literally, thorn), a ring,
such as we place in the nose of a bull to lead
him about (2 Kings xix:28; Is. xxxvii:29).
2. A peg, or pin, upon which the curtains were
hung in the tabernacle (See Tabernacle).
3. A vine dresser's pruning hook (Is. ii:4;
xviii :5 ; Mic. iv :3 ; Joel iii:io).
The passages in Exod. xxvi :2,2, j^y ; xxxviii :
19, 'hooks,' the Sept. and Jerome seem to liave
understood to mean the capitals of the pillars;
and it has been urged that this is more likely to be
the meaning than hooks, especially as 1775 shekels
of silver were used in making these capitals, for
the pillars, overlaying the chapiters, and filleting
them (ch. xxxviii :28) ; and that the hooks are
really the taches ot Exod. xxvi :6, 11, 33, 35;
xxxix:33; (comp. Exod. xxvii : 10, 11; xxxviii ;i7,
19) ; from a comparison of these two latter pas-
sages it would seem that these hooks, or rather
tenters, rose out of the chapiters or heads of the
pillars.
In the allusions in Exod. xxvii :3 ; i Sam. ii :
13, 14, and elsewhere, we have evidently in the
first passage, a trident 'of three teeth.' a kind
of fork, etc., for turning the sacrifices on the
fire, and for collecting fragments, etc.
In Ezek. xl:43, we have 'hooks,' which Ge-
senius explains as meaning broad hooks or large
pegs in the courts of the Temple, where the
sacrificial victims were fastened to be flayed ; our
translators give in the margin 'end-irons, or the
two hearthstones.'
Dr. Lightfoot, in his chapter on 'The Altar, the
Rings, and the Laver,' observes: 'On the north side
of the altar were six orders of rings, each of
which contained six, at which they killed the
sacrifices. Near by were low pillars set up, upon
which were laid overthwart beams of cedar ; on
these were fastened rows of hooks, on which
the sacrifices were hung; and they were flayed
on marble tables, which were between these pil-
lars' (Sec verses 41, 42; Works, vol. 11, ch. xxxiv,
Lond. 1684-5-6). J. F. D.
Figurative. The passage in 2 Kings xix:28
reads ; 'I will put my hook in thy nose.' Sept.
6^<Tu ra avKiffTpl ^wv iv toU fivKT7ip(TL irov ; Vulg.
ctrcu/um in naribus tuis. In the parallel passage
(Is. xxxvii :29) the Sept. reads. 'I will put my
muazle, halter, or noose.' etc. Jelwvah here inti-
mates his absolute control over Sennacherib, bv an
allusion to the practice of leading buffaloes, cam-
els, dromedaries, etc., by mean? of a cord, or of a
cord attached to a ring, passed through the nos-
trils (Shaw's Travels, pp. 167, 168, 2d ed.) ; Job
xli:i, 2, 'Canst thou draw out Leviathan with
a hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou
lettest down. Canst thou place a reed-cord (ag-
mon) in his nose, or bore throug'h his cheek with
a thorn? (clasp, or possibly bracelet, etc.) In
Ezek. xxix :4, the statement is made, 'I will put
my hooks on thy jaws,' etc., and 'I will cause
thee to come up out of the midst of thy rivers.'
Here the prophet foretells the destruction of Pha-
raoh king of Egypt, by allusions to the destruction,
possibly, of a crocodile, the symbol of Egypt. (See
Leviathan.)
HOPE, the rendering of several Hebrew and
Greek words— among these are:
1. Beh'takh (Heb. "t?, safety) means both
the fact, security, and the feeling, trust (Ps. xvi :
9; xxii :9, etc.).
2. Keh' sel (Heb. '''t;?, fatness), confidence
sometimes unwisely entertained (Job viii:i4;
xxxi :24, etc.), but not always (Ps. lxxviii:7).
3. Mih-tau'kK (Heb. I^VP^^, refuge), firm
and certain hope (Prov. xxii:ig, A. V. "trust") ;
sometimes figuratively of a person or thing in
which confidence is placed (Job viii;i4, A. V.
"trust;" Ps. xlii:s; Ixxi :s, etc.).
4. El-pece' ( Gr. eXTr/s) denotes favorable ex-
pectation in the New Testament.
5. In general hope may be defined as the desire
of some good, attended with the possibility, at
least, of obtaining it; and is enlivened with joy.
greater or less, according to the probability there
is of possessing the object of our hope. Scarce
any passion seems to be more natural to man than
hope, and, considering the many troubles he is
encompassed with, none is more necessary ; for
life, void of all hope, would be a heavy and spirit-
less thing, very little desirable, perhaps hardly to
be borne; whereas hope infuses strength into the
mind, and. by so doing, lessens the burdens of
life. If our condition be not the best in the world,
yet we hope it will be better, and this helps us to
support it with patience. The hope of the Chris-
tian is an expectation of all necessary good both
in time and eternity, founded on the promises, re-
lations, and perfections of God, and on the offices,
righteousness, and intercession of Christ. It is a
compound of desire, expectation, patience, and joy,
(Rom. viii :24. 25). It may be considered, I. As
pure ( I John iii .2, 3), as it is resident in that heart
which is cleansed from sin. 2. As good (2 Thess.
ii:i6. in distinction from the hope of the hypo-
crite) as deriving its origin from God, and center-
ing in him. 3. It is called lively (i Pet. i :3)
as it proceeds from spiritual life, and renders one
active and lively in good works. 4. It is coura-
geous (Rom. V :5 ; i Thess. v :8) because it ex-
cites fortitude in all the troubles of life, and
yields support in the hour of death (Prov. xiv:32).
5. Sure (Heb. vi:i9) because it will not disappoint
us, and is fixed on a sure foundation. 6. Joyful
(Rom. v:2) as it produces the greatest felicity in
the anticipation of complete deliverance from all
evil.
HOPHNl (hoph'ni) and PHINEHAS (Heb.
"'^^Q, chofnee' , a fighter; one strong), the sons of
Eli, whose misconduct in the priesthood (as des-
cribed in I Sam. ii:l2-l7) brought down that doom
of ruin and degradation upon the house of Eli
which formed the first divine communication
through the young Samuel (l Sam. iii). Hophni
and Phinehas were slain in the battle in which the
ark of God was taken by the Philistines, B. C. 1141
(I Sam. iv:ii). (See Eli,)
HOPHRA
826
HOR, MOUNT
HOPHKA (boph'ra), (Heb. l'^?? khoph-ra',
Pharaoh-liophra), king of Kgyjit in the linie of
Zedekiah, king of Judah, and of Nebuchadnezzar,
king of Babylon.
He formed alliance with the former against the
latter, and his advance with an Egyptian army
constrained the Chaldaeans to raise the siege of
Jerusalem (Jer. xxxvii :5) ; but they soon returned
and took and destroyed the city. This momentary
aid, and the danger of placing reliance on the
protection of Hophra, led Ezekiel to compare the
Egyptians to a broken reed, which was to pierce
(he hand of him that leaned upon it (Ezck. xxix:
6, 7). This alliance was, however, disapproved by
God; and Jeremiah was authorized to deliver the
prophecy contained in his 44lh chapter, which con-
/. A mountain in Arabia Petraea. on the con-
fines of Idunixa, and forming part of the mountain
of Seir or Edom. It is mentioned in Scripture in
connection with the circumstances recorded in
Num. xx;22-29; xxxiii 137. 41. The Israelites
were encamped before it, when Aaron was sum-
moned to its top to die there, in the presence of
his brother and son, who alone witnessed his final
departure. (See Aakon.)
(1) Location. The mountain now identified
with Mount Hor is the most conspicuous in the
whole range of Mount Seir, and at this day bears
the name of Mount Aaron (Jebel Ilaroun). It is
in N. lat. 30 deg. 18 min., E. long. 35 deg. 33 min.
about mid-way between the Dead Sea and the
.-Elanitic Gulf. It may be open to question if this
is really the Mount Hor on which Aaron died, see-
The Summit of Mount Hor.
dudes with a prediction of Hophra's death and the
subjugation nf his country by the Chaldaeans (B.
C. 588).
This Pharaoh-hophra is identified with the Ap-
ries or Vaphres of ancient authors, and he may be
the Psamatik III. of the monuments. Under this
identification we may conclude that his wars with
the Syrians and Cyrenaeans prevented him from
affording any great assistance to Zedekiah. Eze-
kiel xxix :3 speaks of this king as 'the great
dragon that lieth in the midst of the rivers, which
bath said, my river is mine own, and I have made
it for myself.' His overthrow and subsequent
captivity and death are foretold with remarkable
precision by Jeremiah (xliv:30). This was
brought about by a revolt of the troops, who
placed Amasis at their head, and after various
conflicts took Apries prisoner. ?Ie was for a
time kept in easy captivity by Amasis, who wished
to spare his life ; but he was at length constrained
to give him up to the vengeance of his enemies,
by whom he was strangled (Herod. ii:i69; Wil-
kinson. Anc. Egyptians. i:i68, 182).
HOB, MOTJNT (hor), (Hcb. 1?? '^'■^,/tort- haw-
hawr', "mountain, the nimmtain," i. e. the moun-
tain of mountains), the name of two mountains.
ing that the whole range of Seir was anciently
called by that name; yet from its height and the
conspicuous manner in which it rises among the
surrounding rocks, it seems not unlikely to have
been the chosen scene of the high-priest's death
(Kinnear, p. 127). To this may be added tlirit
Josephus affirms Mount Hor to have been near
Petra ; and near that place there is certainly no
mountain which can contest the distinction with
the one now in view. The base of the highest pin-
nacle of this mountain is in fact but a little re-
moved from the skirts of the city to the westward.
Much juniper grows on the mountain, almost to
the very summit, and many flowering plants. On
the top there is an overhanging shelf in the rock
which forms a sort of cavern. The tomb itself is
enclosed in a small building, differing not at all in
external form and appearance from those of Ma-
honmiedan sa'nts common throughout every prov-
ince of Turkey. It has probably been rebuilt at
no remote period : some small columns are bedded
in the walls, and some fragments of granite and
slabs of white marble are scattered about. The
door is near iho southwest angle, within which a
rnnstructcd tomb, with a pall thrown over it,
presents itself immediately upon entering: it is
HO RAM-
826
HORITE
patched together out o£ fragments of stone and
marble that have made part of other fabrics.
Not far from the northwest angle is a passage,
descending by steps to a vault or grotto beneath.
The roof is covered, but the whole is rude, ill-
fashioned, and quite dark. Towards the further
end of this dark vault are the two correspondmg
leaves of an iron grating, which formerly pre-
vented all nearer approach to the tomb; they
have, however, been thrown down.
(2) The View. The view from the summit of
the edifice is extremely extensive in every direc-
tion, and the eye rests on few objects which it
can clearly distinguish to give a name to, although
an excellent idea is obtained of the general face
and features of the country. The chain of Idu-
maean mountains which forms the western shore
of the Dead Sea seems to run on to the south-
ward, though losing considerably in height. They
appear in this point of view barren and desolate.
Below them is spread out a white sandy plain,
seamed with the beds of occasional torrents, and
presenting much the same features as the most
desert parts of the Ghor.
(3) Geology. "Mount Hor is formed of red-
dish sandstone and conglomerate ('Nubian sand-
stone' of Russegger) of Cretaceous age; the beds
rising in a precipitous wall of natural masonry
tier above tier, and presenting a bold front to-
wards the west. These huge beds of sandstone
compose the upper part of the ridge to a depth of
about a thousand feet from the summit, where
they rest on a solid foundation of granite and
porphyry of great geological antiquity, associated
with which, in some way not very clear, are
masses of agglomerate, beds of ash and dykes of
igneous rock, all of volcanic origin, but of an age
anterior to the Cretaceous sandstone. This latter
formation dips towards the east, and gradually
descends in the direction of the Wady Musa,
where it forms the cliffs which surround the city
of Petra. Along the flanks of the escarpment of
the Arabian Desert to the eastward the sand-
stone formation passes below the white marls and
limestones of Upi^r Cretaceous age, which form
the surface of the plain at a level of over s.ooo
feet above the sea." (E. Hall, Hastings' Bib.
Diet.)
2. A mountain named only in Num. xxxiv;7,
8, as one of the marks in the northern boundary
of the land of Promise. Its identification is diffi-
cult. The ^Iediterranean was the western bound-
ary; the first point was Mount Hor, and the
second "the entrance of Hamath." If Dr. Porter's
identification of the latter with the pass at Kaiat
el-HusH, close to Hums, is correct, then Mount
Hor can be nothing else than the great chain of
Lebanon itself. (Barnes, Bib. Diet.) "It is so
clearly the natural northern boundary of the coun-
try, that there seems no reason to doubt that the
whole range is intended by the term Hor."
(Smith, Bib. Diet, s. v.)
EOKASI (ho'ram), (Heb. ^"P, ho-rawm' , lofty),
a king of Gezer, who, assisting the king of La-
chish, was defeated and his country ravaged (Josh
x:33), B. C. i6i8.
HOBEB (ho'reb), (Heb. '^'P, kho-rabc' , desert).
1. A mountain or range frequently mentioned
in Scripture. The special application of Horeb and
Sinai in the Old Testament has been much dis-
cussed. Robinson and Hengstenberg think that
Horeb is the name for the whole range, Sinai
for a particular peak; Gesenius and others hold
precisely the opposite view. Stanley suggests that
there is more a distinction of usage tlian of place.
(i) In Leviticus and Numbers, Sinai is exclus-
ively used of the scene of the givmg of the Law.
(2) In Deuteronomy, Horeb is substituted for
Sinai. (3) In the Psalms the two are used in-
differehtly. See Sinai and Palestine, p. 31. The
Arabs now apply the name Jebel et-Tur to the
whole central granite region, while tl;^ peaks of
which it is composed are called by various names.
The mountain of Sinai and its wilderness are dis-
tinguished as the theater of events that took place
in the district of Horeb, and the whole of Horeb
is called "the mountain of God" (Exod. iii:i, 12;
iv:27; xvii:6; xviii:s; xxxiii:6. Hence, some-
times "Sinai" alone is spoken of (Exod. xix:ii,
19, 23; xxiv:i6; xx.xi:i8; xxxiv :29, 32; Lev.
vii:38; xxv:i; xxvi:46; xxvii:34; Num. i :i ; iii:
I, 14; xxxiii:i5. But frequently "Horeb" alone
is named, and the same events are spoken of as
occurring on Horeb which are described as tak-
ing place on Sinai (Deut. i:2, 6, 19; iv:io, 15; v:
2; ix:8; xviii:i6; xxix:i). Later sacred writers
employ both names; e. g., "Horeb" (i Kings viii:
9; xix:8; 2 Chron. v:io; Ps. cvi:i9; Mai. iv:4;
"Sinai," Judg. v:5; Ps. Ixviii :8, 17).
2. In the New Testament, "Sinai" became a
general name, as at the present day (Acts vii :30,
38; Gal. iv :24, 25). In more modern times, and
ever since the Crusades, the application of the
names Sinai and Horeb to the particular moun-
tains or peaks has varied greatly among travelers.
The range of Horeb spreads over an extensive
field, and may be divided into two groups, exhibit-
ing rugged and venerable mountains of dark
granite, stern, naked, splintered peaks and ridges,
some of them of indescribable grandeur, rising in
frowning majesty high above the general level
of the range. The following heights of several
peaks are given by the British Ordnance Survey:
Jebel l\Iusa, 7,37s feet; Jebel Serbal, 6,735 feet;
Jebel Katherin, 8,537 feet; Urn Shaumer, 8,450
feet. (Schaff, Bib. Diet.) (See Sinai).
HOBEia (ho'rem), (Heb. 0!5i?. , khor-ame' , de-
voted), one of the fortified towns of Naphtali (Josh.
xix:38). Van de Velde identifies it v-ntti Htirah.
Other authorities fail to concur with him.
HOR-HAGIDGAD (hor'ha-gld'gad), (Hebrew,
■'I'l"''^ '^, khore hag-gkid-gawif , hole of the cleft),
the thirty-third encampment of the Israelites
during their wandering (Num. xxxiii:32, 33). (See
Wandering, The.)
HORI (ho'ri), (Heb. "1", or ""?"", kho-ree' , cave
dweller).
1. Son of Lotan, the son of Seir, and brother
of Hemam (Gen. xx.xvi:22; i Chron. i:39). B. C.
about 1964-
2. Gen. xxxvi :30. In the original "the Ho-
rite."
3. Father of Shaphat, who represented the tribe
of Simeon among the spies sent up to Canaan
by Moses (Num. xiii:5), B. C. before 1657.
HOUIMS (ho'rimz), (Deut. ii:i2, 22). See Ho-
RITE.
HORITE (ho'rite), (Heb. "!", kho-re^, cave
dweller), A. V. sometimes Hori, Horims.
The predecessors of the Edomites in the coun-
try of Seir. They were there as early as the
time of Abraham (Gen. xiv :6) Jehovah de-
stroyed them before the sons of Esau, and gave
the latter their country (Deut. n:i2. 22) There
was however, such a minglmg of the fainily ot
Esau and his Horite (in Gen. xxxvi :2 read Hor-
He for Hmite) connections, that the Horite name
HORMAH
827
HORN
and descent was preserved (Gen. xxxvi, especially
verses 20, 21, 29-30).
The name Horite is supposed to mean 'cave-
dweller' (see Driver, Deut. p. 38). On the theory
that the Horites were rcphaim, this fact is o£ in-
terest in its bearing on the character of the re-
phaite civilization; but they did not always re-
main cave dwellers. (W. J. Beecher, Hastings'
Bib. Diet.)
Sayce {High. Crit., p. 203) thinks it better to
connect the name with a root signifying "white,"
and considers the Horites as the representatives
of a white race whom their neighbors contrasted
with the "red"-skinned Edomites. In such a case
they would have been members of the Amorite
stock. They were the aboriginal inhabitants of
Mount Seir (Gen. xiv :6) from which they were
driven by the descendants of Esau (Gen. xiv:6;
xxxvi :20, 21, 29; Deut. ii:i2, 22).
HOBMAH (hor'mah), (Heb. '^'^'}'^,kkawr-maw' ,
devoted to destruction), a city taken from the
Canaanites by Judah and Simeon, (Judg. i:i7;
Num. xxi:3; Josh. xix:4, I Chron. iv:3o;, and orig-
inally called Zephath. It was reduced by Joshua
(Josh. xii;l4; xv:3o; i Sam. xxx:30).
HOBN (horn), (Heb. Mp.,, keh'ren; Gr. /c^pos,
horn).
Us primary use indicates defense in the case
of horned animals (whence Anacreon's aai.% x^pora
rai/pois, nature gives horns to bulls), came to
acquire several derivative meanings, some of
which are connected with the illustration and right
understanding of holy writ. As horns are hollow
and easily polished, they have in ancient and mod-
ern times been used for drinking vessels and for
military purposes; and as they are the chief source
of strength for attack and defense with the ani-
mals to which God has given them, they serve
in Scripture as emblems of power, dominion,
glory, and fierceness (Dan. viii :5, 9; I Sam. xvi :
I, 13 ; I Kings i:39; Jo.sh. vi :4, 5; I Sam. ii:i;
Ps. Ixxv :s, 10; Jer. xlviii ;25 ; Ezek. xxix :2I ;
Amos vi :I3). Hence to defile the horn in the dust
(Job xvi;i5), is to lower and degrade oneself, and,
on the contrary, to lift up, to exalt the horn (Ps.
lxxv:4; lxxxix:i7; cxlviii:i4), is poetically to raise
oneself to eminent honor or prosperity, to bear
oneself proudly.
In the East, at present, horns are used as an
ornament for the head, and as a token of eminent
By an easy transition, horn came to denote
an elevation or hill (Is. v:i); in Switzerland
mountains still bear this name, thus, Schreckhorn,
Buchhorn.
rhe altar of burnt-offerings (Exod. xxvii :2)
and the altar of incense (Exod. xxx:2), had
each at the four corners four horns of shittim-
wood, the first being overlaid with brass, the sec-
ond with gold (Exod. xxxvii :25 ; xxxviii:2; Jer.
xvii:i; Amos iii:i4). Upon the horns of the
altar of burnt-offerings was to be smeared with
the finger the blood of the slain bullock (Exod.
xxi.K:i2; Lev. iv7-i8; viii:is; ix:9; xvi:i8;
Ezek. xliii:20). By laying hold of these horns
of the altar of burnt-offering the criminal found
an asylum and safety (i Kings i:5o; ii:28).
These horns are said to have served as a means
for binding the animal destined for sacrifice (Ps.
cxviii:27); but this use Winer (^Handtuiirterb.)
denies, asserting that they did not and could not
answer for such a purpose. J. R. B.
The custom of the Druse women of wearing
horns seems not to have been referred to in the
Scripture. So remarkable an article of dress, had
it been in existence, would in all probability have
been noticed by many authors who have entered
so minutely into such matters. These horns con-
sisted at first of an apparatus designed to finish
oft the headdress so as to raise the veil a little
from the face, and from small beginnings have
developed to their present enormous size. Some-
times they are made of pasteboard, of tin, silver,
and among the wealthy of gold. The day for
these preposterous appendages is about over.
After the wars between the Maronites and the
Druses (A. D. 1841 and 1845), the Maronite cler-
gy thundered their excommunications against
them, and very few Christians now wear them
(Thomson, Land and Book, i, loi, 102).
Omamentiil Ilorn^ of Modern Asiatics.
rank. (Rosenmuller, Morg. iv. 85). The women
among the Druses on Mount Lebanon wear on
their heads silver horns of native make, 'which are
the distinguishing badge of wifehood' (Bowring's
Report on Syria, p. 8).
Hail of Soulli .\fricans Ornamented with iJuttalo Horns.
Figurative. 1. As cattle with their horns
push their enemies, and defend themselves, horns
are the symbol of power and authority. Joseph's
horn resembled the horn of the unicorn ; the power
and dominion of his posterity, in the tribes of
Mannsseh and Ephraim, were vastly great (Deut.
xxxiii :i7).
2. Wicked men lift up the horn, when they ar-
rogantly boast of their power and attthority, and
threaten to destroy others ; and their horns are
cut off when their power and authority are taken
from them (Ps. lxxv:4, 10; Jer. xlviii :25).
3. Hannah's horn 'a-as exalted when God highly
honored her and gave her a child to be ruler
over Israel (i Sam. ii:i).
4. David's horn was exalted as the horn of the
unicorn, when his kingdom was exalted to great
honor and his authority was established ; and
when his soul was eminently advanced in grace
and comfort (Ps. xcii:io).
5. David's being anointed with a horn full of
oil, when Saul was anointed with a Z'ial of oil,
might mark the abundance of gifts, and the sta-
bility of government in the one above the other
(l Sam. x:i ; xvi:l).
HORNET. WASP
828
HORSE
6. God is the horn of his people's salvation; by
his power and authority he protects and saves
them, and thrusts and destroys their enemies.
7. The horns of the altar represented Christ's
authority, and ability to save sinners from every
end of the earth ; and, in allusion hereto, he is
called a horn of salvation (i Kings ii :28 ; Luke
i ;69) ; and his having seven horns, denotes the
perfection of his power and authority (Rev.
v:6).
8. The horns coming out of God's hand, in
which was the hiding of his power, are the rays
of the glorious brightness that attended him at
Sinai, and the mighty displays of his power, in
which his might was nevertheless but very par-
tially displayed (Hab. iii:4).
9. Horns also signify kings and kingdoms
(Dan. viii).
10. Antichrist's two horns as a lamb may de-
note his civil and ecclesiastic power (Rev. xiii :
II).
11. The four horns that scattered Judah were
their enemies from every place, particularly the
Ammonites, Arabs. Samaritans, Philistines, and
Syro-Grecians (Zech. i:2l).
HORNET, WASP (hor'net, wosp), (Heb. i^Jl^V.
tsir-aw' , stinging, Exod. xxiii:28; Deut. vii:20,
Sept. Tds criprtKia.%, hornets; Vulg. crabrones ; Josh.
XXIV :I2, TT\v <T(pTiKiav, hornet, crabronem ; Wisd. Sol.
xii:8, <r0^/cos, vespas, 'wasps').
It being upon the whole most probable that 'the
hornet' is the true rendering in these passages of
Scripture, the only further question which re-
mains is, whether the word is to be taken as liter-
ally meaning this well-known and terrific insect,
or whether it is to be understood in a metaphor-
ical and figurative sense for diseases, supernat-
ural terror, etc., by which Jehovah 'drove out the
Hivites, Canaanites, and Hittites from before Is-
rael.' Among the moderns, Michaelis has de-
fended the figurative sense. In addition to other
reasons for it, he doubts whether the expulsion
of the Canaanites could be effected by swarms of
<r<priKlai, and derives the Hebrew from a root sig-
nifying 'scourges,' 'plagues,' sctitiea, plagco, etc.
(Suppl. ad Lexic. Hebr. vi, 2154). In favor of
the possibility of such an event it is observed,
that yElian relates that the Phaselitse were actu-
ally driven from their locality by such means
(Hist. Anim. ix:28). and Bnchart has shown that
these Phaselitse were a Pha-nician people (ut
supra, p. 412). Even Rosenmiiller himself adopts
the figurative sense in his Scholia on Exod. xxiii :
28; but on Josh. xxiv:i2 he retracts that opinion,
and amply refutes it. His reasonings and refu-
tations have been adopted by numerous writers
(among others see Paxton's Illustrations of
Scripture, i. 303, etc.; Edin. 1819).
Figurative. However, the word "hornet," in
Exod. xxiii :28, is parallel with "fear" in verse
27. and similar expressions, such as "to chase as
the bees do," are undoubtedly used metaphor-
ically (Deut. i:44; Ps. cxviii:i2). It is therefore
reasonable to regard this word as expressing by
a vivid image the fear which Jehovah would in-
spire in the enemy of Israel, as declared in Deut.
ii :25 ; Josh, ii :ii.
HORONAIM (hSr'o-na'im), (Heb. ='i"i", kho-ro-
nah'yim, double cave townl, a town of Moab (Is.
xv:5; Jer. xlviii:3, 5, 34; Josephus ^«//(7. //(5. xiii,
cap. 23; xiv, cap. 2); doubtless the same called
HOLON.
HOBONITE, THE (hor'o-nite), (Heb. ^V^'T^-
hakh-o-ro-nee"), the appellation of Sanballat, who
opposed Nehemiah in his work of restoration (Neh
ii:io, 19; xiii:28).
HORSE (hors), (Heb. DID, sus; Gr. i'TTTrot, hippos).
Gen. xlvii:i7; xiix:i7; Exod. xiv:9, 23, and in many
other places; James iii:3; Rev. vi;a, etc.
The horse is one of the noblest animals of
the brute kind, celebrated for comeliness, swift-
ness, pride, wantonness, natural fierceness, tame-
ableness, strength and fitness for burden, draught,
or war (Job xxxix:ig-25).
It appears to be substantiated that the horse
was derived from High Asia, and was not indig-
enous in Arabia, Syria, or Egypt. They are not
mentioned among the presents which Pharaoh
bestowed upon Abraham, and occur in Scripture
for the first time when the patriarch Joseph re-
ceives them from the Egyptians in exchange for
bread (Gen. xlvii:i7) — evidently as valuable ani-
mals, disposed of singly, and not in droves or
flocks, like cattle and asses. They were still suffi-
ciently important to be expressly mentioned in
the funeral procession which accompanied the
body of Jacob to his sepulcher in Canaan (Gen.
1 :9) ; and, for centuries after, it does not appear
that, under the domestic management of the
Egyptians, unless the murrain had greatly reduced
them, horses had multiplied as they would have
done in a land more congenial to their habits,
since only six hundred chariots appear to have
pursued Israel (Exod. xiv 7) — even admitting
that there were other chariots and horsemen not
included in that number. In the sculptured bat-
tle scenes, which are believed to represent victo-
ries of Sesostris, or of Thothmes II and III, over
nations of Central Asia, it is evident that the ene-
my's armies, as well as the foreign allies of Egypt,
are abundantly supplied with horses, both for
chariots and for riders ; and in triumphal proces-
sions they are shown as presents or tribute — prov-
ing that they were portions of the national wealth
of conquered states sufficiently valuable to be
prized in Egypt.
Bay or red horses occur most frequently on
Egyptian painted monuments, this being the
primitive color of the Arabian stock; but white
horses are also common, and, in a few instances,
black — the last probably only to relieve the paler
color of the one beside it in the picture.
C. H. S,
The horses of Egypt were reckoned stronger
and finer than those of Syria (Is. xxxi:3V
Mountainous Palestine was not well adapted for
the use of the horse, and in early times it was
principally employed in the maritime plain and in
the valley of Jezreel. There were many horses
in Egypt (Gen. xlvii:i7; Exod. ix:3). When the ex-
odus took place Pharaoh's pursuing army was
equipped with chariots and horses (xivtg; xv:
19). They existed also in the force of the north-
ern Canaanites led by Sisera, Jabin's command-
er-in-chief (Judg. iviij; v:22).
God prohibited the Hebrews from multiply-
ing horses (Deut. xvii:i6; Josh. xi:6). However,
Solomon having married the daughter of Pha-
raoh, procured a fine breed of horses from Egypt,
some of them at the rate of 600 shekels of silver,
which, according to Prideaux, is £90 sterling,
$450.00, and according to Arbuthnot. £68 ps,
$340.00 (i Kings x:26). He, first of the He-
brews, began to multiply horses, and had 4,000
stables, 40.000 stalls, and 12,000 horsemen (l
Kings iv:26; 2 Chron. ix:2S). As the eastern
heathens, who worshiped the sun, imagined that
he rode along the sky in a chariot drawn with
fleet horses, to communicate his light and warmth
to mankind, they consecrated to him the finest
HORSELEECH
HOSEA
steeds or chariots ; with these they either rode to
the eastern gates of their cities as the sun rose,
or they held them so sacred that none might ride
on them. Josiah removed from the Jewish tem-
ple the horses, or images of horses, which his
lather or grandfather had consecrated to the sun
(2 Kings xxiii:ii). Among tlie ancient orientals,
horses were reckoned a grand present, and rid-
ing on them an honor (Eccles. x:7).
Figurative, (i) Horses are sometimes put for
warriors on horseback (Ezek. xxxix:20). (2)
God's instruments of accompHshing his purpose,
and displaying his greatness and might, are rep-
resented as his horses or chariots (Zech. x 15 ;
xii:4; Jer. li:2i). (3) ll'hite liorsfs, anciently
symbols of victory, denote the gospel, whereby
Christ shows his glory, conquers, and comes to
his people, and whereby they are supported, borne
forward in their heavenly journey, and enabled
to conquer their foes ; or they may be an em-
blem of warriors' victory, and of great joy and
gladness. (4) Red hurses represent persecution
and bloody wars. (5) Pale Iwrses denote fam-
ines in the church or state, which are followed
with death, spiritual or temporal, and with hell.
(6) Black horses may represent fearful judg-
ments, that fill men with horror and perplexity.
(7) And "gristed, speckled and bay hurses" may
denote mingled scenes of mercy and judgment
(Rev. vi :2-8; xix :ii. 14 ; Zech. i :8; vi :2, 3). (8)
Angels appeared under the form of "horses and
chariots" of fire, to hint, that God by them pow-
erfully executes his purposes, subdues his ene-
mies, protects his people, and conveys them to
heaven (2 Kings ii:ii; vi:!"). (9) Saints are
likened to a "company of horses" in Pharaoh's
chariots. How precious and costly to Christ !
How carefully nourished, cleansed, stationed, and
cared for by him! How delightfully yoked un-
der His law ! and what a glorious means of dis-
playing His power! (Cant, i :9.) Brown.
HORSELEECH (h6rs'lech), (Heb. ^V^^'?.., al-oo-
kaw' , sucking, Prcv. xxx:i5), either one of the
leeches, Hirudo medicinalis, Sav., or Hamopis
sanguisorba, Sav., found in the stagnant waters
throughout the land; or a specter like the "night
monster."
HORSEMAN (h6rs'raan),(Heb.^^? -i'? bah' at
paiu-rawsh' , master of a horse). From Exod.
xiv:9, etc., it would appear that cavalry accom-
panied Pharaoh in his pursuit of Israel — "his
horsemen."
HOSAH (ho'sah), (Heb. '15", kho-saw' , hopeful).
1. A city of Asher, at a point on the boundary
line where it turned from the direction of Tyre
toward Achzib (Josh. xix:29); possibly the modern
village of el Ghazieh or el Ezziyah, a little south
of Zidon.
2. A Levitical door-keeper of the temple,
whose station was by the 'gate of Shallecheth,' i
Chron. xvi:38; xxvi;io, 11, 16. (B. C. about 988).
HOSANNA (ho-zan'na), (Gr. iiaawi, ho-san-nah' ,
from Heb. "^ '"'i'"'?*''', ho-she-ah'naw, save now).
A form of acclamatory blessing or wishing well,
which signifies, Save now ! Succor now I Be
now propitious! It occurs in Matt, xxi 19 (also
Mark xi :9, 10; John xii:i3) — 'Hosanna to the
Son of David ; Blessed is he that cometh in the
name of the Lord ; Hosanna in the highest.' This
was on the occasion of our Savior's public entry
into Jerusalem, and fairly construed would mean,
'Lord, preserve this Son of David; heap favors
and blessings on him!' It is further to be ob-
served that Hosanna was a customary form of
acclamation at the Feast of the Tabernacles. This
feast was celebrated in September, just before the
commencement of the civil year ; on which oc-
casion tlie people carried in their hands bundles
of boughs of palms, myrtles, etc. (Joseph. Antiq.
xiii, 13. 6; iii, 10, 4). They then repeated the
2Sth and 26th verses of Ps. cxviii, which com-
mence with ihe word Hosanna, and from this
circumstance they gave the boughs, and the
prayers, and the feast itself, the name of Hosanna.
They observed the same forms also at the Encae-
nia, that is, the Feast of the reconsecration of the
Temple, as instituted by Judas Maccabxus (i
Mace. X :6, 7; 2 Mace. xiii:5l; Rev. vii:9) and
the Passover. And as they celebrated the Feast
of Tabernacles with great joy and gladness, in
likernanner, on this occasion, did they hail the
coming of the Messiah, whose advent they be-
lieved to be represented in all the feasts.
HOSEA (ho-ze'a), (Heb. i'?''"!, ho-shayah, de-
liverer).
(1) Place of Hosea in the Versions. Hosea
is the first in order of the minor prophets in the
common editions of the Hebrew Scriptures, as
well as of the Alexandrian and Vulgate transla-
tions. The arrangement of the other writers in
the Greek versions differs considerably from that
of the Hebrew copies. Both, however, place
Hosea first in the catalogue; yet the reasons
often assigned for the priority of place which
this prophet enjoys are by no means satisfactory.
By the best computation he seems to have been
preceded by Joel, Amos and Jonah. The prophets
are thus arranged by De Wette {Einleitung, sec.
225) :
Hebrew Ten. Greek Text.
1. Hosea. i. Hosea.
2. Joel. 2. Amos.
3. Amos. 3. Micah.
4. Obadiah. 4. Joel.
Chronological Order.
1. Joel, about 810 B. C.
2. Jonah, about 810 B. C.
3. Amos, about 790 B. C.
4. Hosea, about 785 B. C.
The table given by Rosenmiiller (Scholia in
Mill. Proph., p. 7) differs from this only in
placing Jonah before Joel in chronological order.
Compare Newcome (Preface to Minor Prophets,
P- 45)- The probable causes of this location of
Hosea may be the thoroughly national character
of his oracles, their length, their earnest tone and
vivid representations ; because he discharged the
duties of his office for a longer period than any
of his prophetic associates, is the less natural con-
jecture which has been hazarded by Rosenmiiller. , *
The contour of Ilosea's book has a closer resem-
blance to the greater prophets than any of the
eleven productions by which it is succeeded.
(2) Name and Family. The name of this
prophet has been variously interpreted. Jerome
erroneously renders it 'Salvator.' It may be
tither the infinitive absolute, 'Salvando,' or the
imperati»e, 'Salva' (O Deus). It is ordinarily
written in Greek, 'iliri]4, and once with the initial
aspirate, 'il(r-n4 (Rom. ix:25). The figments c>f
Jewish writers regarding Hosca's parentage need
scarcely be mentioned. His father has been con-
founded with a prince of the Reubcnites (l Chron.
v:6). So, too. Beeri has been reckoned a prophet
himself, according to the cabbinical notion that
the mention of a prophet's father in the introduc-
tion to his prophecies is a proof that sire as well
as son was endowed with the oracular spirit.
HOSEA
830
HOSEA, BOOK OF
(3) Nationality. Whether Hosea was a citi-
zen of Israel or Judah has been disputed. The
pseudo-Epiphanius and Dorotheus of Tyre speak
of him as being born at Belemoth, in the tribe
of Issachar (Epiphan. De Vitis Prophet. cap_. xi ;
Doroth. De Pruph. cap. i), Drusius (Critici Sacri.
in loc. torn, v) prefers the reading 'Beth-semes,'
and quotes Jerome, who says, 'Osee de tribu Is-
sachar fuit ortus in Beth-semes.' But Maurer
contends strenuously that he belonged to the
kingdom of Judah {Commen,t. Theol., ed. Rosen-
miiller, vol. ii. p. 391) ; while Jahn supposes that
he exercised his office, not, as Amos did, in Israel,
but in the principality of Judah. Maurer appeals
to the superscription in Amos as a proof that
prophets of Jewish origin were sometimes com-
missioned to labor in the kingdom of Israel
(against the appeal to Amos, vide Credner, Joel,
p. 66, and Hitzig, Handb. Kurzge. exegct sum
A. T., p. 72). But with the exception of the
case recorded in I Kings xiiiil (a case altogether
too singular and mysterious to serve as an argu-
ment), the instance of Amos is a solitary one, and
seems to have been regarded as anomalous by his
contemporaries (Amos vii:i2). Neither can we
assent to the other hypothesis of Maurer that
the mention of the Jewish kings Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz and Hezekiah, by Hosea, in his superscrip-
tion, is a proof that the seer regarded them as his
rightful sovereigns, as monarchs of that territory
which gave him birth. > Hengstenberg has well
replied that Maurer forgets 'the relation in which
the pious in Israel generally, and the prophets in
particular, stood to the kingdom of Judah. They
considered the whole separation, not only the
religious, but also the civil, as an apostasy from
God. The dominion of the theocracy was prom-
ised to be the throne of David.' The lofty Elijah,
on a memorable occasion, when a direct and sol-
emn appeal was made to the head of the theoc-
racy, took hi'clve stones, one for each tribe —
a proof that he regarded the nation as one in re-
ligious confederation. It was also necessary for
correct chronology that the kings of both na-
tions should be noted. Jeroboarri of Israel is
mentioned as a means of ascertaining at what
period in the long reign of Uzziah Hosea began to
prophesy, and Uzziah's successors are named in
particular, because the confusion and anarchy of
the several interregna in the kingdom of Israel
rendered computation by the names of Jeroboam's
successors very awkward, difficult and uncertain.
The other argument of Maurer for Hosea's being
a Jew, viz., because his own people are so severely
threatened in his reproofs and denunciations, im-
plies a predominance of national prepossession or
antipathy in the inspired breast which is incon-
sistent with our notions of the piety and patriot-
ism of the prophetic commission (Knobel, Der
Prophetismus der Hebriier, vol. i, p. 203). So
that we can accede to the opinion of De Wette,
Rosenmiiller, Hengstenberg, Eichhorn, Manger,
Uhland and Kuinoel, that Hosea was an Israel-
ite, a native of that kingdom with whose sins
and fates his book is specially and primarily occu-
pied.
(4) Personal and National Relations. The
years of Hosea's life were melancholy and tragic.
The vials of the wrath of heaven were poured
out on his apostate people. The nation suffered
under the evils of that schism, which was effected
by the craft of him who has been branded with
the indelible stigma — 'Jeroboam, who made Israel
to sin.' The obligations of law had been relaxed,
and the claims of religion disregarded; Baal be-
came the rival of Jehovah, and in the dark re-
cesses of the groves were practiced the impure
and murderous rites of heathen deities ; peace and
prosperity fled the land, which was harassed by
foreign invasion and domestic broils ; might and
murder became the twin sentinels of the throne ;
alliances were formed with other nations, which
brought with them seductions to paganism ; cap-
tivity and insult were heaped upon Israel by the
uncircumcised ; the nation was thoroughly de-
based, and but a fraction of its population main-
tained its spiritual allegiance (2 Kings xix:i8).
The death of Jeroboam II was followed by an in-
terregnum of ten years. At the expiration of this
period his son Zechariah assumed the sovereignty,
and was slain by Shallum after the short space
of six months (2 Kings xv:io). In four weeks
Shallum was assassinated by Menahem. The as-
sassin, during a disturbed reign of ten years,
became tributary to the Assyrian Pul. His suc-
cessor, Pekahiah, wore the crov/n but two years,
when he was murdered by Pekah. Pekah. after
swaying his bloody scepter for twenty years, met a
similar fate in the conspiracy of Hoshea ; Hoshea,
the last of the usurpers, after another interreg-
num of eight years, ascended the throne, and his
administration of nine years ended in the over-
throw of his kingdom and the expatriation of his
people. 'The Lord was very angry with Israel,
and removed them out of his sight. So was
Israel carried out of their own land to Assyria
unto this day' (2 Kings xvii:i8, 23).
HOSEA, BOOK OF.
(1) Against Whom Directed. The prophecies
of Hosea were directed especially against the coun-
try whose sin had brought upon it such disasters —
prolonged anarchy and final captivity. Israel, or
Ephraim, is the people especially addressed. Their
homicides and fornications, their perjury and theft,
their idolatry and impiety are censured and satir-
ized with a faithful severity. Judah is sometimes,
indeed, introduced, warned and admonished. Bishop
Horsley {Works, iii, 236), reckons it a mistake
to suppose 'that Hosea's prophecies are almost
wholly directed against the kingdom of Israel.'
The bishop describes what he thinks the correct
extent of Hosea's commission, but has adduced
no proof of his assertion. Any one reading Hosea
will at once discover that the oracles having rela-
tion to Israel are primary, while the references to
Judah are only incidental. In chap, i 17, Judah
is mentioned in contrast with Israel, to whose
condition the symbolic name of the prophet's son
is specially applicable. In verse 11 the future
union of the two nations is predicted. The long
oracle in chap, ii has no relation to Judah, nor
the symbolic representation in chap. iii. Chap,
iv is severe upon Ephraim and ends with a very
brief exhortation to Judah not to follow his ex-
ample. In the succeeding chapters allusions to
Judah do iiiaeea occasionally occur, when similar
sins can be predicated of both branches of the
nation. The prophet's mind was intensely inter-
ested in the destinies of his own people. The
nations around him are unheeded; his prophetic
eye beholds the crisis approaching his country,
and sees its cantons ravaged, its tribes murdered
or enslaved. No wonder that his rebukes were
so terrible, his menaces so alarming, that his soul
poured forth its strength in . an ecstasy of grief
and affection. Invitations, replete with tenderness
and pathos, are interspersed with his warnings
and expostulations. Now we are startled with
a vision of the throne, at first shrouded in dark-
ness, and sending forth lightnings, thunders and
voices; but while we gaze, it becomes encircled
with a rainbow, which gradually expands till it
is lost in that universal brilliancy which itself had
originated (chap, xi and xivj.
ROSEA. BOOK OF
831
HOSEA. BOOK OF
(2) Peculiar Mode of Instruction. The pe-
culiar mode of instruction which the prophet de-
tails in the first and third chapters of his oracles
has given rise to many disputed theories. We
refer to the command expressed in chap, i :2 : 'And
the Lord said unto Hosea, Go, take unto thee
a wife of whoredoms and children of whoredoms,'
etc.; chap. iii:i, 'Then said the Lord unto me,
Go yet, love a woman beloved of her friend, yet
an adulteress,' etc. What was the precise nature
of the transactions here recorded? Were they
real events, the result of divine injunctions lit-
erally understood, and as literally fulfilled? or
were these intimations to the prophet only in-
tended to be pictorial illustrations of the apostasy
and spiritual folly and unfaithfulness of Israel?
The former view, viz., that the prophet actually
and literally entered into this impure connubial
alliance, was advocated in ancient times by Cyril,
Theodoret, Basil and Augustine ; and more re-
cently has been maintained by Mercer, Grotius,
Houbigant, Manger, Horsley and Stuck. Fanci-
ful theories are also rife on this subject. Luther
supposed the prophet to perform a kind of drama
in view of the people, giving his lawful wife and
children these mystical appellations. Newcome
(Mill. Prophets) thinks that a wife of fornica-
tion means merely an Israelite, a woman of apos-
tate and adulterous Israel. So Jac. Capellus (In
Hoseam; Opera, p. 683). Hengstenberg sup-
poses the prophet to relate actions which hap-
pened, indeed, actually, but not outwardly. Some,
with Maimonides (Moreh Nevoehim, part ii),
imagine it to be a nocturnal vision ; while others
make it wholly an allegory, as the CTialdee Para-
phrast, Jerome, Drusius, Bauer, Rosenmiiller,
Kuinoel and Lowth. The view of Hengstenberg,
and such as have held his theory (Markii Diatribe
de uxore fornicationum accipicnda, etc., Lugd.
Batav., 1696), is not materially different from
the last to which we have referred. Both agree
in condemning the first opinion, which the fast
2nd forward mind of Horsley so strenuously
maintained. Hengstenberg, at great length and
with much force, has refuted this strange hypoth-
esis (Christology, ii, 11-12). Besides other ar-
guments resting on the impurity and loathsome-
ness of the supposed nuptial contract, it may be
argued against the external reality of the event,
that it must have required several years for its
completion, and that the impressiveness of the
symbol would therefore be weakened and oblit-
erated. Other prophetic transactions of a similar
nature might be referred to. Jerome {Comment.
in loc.) has referred to Ezek. iv:4. It is not to
be supposed, as has sometimes been argued, that
the prophet was commanded to commit fornica-
tion. "The divine injunction was to marry —
'Seortum aliquis ducere potest sine peceato, scor-
tari non item.' Drusius {Comm. in loc. in Crilici
Sacri, toin. v). Whichever way this question may
be solved, whether these occurrences be regarded
as a real and external transaction, or as a piece
of spiritual scenery, or only, as is most probable
(Witsii Miscell. Sac., p. 90), an allegorical de-
scription, it is agreed on all hands that the actions
are typical ; that they are, as Jerome calls them,
sacramenta futuroruin.
(3) Differences of Views. Expositors are not
at all agreed as to the meaning of the phrase 'wife
of whoredoms,' whether the phrase refers to har-
lotry before marriage, or unfaithfulness after it.
It may afford an easy solution of the difficulty
if we look at the antitype in its history and
character. Adultery is the appellation of idola-
trous apostasy. The Jewish nation was espoused
to God. The contract was formed on Sinai ; but
the Jewish people had prior to this period gone
a-whormg. Josh. xxiv:2-i4, 'Your fathers dwelt
on the other side of the flood in old time, and they
served other gods.' Comp. Lev. xvii :7, in which it
is implied that idolatrous propensities had also de-
veloped themselves during the abode in Egypt ; so
that the phrase employed may signify one devoted
to lasciviousness prior to her marriage. The mar-
riage must be supposed a real contract, or its
significance would be lost. Jer. ii :2, 'I remember
thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of thine
espousals, when thou wentest after me in the
wilderness, in a land that was not sown.' Chil-
dren of whoredoms refer most naturally to the
two sons and daughter afterwards to be born.
They were not the prophet's own, as is intimated
in the allegory, and they followed the pernicious
example of the mother. Spiritual adultery was
the debasing sin of Israel.
The Israelites who had been taken into cove-
nant very soon fell from their first love, and
were characterized by insatiable spiritual wanton-
ness; yet their Maker, their husband, did not
at once divorce them, but exhibited a marvelous
long-suffering.
The names of the children being symbolical,
the name of the mother has probably a similar
signification. It may have the symbolic sense of
'one thoroughly abandoned to sensual delights.'
The names of the children are Jezreel, Lo-
ruhamah, and Lo-ammi. The prophet explains
the meaning of the appellations. It is generally
supposed that the names refer to three successive
generations of the Israelitish people. Hengsten-
berg, on the other hand, argues that 'wife and
children both are the people of Israel ; the three
names must not be considered separately, but
taken together.' But as the marriage is first
mentioned, and the births of the children are de-
tailed in order, some time elapsing between the
events, we rather adhere to the ordinary exposi-
tion. Nor is it without reason that the second
child is described as a female.
The first child, Jezreel, may refer to the first
dynasty of Jeroboam I and his successors, which
was terminated in the blood of Ahab's house
which Jehu shed at Jezreel. The name suggests
also the cruel and fraudulent possession of the
vineyard of Naboth, 'which was in Jezreel.' where,
too, the woman Jezebel was slain so ignominiously
(l Kings xvi:i; 2 Kings ix:2l). But as Jehu
and his family had become as corrupt as their
predecessors, the scenes of Jezreel were again to
be enacted, and Jehu's race must perish. Jezreel,
the spot referred to by the prophet, is also, ac-
cording to Jerome, the place where the Assyrian
army routed the Israelites. The name of this
child associates the past and future, symbolizes
past sins, intermediate punishments and final over-
throw. The name of the second child, Lo-
ruhamah, 'not-pitied,' the appellation of a de-
graded daughter, may refer to the feeble, effemi-
nate period which followed the overthrow of the
first dynasty, when Israel became weak and help-
less as well as sunk and abandoned. The favor
of God was not exhibited to the nation : they
were as abject as impious. Rut the reign of Jero-
boam II was prosperous: new energy was infused
into the kingdom ; gleams of its former prosperity
shone upon it. This revival of strength in that
generation may be typified by the birth of a third
child, a son. Lo-ammi, 'not my people' (2 Kings
xiv:25). Yet prosperity did not bring with it
a revival of piety ; still, although their vigor
was recruited, they were not God's people {Lec-
tures on the leti'ish Antiquities and Scriptures,
by J. G. Palfrey, vol. ii, 422, Boston, N. A., 1841)
HOSEA. BOOK OF
832
HOSPITALITY
The space we have already occupied precludes
mote minute criticism; but the general principles
we have indicated may be applied to the second
and third chapters.
(4) Divisions. Recent writers, such as Ber-
tholdt, Eichhorn, De Wette, Stuck, Maurer and
Hitzig, have labored much, but in vain, to divide
the book of Hosea into separate portions, assign-
ing to each the period at which it was written ;
but from the want of sufficient data the attempt
must rest principally on taste and fancy. A suffi-
cient proof of the correctness of this opinion may
be found in the contradictory sections and allot-
ments of the various writers who have engaged
in the task. Chapters i, ii and iii evidently form
one division ; it is next to impossible to separate
and distinguish the other chapters. The form and
style are very similar throughout all the second
portion.
(5) Style. The peculiarities of Hosea's style
have been often remarked. Jerome says of him,
'Cof.imaticus est et quasi per sententias loquens'
(Prcaf. ad XII Proph.) His style, says De
Wette, 'is abrupt, unrounded and ebullient; his
rhythm hard, leaping and violent. The language
is peculiar and difficult' {Einleitung, sec. 228).
Lowth {Prcelect., 21) speaks of him as the most
difficult and perplexed of the prophets. Bishop
Horsley has remarked his peculiar idioms — his
change of person, anomalies of gender and num-
ber, and use of the nominative absolute {Works,
vol. iii). Eichhorn's description of his style was
probably at the same time meant as an imitation
of it (Einleitung, sec. 555) : 'His discourse is like
a garland woven of a multiplicity of flowers;
images are woven upon images, comparison
wound upon comparison, metaphor strung upon
metaphor. He plucks one flower, and throws it
down that he may directly break off another.
Like a bee, he flies from one flower-bed to an-
other, that he may suck his honey from the most
varied pieces. It is a natural consequence that
his figures sometimes form strings of pearls.
Often is he prone to approach to allegory — often
he sinks down in obscurity' (comp. chap, v.g; vi :
3; vii:8; xiii :3, 7, 8, 16). Unusual words and
forms of connection sometimes occur (De Wette,
sec. 228). Many examples might be given of the
peculiar abruptness of the style; the particles of
connection, causal, adversative, transitive, etc..
being frequently omitted.
(6) Quoted in New Testament. Hosea, as a
prophet is expressly quoted by Matthew (ii:i5).
The citation is from the first verse of chap. xi.
Hosea (vi:6) is quoted twice by the same evan-
gelist (ix:i3; xii:7). Quotations from his proph-
ecies are also to be found in Rom. ix •25. 26.
References to them occur in i Cor. xv :5s and in
I Pet. ii:io. Messianic references are not clearly
and prominently developed (Gramberg, Religion-
sid, ii:298). This book, however, is not without
them; but they lie more in the spirit of its allu-
sions than in the letter. Hosea's Christology ap-
pears written not with ink, but with the spirit
of the living God, on the fleshly tables of his
heart. The future conversion of his people to
the Lord their God, and David their king, their
glorious privilege, in becoming sons of the living
God, the faithfulness of the original promise to
Abraham, that the number of his spiritual seed
should be as the sand of the sea, are among the
oracles whose fulfillment will take place only un-
der the new dispensation.
(7) Literature. Besides works on the Minor
Prophets as a whole, such as Ewald, Hitzig-Stein-
er. Keil, Pusey. von Orelli. etc.. particular com
mentaries on Hosea are: Pococke, Oxf. 1685;
Simson, 1851 ; Wiinsche, 1868; Nowack, 1880; and
Kieine Proplietcn (Handkom. ), 1897; Scholz,
1882; Cheyne (Camb. Bible), 1884. Comp. Vale-
ton, ^mo.r en Hosea, 1894; G. A. Smith. The Book
of the Twelve Pruph. (Expositor's Bible), 1896;
Wellhausen, Die Klcinen Proph. {Skiczen v.),
1893 : also W. R. Smith, Prophets, Lect. iv. ;
Billeb, Die 'ivichtigsten Satse d. Altt. Kritik ■vom
Standp. der Proph. Am. u. Hos. aiis betrachtet,
1893. On the Text. Houtsma, Th T, 1875, p. 55
f[. ; Oort, ib. 1890, pp. 345 flf. 480 ff. ; Bachmann,
Alttest. Untersueh. 1894: Ruben, Critical Remarks
on some passages of O. T., 1896; Loftman, Kritisk
undersokning af den Masoretiska texten till prof.
Hoseas bok, 1894, and Kommentar till prof. Ho-
seas bok, 1896.
HOSE, HOSEN (hoz, hoz'n), (Chald. ^^'^l.
pai-teesh'), A. V. (Dan. iii:2l) of a Chaldee word
meaning tunics. Hosen is plural of hose, and
originally meant any covering for the legs.
HOSHAIAH (hosh'a-I'ah), (Heb- 'V^t''^, ho-
shah-yaw' , Jehovah has saved).
1. A man who led the princes of Judah in the
procession in celebration of the rebuilding of the
wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh. xii:32),
B. C. 446.
2. The father of Jezaniah or Azariah, who was
a man of note after Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusa-
lem (Jer. xlii:i; xliii:2), B. C. 587.
HOSHAMA (hosh'ama), {Heb. 1'??''"', ho-shaw-
maw', whom Jehovah hears), according to I Chron.
iii.iS a son of Jeconiah, or Jehoiachim, next to the
last King of Judah.
But the sons of Jeconiah are not mentioned with
others of the family (2 Kings xxiv:I2, IS), and
Jer. xxii 130 denounces him as 'a childless man.'
For these reasons there is good ground for sus-
taining the suspicion that there is some corruption
of the genealogy of the royal family in I Chron.
iii (B. C. after 598).
HOSHEA (ho-she'a), (Heb. TP"'^, ho-shay-ah' ,
help, or God is help).
1. Son of Elah, and last king of Israel. He
conspired against and slew his predecessor Pekah,
and seized his dominions. 'He did evil in the sight
of the Lord,' but not in the same degree as his
predecessors : and this, by the Jewish commenta-
tors, is understood to mean that he did not, like
former kings of Israel (2 Kings xv 130) , restrain
his subjects from going up to Jerusalem to wor-
ship. The intelligence that Hoshea had entered
into a confederacy with So. king of Egypt, with
the view of shaking off the Assyrian yoke, caused
Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria, to march an
army into the land of Israel ; and after a three
years' siege Samaria was taken and destroyed, and
the ten tribes were sent into the countries beyond
the Euphrates (B. C. 720) (2 Kings xv:30; xvii :
1-6; xviii:9-i2). The chronology of this reign is
m.uch perplexed. (See Chronology; Israel.)
2. Son of Nun, i. e. Joshua (Deut. xxxii:44).
In Num. xiii :8, the A. V. has Oshea. It was
probably his original name, to which Jah was
added later.
3. A ruler of the tribe of Ephraim in the time
of King David (l Chron. xxvii :2o).
4. One of the heads of the people who sealed
the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x:23), B. C.
about 410.
HOSPITAIilTY (hos'pi-tal'i-ty).
The practice of receiving strangers into one's
house and giving them suitable entertainment may
be traced back to the early origin of human so-
ciety. It is not, however, confined to any age or
HOSPITALITY
833
HOST OF HEAVEN
to any country, but has been observed in all parts
of the globe wherever circumstances have been
such as to render it desirable — thus affording one
among many instances of the readiness with wliich
human nature, in its moral as well as in its phys-
ical properties, adapts itself to every varying con-
dition. Hospitality is therefore not a peculiarly
Oriental virtue. It was practiced, as it still is,
among the least cultivated nations (Diod. Sic. v:
28, 34; Caes. Bell. Gall. vi:23; Tac. Germ. 21).
(1) Among Greeks and Romans. It was not
less observed, in the early periods of their history,
among the Greeks and Romans. With the Greeks,
hospitality Ciivia.) was under the immediate pro-
tection of religion. Jupiter bore a name ({^"05,
protector of guests) signifying that its rights were
under his guardianship. In the Odyssey (\\, 206J
we are told expressly that all guests and poor peo-
ple are special objects of care to the gods. There
were both in Greece and Italy two kinds of hos-
pitality, the one private, the other public. The
first existed between individuals, the second was
cultivated by one stale towards another. Hence
arose a new kind of social relation: between those
who had exercised and partaken of the rites of
hospitality an intimate friendship ensued, — a spe-
cies of freemasonry, which was called into play
wherever the individuals might afterwards chance
to meet, and the right, duties, and advantages of
which passed from father to son, and were de-
servedly held in the highest estimation.
(2) In the East. But though not peculiarly
Oriental, hospitality has nowhere been more early
or more fully practiced than in the East. It is
still honorably observed among the Arabs, espe-
cially at the present day. An Arab, on arriving
at a village, dismounts at the house of some one
who is known to him, saying to the master, 'I am
your guest.' On this the host receives the trav-
eler, and performs his duties, that is, he sets be-
fore his guest his supper, consisting of bread,
milk, and borgul, and, if he is rich and generous,
he also takes the necessary care of his horse or
beast of burden. Should the traveler be unac-
quainted with any person, he alights at any house,
as it may happen, fastens his horse to the same,
and proceeds to smoke his pipe until the master
bids him welcome, and offers him his evening
meal. In the morning the traveler pursues his
journey, making no other return than 'God be with
you' ( good-by ) .
(3) Early Mention. We find hospitality prac-
ticed and held in the highest estimation at the
earliest periods in which the Bible speaks of hu-
man society (Gen. xviii ;3 ; xix :2 ; xxiv 125 ; Exod.
ii:20; Judg. xix: 16). Express provision for its
exercise is made in the Mosaic law (Lev. xix :33 ;
Deut. xiv:29). In the New Testament also its ob-
servance is enjoined, though in the period to which
its books refer the nature and extent of hospitality
would be changed with the change that society had
undergone (i Pet. iv:9: I Tim. iii:2; Tit. i:8;
I Tim. v:io; Rom. xii:i3; Heb. xiii:2). The dis-
position which generally prevailed in favor of the
practice was enhanced by the fear lest those who
neglected its rites should, after the example of im-
pious men, be subjected by the divine wrath to
frightful punishments (^lian, Anim. xi, 19). Even
the Jews, in 'the latter days.' laid very great stress
on the obligation : the rewards of Paradise, their
doctors declared, were his who spontaneously
exercised hospitality.
(4) The Quest. The guest, whoever he might
be, was on his appearing invited into the house or
tent (Gen. xix:2; Exod. ii:20; Judg. xiii:i5; xix:
21). Courtesy dictated that no improper ques-
68
tions should be put to him, and some days elapsed
before the name of the stranger was asked, or
what object he had in view in his journey (Gen.
xxiv:33; Odyss. i, 123; iii, 69; Iliad vi, 175; ix,
222; Diod. Sic. V, 28>. As soon as he arrived he
was furnished with water to wash his feet (Gen.
xviii :4; xix:2; I Tim. v:lo; Odyss. hi, 49; xvii,
88; vi, 215); received a supply of needful food for
himself and beast (Gen. xviii :s; xix:3; xxiv:25;
Exod. ii:20; Judg. xix:20; Odyss. iii, 464); and
enjoyed courtesy and protection from his host
(Geti. xix:5 ; Josh, ii :2; Judg. xix :23). The case
of Sisera, decoyed and slain by Jael (judg.iv :i8,
sq.), was a gross infraction of the rights and du-
ties of hospitality. On his departure the traveler
was not allowed to go alone or empty-handed
(Judg. xix:s; Iliad, vi, 217). As the free practice
of hospitality was held right and honorable, so the
neglect of it was considered discreditable (Job
x.xxi:32; Odyss. xiv, 56); and any interference
with the comfort and protection which the host
afforded was treated as a wicked outrage (Gen.
xix :4, sq. )
(5) Enmities. Though the practice of hospi-
tality was general, and its rites rarely violated, yet
national or local enmities did not fail sometimes
to interfere; and accordingly travelers avoided
those places in which they had reason to expect an
unfriendly reception. So in Judg, xix:l2, the
'certain Levite' spoken of said, "We will not turn
aside hither into the city of a stranger, that is not
of the children of Israel.' The quarrel which
arose between the Jews and Samaritans after the
Babylonish captivity destroyed the relations of
hospitality between them. Regarding each other
as heretics, they sacrificed every better feeling. It
was only in the greatest extremity that the Jews
would partake of Samaritan food (Lightfoot, p.
993), and they were accustomed, in consequence
of their religious and political hatred, to avoid
passing through Samaria in journeying from one
extremity of the land to the other. The animosity
of the Samaritans towards the Jews appears to
have been somewhat less bitter ; but they showed
an adverse feeling towards those persons who, in
going up to the annual feast at Jerusalem, had to
pass through their country (Luke ix:S3).
(6) National Festivals. At the great national
festivals hospitality was liberally practiced so long
as the slate retained its identity. On these festive
occasions no inhabitant of Jerusalem considered
his house his own ; every home swarmed with
strangers; yet this unbounded hospitality could
not find accommodation in the houses for all who
stood in need of it, and a large proportion of vis-
itors had to be content with such shelter as tents
could afford (Helon, Pilgrim, i, 228, sq.)
J. R. B.
HOST (host). 1. In a social sense, Xen'os (Or.
{^Koil, literally a stranger, i. e. one who receives and
entertains hospitably (Rom. xvi:23), where "and of
the whole Church" is added. (See Hosi'ITAlitv).
2. In a military sense it means an army.
HOSTAOE (bSs'tSj), |Heb. "?^?^!, tah-ar-00-
baw' , suretyshiji), one delivered into the hand of
another as security for the performance of a pledge
or engagement. (2 Kings xiv:i4.)
iXyC'i' OF HEA'VTN (host 6v h6v"n), (Heb.
Q*5^L? **?^, tscb-aw' hask-shaw-mah' yitn, army of
the "kies. Gen. ii:i).
The sun, moon, and stars, under the figure of
an army ; in which the sun is considered as king,
the moon as his vicegerent, the stars and planets
HOTHAM
834
HOUSE
as their attendants (comp. Judg. v:2o). The
worship of the host of heaven, though there are
traces of it previously, first became prominent
in Israel in the seventh century, B. C. : it was pat-
ronized by Manasseh, who 'built altars for all
the host of heaven in the two courts' of the Tem-
ple (2 Kings xxi:5); it is mentioned in Deuter-
onomy as a form of idolatry which might prove
specially seductive to the Israelite ; according to
Jer. xix:i3; Zeph. i:5, it was carried on upon the
roofs of houses. Josiah, in his reformation, de-
stroyed the altars built by Manasseh in the Tem-
ple, burned the vessels used in the rites, and put
down the priests who took part in them (2 Kings
xxiii :3, S, 12). From the terms of 2 Kings xxiii:
12 'the altars which were on the roof of the upper
chamber of Ahaz,' taken in conjunction vvith
what is stated in Jer. xix:i3; Zeph. i :$, it is diffi-
cult to avoid the inference that, though the 'ho3t
of heaven' itself is not expressly mentioned, the
worship had in fact been introduced into Judah
before Manasseh by Ahaz. This systematic wor-
ship of the heavenly bodies was in all probability
imported 'from Assyria and Babylonia, where
there was a deeply rooted popular belief in the
power of the stars to rule the destinies of individ-
uals and nations, and where from a remote an-
tiquity the events which had been observed to fol-
low from given celestial phenomena had been tab-
ulated for future reference (above, vol. i, p. 104;
Sayce, Hibb. Led. 396-403.) (See Article by S.
R. Driver, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
HOTHAM (ho'thara), (Heb. =?''", kho-thawn\
a signet ring), one of the sons of Heber, the grand-
son of Asher (i Chron. vii:32). He is probably the
same with Heletn, whose sons are enumerated in
v:35-
HOTHAN (ho' than), (Hebrew same as Hotham)i
an Aroerite, father of Shama and Jehiel, two of
David's "valiant men" (i Chron. xi:44), B. C. about
1000.
HOTHIE. (ho'thk), (Heb. "'T'i'"', ho-tkeer', pre-
server), the thirteenth son of Heman, who, with
eleven of his kinsmen, had charge of the twenty-
first division of Levitical singers (i Chron. xxv.4,
28), B. C. after 1000. (See Heman.)
For the full significance of the personal names
occurring here see Fiirst (Hebr. ti. Chald. IFor-
terb. i, 244); Ewald (Lekrbuck der Hebr. Sprache,
p, 502).
HOTJGH (hok), (Heb. "'it?, aw-kar' , to extir-
pate. Tosh. xi:6, 9; 2 Sam. viii:4), is an obsolete
word from the Anglo-Saxon hoh, and means to
hamstring, i. e., to cut the back sinews, and thus
disable animals.
HOtmS (ourz), (Chald. '^?i?, shaw-aw' , proper-
ly a look; Gr. lipa, ho' rah).
The ancient Hebrews, like the Greeks (Homer,
H, xxi, 3), were unacquainted with any other
means of distinguishing the time of day than the
natural divisions of morning, midday, or noon,
twilight, and night (Gen. xv:i2; xviii:i; xix:l,
«5. 23).
(1) Early Mention. The earlier mention of
hours occurs in Daniel (iii:is; iv:i9; v:s) ; and
even in the Septuagint ffipo invariably signifies a
season of the year, as in Homer and Hesiod. As
the Chaldeans claimed the honor of inventing this
system of notation (Herod, ii, 119), it is most
probable that it was during their residence in
Babylon that the Jews became familiar with their
artificial distribution of the day. At all events
no trace of it occurs before the captivity of that
people ; while, subsequently to their return to
their own land, we find the practice adopted, and,
in the time of Christ, universally established, of
dividing the day and night respectively into
twelve equal portions (Matt. xx:3-5; John xi:9;
Acts v:;; xix:34).
(2) Jewish Horology. The Jewish horology,
however, in common with that of other eastern
nations, had this inherent defect, that the hours,
though always equal to one another, were une-
qual in regard to the seasons, and that as their
day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset, and not
from the fixed period of noon, as with us, the
twelve hours into which it was divided varied, of
course, in duration according to the fluctuations
of summer and winter. The midday, which with
us is the twelfth hour, the Jews counted .their
sixth, while their twelfth hour did not arrive till
sunset. At the equinoxes, their hours were ex-
actly of the same length with ours, and the time
from which they began to reckon their day at
those seasons corresponded precisely with our six
o'clock A. M. ; their first hour being our seven
o'clock, their third (Acts ii:i5), our nine, their
ninth (Acts iii:i), our three o'clock P. M., and
-their eleventh (Matt. xx:6), our five. This equal-
ity, however, in the duration of their hours, as
well as in their correspondence to ours, was dis-
turbed as the season approached toward the sum-
mer or winter solstice. In midsummer, when sun-
rise in Judaea takes place at five o'clock A. M.,
and sunset at seven P. M., the Jewish hours were
a little longer than ours ; and the only one of their
hours which answered exactly to ours was the
sixth, or twelve o'clock, while in all the rest there
was a considerable difference. Their third hour
was shortly before our nine, and their ninth a lit-
tle after our three. In like manner, in winter,
when the sun rises at seven and sets at five, the
Jewish hour was proportionately shorter than
ours, their third hour not occurring till a little
after our nine, and their ninth a little before our
three. Hence, it is evident that in order to deter-
mine exactly the duration of Daniel's silence (for
instance 'he was astonied one hour,' Dan. iv:i9),
or the exact time when the darkness at Christ's
crucifixion ended, it is necessary to ascertain the
particular seasons when these incidents oc-
curred.
Besides these smaller hours, there was another
division of the day into larger hours, with refer-
ence to the stated periods of prayer, viz., the third,
sixth, and ninth hours of the day (Ps. Iv:i7;
Joseph. Antiq. iv, 4, 3).
(3) Divisions of the Night. The night was
divided into twelve equal portions or hours, in
precisely the same manner as the day. The most
ancient division, however, was into three watches
{Antiq. lxiii:6; xc:4); the first, or beginning of
the watches, as it is called (Lam. ii:i9) ; the mid-
dle watch (Judg. vii:i9), and the morning watch
(Exod. xiv:24). When Judsea became a province
of Rome, the Roman distribution of the night into
four watches was introduced (see Cockcrow-
ing; Day); to which division frequent allusions
occur in the New Testament (Luke xii:38; Matt.
xiv:2S; xiii:35),as well as to that of hours (Matt.
XXV :i3; xxvi:40; Mark xiv:37; Luke xvii:S9;
Acts xxiii :23; Rev. iii:3).
The word hour is sometimes used in Scripture
to denote some determinate season, as 'mine hour
is not yet come,' 'this is your hour, and the power
of darkness,' 'the hour is coming,' etc. R. J.
HOUSE (hous), (Heb. ^''X bah'yith; Gr. otelo,
oy-kee' ak).
HOUSE
835
HOUSE
Houses are often mentioned in Scripture, sev-
eral important passages of which cannot be well
understood without a clearer notion of the houses
in which the Hebrews cKvelt than can be realized
by such comparisons as we naturally make with
those m which we ourselves live, liut things so
different afford no grounds for instructive com-
parison without a knowledge of such facts as can
be collected from Scripture, ancient writers, and
travelers.
Our information respecting the abodes of men
in the ages before the Deluge is, however, too
scanty to afford much ground for notice. (See
Antediluvians.)
We may, therefore, leave this early period, and
proceed at once to the later times in which the
Hebrews flourished.
i. Primary T>b)ellings. The observations of-
fered under Architecture will preclude the ex-
pectation of finding among this Eastern people
that accomplished style of building which Vitru-
vius requires, or that refined taste by which
the Greeks and Romans excited the admiration
of foreign nations. The reason of this is plain.
Their ancestors had roved through the country
as nomade shepherds, dwelling in tents; and if
ever they built huts they were of so light a
fabric as easily to be taken down when a change
of station became necessary. In this mode of life
solidity in the structure of any dwelling was by no
means required ; much less were regular arrange-
ment and the other requisites of a well-ordered
dwelling matters of consideration. Under such
circumstance? as these, no improvement in the
habitation takes place. The tents in which the
Arabs now dwell are in all probability the same
as those in which the Hebrew patriarchs spent
their lives.
2. "Buildings. On entering Palestine the Is-
raelites occupied the dwellings of the dispossessed
inhabitants; and for a long time no new build-
ings would be needed. The generation which
began to build new houses must have been
born and bred in the country, and would nat-
urally erect buildings like those which already
existed in the land. Their mode of building
was therefore that of the Canaanites whom they
had dispossessed. Of their style of building we
are not required to form any exalted notions.
In all the history of the conquest of the coun-
try by the Israelites, there is no account of any
large or conspicuous building being taken or de-
stroyed by them. It would seem also as if there
had been no temples ; for we read not that any
were destroyed by the conquerors ; and the com-
mand that the monuments of idolatry should be
overthrown specifies only altars, groves, and high
places — which seems to lead to the same conclu-
sion; since, if there had been temples existing in
the land of Canaan, they wo\ild doubtless have
been included. It is also manifest from the his-
tory that the towns which the Hebrews found in
Palestine were mostly small, and that the largest
were distinguished rather by the number than
by the size or magnificence of their buildings.
It is impossible to say to what extent Solomon's
improvements in state architecture operated to
the advancement of domestic architecture. He
built different palaces, and it is reasonable to
conclude that his nobles and great officers fol-
lowed more or less the models which these pal-
aces presented. In the East, however, the domes-
tic architecture of the bulk of the people is little
affected by the improvements in state buildings.
Men go on building from age to age as their fore-
fathers built ; and in all probability the houses
which we now see in Palestine are such as those
in which the Jews, and the Canaanites before
them, dwelt — the mosques, the Christian churches,
and the monasteries being the only new features
in the scene.
There is no reason to suppose that many houses
in Palestine were constructed with wood. A great
part of that country was always very poor in tim-
ber, and the middle part of it had scarcely any
wood at all. But of stone there was no want;
and it was consequently much used in the building
of houses. The law of Moses respecting leprosy
in houses (Lev. xiv :33-4o) seems to prove this, as
the characteristics there enumerated could only
occur in the case of stone walls.
3. "Bailding fSaterials. The principal build-
ing materials mentioned in Scripture may be
enumerated with reference to their place in the
three kingdoms of nature :
(1) Vegetable Substances, (a) Shittim. or the
timber of the acacia tree, which grows abundantly
in the valleys of Arabia Petraea, and was therefore
employed in the construction of the tabernacle.
Not being, however, a tree of Palestine, the wood
was not subsequently used in building.
(b) Shakcmim; that is, the wood of the syca-
more fig-tree, mentioned in Is. ix:io, as a build-
ing timber in more common use than cedar, or
perhaps than any other wood known in Pales-
tine.
(c) Eres, or cedar. As this was a wood im-
ported from Lebanon, it would only be used in
the higher class of buildings. For its quality as
a building timber, and respecting the question of
its being really what we call the cedar, see
Epes.
(d) Algtim-mood, which, being imported from
the Eastern seas, must have been valued at a
high price. It was used by Solomon for pillars
for his own palace, and for the Temple (l Kings
x:il, 12).
(e) Berosh, or cypress-wood. Boards of this
were used for the floor of the Temple, which may
suggest the use to which it was ordinarily applied
(l Kings viris; 2 Chron. iii:s).
(2) Mineral Substances, (a) Marble. We find
the court of the king of Persia's palace covered
with marble of various colors (Esth.i :6). David is
recorded to have possessed abundance of marble
(l Chron. xxix:2; comp. Cant. v:i5), and it was
used by Solomon for his palace, as well as for the
Temple.
(b) Porphyry and Granite are supposed to be
'the glistering stones, and stones of divers colors'
named in i Chron. xxix :2. If so, the mountains
of Arabia Petraea furnished the nearest source of
supply, as these stones do not exist in Palestine
or Lebanon.
(c) Bricks. Bricks hardened by fire were em-
ployed in the construction of the tower of Babel
(Gen. xi:3), and the hard bondage of the Israel-
ites in Egypt consisted in the manufacture of
sun-dried bricks (Exod. v:7, 10-13). This im-
portant building material has been noticed under
another head. (See Brick.)
No subsequent notice of bricks as being used
by the Hebrews occurs after they had entered
Palestine. Yet, judging from existing analogies,
it is more than probable that bricks were to a
considerable extent employed in their buildings.
(d) Chalk and Gypsum, which the Hebrews
appear to have comprehended under the general
name of sid. That the Hebrews were acquainted
with these materials appears from Deut. xxvii;2:
and from Dan. v :s, and Acts xxiii .3, it further ap-
HOUSE
836
HOUSE
pears that walls were covered with them. A
highly instructive and curious account of the
plasters used in the East may be seen in tome iv
of Langles's edition of Chardin's Voyages.
(e) Mortar, a cement made of lime, ashes, and
chopped straw, or of gypsum and chopped straw.
This is probably meant in Jer. xliii -.g ; Ezek. xiii :
10, II, 14, 15.
(f) Asphaltum, or Bitumen, which is mentioned
as being used for a cement by the builders of
Babel. This must have been in the want of lime-
mortar, the country being a stoneless plain. But
ihe Israelites, who had no lack of the usual
cements, did not employ asphaltum. (See Bitu-
men.)
(g) The metals also must be, to a certain ex-
tent, regarded as building materials ; lead, iron
and copper are mentioned ; and even silver and
gold were used in combination with wood, for
various kinds of solid, plated, and inlaid work
(Exod. xxxvi :34, 38).
(3) Animal Substances. Such substances
can be but in a small degree applicable to build-
ing. Ivory houses are mentioned in I Kings xxii :
39; Amos iii:i4; most likely from certain parts
of the woodwork, probably about the doors and
windows, being inlaid with this valuable sub-
stance. Solomon obtained ivory in great quan-
tities from Tyre (i Kings x:22; 2 Chron. ix:2i).
(See Ivory.)
4. "Present Conditions. In describing the
houses of ancient Palestine, there is no way of
arriving at distinct notions but by taking the texts
of Scripture and illustrating them by the existing
houses of those parts of Western Asia which
have been the least exposed to the changes of
time, and in which the manners of ancient days
have been the best preserved.
The present writer, having resided for a con-
siderable time in Turkish Arabia, where the type
of Scriptural usages has been better preserved
than in Egypt, or even in Palestine itself, is en-
abled to speak on this matter with somewhat
more precision. Of four houses in which he
there resided, two were first rate and two second
rate. One of the latter has always seemed to
him to suggest a more satisfactory idea of a
Scriptural house than any of the others, or than
any he ever saw in other Eastern countries. That
one has therefore formed the basis of all his
ideas on this subject, and where it seemed to
fail, the others have usually supplied the illus-
tration required.
(1) Exterior. We may premise that the houses
present little more than a dead wall to the street.
The privacy of Oriental domestic habits would
render our plan of throwing the front of the
houses towards the street most repulsive. On
coming to a house, one finds a lofty wall, which
would be blank but for the low door of entrance
(see Gate) ; over which is usually the kiosk, or
latticed window (sometimes projecting like the
huge bay windows of Elizabethan houses), or
screened balcony of the 'summer parlor.' Besides
this, there may be a small latticed window or
two high up the wall, giving light and air to upper
chambers. This seems to have been the character
of the fronts of ancient Egyptian houses.
(2) The Court. The buildings which form the
house front towards an inBcr square or court.
Small houses have one of these courts, but supe-
rior houses have two, and first-rate houses three,
communicating with each other, for the Orientals
dislike ascending stairs or steps, and prefer to
gain room rather by the extent than height of
their habitations. It is only when the building-
ground is confined by nature or by fortifications,
that they build high houses. None of our four
houses had more than one story; but, from the
loftiness of the rooms, they were as high as houses
of three stories among ourselves. If there are
three or more courts, all except the outer one are
much alike in size and appearance ; but the outer
one, being devoted to the more public life of the
occupant, and to his intercourse with society, is
materially different from all the others. If there
are more than two, the second is devoted chiefly
to the use of the master, who is there attended
only by his eunuchs, children, and females, and sees
only such persons as he calls from the third or
interior court in which they reside. In the his-
tory of Esther, she incurs danger by going from
her interior court to that of the king, to invite him
to visit her part of the palace ; but she would not
on any account have gone to the outermost court,
in which the king held his public audiences.
When there are only two courts, the innermost is
the harem, in which the women and children live,
and which is the true domicile of the master, to
which he withdraws when the claims of business,
of society, and of friends have been satisfied, and
where no man but himself ever enters, or could be
induced to enter, even by strong persuasions.
Entering at the street-door a passage, usually
sloping downward, conducts to the outer court;
the opening from the passage to this is not op-
posite the gate of entrance, but by a side turn, to
preclude any view from the street into the court
when the gate is opened.
(3) The Guest Chamber. On entering the
outer tourt through this passage, we find opposite
to us the public room, in which the master re-
ceives and gives audience to his friends and
clients. This is entirely open in front, and, being
richly fitted up, has a splendid appearance when
the first view of it is obtained. A refreshing cool-
ness is sometimes given to this apartment by a
fountain throwing up a j et of water in front Qf it.
Guest Chamber of ao Eastern House.
This is the 'guest-chamber' of Luke xxii:ll. A
large portion of the other side of the court is oc-
cupied with a frontage of lattice-work filled with
colored glass, belonging to a room as large as the
guest-chamber, and which in winter is used for the
same purpose, or serves as the apartment of any
visitor of distinction, who cannot of course be ad-
mitted into the interior parts of the house.
(4) Other Apartments. The other apartments
in this outer court are comparatively small, and
are used for the accommodation of visitors, re-
tainers, and servants. These various apartments
are usually upon what we should call the first
floor, or at least upon an elevated terrace. The
HOUSE
837
HOUSE
ground floor is in that case occupied by various
store-rooms and servants' offices. In all cases the
upper floor, containing the principal rooms, is
fronted by a gallery or terrace, protected from the
sun by a sort of penthouse roof supported by pil-
lars of wood.
In houses having but one court, the reception-
room is on the ground floor, and the domestic es-
tablishment in the upper part of the house. This
arrangement is interesting from its showing the
use of the "pillars' so often mentioned in Scripture,
particularly 'the pillars on which the house stood,
and by which it was borne up' (Judg. xvi:29).
(5) The Kiosk. The kiosk, which has been
mentioned above as fronting the street, over the
gateway, is connected with one of the larger
rooms already described, or forms a separate
apartment, which is the summer parlor of Scrip-
ture. Here, in the heat of the afternoon, the
master lounges or dozes listlessly, refreshed by the
air which circulates between the openings of the
lattice work ; and here he can, if he pleases, no-
tice unobserved what passes in the street. In
this we are to seek the summer parlor in which
Ehud smote the king of Moab (Judg. iii:2o), and
the 'chamber on the wall,' which the Shunamite
Upper Room of an Eastern House.
prepared tor the prophet (2 Kings iv:io). The
projecting construction over the reception cham-
ber is, like the kiosk, towards the street as a sum-
mer parlor ; but there it belongs to the women's
apartments, and looks into the court, and not the
street.
(6) The Inner Court. The inner court is en-
tered by a passage and door similar to those by
which we entered from the street. This passage
and door are usually at one of the innermost
corners of the outer court. Here a much more
extended prospect opens to us, the inner court
being generally nuich larger than the former. It
is lower, the principal apartments standing upon
a terrace or bank of earth, and not upon a base-
ment story of offices: and it also wants the ve-
randa or covered gallery in front, which we find
in Syro-Arabian houses. The court is for the
most part paved, excepting a portion in the middle,
which is planted with trees (usually two) and
shrubs, with a basin of water in the midst. In
our Arabian house the two trees were palm trees,
in which a number of wild doves built their nests.
That the Jews had an arrangement of trees in
the courts of their houses as did the ancient
Egyptians. ,mu1 that the birds nested in them,
appears from Ps. lxxxiv:2. 3. They had also
the basin of water in the inner court, or harem ;
and among them it was used for bathing, as is
shown by David's discovering Bathsheba bath-
ing as he walked on the roof of his palace. This
use of the reservoir has now been superseded
by the establishment of public ivarm baths in
every town, and in private mansions. Cold bath-
ing has all but ceased in Western Asia.
Arabian House.
The arrangement of the inner court is very
similar to that of the outer; but the whole is more
open and airy. The buildings usually occupy two
sides of the square, of which the one opposite the
entrance contains the principal apartments. They
are upon what we should call the first floor, and
open into a wide gallery or veranda, which in
good houses is nine or ten feet deep, and covered
by a wooden penthouse supported by a row of
wooden columns. This terrace, or gallery, is fur-
nished with a strong wooden balustrade, and is
usually paved with squared stones, or else floored
with boards. In the center of the principal front
is the usual open drawing-room, on which the
best art of the Eastern decorator is expended.
Much of one of the sides of the court front is
usually occupied by the large sitting-room, with
the latticed front covered with colored glass, simi-
lar to that in the outer court. The other rooms, of
smaller size, are the inore private apartments of
the mansion.
Room Showing Draperies of Oriental House.
(7) Curtains, There are usually no doors to
the sitting or drawing rooms of Eastern houses.
They are closed by curtains, at least in summer,
the opening and shutting of doors being odious to
most Orientals. The same seems to have been the
case among the Hebrews, as far as we may judge
from the curtains which served instead of doors to
the tabernacle, and which separated the inner and
outer chambers of the temple. The curtained
HOUSE
838
HOUSE
entrances to our Westminster courts of law sup-
ply a familiar example of the same practice.
(8). The Basement. These observations apply
to the principal story. The basement is occupied
by various offices, stores of corn and fuel, places
for the water jars to stand' in, places for grinding
corn, baths, kitchens, etc.
(9) The Kitchen. The kitchens are always in
this inner court, as the cooking is performed by
women, and the ladies of the family superintend
or actually assist in the process. The kitchen,
open in front, is on the same side as the entrance
from the outer court; and the top of it forms a
terrace, which affords a communication between
the first floor of both courts by a private door
seldom used but by the master of the house and
attendant eunuchs.
The kitchen is surrounded by a brick terrace,
on the top of which are the fireplaces formed In
compartments, and separated by little walls of
fire-brick or tile. In these different compartments
the various dishes of an Eastern feast may be at
once prepared at charcoal fires. This place being
wholly open in front, the half-tame doves, which
have their nests in the trees of the court, often
visit it in the absence of the servants in search
of crumbs, etc. As they sometimes blacken them-
selves, this perhaps explains the obscure passage
in Ps. Ixviii:i3, Though ye have lain among the
pots, ye shall be as the wings of a dove covered
with silver,' etc. In Turkish Arabia most of the
houses have underground cellars or vaults, to
which the inhabitants retreat during the mid-day
heat of summer, and there enjoy a refreshing cool-
ness. In the rest of the year these cellars, or
serdaubs, as they are called, are abandoned to the
bats, which swarm in them in scarcely credible
numbers (Is. ii :2o).
(10) The Gallery. From the court a flight of
stone steps, usually at the corner, conducts to the
gallery, from which a plainer stair leads to the
house top. If the house be large there are two or
three sets of steps to the different sides of the
If the house in which our Lord then was had
more than one court he and the auditors were
certainly in the outer one; and it is reasonable to
conclude that he stood in the veranda addressing
the crowd below. The men bearing the paralytic,
therefore, perhaps went up the steps near the
door, and. finding they could not even then get
near the person of Jesus, the gallery being also
crowded, continued their course to the roof of
the house, and, removing the boards over the
Oriental House Showing Court and Tile Roof.
(A shows recess where a public speaker would probably stand.
B shows tile roof which could be easily "broken up' or removed.)
quadrangle, but seldom more than one flight from
the terrace to the house top of any one court.
There is, however, a separate stair from the outer
court to the roof, and it is usually near the en-
trance. This will bring to mind the case of the
paralytic, whose friends, finding they could not
get access to Jesus through the people who
crowded the court of the house in which he was
preaching, took him up to the roof and let him
down in liis bod through the tiling to the place
where Jesus stood (Luke v:i7-26).
Dirt Covered House.
covering of the gallerj', at the place where Jesus
stood, lowered the sick man to his feet. But if
they could not get access to the steps near the
door, as is likely, from the door being much
crowded, their alternative was to take him to the
roof of the ne.xt house and there hoist him over
the parapet to the roof of the house which they
desired to enter!
(11) The Roof. The roof of the house is, of
course, flat. It is formed by layers of branches,
twigs, matting, and earth, laid over the rafters and
trodden down, after which it is covered with a
compost which acquires considerable
hardness when dry; but in those parts
of Asia where the climate is more than
usually moist, a stone roller is usually
kept on every roof, and after a shower
a great part of the population is engaged
in drawing these rollers over the roof.
It is now very common, in countries
where timber is scarce, to have domed
roofs ; but in that case the flat roof, which
is indispensable to Eastern habits, is ob-
tained by filling up the hollow intervals
between the several domes, so as to form
a flat surface at the top.
These flat roofs are often alluded to in
Scripture, and the allusions show that
they were made to serve the same uses
as at present. In fine weather the in-
habitants resorted much to them to
breathe the fresh air, to enjoy a fine pros-
pect, or to witness any event that occurred
in the neighborhood (2 Sam, xi :2 ; Is.
xxii:i; Matt. xxiv:i7; Mark xiii:l5).
The dryness of the summer atmosphere enabled
them without injury to health, to enjoy the bra-
cing coolness of the night air by sleeping on the
house tops, and in order to have the benefit of the
air and prospect in the daytime, without incon-
venience from the sun, sheds, booths, and tents
were sometimes erected on the house tops (2
Sam. xvi:22).
The roofs of the houses are well protected by
walls and parapets. Towards the street and
HOUSE
HOUSE TOP
neighboring houses is a high wail, and towards
the interior courtyard usually a parapet or wooden
rail. 'Battlements' of this kind, for the prevention
of accidents, are strictly enjoined in the Law
(Deut. xxii:8).
Oriental House with Stages upon the Roof for Steeping.
(12) The Ceiling. The ceiling, if of wood and
flat, is of curious and complicated joinery, or, if
vaulted, is wrought into numerous coves, and en-
riched with fretwork in stucco; and the walls are
adorned with arabesques, mosaics, mirrors, paint-
ing, and gold, which, as set off by the marble-like
whiteness of the stucco, has a truly brilliant and
rich effect. There is much in this to remind one
of such descriptions of splendid interiors as that
in Is. liv :ii. 12.
(13) Inferior Dwellings. In the inferior kinds
of Oriental dwellings, such as are met with in vil-
lages and very small towns, there is no central
court, but there is generally a yard attached, either
on one side or at the rear. The shaded platform
in front is such as is usually seen attached to
coffee-houses.
Here the customers sit and smoke their pipes,
and sip their coffee. The village cabins and
abodes of the peasantry are, of course, of a still
inferior description; and, being the abodes of peo-
ple who live much in the open air, will not bear
comparison with the houses of the same class in
Northern Europe, where the cottage is the home
of the owner.
No ancient houses had chimneys. The word
so translated in Hos. xiii 13 means a hole through
which the smoke escaped ; and this existed only
in the lower class of dwellings, where raw wood
was employed for fuel oi- cooking, and where
there was an opening immediately over the hearth
to let out the smoke. In the better sort of houses
the rooms were warmed in winter by charcoal in
braziers, as is still the practice (Jer. xxxvi:22;
Mark xiv:54; John xviii:i8).
The windows had no glass. They were only
latticed, and thus gave free passage to the air and
admitted light, while birds and bats were excluded.
In winter the cold air was kept out by veils over
the windows, or by shutters with holes in them
sufficient to admit light (l Kings vii:i7; Cant,
ii :9)
In the East, where the climate allows the people
to spend so much of their time out of doors, the
articles of furniture and the domestic utensils
have always been few and simple. They are in
this work noticed under separate heads. (See
Bed; La.mf; Pottkr; Table.)
5. Literature. I'orte.r, Damascus; bhaw,
Travels; \.M\it, Mod. Eiiy'pt ; Burckhardt, Syria;
Layard, Monuments 0/ A'ineiieh.
Figurative. (1) Heaven, the church, the
tabernacle, temple, and ordinances, are represented
as God's house, or a spiritual house; as God
planned, formed, furnished, or owned them, so he
did or does dwell in them, and display his glory,
power, and grace in a peculiar manner (John xiv:
l; Heb. iii:2; Judg. xviii:3i; 2 Chron. v:i4; Ps.
lxxxiv:ro). (2) The saints are a spiritual house,
and household of faith, being formed by the Holy
Ghost, and furnished with spiritual graces and
enabled to believe the truth as in Jesus; God
dwells in them, and among them, as their master,
parent, and householder; and ministers attend
them as their servants (l Pet. ii:5; Gal. vi:io;
Matt. xiii:27 and xxi:33). (3) The house of
God, at which dangerous judgments begin, is
either the ruined Jewish temple or the persecuted
Christian church (i Pet. iv:i7). (4) The house of
David and inhabitants of Jerusalem are all ranks,
both great and small (Zech. xiii:i). (s) To join
house to house, and field to field, till there be no
place, is to join several farms or occupations to-
gether, in order to grow hastily rich, and by which
a great many, especially of the poor, are deprived
of livings and subsistence (Is. v:8). (6) God
made houses to the Hebrews, or to the midwives;
he prospered and increased fheir families (Exod.
i:22), (7) Such as build their hopes on Christ
in his word are houses founded on a rock; their
hopes cannot be overturned by any temptation,
affliction, death, or judgment to come; but such
as found their hopes on anything else are like
houses built on the sand, which, amid temptation
and trouble, are easily overthrown or ruined
(Matt. vii:24, 25).
HOTXSEHOLD (bous'hold'), the rendering gen-
erally of the same Hebrew and Greek words as
are rendered "house," and meaning the members
of a family, living in the same dwelling, including
domestics and dependents.
In Job i :3 the word ab-ood-daiv' (literally
"service"), appears to mean a retinue of servants.
The expression "they of Caesar's household" (Phil,
iv :22) seems to refer to some of the servants of
the emperor, and not those of the imperial family
HOUSE OF GOD (hous 6v god), a translation in
the A. V. of the place Bethel. It is Xhe place where
the ark was, and not the ark, which is called "the
house of God." (See Bethel.) (Judg. xx:i8,
26; xxi:2; comp. Judg. xx:27).
HOUSE OF BOLLS, THE (hous 6v rols),
"House of the rolls," Erra vi;i, and "treasure-
house," Ezra v:i7, both refer to the same deposi-
tory of public documents.
HOUSE TOP (hous t6p), the flat roof of an East-
em house. (See House.)
Figurative. Some of these roofs were cov-
ered with earth rolled hard, which, softened
by rain, would cause grass seeds to spring up.
When the returning drought and heat came the
grass speedily withered, an apt illustration of
temporary prosperity followed by ruin (2 Kings
xix:26; Ps. cxxix:6; Is. xxxvii:27).
On account of the flat roofs, the house tops
were used to speak from to neighbors, or to gaze
on an approaching enemy (Matt. x:27; Is. xxii :
i).
HUKKOK
840
HUMILITY
HTTKKOK (hflk'kok), (Heb. pp'H, khoo-koke' , ap-
Sointed), one of the boundary marks of Naphtali
osh. xix;34). It has been identified with the
modern Yakdk, west of the upper end of the Sea
of Galilee, seven miles southwest of Safed.
H'UEOK (hu'kok), (Heb. same as above), a city
of Asher; the same probably as that of Naphtali,
(Josh. xix:34) yielded to the Levites, and assigned
for a city of refuge, (l Chron. vi:75). It 's repre-
sented by Helkath, (Josh. xix:25; xxi:3i). (See
Helkath.)
HXTL (hul), (Heb. ^"in, khool, circle), second son
of Aram, and grandson of Shem (Gen. x:23), B.C.
2414. Huleh, the region occupied by this family,
is not definitely known, Josephus and Jerome fix it
in Armenia; Schulthess (Parad. p. 262), in southern
Mesopotamia; von Boh\en (/nirod.io Gen., ii, 249),
in the neighborhood of Chaldaea. Others have
argued in favor of the region of Lebanon.
Quite probable seems the identification proposed
by Rosenmuller {Altcrthwn, i, 2, p. 253) with the
district now called Huleh, around Lake Merom
(Mc. and S., Cyc).
The various attempts that have been made to
establish its identity will be found in Dillmann,
who does not consider that any of them has been
successful.
HTTLDAH (hul'dah), (Heb. ^"t:^, khool-daw' ,
weasel; (Gr. '0X5a„ of da).
The wife of Shallum, a prophetess, who, in the
reign of Josiah, abode in that part of Jerusalem
called the Mishneh, where the book of the Law
was discovered by the high-priest Hilkiah. (B.
C. 623.) This prophetess was consulted respect-
ing the denunciations which it contained. She
then delivered an oracular response of mingled
judgment and mercy; declaring the not remote
destruction of Jerusalem, but promising Josiah
that he should be taken from the world before
these evil days came (2 Kings xxii: 14-20; 2
Chron. xxxiv:22-28). Huldah is known only by
this circumstance. She was probably at this time
the widow of Shallum, a name too common to
suggest any information; but he is said to have
been grandson of one Harhas, 'keeper of the
wardrobe,' but whether the priestly or the royal
wardroije is uncertain. If the former, he must
have been a Levite, if not a priest. As to her resi-
dence in the Mishneh •"'^.■??, which the Auth.
Vers, renders 'in the college,' there is no ground to
conclude that any school or college of the prophets
is to be understood. The name means 'second'
or 'double ;' and many of the Jews themselves
(as Jarchi states) understood it as the name of
the suburb lying between the inner and outer
wall of Jerusalem. It is safest to regard it as a
proper name, denoting some quarter of Jerusa-
lem about which we are not certain, and, ac-
cordingly, to translate 'in the Mishneh.'
HUMAN SACBiriCE (hu'mansak'ri-fiz). See
Sacrifice.
HITMAN SOtTL. See Soul.
HUMANITY OF CHRIST (hQ-man'i-ty). See
Incarnation.
HUMBLENESS ( hum'b'l -nes), (Col. iii:i2).
See Hu.Mii.iTY.
HUMILIATION OF CHRIST (ha-miri-a'-
shun), an expression which refers to the earthly
life of the Lord Jesus Christ.
His humiliation was shown in his earthly life
from beginning to end. He humbled himself to
be born of a virgin ; and the lowly circumstances
of his birth have ever been the theme of Christian
artists and poets. The humility of the thirty
years' subjection to his parents, and of the three
years of unceasing toil, privation, and opposition,
was crowned when he endured the cross, despising
the shame (Heb. xii:2). We may notice specially
his praying (Luke ix:i8, etc.), his admitting
weariness, distress, and pain (John iv :6, Mark
xiv:34; John xix:28), and the solemn words and
acts by which he inculcated humility (Matt, xi:
29; John xiii:i2-i6). At the same time, he as-
serted his authority (e. g., to forgive sins, to
judge men, to found an undying Church) ; he pro-
claimed himself as the only way to God, etc.
(John xiv:6). He claimed that he alone knew the
Father aright (Matt. xi:27).
HUMILITY (hQ-mn'i-ty), (Heb. ^Xi^-., att-aw-
vaw' , gentleness, affliction ; Gr. Ta.Treivo(j>po<rivTi,
tap-i-nof-ros-00'nay, lowliness of mind; Prov.
xv;33, et al.; Acts xxtig in R. V. is "lowliness of
mind").
Humility is the effect of divine grace operating
on the soul, and always characterizes the true
Christian. The heathen philosophers were so lit-
tle acquainted with this virtue that they had no
name for it ; what they meant by the word we
use was meanness and baseness of mind.
To consider this grace a little more particu-
larly, it may be observed: (i) That humility
does not oblige a man to wrong the truth, or
himself, by entertaining a meaner or worse opin-
ion of himself than he deserves. (2) Nor does
it oblige a man, right or wrong, to give every-
body else the preference to himself. A wise man
cannot believe himself inferior to the ignorant
multitude; nor the virtuous man that he is not
so good as those whose lives are vicious. (3)
Nor does it oblige a man to treat himself with
contempt in his words or actions ; it looks more
like affectation than humility when a man says
such things in his own dispraise as others know,
or he himself believes, to be false ; and it is plain,
also, that this is often done merely as a bait to
catch the praises of others.
Humility consists: (l) In not attributing to
ourselves any excellence or good which we have
not. (2) In not overrating anything we do. (3)
In not taking an immoderate delight in ourselves.
(4) In not assuming more of the praise of a
quality or action than belongs to us. (5) In an
inward sense of our many imperfections and sins.
(6) In ascribing all we have and are to the grace
of God.
True humility will express itself: (i) By the
modesty of our appearance. The humble man
will consider his age, abilities, character, func-
tion, etc., and act accordingly. (2) By the mod-
esty of our pursuits. We shall not aim at any-
thing above our strength, but prefer a good to a
great name. (3) By the modesty of our con-
versation and behavior. We shall not be loqua-
cious, obstinate, forward, envious, discontented
or ambitious.
The advantages of humility are numerous: (i)
It is well pleasing to God (l Pet. iii:4). (2)
It has great influence on us in the performance
of all other duties, praying, hearing, conversing,
etc. (3) It indicates that more grace shall be
given (James iv :6 ; Ps. xxv:9). (4) It preserves
the soul in great tranquillity and contentment
(Ps. Ixix :32, 33). (s) It makes us patient and
resigned under afflictions (Job i:22). (6) It
enables us to exercise moderation in everything.
To obtain this excellent spirit zee should re-
member: (i) The example of Christ (Phil.
ii :6, 7, 8). (2) That heaven is a place of humil-
HUMTAH
841
HUNT, HUNTER, HUNTING
ity (Rev. v:8). (3) That our sins are numerous,
and deserve the greatest punishment (Lam. iii ;
39)- (4) That humility is the way to honor
(Prov. xvi:i8). (5) That the greatest promises
of good are made to the humble (Is. Ivii:i5; Ixvi:
2; I Pet. v:5; Ps. cxlvii:6; Matt. v:5).
Brown.
HXTMTAH (hum'tah), (Heb. '^V^P'T', khootn-taw' ,
fortress), a city in the mountain district of Judah
(Josh. xv:54). It has not been identified with any
modem place.
HUNDREDS (hun'dreds). One of the groups
(Exod. xviii;2i) into which Moses divided the
people of Israel. (See Israel, Constitutio.n
OF.)
HTTNOEB (hun'ger), (Heb. -^"3, raw-abe'), the
rendering of the same Hebrew and Greek words
that are sometimes rendered Famine (which see).
Figurative, (i) To be ditr/U with hunger is
to be tormented or afflicted (Dcut. xxxii:24).
<2) To fast is often called to afHict one's suul
(Lev. xvi:29-3i; Is. lviii:5). (3) Spiritual de-
sire after Jesus and his righteousness is called
hunger; how it pains men, till the blessings de-
sired are obtained (Matt. v:6; Luke 1:53). (4)
Such as feed on Christ never hunger nor thirst;
finding enough in him. they never desire any-
thing else as the chief portion of their soul
(John v:35). (s) A man's strength is hunger-
bitten when it decays for want of food (Job
,\viii :i2).
HTJNGER-BITTEN (hiin'ger blt'iu)> (Heb.
3J''5, raw-abe' , Job xviii:i2), famished.
The words hunger-starved and winter-starved
are used by the old writers. (See Hunger, Fig>*-
rative 5-)
HTJNT, HUNTER, HUNTING (hunt'ing),
(Heb. TS, /ja/j'.j^zVj', to lie in wait; "l^T raw-daf-
to run after).
The pursuit and capture of beasts of the field
was the first means of sustenance which the
human race had recourse to, this mode of gaining
a livelihood having naturally preceded the engage-
ments of agriculture, as it presented food already
provided, requiring only to be taken and slaugh-
tered ; whereas tillage must have been an after-
thought, and a later resource, since it implies
accumulated knowledge, skill, and such provision
aforehand of subsistence as would enable a clan
or a family to wait till the fruits of the earth
were matured. Hunting was. therefore, a busi-
ness long ere it was a sport. And originally,
before man had established his empire on the
earth, it must have been not only a serious, but
a dangerous pursuit. In process of time, how-
ever, when civilization had made soijie progress,
when cities were built and lands cultivated, hunt-
ing was carried on not so much for the food
which it brought as for the recreation it gave
and its conduciveness to health.
The East — the cradle of civilization — presents
us with hunting in both the characters now
spoken of, originally as a means of support, then
as a manly amusement. In the early records of
history we find hunting held in high repute,
partly, no doubt, from its costliness, its dangers,
its similitude to war, its capability of combining
the energies of many, and also from the relief
which it afforded to the stagnant monotony nf
a court, in the high and bounding spirits that
it called forth. Hunting has always borne some-
what of a regal character, and down to the pres-
ent hour has worn an aristocratic air. In Baby-
lon and Persia this attribute is presented in
bold relief. Immense parks (rapdSfiffoi) were en-
closed for nurturing and preservmg beasts of the
chase. The monarch himself led the way to the
sport, not only in these preserves, but also over
the wide surface of the country, being attended
by his nobles, especially by the younger aspirants
to fame and warlike renown (Xen. Cyr. viii, i,
38).
In the Bible — our chief storehouse of primi-
tive history and customs — we find hunting con-
nected with royalty so early as in Gen. x. The
great founder of Babel was in general repute as
'a mighty hunter before the Lord.' The patri-
archs, however, are to be regarded rather as herds-
men than hunters, if respect is had to their
habitual mode of life. The condition of the
herdsman ensues next to that of the hunter in the
early stages of civilization ; and so we find that
even Cain was a keeper of sheep. This and the
fact that Abel is designated 'a tiller of the ground,'
would seem to indicate a very rapid progress
in the arts and pursuits of social life. The same
-contrast and similar hostility we find somewhat
later, in the case of Jacob and Esau ; the first, 'a
plain man dwelling in tents;' the second, 'a
cunning hunter, a man of the field' (Gen. xxv :
27). The account given of Esau in connection
with his father seems to show that hunting was,
conjointly with tillage, pursued at that time as
a means of subsistence, and that hunting had not
then passed into its secondary state, and become
an amusement.
In Egypt the children of Israel would be spec-
tators of hunting carried on extensively and pur-
sued by different methods, but chiefly, as appears
probable, with a view rather to recreation than
subsistence (Wilkinson's Anc. Ei^yft, vol. iii).
That the land of promise into which the Hebrews
were conducted on leaving Egypt was plentifully
supplied with beasts of the chase appears clear
from Exod. xxiii 129, 'I will not drive them out
in one year, lest the land become desolate and the
beasts of the field multiply against thee' (comp.
Deut. iii:22). And from the regulation given in
Lev. xvii:is, it is manifest that hunting was
practiced after the settlement in Canaan, and was
pursued with the view of obtaining food. Prov.
xii :27 proves that hunting animals for their flesh
was an established custom among the Hebrews,
though the turn of the passage may serve to
show that at the time it was penned sport was
the chief aim. If hunting was not forbidden in
the 'year of rest,' special provision was made
that not only the cattle, but 'the beast of the field'
should be allowed to enjoy and flourish on the
uncropped spontaneous produce of the land (Exod.
xxiii:i i; Lev. xxv:7).
That the lion and other ravenous beasts of
prey were not wanting in Palestine, many pas-
sages of the Bible make obvious ( I Sam. xvii :
34; 2 Sam. xxiii :20; 1 King? xiii:24; Harris,
Natural History of the Bible; Kitto's Pictorial
Palestine). The lion was even made use of to
catch other animals (Ezek. xix:3), and Harmer
long ago remarked that, as in the vicinity of
(jaza, so also in JudKa, leopards were trained
and used for the same purpose (Harmer, iv:358:
Hab. i:8). That lions were taken by pitfalls, as
well as by nets, appears from Ezek. xix ■.4, 8
(Shaw, p. 172). In the latter verse the words
nf the prophet, 'and spread their net over him.'
.illudc to the custom of enclosing a wide extent
nf country with nets, into which the animals were
driven by hunters (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, iii:4).
HUPHAM
842
HUSHATHITE, THE
The spots thus enclosed were usually in a hilly
country and in the vicinity of water brooks ;
whence the propriety and force of the language
of Ps. xlii:i, 'As the (hunted) hart panteth after
the water brooks.' These places were selected be-
cause they were those to which the animals were
in the habit of repairing in the morning and
evening. Scenes like the one now supposed are
found portrayed in the Egyptian paintings (Wil-
kinson).
Hounds were used for hunting in Egypt, and,
if the passage in Josephus (Antiq. iv :8, 9) may
be considered decisive, in Palestine as well. From
Gen. xxvii 13, 'Now take thy weapons, thy quiver
and thy bow,' we learn what arms were em-
ployed, at least in capturing game. Bulls, after
being taken, were kept at least for a time in a
net (Is. li:2o). Various missiles, pitfalls, snares,
and gins were made use of in hunting (Ps. xci:
3; Amos iii :5 ; 2 Sam. xxiii:2o). That hunting
continued to be followed till towards the end of
the Jewish state appears from Josephus (De Bell.
Jud. i :20, 13), where the historian speaks of
Herod as 'ever a most excellent hunter, for in
one day he caught forty wild beasts.' The same
passage makes it clear that horses were employed
in the pursuits of the chase (comp. Joseph., Antiq.
XV :7, 7; xvi:io, 3). J. R. B-
HUPHAM (hu'pham), (Heb. ^^'^^ , Jt/wo-/awm' ,
coast man, Gesenius), son of Benjamin, and the
founder of the family of Huphamites (Num.
xxvi:39). In Gen. xlvi:2i and 1 Chron. vii:l2 the
name is given as Huppim, B. C. 1856.
HtXPHAMITES (hu'pham-ites), (Heb. "'^?''n!^.
hah-khoo-faw-mee'), descendants of Hupham,
(Num. xxvi:39).
HTJPPAH (hup'pah), (Heb. ^%^_, khoop-paiu'
covering; protection), a priest under David who
had charge of the thirteenth course of the temple
service (l Chron xxiv;l3), B. C. 1014.
HUPPIM (hiSp'pim). See Hupham
HUB (hur), (Heb. Tin, khoor, a hole; a prison).
1- A man of Judah mentioned with Moses
and Aaron. We know but few particulars con-
cerning his life ; but by the little which Scripture
relates, we see that Moses had a great affec-
tion for him. When he had sent Joshua against
the Amalekites, he went up the mountain with
Hur and Aaron (Exod. xvii:io), and while he
lifted up his hands in prayer, Aaron and Hur
supported his arms, to prevent their growing
weary. When he ascended Mount Sinai to re-
ceive the law, he referred the elders, if any diffi-
culty should arise, to Aaron and Hur (Exod.
xxiv:i4). (B. C. 1210.) Jewish tradition makes
him identical with No. 2.
2. Son of Caleb, of Esron, and, according to
Josephus, husband of Miriam, sister of Moses.
Hur was the father of Uri, and Uri was the
father of Bezaleel, who was chief artificer of the
tabernacle (Exod. xxxi:2; xxxv:3o; xxxviii:22;
2 Chron. i:5). Besides Uri he had three sons,
who founded Kirjath-jearim, Bethlehem and
Bath-gader. (B. C. 1210.)
3. A prince of Midian, killed in an encounter
between Phinehas and the Midianites (Num.
xxxi :8), B. C. 1170.
4. Father of Rephaiah, who was ruler over
half the environs of Jerusalem, and repaired a
part of the wall under Nehemiah (Neh. iii:9),
B. C. 446.
5. A man called the son of Hur was Solomon's
commissariat officer in Mount Ephraim (1 Kings
iv:8). B. C. before 995.
H'UBAI (hu'rai, or hu'ra-i), (Heb. "'!'1", khoo-
rah'ee, linen worker), a man belonging to David's
guard (i Chron. xi:32). Kennicott thinks the name
has been corrupted to Hiddai (2 Sam. xxxiii:30),
B. C. 953.
HUKAM (hu'ram), (Heb. 0^", khoo-rawm' ,
highborn).
1. Eldest son of Bela, a Benjamite (i Chron.
viii:5).
2. The form of the name of the king of Tyre,
in the time of David and Solomon, as given in
2 Chron. ii :3, 11; viii:2; ix:io. Elsewhere it is
given as Hiram. (See Hiram.)
3. The name Huram, the artificer, as it ap-
pears in 2 Chron. ii:i3; iv:il, 16.
HUBI (hu'ri), (Heb. "T"", khoo-ree' , linen
worker), father of Abihail, chief of the Gadite
tribe (i Chron. v:i4), B. C. before 781.
HUSBAND (hiiz'biind). See Marriage.
HUSBANDMAN (hiiz'band-man), (properly-
Heb. '"'^l^: ^'^i eesh ad-aw-maw' , man of the
ground; Gr. 7caip745, gheh-ore-gos' , land worker), a
farmer or other tiller of the soil. Husbandry is
among the most ancient and honorable occupa-
tions (Gen.ix:2o; xxvi:i2, 14; xxxvii:7; Job i:3; Is.
xxviii:24-28; John xv:i). (See Agriculture.)
Figurative, (i) God is likened to a /lus-
bandman; he sows, plants, cultivates, and ex-
pects fruit from his church, head, and members
(John XV :i) ; and the church is his husbandry,
the great object of his care and work (i Cor.
iii:9). (2) The Jewish priests, rulers, and oth-
ers were the husbandmen to whom God let out
his vineyard, church, or ordinances ; and who
abused his prophets and son, and in the end were
involved in ruin (Matt. xxi:33-4i).
HUSBANDRY (hiiz'band-rjf), (Gr. yeiipyu>i>,
gheh-ore' ghee-on). In 1 Cor. iii 19 'husbandry' is
used figuratively in the sense of 'that which is cul-
tivated : "ye are God's husbandry', lit., as R. V,
margin, 'God's field.'
HUSHAH (hu'shah), (Heb, '^1?''", khoo-shaw' ,
haste). A name given (i Chron, iv:4; xxvii:ii) in
the genealogies of Judah; but whether of a place
or person it is impossible to say,
HUSHAI (hu'shai, or hu'sha-I), (Heb. '^t^
khoo-shah' ee, hasty), the Archite, David's friend.
Being informed of Absalom's rebellion, and
that David was obliged to fly from Jerusalem,
he met him on an eminence without the city, with
his clothes rent, and his head covered with earth.
David suggested that, if he went with him, he
would be a burden to him ; but that he might do
him important service if he remained, and pre-
tended to be in Absalom's interest, in order to
defeat the counsel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. xv:32,
etc.) Hushai, therefore, returned to Jerusalem,
and, by defeating the counsel of Ahithophel, and
gaining time for David, to whom he sent ad-
vices, was the cause of Ahithophel's suicide and
of Absalom's miscarriage (2 Sam. xvi:i6-I9;
xviii:5, etc.), about B.C. 1023.
HUSHAM (hu'shara), (Heb. D?*''", khoo' shawm,
hastily), king of Edom, successor to Jobab, (Gen.
xxxvi:34, 35; I Chron. i:45, 4^)- The LXX identify
him with the Husham of the book of Job (B. C.
bet. 1618 and 1003).
HUSHATHITE, THE (hu ' shath-ite), (Heb.
'n'i'nn kku-sha-thee').
HUSHIM
843
HYMEN^US
1« The designation of Sibbechai, one of Da-
vid's guard (2 Sam. xxi:i8; i Chron. xi:29; xx:
4; xxvii:ll). From the last passage he must
have been a descendant of Zerah of the tribe of
Judah.
2. The appellation of Mebuniiai, one of Da-
vid's guard (2 Sam. xxiii:27). This is doubtless
a corruption of No. 1.
HTTSHIM (hu'shim), (Heb. OT^, khoo-sheem!,
hasters).
1. The designation of the sons of Dan (Gen.
xlvi:23). In Num. xxvi the name appears as
Shuham.
2. A name appearing in the genealogy of Ben-
jamin (i Chron. vii:i2). The name probably
represents the sons of Asher. (See Bcrthean in
Exeg. Handb.)
3. A name of one of the two wives of Sha-
haraim in the genealogy of Benjamin (i Chron.
viii:8, 11), B. C. about 1618.
HTTSKS (husks), (Gr. Kepinov, ker-at' ee-on,
horned, Luke xv:i6), the pods of Ceratotiia Si-
iiqua, L., the carob tree).
The carob tree is common in Palestine, and is
used for food by the poor, and for the fattening
of cattle or swine. When ripe it is like a crooked
bean-pod, six to ten inches in length, brown,
glossy, and filled with seeds. Miss M. E. Ro-
gers says : "I found it when new rather too sweet
to suit my taste. Children seem to enjoy it, and
they thrive on it, eating the shell as well as the
seeds." The carob tree belongs to the same fam-
ily as the American "locusts," and is often called
by that name by English authors. Some suppose
that it was upon these "locusts" that John the
Baptist subsisted. Hence this fruit is often called
"St. John's bread." But the better critics reject
this opinion (SchafF, Bib. Diet.). An inspissated
decoction of them is known as d/is k/iarnlb, i. e.,
carob honey. (See Ceratia for a full treatment
of the subject.)
HTTZ (huz), (trees), eldest son of Nahor and Mil-
cah (Gen. xxii;2i). Elsewhere written Uz. (See
Uz.)
HITZZAB (huz'zab), (Heb. 2'i^, naw-tsab,' to
establish!, queen of Nineveh in the time of Nahum
(Nah. ii:7).
Many modern critics, however, take the word
to be the Hophal of a verb (see Buxtorf, Lex.;
Gesenius, Lex, p. 903). But there is no reason
why the word should not be a geographical term
— the equivalent of Assyria, i. e., the Zab coun-
try.
HYACINTH (hi'a-sinth), jacinth. (See Le-
SHEM.)
HYENA (ht-e'na), (Heb. ?"I3S tsaw-boo'ah,
speckled, Ecclus. xiii:i8).
Excepting in Ecclesiasticus, just noted, the
word does not occur in the English Bible, al-
though there are several passages in the Hebrew
canonical books, where tsawbooah, 'streaked' or
'variegated,' is assumed to designate the hyena.
The moi^t noted of these is Jer. xii:9, where the
words, air-ffKaiov ito(n)s, 'the Cave of the hyena,"
modern commentators preferred to translate 'a
speckled bird.' as it stands in our version. But
Bochart and the continuator of Calmet vindicate
what we take to be the true reading, oith tsaw-
booah, 'the striped rusher,' i. e., the hyena, turning
round upon his lair — introduced after an allusion
in the previous verse to the lion calling to the
beasts of the field (other hyenas and jackals)
to come and devour. This allusion, followed up.
as it is, by a natural association of ideas, with a
description of the pastor, feeder, or rather con-
sumer or devourer of the vineyard, treading down
and destroying the vines, renders the natural and
poetical picture complete, for the hyena seeks
burrows and caverns for a lair ; like the dog it
Ilycna.
turns round to lie down ; howls, and occasionally
acts in concert ; is loathsome, savage, insatiable
in appetite, offensive in smell ; and will, in the
season, like canines, devour grapes, as the writer
has himself ascertained by actual experiment.
Tsaivbooah, therefore, we consider proved to
be, gencrically, the hyena. The striped species is
one of three or four — all, it seems, originally Afri-
can, and, by following armies and caravans, grad-
ually spread over Southern Asia to beyond the
Ganges, though not as yet to the east of the Bra-
mapootra. It is now not uncommon in Asia Minor.
C. H. S.
HYMN (him), (Gr. C^i-ot, hum'nos, a hymn). In
the only places of the New Testament where this
word occurs, it is connected with two others of
very similar import. 'Speaking to yourselves in
psalms (^a\}uit%\, and hymns (envois), and spiritual
h.^ngs (vJars), singing and making melody in your
heart to the Lord' (Eph. vug; Col. iii:i6).
It has been conjectured that, by 'psalms and
hymns,' the poetical compositions of the Old Tes-
tament are chiefly to be understood, and that the
epithet 'spiritual,' here applied to 'songs,' is in-
tended to mark those devout effusions which re-
sulted from the spiritual gifts granted to the prim-
itive church; yet in i Cor. xiv:26 a production of
the latter class is called 'a psalm.' Josephus, it
may be remarked, uses the terms tifivai, hymns, and
((j5o(, soni^s, in reference to the Psalms of David
{Antig. \\\:\2,2,)- Our information respecting the
hymnology of the first Christians is extremely
scanty: the most distinct notice we possess of it is
that contained in Pliny's celebrated Epistle (Ep.
x:97). (See Poetry, Hebri-.w.)
The hymn which our Lord sang with his dis-
ciples at the Last Supper is generally supposed to
have been the latter part of the Hallel, or series
of psalms which were sung by the Jews on the
night of the Passover, compiehcnding Ps. cxiii-
cxviii ; Ps. cxiii and cxiv being sung before, and
the rest after, the Passover. J. E. R.
HYESOS (hlk's5s), (compounded according to
Josephus, of the Egyptian hyk, "king," ana sos,
"shepherd," or "Arab"), a race who invaded Egypt
and constituted the 15th and one or both of the
two following dynasties. (See Egypt.)
HY1CEN.S:TTS (hy'me-nsc'us), (Gr. 'tiuvaiot. hoo-
7nen-ah'yos, wedding song), a professor of Chris-
tianity at Ephesus, who, with Alexander (i Tim.
i ^20) and Philetus (2 Tim. ii:i7), had departed
from the truth both in principle and practice, and
led others into apostasy.
HYPERBOLE
844
HYPOCRITE
The chief doctrinal error of these persons con-
sisted in maintaining that 'the resurrection was
past already.' The precise meaning of this ex-
pression is by no means clearly ascertained; the
most general and perhaps best founded opinion is
that they understood the resurrection in a figura-
tive sense of the great change produced by the
Gospel dispensation. Most critics suppose that
the same person is referred to in both the epistles
to Timothy by the name of Hymenxus. Dr.
Mosheim, however, contends that there were two,
but his reasoning is not convincing. J. E. R.
HYPERBOLE (hi-per'bs-l5), a figure of speech
in which the expression is an evident exaggeration
of the meaning intended to be conveyed, or by
which things are represented as much greater or
less, better or worse, than they really are.
Any one who carefully examines the Bible
must be surprised at the very few hyperbolic ex-
pressions which it contains, considering that it is
an Oriental book. Some of these few have oc-
casioned so much difficulty to sincere men that
we have reason to bless God that the scene of
those great events which comprise the history of
man's salvation was laid in Western, and not in
Eastern Asia, where the genius of hyperbole
reigns without limit or control. In Eastern Asia
the tone of composition is pitched so high as to
be scarcely intelligible to the sober intellect of
Europe ; while in Western Asia a medium seems
to have been struck between the ultra-extrava-
gance of the far East and the frigid exactness of
the far West.
But even regarded as a book of Western Asia,
the Bible is, as compared with almost any other
Western Asiatic book, so singularly free from
hyperbolic expressions as might well excite our
surprise, did not our knowledge of its divine
origin permit us to suppose that even the style
and mode of expression of the writers were so
far controlled as to exclude from their writings
what in other ages and countries might excite
pain and offense, and prove an obstacle to the re-
ception of divine truth. Nor is it to be said that
the usage of hyperbole is of modern growth. We
find it in the oldest Eastern writings which now
exist ; and the earlier rabbinical writings attest
that, in times approaching near to those in which
the writers of the New Testament flourished, the
Jewish imagination had run riot in this direction,
and has left hyperboles as frequent and outra-
geous as any which Persia or India can produce.
These things being considered, we shall cer-
tainly have more cause to admire the rarity of
hyperbolic expressions in the Bible than to mar-
vel at those which do occur.
The strongest hyperbole in all Scripture is that
with which the Gospel of St. John concludes :
'There are also many other things which Jesus did,
the which, if they should be written every one, I
suppose that the world itself could not contain all
the books that should be written' (John xxi:25).
This has so much pained many commentators
that they have been disposed to regard it as an un-
authorized addition to the sacred text, and to re-
ject it accordingly. Now this is always a dan-
gerous process, and not to be adopted but on such
overwhelming authority of collated manuscripts
as does not exist in the present case. How much
more natural and becoming is it to regard the
verse simply as a hyperbole, so perfectly con-
formable to Oriental modes of expression, and to
some other hyperboles which may be found in-
terspersed in the sacred books, that the sole won
der really is that this one should be rare enough
to afford ground for objection and remark. Some
claim that the text means that the world could
not receive, or accept, the books. The same
Greek word is translated "receive" in Matt, xix :
II, 12. We often find sacred and profane au-
thors using hyperbole* of the like kind and sig-
nification. In Num. xiii -.33, the spies who had
returned from searching the land of Canaan, say
that they saw 'giants there, of such a prodigious
size that they were in their own sight as grass-
hoppers." In Deut. i :28, cities with high walls
about them are said to be 'walled up to heaven.'
In Dan. iv :7 mention is made of a tree whereof
'the height reached unto heaven, and the sight
thereof unto the end of all the earth ;' and the
author of Ecclesiasticus (xlvii:is), speaking of
Solomon's wisdom, says, 'Thy soul covered the
whole earth, and thou filledst it with parables.'
As the world is here said to be filled with Solo-
mon's parables ; so in John xxi -.25, by one degree
more of hyperbole, it is said that the world could
not contain all the books that should be written
concerning Jesus' miracles, if a particular account
of every one of them were given. In Josephus
(Antiq. xiv :22) God is mentioned as promising
to Jacob that he would give the land of Canaan
to him and his seed ; and then it is added, 'they
shall fill the whole sea and land which the sun
shines upon.' Wetstein, in his note on the text
in John, and Basnage, in his Histoire des Juifs
(iii:i-9; v:7), have cited from the ancient rab-
binical writers such passages as the following:
'If all the seas were ink, and every reed was a
pen, and the whole heaven and earth were parch-
ment, and all the sons of men were writers, they
would not be sufficient to write all the lessons
which Jochanan composed ;' and, concerning one
Eliezer, it is said that, 'if the heavens were parch-
ment, and all the sons of men writers, and all the
trees of the forest pens, they would not be suffi-
cient for writing all the wisdom which he was pos-
sessed of.'
Hyperboles not less strong than that under re-
view find their way into our own poetry, without
shocking our judgment or offending our taste,
thus:
'And I as rich in having such a jewel
As fifty seas, if all their sands were pearl.
Their rivers nectar, and their rocks pure gold.'
(See Bishop Pearce's Commentary on the Four
Evangelists.)
HYPOCRISY (hi-p6k'ri-s3>), (Hebrew from •"1^.1-
khaw-nafe' , a seeming or professing to be what in
truth and reality we are not).
It consists in assuming a character which we
are conscious does not belong to us, and by
which we intentionally impose ujjon the judgment
and opinion of mankind. The name is borrowed
from the Greek inrbKpusix, hoop-ok' ree-sis, an an-
swer, to play a part, in which it primarily signifies
the profession of a stage player, which is to express
in speech, habit and action, not his own person
and manners, but his whom he undertakes to rep-
resent. And so it is, for the very essence of
hypocrisy lies in apt imitation and deceit ; in act-
ing the part of a member of Christ without any
saving grace.
HYPOCRITE (hip'6-krit). The hypocrite is a
double person; he has one person, which is natural;
another, which is artificial; the first he keej>s
to himself; the other he puts on as he does his
clothes, to make his appearance in before men.
It was ingeniously said by Basil, "that the hypo-
crite has not put off the old man, but put on
the iif-y upon it." Hypocrites have been divided
into four sorts: (i) The worldly hypocrite, who
HYSSOP
845
HYSSOP
makes a profession of religion, and pretends to
be religious, merely from worldly considerations
(Matt, xxiiio). (,2) The Ic^al hypocrite, who
relinquishes his vicious practices, in order thereby
to merit heaven, while at the same time he has no
real love to God (Rom. x:3). (3) The evangel-
ical hypocrite, whose religion is nothing more
than a bare conviction of sin; who rejoices under
the idea that Christ died for him, and yet has no
desire to live a holy life (Matt. xiii:2o; 2 Pet
ii:20). (4) The enthusiastic hypocrite, who has
an imaginary sight of his sin, and of Christ ; who
talks of remarkable impulses and high feelings;
and thinks himself very wise and good while hfc
indulges in the most evil practices (Matt, xiii:
39; 2 Cor. xi:i4). Brown.
HYSSOP (his'sup), (Heb. ^"'^, ay-zobe' ; Gt.
iaauwot, Iwos' so-pos).
A great variety of opinions have been entertained
respecting the plant called
esohh, translated 'hyssop' in
the Authorized Version both
of the Old and the New
Testaments; but as yet no
satisfactory investigation
has been made, so as to en-
able us to fix with certainty
on the plant intended.
The first notice of it oc-
curs in Exod. xii :22, where
a bunch of hyssop is direct-
ed to be dipped in blood
and struck on the lintels
and the two side-posts of
the doors of the houses in
which the Israelites resided.
It is next mentioned in Lev.
xiv :4, 6, 52, in the cere-
mony for declaring lepers
to be cleansed; and again,
in Num. xix :6, 18. in pre-
paring the water of separa-
tion. To these passages the
apostle alludes in Heb. ix :
19: 'For when Moses had
spoken every precept to all
the people, according to the
law, he took the blood of
calves, and of goats, with
water, and scarlet wool, and
hyssop, and sprinkled both
the book and all the people.'
From honssopos we find
that the Greek name hoosso-
pos was considered synony-
mous with the Hebrew
esobh; and from the pre-
ceding that the plant must
have been leafy, and large
enough to serve for the pur-
pose of sprinkling, and that
it must have been found in
Lower Eg>'pt, as well as in
toward Mount .Sinai, and onward
Hyssop.
the country
to Palestine.
From the following passages we get
the supposed properties of the plant. Thus, in 1
Kings iv -.a, it is said, 'Solomon spoke of trees,
from the cedar-tree that is in Lebanon, even unto
the hyssop, ihat .springclh out of the wall;' and in
the penitential psalm of David (li:7), 'Purge me
with hyssop, and I shall be clean ; wash me, and I
shall be whiter than snow.' In this passage it is
no doubt considered by some commentators that
hyssop is used in a figurative sense ; but still it is
possible that the plant may have possessed some
general cleansing properties, and thus came to be
employed in preference to other plants in the cere-
monies of purification. It ought, at all events, to
be found growing upon walls, and in Palestine.
In the account of the crucifixion of our Savior,
the Apostle John says (John xix 129) , 'Now
there was set a vessel full of vinegar, and they
filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it upon
hyssop, and put it to his mouth.' In the parallel
passages of Matthew (xxvii:48) and Mark (xv:
36), it is stated that the sponge filled with vine-
gar was put upon a reed or stick. To reconcile
these statements some commentators have sup-
posed that both the sponge and the hyssop were
tied to a stick, and that one apostle mentions only
the hyssop, because he considered it as the most
important ; while, for the same reason, the other
two mention only the stick ; but the simplest
mode of explaining the apparent discrepancy is to
consider the hyssop and the stick to be the same
thing — in other words, that the sponge was af-
fixed to a stick of hyssop.
A great variety of plants have been adduced
by different authors as that alluded to in the
above passages. It has been thought by some to
belong to the class of ferns. Some again contend
for species of wormwood, as being, from their
bitterness, most likely to have been added to the
vinegar in the sponge, that it might be more dis-
tasteful to our Savior. The majority, however,
have selected different kinds of fragrant plants
belonging to the natural family of Labials, sev-
eral of which are found in dry and barren situa-
tions in Palestine, and also in some parts of the
Desert. Of these may be mentioned the rose-
mary, species of lavender, of mint, of marjoram,
of thyme, of savory, of thymbra, and others of
the same tribe resembling each other much in
characters as well as in properties ; but it does
not appear that any of them grow on walls, or are
possessed of cleansing properties ; and with the
exception of the rosemary, they are not capable
of yielding a stick, nor are they found in all the
required situations.
The Origaiuan vtarit. however, corresponds
with the Arabic definition. It has a slender,
square stem, and grows on the walls of the ter-
races throughout Palestine and Syria. The stem
is free from thorns and spreading branches, but
ends in a cluster of heads. The odor is highly
aromatic, which fits it to be made into a branch
for the purpose of sprinkling; in fact, no plant in
the East is so well suited for such a purpose.
(See Ysop.>
ICONIUM
I
I, when it relates to God, is expressive of his
dignity (Ps. lxxxi:lo) ; his power (Gen. xvii:l) ;
his self-existence and unchangeableness (Exod.
iii:i4) ; where his name is given "I AM" (Heb.
'^v'i'S I??}*. 'T'7?5, eAyeA asher ehyek, God is he who
is).
It relates also to the certainty of his promises
and threatenings (Exod. vi:2; Num. xiv:3S).
Referring to men, it expresses their pride (Is.
xlvii:8); the certainty of what they say ((jal.
v:2; Phil, ivrii), and their readiness to perform
their duty (Micah iii:8; Matt. xxi:3o).
IBHAR (Ib'har), (Heb. ''^7:,yib-khar' , choice).
A son of David mentioned in the lists (2 Sam.
v:is; 1 Chron. iii:6; xiv:5), between Solomon and
Elishua. He was born in Jerusalem, and his
mother was apparently a wife and not a concu-
bine (B. C. post 1044).
XBIS (i'bis), a bird (Lev. xiilg, R. V. margin),
related to the herons and storks. It was formerly
held in veneration by the Egyptians. (See
Heron.)
IBLEAM (Ib'le-am), (Heb. 0?^?.\ yib-leh-awm' ,
devouring people), a city of Issachar, which with
its suburbs was allotted to Manasseh (Josh, xvii:
II), but from which the Israelites were unable to
expel the Canaanites (Judg. i:27).
Its position is given as between Dor and Me-
giddo, near the pass of Gur (2 Kings ix:27).
The name appears as Bileam (i Chron. vi:7o),
where it is stated that the city was assigned to
the family of Kohath as a Levitical city. The site
is probably that of the modern Jelameh, two and
a half miles north of Jenin (Robinson, Re-
searches, iii :i6l.
IBNEIAH (ib-ne'ya), (Heb. '""'f?"!, yib-nek-yaw' ,
built by Jah), son of Jeroham, who was a chief of
the Benjamites and returned with them to Jerusa-
lem from Babylon (i Chron ix:8), B. C. 536.
IBNIJAH (ib-nl'jah), (Ueh.'^'^'^T.yib-nee-yaw',
building of Jah), a Benjamite, father of Reuel and
ancestor of Meshullam, who settled in Jerusalem
after the return from captivity (i Chron. ix;8),
B. C. much before 536.
IBRI (Jb'ri), (Heb. "I??, ib-ree', an Eberite. or
"Hebrew"), a Levite in the time of David, and
son of Merari by Jaaziah (i Chron. xxiv:27), B. C.
1014. The name is the same as the word rendered
Hebrew in the A. V.
IBZAN (ib'zin), (Heb. IVP^^ ib-tsawn', shin-
ing), the tenth 'judge of Israel.'
He was of Bethlehem, probably the Bethlehem
of Zebulun and not of Judah. He governed seven
years. The prosperity of Ibzan is marked by the
great number of his children (thirty sons and
thirty daughters), and his wealth, by their mar-
riages— for they were all married. Some have
held, with little probability, that Ibzan was the
same with Boaz, (Judg. xii:8), B. C. 1249-1243.
ICE (is), (Heb. "Di?,, keh'rakh, smooth, Job vi:t6;
xxxviii:2o: Ps. cxlvii:i7), elsewhere cold, "frost,"
but crystal in £zek. i:22.
Snow has fallen at times nearly to a depth of
tiwo feet on the Central Range in Palestine, and
ice has sometimes been formed on the pools at
Jerusalem, but very rarely.
ICHABOD (itk'a-bod), (Heb. "'i^J-'K^ ee-kaw-
bode' , where is the glory? inglorious), sonof Phine-
has and grandson of Eli.
He is only known from the unhappy circum-
stances of his birth, which occasioned this name
to be given to him. The pains of labor came upon
his mother when she heard that the ark of God
was taken, that her husband was slain in battle,
and that these tidings had proved fatal to his
father Eli. They were death-pains to her ; and
when those around sought to cheer her, saying,
'Fear not, for thou hast borne a son,' she only an-
swered by giving him the name of Ichabod. add-
ing, 'The glory is departed from Israel' (i Sam.
iv:i9-22), B. C. 1141. The name again occurs in
I Sam. xiv:3. (See Eli.)
ICONnjM (I-ko'ni-iim), (Gr. '\it.bvi.ov, ee-kon'ee-
on, of unknown derivation), a town, formerly the
capital of Lycaonia, as it is now, by the name of
Konieh, of Karamania, in Asia Minor.
It is situated in N. lat n" 51', E. long. 32° 40',
about 120 miles inland from the Mediterranean.
It wa^ visited by St. Paul in A. D. 45, when many
Gentiles were converted ; but some unbelieving
Jews excited against him and Barnabas a persecu-
tion, which they escaped with difficulty (Acts
xiii :5i ; xiv :i, 19, 21 ; xvi :2 ; 2 Tim. iii :ii). He
undertook a second journey to Iconium in A. D.
51. The church planted at this place by the apos-
tle continued to flourish until, by the persecutions
of the Saracens, and afterward of the Seljukians,
who made it one of their sultanies, it was nearly
extinguished. But some Christians of the Greek
and Armenian churches, with a Greek metropoli-
tan bishop, are still found in the suburbs of the
city, not being permitted to reside within the
walls.
Konieh is situated at the foot of Mount Taurus,
upon the border of the lake Trogitis, in a fertile
plain, rich in valuable productions, particularly
apricots, wine, cotton, flax, and grain. The cir-
cumference of the town is between two and three
miles, beyond which are suburbs not much less
populous than the town ifself. The town, sub-
urbs, and gardens are plentifully supplied with
water from streams which flow from some hills
to the westward, and which, to the northeast,
join the lake, which varies in size with the sea-
son of the year. In the town carpets are manu-
factured, and blue and yellow leathers are tanned
and dried. Cotton, wool, hides and a few of the
other raw productions which enrich the superior
industry and skill of the manufacturers of Eu-
rope, are sent to Smyrna by caravans.
The city, like all those renowned for superior
sanctity, abounds with dervishes, who meet the
passenger at every turning of the streets and de-
mand paras with the greatest clamor and inso-
lence. The bazaars and houses have little to rec-
ommend them to notice (Kinneir's Travels »n
Asia Minor; Leake's Geography of Asia Minor;
Arundell's Tour in Asia Minor; Hamilton, Re-
searches in Asia Minor, ii :205 sg. ; Harper's Clas-
sical dictionary).
itfALAH
847
IDOL
XDALAH (I-da'lah), (Heb. !^)lfT, yid-al-aw'.
probably exalted), one of the cities of Zebulun.near
the western border (Josh. xix:i5). Schwarz iden-
tified it with Kellah al-Chir/, which is probably
the Kulat el-Kireh of Robinson, six miles south-
west of Semunieh in the Kishon valley, exact site
unknown.
IDBASH (Id'bash), (Heb. *3T, yid-bawsh', per-
haps honeyed, sweet), a descendant of Judah (l
Chron. iv:3). Bvthe phrase "of the father of Etam"
we are probably to understand that he was a de-
scendant of the founder of Etam, as the list here is
largely a topographical one (B. C. about 1612).
IDDO (fd'do), (Heb. nv, id-do\ seasonable).
1. A prophet of Judah, who wrote the history
of Rehoboam and Abijah; or rather perhaps, who,
in conjunction with Seraiah, kept the public rolls
during their reigns (2 Chron. .xii:is). It seems
from 3 Chron. xiii :22 that he named his book
Midrash, or 'Exposition.' Josephus (Antiq. viii:
9, i) states that this Iddo was the prophet who
was sent to Jeroboam at Bethel, and consequently
the same that was slain by a lion for disobedience
to his instructions (i Kings xiii) ; and many com-
mentators have followed this statement (B. C.
after 953)-
2. Grandfather of the prophet Zechariah (Zech.
i:i; Ezra v:i; vi:i4). He was one of the chief
priests who returned from the captivity with
Zerubbabel (Neh. xii:^), B. C. 536.
3. /d-<io', (Heb. IIK), chief of the Jews of the
captivity established at Casiphia, a place of which
it IS difficult to determine the position.
It was to him that Ezra sent a requisition for
Levites and Nethinim, none of whom had yet
joined his caravan. Thirty-eight Levites and 250
Nethinim responded to his call (Ezra viii:i7-2o),
B. C. 457. It would seem from this that Iddo was
a chief person of the Nethinim, descended from
those Gibeonites who were charged with the ser-
vile labors of the tabernacle and temple. This
is one of several circumstances which indicate
that the Jews in their several colonies under the
Exile were still ruled by the heads of their na-
tion, and allowed the free exercise of their wor-
ship.
4. Yid-dd' (Heb. il?. lovely), a chief of the
half tribe of Manasseh beyond the Jordan (i Chron.
xxvii;2i), B. C. 1014.
6. A Levite, descendant of Gershom through
his father Joah (l Chron. vi:2i). In verse 41
the name is Adaiah, who is given as an ancestor
of Asaph.
6- Father of Abinadab, which latter was a
purveyor under Solomon over Mahanaim (i
Kings iv:i4), B. C. about 995.
IDLE (i'd'l), (Heb. ^^1, raw-/aw').
The ordinary uses of this word require no illus-
tration. But the very serious passage in Matt,
xii :36 may suitably be noticed in this place. In
the Authorized Version it is translated, 'I say
unto you, that every idle word that men shall
speak, they shall give an account thereof in the
day of judgment." The whole question depends
upon the meaning or rather force of the term
jiTitui ipybv, rha'ma ar-^on' , 'idle word,' concerning
which there has been no little difference of
opinion. Many understand it to mean 'wicked
and injurious words,' as if argon, vain, empty
were the same as irow/pAi", pon-ay-ron' , wicked.
The meaning of the expression seems to be
void of effect, without result, followed by no
corresponding event. Therefore rha-nta argon is
empty or vatn words or discourse, i. e., void of
truth, and to which the event docs not correspond.
In short, it is the empty, inconsiderate, insincere
language of one who says one thing and means
another ; and in this sense argos is very frequently
employed by the Greeks. This Tittmann con-
firms by a number of citations, and then deduces
from the whole that the sense of the passage
under review is : 'Believe me, he who uses false
and insincere language shall suffer grievous pun-
ishment ; your words, if uttered with sincerity and
ingenuousness, shall be approved ; but if they
are dissembled although they bear the strongest
appearance of sincerity, they shall be condemned.'
(See Tittmann, On the Principal Causes of Forced
Interpre(ations of the New Testament, in Am.
Bib. Repository for 1831, pp. 481-484.)
IDOI. (i'd61).
A large number of Hebrew ind Greek words
have been rendered in the Bible either by idol or
image. These embrace: (l) A class of abstract
terms, which, with a deep moral significance, ex-
press the degradation associated with it, and stand
out as a protest of the language against the enor-
mities of idolatry; (2) those words which more
directly apply to the images or idols, as the out-
ward symbols of the deity who was worshiped
through them ; (3) the terms which have regard
to the material and workmanship of the idol rather
than to its character as an object of worship.
/. jibstract Germs. 1. Ay-maw' (Heb.
■""i"^), horror, or terror, or terrifying shapes, and
hence an object of horror or terror (Jer. I:.38),
in reference either to the hideousness of the idols
or to the gross character of their worship. In this
respect it is closely connected with number 2.
2. Mif-leh' tsetk (Heb. '^V^r'?), a "fright," "hor-
ror," applied to the idol of Maachah, probably of
wood, which Asa cut down and burned (i Kings
xv:i3; 2 Chron. xv:i6), and which was unques-
tionably the Phallus, the symbol of the productive
power of nature and the nature-goddess Ashera.
Allusion is supposed to be made to this in Jer.
X :S and Epist. of Jer. 70 (in the Apocrypha). In
2 Chron. xv:i6 the Vulg. render "simulacrum
Priapi" the image of Priapus. (Smith).
3. El-eef (Heb. ^''??:), the inane, good for noth-
ing (Lev. xix:4).
It is supposed by some to have a sense akin to
that of ^R.'?, sheh-ker' , "falsehood," with which
it stands in parallelism in Job xiii 14, and would
therefore much resemble aw'-x'cn, as applied to an
idol. It is used to denote the idols of Noph or
Memphis (Ezek. xxx:i3). In marked contrast
with Jehovah it is seen in Ps. xcvi :s ; xcvii:7).
4. Aw'ven (Heb. IJ'i, rendered elsewhere
"nought," "vanity," "iniquity," "wickedness,"
"sorrow," etc., and once only "idol," Is. Ixvi:3j.
The primary idea of the root seems to be empti-
ness, nothingness, as of breath or vapor; and, by
a natural transition, in a moral sense, wickedness
in its active form of mischief, and then, as the
result, sorrow and trouble. Hence awven denotes
a vain, false, wicked thing, and expresses at once
the essential nature of idols, and the consequences
of their worship, akin to ^'?}, heh'hel, the foolish
things, vanities, of Acts xivii? (corap. Jer. ii:S).
6. Ghil-loo-leem' (Heb. ^'z'''?), is used as a term
of contempt, but of uncertain origin (Ezek. xxx:i3).
In Ezek. iv:i2, /eph. i:i7, some have favored the
interpretation given in the margin of the A. V. to
Deut.xxix;i7, "dungy gods." (See i Kings xv;l2.)
IDOL
848
6. Bo'sheth (Heb. •"'"■?-), "shame," or "shameful
thing" (A. V. Jer. xi:l3; Hos. ix;lo), applied to
Baal or Baal-Peor, as characterizing the obscenity
of his worship. It is found in close connection
with el-cet . ^
7. Shik-koots' (Heb. VT^), "filth," "impurity."
especially applied, like shekels, to that which pro-
duced ceremonial uncleanness (Ezek. xxxvii:23;
Nah. iii:6), such as food offered in sacrifice to
idols (Zech. ix:;; comp. Acts xv:2o, 29).
As referring to the idols thernselves, it pri-
marily denotes the obscene rites with which their
worship was associated, and hence, by metonymy,
is applied both to the objects of worship ^and also
to their worshipers, who partook of the impurity,
and thus "became loathsome like their love," the
foul Baal-Peor (Hos. ix:io).
2. Names of Idols. These may be consid-
ered as indicating that the images were made in
imitation of external objects, and to represent
some idea, or attribute; or as they denote the
workmanship by which they were fashioned.
1. (Heb. ^)\ tseh-lem', and D^V, tsel-em,
shadow).
It is the "image" of God in which man was cre-
ated (Gen. i:27; comp. Wisd. ii:23), distinguished
from ^™1, devi-ooth, or "likeness," as the "im-
age," from the " idea " which it represents
(Schmidt, de Imag. Dei in Horn. p. 84), though
it would be rash to insist upon this distinction.
But whatever abstract term may best define the
meaning of tsclcnt, it is unquestionably used to
denote the visible forms of external objects, and
is applied to figures of gold and silver (1 Sam.
vi:s; Num. xxxiii:52; Dan. iii:i), such as the
golden image of Nebuchadnezzar, as well as to
those painted upon the walls. (Ezek. xxiii:l4).
"Image" perhaps most nearly represents it in all
passages. Applied to the human countenance
I Dan. iii:T9) it signifies the "expression," and
corresponds to the IS^a of Matt. xxviii:3, though
dem-ooth' agrees rather with the Platonic usage
of the latter word. (See Image.)
2. (Heb. ^^9; seh'mel, or 'pP., say'mel, sem-
blance, likeness). In 2 Chron. xxxiii:7 it appears
as "carved images," following the LXX ■Th'i\\nrTbv,
to glupton. On the whole the Greek iUCiv, aikone,
of Deut. iv:i6, 2 Chron. xxxiii:7, and the "simula-
crum" of the Vulgate (2 Chron. xxxiii:i5) most
nearly resemble the Hebrew say'mel.
3. (Heb. '^?""2-'!',/^i-oo-«a'a''), rendered "image"
in Job iv.i6; elsewhere "similitude" (Deut. iv:i2);
"likeness," (Deut. iv:l6); "form" or "shape " would
be better (comp. 2 Kings xvii:i6; Exod. xx:4; Num.
xii;8).
4. (Heb. '^7^'^, tnats-tsay-baw' , anything set
up, 2i" statue", applied to a memorial stone like
those erected by Jacob on four several occasions
<Gen. xxviii;i8; xxxi:45; xxxv:l4, 20) to commem-
orate a crisis in his life, or to mark the grave of
Rachel, (comp. Jer. xliii:i3).
Such were the stones set up by Joshua (Josh,
iv :9) after the passage of the Jordan, and at
Shechem (xxiv:26), and by Samuel when vic-
torious over the Philistines (i Sam. yii:ia).
When solemnly dedicated they were anointed with
oil, and libations were poured upon them. The
word is applied to denote the obelisks which stood
at the entrance to the temple of the Sun at
Heliopolis (Jer. xliii:i3), two of which were a
hundred cubits high and eight broad, each of a
single stone (Her. ii:ill). It is also used of the
statues of Baal (2 Kings iii:2), whether of »tone
IDOL
(2 Kings x :2~) or wood, which stood in the in-
nermost recess of the temple at Samaria. The
Palladium of Troy, the black stone in the Kaaba
at Mecca, said to have been brought from heaven
by the angel Gabriel, and the stone at Ephesus,
"which fell down from Jupiter" (Acts xix:3S),
are examples of the belief, anciently so common,
that the gods sent down their images upon earth.
6. (Heb. 2??, azu-lsaivb').
6. (Heb. 2^?, eh'lseb, Jer. xxii:28).
7. (Heb. "^"p , oh' tseb , Is. xlviii;5), a "figure."
(The three immediately foregoing arc derived
from a root aw-lsab'. signifying "to work," "to
fashion.")
8. (Heb. n'V. fseer, once only applied to an
Idol, Is. xlv:i6).
9. (Heb. ^"^V^.mas-keeth'.Lev.xxvi-.i-.iium.
xxxiii:52; Ezek. viii:l2).
The opmion is held by some that Ebr/i mas-
keeth' was originally a smooth elevated stone,
employed for the purpose of obtaining from it a
freer prospect, and of offering prayer in prostra-
tion upon it to the deities of heaven. Hence,
generally, they conclude it signifies a stone_ of
prayer or devotion, and the "chambers of im-
agery" of Ezek. viii:i2 are 'chambers of devo-
tion."
10. ( Heb. O'Cn.^^ ter'aw-feme, teraphim). See
Teraphim.
11. (Heb. ON^Q, kham-maw-neejn'), in the
margin of most passages "sun images." It is used
in conjunction with the symbols of the nature god-
dess Asherah (2 Chron. xiv:3, 5; xxxiv:4, 7; Is.
xvii:9; xxvii:8), as was otherwise usual with Baal
and Asherah.
They are mentioned with the Asherim, and the
latter are coupled with the statues of Baal (l
Kings xiv:23; 2 Kings xxiii:l4). The chammdnim
and statues are used promiscuously (comp. 2 Kings
xxiii:i4 and 2 Chron. xxxiv;4; 2 Chron. xiv:3, 5),
but are never spoken of together. They were
probably images of the fire god Baal, and seem to
have represented a rising flame of fire, being made
of either wood or stone.
3. Material. Etc. Terms denoting the ma-
terial, tools, workmanship, etc.
1. Heb. 1?^-, neh'sek, or ^?^ riay'sek, and
•''?2^, mas-say-kazv'.are evidently synonymous (Is.
xli-29; xlviii;5; Jer. x:l4) in later Hebrew, and denote
a "molten" image. Mas-say' kaw' is frequently
used in distinction from peh'sel (Deut. xxvii:i5;
Judg. xvii:3, etc). ,
2. Heb. '??,/(?//.$<?/, and °TC?, /«-^^/-(?^w',
usually translated in the A. V. "graven" or
"carved" images. In two passages the latter is
ambiguously rendered "quarries" (Judg. in: 19,
26).
The verb is used to indicate the finished result
of the workmanship of the masons (Ex. xxxiv:4;
I Kings v:i8). Pch-scl was later employed of a
figure cast in metal (Is. xl:i9: xliviio). These
"sculptured" images were probably wood, iron,
or stone, covered with gold or silver (Deut. vn :25 ;
Is. xxx:22; Hab. ii:i9). the more costly bemg of
solid metal (Is. xl:i9) brass and clay were em-
ployed for the same purpose (Dan. ii:33; v:23).
4. Forms of Idols. Among the earliest ob-
jects of worship, regarded as symbols of deity,
were the meteoric stones which the ancients be-
lieved to have been the images of the gods Fent
down from heaven; then rough unhewn blocks;
IDOLATRY
IDOLATRY
ihen stone ^olumns or pillars of wood, in which
the Divinity worshiped was supposed to dwell.
and which were consecrated, like the sacred stone
at Delphi, by being anointed with oil and crowned
with wool on solemn days.
We have not many traces of the forms of
idolatrous images in the Bible. Dagon, the fish-
god of the Philistines, was a human figure ter-
minating in a fish (see Dagon). A few bore
some symbolical reference to the worship of the
true God, and partook of the nature of idolatry;
such, for example, as the golden calf of Aaron
comp. Neh. ix:i8) ; those of Jeroboam; the singu-
lar ephods of Gideon and Micah (Judg. viii:27;
xviiis). (Mc. & Str. Cyc; Smith's Bib. Diet.)
IDOLATRY (l-dol'a-try), (Heb. D'C?'?, Ur-aw-
feme' , teraphim, once only, i Sam. xv:23).
i. Definition and Classification. Idolatry,
strictly speaking, denotes the worship of deity in
a visible form, whether the images to which hom-
age is paid are symbolical representations of the
true God, or of the false divinities which have
been worshiped in his stead. Idolatry may be
classified under the following heads: (l) Fetish-
ism, or tozv nature worship of trees, rivers, hills
and stones; (2) of animals; (3) of high nature
worship, as the sun, moon and stars, and the
powers or forces of nature, as fire, air, etc. ; (4)
hero worship, as of the leaders of a nation, or of
deceased ancestors ; (5) idealism or the worship
of mental qualities or abstractions, as justice, etc.
There may also be added to these: (a) the wor-
ship of the true God by images; (b) of false gods
by images; (c) of the worship of the images or
symbols themselves.
2. Idolatry Through Heathen Nations. The
heathen nations who influenced the Israelites
were as follows :
(1) Chaldea. The early existence of idolatry
is evinced by Josh, xxiv .2, where it is stated that
Abram and his immediate ancestors dwelling in
Mesopotamia 'served other gods.' The terms in
Gen. xxxi :53, and particularly the plural form of
the verb, seem to show that some members of
Terah's family had each different gods.
(2) Egypt. From Josh. xxiv:i4, and Ezek.
XX :8, we learn that the Israelites, during their
sojourn in Egypt, were seduced to worship the
idols of that country ; although we possess no
particular account of their transgression. In
Amos v:25, and Acts vii:42, it is stated that they
committed Idolatry in their journey through the
wilderness; and in Num. xxv:i, sq., that they
worshiped the Moabite idol Baal-peor at Shittim.
(3) Canaan. After the Israelites had obtained
possession of the promised land, we find that they
were continually tempted to adopt the idolatries
of the Canaanite nations with which they came in
contact. The book of Judges enumerates several
successive relapses into this sin. The gods which
they served during this period were Baal and
Ashtoreth, and their modifications ; and Syria,
Sidon, Moab, Ammon, and Philistia. are named
in Judg. x :6 as the sources from which they de-
rived their idolatries. Then Samuel appears to
have exercised a beneficial influence in weaning
the people from this folly (l Sam. vii) ; and the
worship of the Lord acquired a gradually increas-
ing hold on the nation until the time of Solomon,
who was induced in his old age to permit the es-
tablishment of idolatry at Jerusalem. On the di-
vision of the nation, the kingdom of Israel (be-
sides adhering to the sin of Jeroboam to the last)
was specially devoted to the worship of Baal,
which Ahab had renewed and carried to an.un-
64
precedented height ; and although the energetic
measures adopted by Jehu, and afterward by the
priest Jehoiada, to suppress this idolatry, may
have been the cause why there has been no later
express mention of Baal, yet it is evident from 2
Kings xiii :t), and xvii:io, that the worship of
Asherah continued until the deportation of the ten
tribes.
(4) Assyria. The deportation of the ten tribes
also introduced the peculiar idolatries of the As-
syrian colonists into Samaria. In the kingdom of
Judah, on the other hand, idolatry continued dur-
ing the two succeeding reigns ; was suppressed
for a time by Asa (i Kings xv:i2) ; was revived
in consequence of Joram marrymg into the fam-
ily of Ahab ; was continued by Ahaz ; received a
check from Hezekiah ; broke out again more vio-
lently under Manasseh ; until Josiah made the
most vigorous attempt to suppress it. But even
Josiah's efforts to restore the worship of the Lord
were ineffectual ; for the later prophets, Zepha-
niah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, still continue to utter
reproofs against idolatry. Nor did the capture of
Jerusalem under Jehoiachim awaken this pecu-
liarly sensual people; for Ezekiel (viii) shows
that those who were left in Jerusalem under the
government of Zedekiah had given themselves up
to many kinds of idolatry; and Jeremiah (xliv:8)
charges those inhabitants of Judah who had found
an asylum in Egypt, with having turned to serve
the gods of that country. On the restoration of
the Jews after the Babylonian captivity, they ap-
pear, for the first time in their history, to have
been permanently impressed with a sense of the
degree to which their former idolatries had been
an insult to God, and a degradation of their own
understanding — an advance in the culture of the
nation which may in part be ascribed to the in-
fluence of the Persian abhorrence of images, as
well as to the effects of the exile as a chastise-
ment. In this state they continued until Antio-
chus Epiphanes made the last and fruitless at-
tempt to establish the Greek idolatry in Palestine
(i Mace. i).
3. Forms of Idolatry. The particular forms
of idolatry into which the Israelites fell are de-
scribed under the names of the different gods
which they worshiped (see Ashtoreth; Baal;
etc.) ; the general features of their idolatry re-
quire a brief notice here. According to Movers
(Die Ph6ni:ier, i. 148), the religion of all the
idolatrous Syro-Arabian nations was a deification
of the powers and laws of nature, an adoration of
those objects in which these powers are consid-
ered to abide, and by which they act. The deity
is thus the invisible power in nature itself, that
power which manifests itself as the generator,
sustainer, and destroyer of its works. This view
admits of two modifications: either the separate
powers of nature are regarded as so many differ-
ent gods, and the objects by which these powers
are manifested — as the sun. moon, etc. — are re-
garded as their images and supporters ; or the
power of nature is considered to be one and in-
divisible, and only to differ as to the forms
under which it manifests itself. Both views co-
exist in almost all religions. The most simple and
ancient notion, however, is that which conceives
the deity to be in human form, as male and fe-
male, and which considers the male sex to be the
type of its active, generative, and destructive
power; while that passive power of nature whose
function is to conceive and bring forth, is em-
bodied under the female form. The human form
and the diversity of sex lead naturally to the dif-
ferent ages of life — to the old man and the youth.
IDOLATRY
850
IDUM^A
the matron and the virgin — according to the mod-
ifications of the conception ; and the myths which
represent the inflnences, the changes, the laws,
and the relations of these natural powers under
the sacred histories of such gods, constitute a
harmonious development of such a religious sys-
tem.
Those who saw the deity manifested by, or con-
ceived him as resident in, any natural objects,
could not fail to regard the sun and moon as the
potent rulers of day and night, and the sources of
those influences on which all animated nature de-
pends. Hence star-worship forms a prominent
feature in all the false religions mentioned in the
Bible. Of this character chiefly were the Egyp-
tian, the Canaanite, the Chalda:an, and the Per-
sian religions. The Persian form of idolatry,
however, deserves to be distinguished from the
others ; for it allowed no images nor temples of the
god, but worshiped him in his purest symbol, fire.
It is understood that this form is alluded to in
most of those passages which mention the wor-
ship of the sun, moon and heavenly host, by in-
cense, on heights (2 Kings xxiii :$, 12 ; Jer. xix :
13). The other form of astrolatry, in which the
idea of the sun, moon and planets is blended with
the worship of the god in the form of an idol, and
with the addition of a mythology (as may be seen
in the relations of Baal and his cognates to the
sun), easily degenerates into lasciviousness and
cruel rites.
4, Sin of Idolatry. Idolatry was the most
heinous offense against the Mosaic law, which is
most particular in defining the acts vyhich con-
stitute the crime, and severe in apportioning the
punishment. Thus, it is forbidden to make any
image of a strange God; to prostrate oneself be-
fore such an image, or before those natural ob-
jects which were also worshiped without images,
as the sun and moon (Deut. ivag) ; to suffer the
altars, images, or groves of idols to stand (Exod.
xxxiv:i3); or to keep the gold and silver of
which their images were made, and to suffer it
to enter the house (Deut. vii:25, 26) ; to sacrifice
to idols, most especially to offer human sacrifices ;
to eat of the victims offered to idols by others;
to prophesy in the name of a strange god ; and to
adopt any of the rites used in idolatrous worship,
and to transfer them to the worship of the Lord
(Deut. xii :30, 31). As for punishment, the law
orders that if an individual committed idolatry he
should be stoned to death (Deut. xvii :2-5) ; that
if a town was guilty of this sin, its inhabitants
and cattle should be slain, and its spoils burnt
together with the town itself (Deut. xiii:i2-i8).
To what degree also the whole spirit of the Old
Testament is abhorrent from idolatry, is evident
(besides legal prohibitions, prophetic denuncia-
tions, and energetic appeals like that in Is. xliv:
9-20) from the literal sense of the terms which
are used as synonyms for idols and their wor.ship
which have been considered under Idol (which
see).
5. General'Kites of Idolatry. The general
rites of idolatrous worship consist in burning in-
cense ; in offering bloodless sacrifices, as the
dough-cakes and libations in Jer. vii :i8, and the
raisin-cake in Hos. iii:i; in sacrificing victims (i
Kings xviii 126) ; and especially in human sacri-
fices (see MoLECH). These offerings were made
on high places, hills, and roofs of houses, or in
shady groves and valleys. Some forms of idola-
trous worship had libidinous orgies (see AsH-
TORETh). Divinations, oracles (2 Kings i:2),and
rabdomancy (Hos. iv:i2) form a part of many of
these false religions. The priesthood was gen-
erally a numerous body; and where persons of
both sexes were attached to the service of any
god (like that of Ashtoreth), that service was in-
famously immoral. It is remarkable that the
Pentateuch makes no mention of any temple of
idols ; afterward we read often of such. J. N.
Figurative. Covctousncss, in which is im-
plied a setting of our heart on worldly things in-
stead of God, and all inordinate care for the ap-
petite, as gluttony, or sinful love to, or trust in
any creature, is idolatry in God's account, and
constitutes the person guilty an idolater, or wor-
shiper of idols (Eph. v:s; Col. iii:5; Phil, iiiiig;
comp. Rom. xvi:i8; 2 Tim. iii:4).
IDTTIVI.SIA (id-u-me'a), (Or. Idouiiala, id-00-mah'-
yah). We often meet with the phrase E?-etz-
Edorn, 'the Land of Edom,' and once with the
poetic form Seiieh-Edom, 'the Field of Edom'
(Judg. v:4). The inhabitants are sometimes styled
Beni-Edovi, 'the Children of Edom,' and poetically
Bath-Edom,'\.\\& Daughter of Edom' (Lam. iv:2l,
22). A single person was called "''?"'^:, Ed-o-mee',
'an Edomite' (Deut. xxiii:8), of which the feminine
piural, '^"^"'^, Ed-o-meeth' , occurs in i Kings xi:i.
/. fiame, (1) Edom. The name was de-
rived from Isaac's son Edom, otherwise called
Esau, the elder twin-brother of Jacob (see Esau).
It signifies red, and seems first to have been sug-
gested by his appearance at his birth, when 'he
came out all red,' i. e., covered with red hair
(Gen. XXV :25), and was afterward more formally
and permanently imposed upon him on account
of his- unworthy disposal of his birthright for a
mess of red lentils (Gen. xxv:3o). The region
which came to bear his name is the mountainous
tract on the east side of the great valleys El
Ghor and El Araba, extending between the Dead
Sea and the Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea. Into
this district Esau removed during his father's
lifetime, and his posterity gradually obtained pos-
session of it as the country which God had as-
signed for their inheritance in the prophetic bless-
ing pronounced by his father Isaac (Gen. xxvii:
39, 40; xxxii :3 ; Deut. ii:5-i2, 22).
(2) Mount Seir. Previously to their occupa-
tion of the country, it was called Mount Seir, a
designation indeed which it never entirely lost
(see Seir; Mount Seir, 2). The word seir means
hairy (being thus synonymous wifh Esau), and,
when applied to a country, may signify rugged,
mountainous, and so says Josephus (Antiq. i:
20, 3) : 'Esau named the country "Roughness"
from his own hairy roughness.' But in Gen.
xxxvi :20 we read of an individual of the name of
Seir, who had before this inhabited the land, and
from whom it may have received its first appel-
lation.
The first mention made of Mount Seir in Scrip-
ture is in Gen. xiv :6, where Chedorlaomer and
his confederates are said to have smitten 'the
Horim in their Mount Seir.' (See Chedorlaomer.)
Among the earliest human habitations were caves,
either formed by nature or easily excavated, and
for the construction of these the mountains of
Edom afforded peculiar facilities. _ Hence the
designation given to the aboriginal inhabitants —
Horim. i. e., cave-dwellers, an epithet of similar
import with the Greek Troglodytes. Even in the
days of Jerome 'the whole of the southern part of
Idumaca, from Eleutheropolis to Petra and Aila,
was full of caverns used as dwellings, on account
of the sun's excessive heat' (Jerome on Obadiah.
verse i) ; and there is reason to believe that the
possessors of the country in every age occupied
IDUMyEA
851
IDUM^A
similar habitations, many traces of which are yet
seen in or near Petra, the renowned metropoUs.
2. History. We are informed in Deut. ii:
12 that 'the children of Esau succeeded (marg.
inherited) the Horim when they had destroyed
them from before them, and dwelt in their stead,
as Israel did unto the land of his possession,
which Jehovah gave unto them.' From this it
may be inferred that the extirpation of the Horim
by the Esauites was, like that of the Canaanites
by Israel, very gradual and slow. Some think
this supposition is confirmed by the genealogical
tables preserved in the thirty-sixth chapter of Gen-
esis (comp. I Chron. i), where we have, along
with a list of the chiefs of Edom, a similar cata-
logue of Horite chieftains, who are presumed to
have been their contemporaries. But for the
chronology of these ancient documents we pos-
sess no data whatsoever, and very precarious
therefore, must be any deductions that are drawn
from them. This much, however, we there learn
of the political constitution of the Seirite abori-
gines, that, like the Esauites and Israelites, tliey
were divided into tribes, and these tribes were
subdivided into families — the very polity which
still obtains among the Arabs by whom Idumaea
is now peopled.
(1) Dukes or CMefs. Each tribe had its own
Alhif, a term which is unhappily rendered in the
English Version by 'Duke,' for though that has,
no doubt, the radical meaning of the Latin dux,
a 'leader,' it now only suggests the idea of a
feudal title of nobility. Of these chiefs of the
Horites seven are enumerated, viz., Lotan, Sho-
bal, Zibeon, Anah, Dishon, Ezer, and Dishan. The
only one of these who is spoken of as related to
the other is Anali, the son of Zibeon. The prim-
itive and pastoral character of the people is in-
cidentally brought out by the circumstance that
this Anah, though a chieftain's son, was in the
habit of tending to his father's asses. It was
when thus einployed that he found in the wilder-
ness eth-ha-yemim, rendered in the English Ver-
sion by 'the mules,' but meaning more probably
'the hot springs ;' and thus interpreted, the pas-
sage seems to be an intimation that he was the
first to discover the faculty with which asses and
other animals are endowed, of snuffing the moist-
ure of the air, and thus sometimes leading to the
opportune discovery of hidden waters in the des-
ert. There is in the country to the southeast of
the Dead Sea (which formed part of the Seirite
possessions), a place, Kallirhoe, celebrated among
the Greeks and Romans for its warm baths, and
which has been visited by modern Jravelers (Jo-
sephus, Dc Bell. Jud. i :33, 5 ; Pliny, Hist. Nat.
V :5, 17; Legh's Travels).
(2) Marriage of Esau. Esau first married
into two Canaanitish families of the Hittite and
Hivite tribes (Gen. xxvi:34; xxxvi:2; in one or
other of which places, however, the text seems
corrupt) ; but anxious to propitiate his offended
parents, he next formed a matrimonial alliance
with one of the race of Abraham, viz., Mahalath,
otherwise called Bashemath, daughter of Ishmael,
and sister of Nebaioth, whose descendants, the
Nabathaeans, by a singular coincidence, obtained
in after times possession of the land of Edom
(Gen. xxviiito). (See Esau.) Esau's firstborn
(by Adah or Bashemath, of the daughters of
Heth) was Eliphaz, whose son Teman gave name
to a district of the country (Gen. xxxvi:li, 34;
I Chron. i 145 ; Ezek. xxv:i3; Obad. verse 9).
(3) The Temanites. The Temanites were re-
nowned for their wisdom (Jer. xlix 7, 20; Ba-
ruch iii :22, 23). The chief speaker in the book
of Job is another Eliphaz, a Temanite — which is
one of the circumstances that has led many to
place the scene of that story in the land of Edoiq
(see Job). The name of Teman was preserved
to the days of Eusebius in that of Thaiman, a
small town five Roman miles from Petra. An-
other son of the first-mentioned Eliphaz was
Ainalek, who is not to be confounded, however,
with the father of the Amalekites, one of the
doomed nations of Canaan, of whom we hear so
early as the age of Abraham (Gen. xiv:7).
(4) Edomite Emirs. As a modern Arab
sheikh is often found to exercise influence far
beyond the sphere of his hereditary domain, so
in the list of Edomite emirs preserved by Moses
we have perhaps only the names of the more dis-
tinguished individuals who acquired more or less
authority over all the tribes.
(5) Kings of Edom. This oligarchy appears
gradually to have changed into a monarchy, as
happened, too, among the Israelites ; for in addi-
tion to the above-mentioned lists, both of Horite
and Esauite leaders, we have in Gen. xxxvi:3i,
a catalogue of eight kings (Bela, Jobab. Husham,
Hadad, Samlah, Saul, Baal-hanan, Hadar or
Hadad) who reigned in the land of Edom before
there reigned any king over the children of
Israel.' It is not necessary to suppose that this
was said by Moses prophetically ; it is one of
those passages which may have been inserted by
Ezra when finally arranging the canon, inasmuch
as it occurs also in the first book of Chronicles,
of which he is the reputed compiler. The period
when this change to regal government took place
in Idumaea can only be matter of conjecture. In
the Song of Moses (Exod. xv:is) it is said that
at the tidings of Israel's triumphal passage of
the Red Sea the rulers or princes (Alhij) of
Edom trembled with affright, but when, some
forty years afterwards, application had to be made
by the Israelites for leave to traverse the land of
Edom, it was to the king {Melck) that the re-
quest was addressed (Num. xx:i4). The road
by which it was sought to penetrate the country
was termed 'the kings highway' (verse 17), sup-
posed by Robinson to be the Wady el-Ghuweir,
for it is almost the only valley that affords a direct
and easy passage through those mountains. From
a comparison of these incidents it may be inferred
that the change in the form of government took
place during the wanderings of the Israelites in
the desert, unless we suppose, with Rosenmiiller,
that it was only this northeastern part of Edom
which was now subject to a monarch, the rest
of the country remaining under the sway of its
former chieftains. But whether the regal power at
this period embraced the whole territory or not,
perhaps it did not supplant the ancient constitu-
tion, but was rather grafted on it, like the author-
ity of the Judges in Israel, and of Saul, the first
king, which did not materially interfere with the
government that previously existed.
(6) Monarchy Not Hereditary. It further
appears, from the list of Idumaean kings, that the
monarchy was not hereditary, but elective (for
no one is spoken of as the son or relative of his
predecessor) ; or probably that chieftain was ac-
knowledged as sovereign who was best able to vin-
dicate his claim by force of arms. Every succes-
sive king appears to have selected his own seat
of government : the places mentioned as having
enjoyed that distinction are Dinhabah, Avith.
Pagu or Pai. Even foreigners were not excluded
from the throne, for the successor of Samlah of
Masrekah was Saul, or Shaul, 'of Rechoboth. on
the river.' The word 'Rcchobolh' means, literally,
streets, and was a not uncommon name given to
towns; but the emphatic addition of 'the river/
IDUMvEA
852
IDUM^A
points evidently to the Euphrates, and between
Rakkah and Anah, on that river, there are still
the remains of a place called by the Arabs Ra-
chabath-Malik-Ibn Tank. In the age of Solo-
mon we read of one Hadad, who 'was of the
king's seed in Edom' (l Kings xi :I4) ; fromwhich
some have conjectured that by that period there
was a royal dynasty of one particular family ;
but all that the expression may imply is, that he
was a blood relation of the last king of the coun-
try. Hadad was the name of one of the early
sovereigns 'who smote Midian in the field of
Moab' (Gen. xxxvi:35).
(7) Feud of Esau and Jacob. The unbroth-
erly feud which arose between Esau and Jacob
was prolonged for ages between their posterity.
The Israelites, indeed, were commanded 'not to
abhor an Edomite, for he was their brother'
(Deut. xxiii:/); but a variety of circumstances
occurred to provoke and perpetuate the hostility.
The first time tliey were brought into direct col-
lision was when the Edomites, though entreated
by their 'brother Israel,' refused the latter a pas-
sage through their territories, and they had con-
sequently to make a retrograde and toilsome
march to the Gulf of Elath, whence they had to
'compass the land of Edom' by the mountain des-
ert on the east. We do not again hear of the
Edomites till the days of Saul, who warred
against them with partial success (l Sam. xiv:
47) ; but their entire subjugation was reserved for
David, who first signally vanquished them in the
Valley of Salt i, supposed to be in the Ghor, be-
side Usdum, the Mountain of Salt) ; and, finally,
placed garrisons in all their country (2 Sam. viii:
14; I Chron. .xviii:ii-i3; I Kings xi:i5; comp.
the inscription of Ps. Ix and v :8, 9; cviii :9, 10,
where 'the strong city' may denote Selah or
Petra). Then were fulfilled the prophecies in
Gen. XXV 123 and x.xvii :40, that the 'elder should
serve the younger;' and also the prediction of
Balaam (Num. xxiv:i8), that Edom and Seir
should be for possessions to Israel. Solomon cre-
ated a naval station at Ezion-geber, at the head
of the Gulf of Elath, the modern Akaba (i Kings
ix:26; 2 Chron. viii:i8).
(8) Attempts at Independency. Towards the
close of his reign an attempt was made to restore
the indepenuence of the country by one Hadad,
an Idum^ean prince, who, when a child, had
been carried into Egypt at the time of David's
invasion, and had there married the sister of
Tahpanhes the queen (i Kings xi: 14-23). (See
Hadad.) If Edom then succeeded in shaking
off the yoke, it was only for a season, since in
the days of Jehoshaphat, the fourth Jewish mon-
arch from Solomon, it is said, 'there was no king
in Edom; a deputy was king;' i. e., he acted as
viceroy for the king of Judah. For that the latter
was still master of the country is evident from the
fact of his having fitted out, like Solomon, a fleet
at Ezion-geber (l Kings xxii :47, 48; 2 Chron.
XX :36, 37). It was, no doubt, his deputy (called
king) who joined the confederates of Judah and
Israel in their attack upon Moab (2 Kings iii :9,
12, 26). Yet there seems to have been a partial
revolt of the Edomites, or at least of the moun-
taineers of Seir, even in the reign of Jehoshaphat
(2 Chron. xx:22); and under his successor,
Jehoram, they wholly rebelled, and 'made a king
over themselves' (2 Kings viii :20, 22; 2 Chron.
xxi :8. 10). From its being added that, notwith-
standing the temporary suppression of the rebel-
lion, 'Edom revolted from under the hand of
Judah unto this day,' it is probable that the Jewish
dominion was never completely restored. Ama-
ziah, indeed, invaded the country, and having
taken the chief city, Selah or Petra, he, in me-
morial of the conquest, changed its name to Jok-
theel (i. c, subdued of God) ; and his successor,
Uzziah, retained possession of Elath (2 Kings
xiv:7; 2 Chron. xxv:il-i4; xxvi:3). But in the
reign of Ahaz, hordes of Edomites inade incur-
sions into Judah, and carried away captives (2
Chron. xxviii:i7). About the same period Rezin,
king of Syria, expelled the Jews from Elath, which
(according to the correct reading of 2 Kings
xvi :6) was thenceforth occupied by the Edomites.
(9) Fulfillment of Prophecy. Now was ful-
filled the other part of Isaac's prediction, viz. : that,
in course of time, Esau 'should take his brother's
yoke from off his neck' (Gen. xxvii:4o). It ap-
pears from various incidental expressions in the
later prophets, that the Edomites employed their
recovered power in the enlargement of their ter-
ritory in all directions. They spread as far south
as Dedan in Arabia, and northward to Bozrah in
the Hhauran ; though it is doubtful if the Bozrah
of Scripture may not have been a place in Idu-
maea Proper (Is. xxxiv:6; lxiii:l; Jer. xlix 7, 8-
20; Ezek. XXV :i3; Amos i:i2). When the Chal-
daeans invaded Judah, under Nebuchadnezzar, the
Edomites became their willing auxiliaries, and
triumphed with fiendish malignity over the ruin
of their kinsmen the Jews, of whose desolated
land they hoped to obtain a large portion to them-
selves (Obad. verses 10-16; Ezek. x.xv:i2-i4;
xxxv:3-io; xx.xvi :5 ; Lam. iv:2i). By this cir-
cumstance the hereditary hatred of the Jews
was rekindled in greater fury than ever, and
hence the many dire denunciations of the 'daugh-
ter of Edom,' to be met with in the Hebrew
prophets (Ps. cxxxvii:7-9; Obad. passim; Jer.
xli,x:7; Ezek. xxv. and xx.xv.). From the lan-
guage of Malachi u :2, 3), and also from the ac-
counts preserved by Josephus (Aiitiq. x:g, 7), it
would seem that the Edomites did not wholly
escape the Chaldiean scourge ; but instead of being
carried captive, like the Jews, they not only re-
tained possession of their own territory, but
became masters of the south of Judah, as far
as Hebron (i Mace. v:6s; comp. with Ezek.
XXXV :I0 ; xxxvi :5).
(10) Attack by the Maccabees. Here, how-
ever, they were, in course of time, successfully at-
tacked by the Maccabees, and about B. C. 125
were finally subdued by John Hyrcanus, who com-
pelled them to submit to circumcision and other
Jewish rites, with a view to incorporate them with
the nation (i Mace, v :3, 65; 2 Mace. x:i6; xii:
32; Joseph. Antiq. xiii:9, i; xv:4). The amalga
mation, however, of the two races seems never to
have been effected, for we afterwards hear of
Antipater, an Idumsean by birth, being made by
Csesar procurator of all Judea; and his son, com-
monly called Herod the Great, was, at the time
of Christ's birth, king of Judea, including Idu-
msea ; and hence Roman writers often speak of
all Palestine under that name (Joseph. Antiq.
xiv:l:3; 8:5; xv:7, 9; xviiril, 4). Not long
before the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, 20,000 Idu-
maeans were called in to the defense of the city
by the Zealots ; but both parties gave themselves
up to rapine and murder (Joseph. De Bell. Jud.
iv:4, 5 ; vi :i ; vii :8. i).
(11) Last Mention of the Edomites. This is
the last mention made of the Edomites in history.
The author of a work on Job, once ascribed to
Origen, says that their name and language had
perished, and that, like the Ammonites and Moab-
ites, they had all become Arabs. In the second
century Ptolemy limits the name Idumsea to the
country west of the Jordan.
But while, during the captivity of the Jews in
IDUMiCA
8S3
1DUM/€A
Babylon, the Edomites Iiad thus been extending
their territory to the northwest, they were them-
selves supplanted in the southern part of their
native region by the Nabath3eans, the descendants
of Ishmael's eldest son, and to the article Ne-
BAIOTH, we must refer the reader for the subse-
quent history of the land of Edoni.
(12) Scene of the Book of Job. Could the
scene of the book of Job be with certainty fixed
in Idumsea, we should then possess much curious
and valuable information respecting both the
country and people soon after it had been colon-
ized by the descendants of Esau (see Mason
Good, Wemyss, and others upon Job). But all
that we learn directly of the ancient Edomites
from the historical books of Scripture represents
them as not, indeed, neglecting agriculture or
trade (Num. xx:i7), yet, on the whole, as a
warlike and predatory race, who, according to the
prediction of their progenitor Isaac, 'lived by
their sword.' The situation of the country af-
forded peculiar facilities for commerce, which
seems to have been prosecuted from a very early
period. 'Bordering,' says Volney, 'upon Arabia
on the east and south, and Egypt on the southwest
and forming, from north to south, the most
commodious channel of communication between
Jerusalem and her dependencies on the Red Sea,
through the continuous valleys of El-Ghor and
El-Araba, Idumaea may be said to have long
formed the emporium of the commerce of the
East.' The era of its greatest prosperity was after
the Nabathaeans had become masters of the coun-
try and founded the kingdom of Arabia Petraea,
of which the renowned metropolis was Petra.
(13) Beli^on. and Propliscy. The religion
of the early Edomites was, perhaps, comparatively
pure ; but in process of time they embraced
idolatry ; in 2 C^ron. xxv :20, we read of the
'gods of Edom,' one of whom, according to Jo-
sephus (Antiq. xv :7, 9) was called Kolcc. With
respect to the striking fulfillment of the prophetic
denunciations upon Edom, we need only refer the
reader to the well-known work of Keith, who
frequently errs, however, in straining the sense
of prophecy beyond its legitimate import, as well
as in seeking out too literally minute an accomp-
lishment.
(14) Modern Knowledge of the Land of
Bsau. From the era of the Crusades down to
the present century the land of Esau was, to
Europeans, a terra incognita. Its situation was
laid down in the best maps more than a hundred
miles from the true position, and as if lying in a
direction where it is now known there is nothing
but a vast expanse of desert. Volney had his at-
tention drawn toward it when at G.iza, by the
vague reports of the Arabs, and in 1807 the un-
fortunate Seetzen penetrated a certain way into
the country, and heard of the wonders of the
Wady Musa ; but the first modern traveler who
'passed through the land of Edom' was Burck-
hardt, in the year 1812. And it has been well re-
marked by Dr. Robinson {Amer. Bib. Reposit.
vol. iii. p. 250), that 'had he accomplished nothing
but his researches in these regions, his journey
would have been worth all the labor and cost ex-
pended on it, although his discoveries thus shed
their strongest light upon subjects which were
not comprehended in the plan or purpose either
of himself or his employers.' Burckhardt en-
tered Idumsea from the north, and in the year
1818 he was followed in the same direction by
Messrs. Legh, Bankes, Irby and Mangles. In
1828 Laborde and Linant found access from the
south; and since then it has been visited and de-
scribed by so many that the names of its localities
have become familiar as household words.
(15) Present Condition. It is at present oc-
cupied by various tribes of Bedouin Arabs. The
chief tribe in the Jebal is the Hejaya, with a branch
(if the Kaabineh, while in eshSherah they are all
of the numerous and powerful tribe of the Ha-
weitat, with a few independent allies. The Bed-
ouins in Idumaea have of late years been partially
subject to the Pasha of Egypt, paying an annual
tribute which in the case of the Beni Sukhr, is
one camel for two tents. The fellahin, or peas-
ants, are half Bedouin, inhabiting the few vil-
lages, but dwelling also in tents ; they, too, pay
tribute to the Egyptian government, and furnish
supplies of grain.
Among the localities connected with Edom
which are mentioned in the Scripture may be no-
ticed Dinhabah, Bozrah, Thcman, Maon (now
Maan), Kadesh-barnea (which Robinson identi-
fies with el-Weibeh in the Wady el-Jcib), Zcph-
ath (which he supposes to be the pass of Es-
Sufah), Elath, and Ezion-geber, etc.; but the most
. celebrated place in all the region was the chief
city, Selah or Petra, for a description of which
the reader is referred to the latter head. (See
Petra.)
3. Physical Ceography. The limit of the
wanderings of the Israelites in the desert was
the brook Zered, after crossing which they found
themselves in the territory of Moab (Deut. ii:i3-
18). This brook is supposed to be identical with
the Ifady-el-Alisy, which, rising near the Castle
• e!-Ahsy, on the route to Mecca of the Syrian cara-
van upon the hig'h eastern desert, penetrates
through the whole chain of mountains to near the
southeast corner of the Dead Sea. It was thus the
southern border of Moab and the northern of
Edom, whence the latter region extended south-
wards as far as to Elath on the Red Sea. The
valley which runs between the two seas consists
first of El-Ghor, which is comparatively low, but
gradually rises into the more elevated plain of El-
Arabah to the south. The country lying east of
this great valley is the land of Iduma;a. It is a
mountain tract, consisting at the base of low hills
of limestone or argillaceous rock, then lofty
mountains of porphyry forming the body of the
mountain ; above these, sandstone broken up into
irregular ridges and grotesque groups of cliffs;
and again farther back, and higher than all. long
elevated ridges of limestone without precipices.
East of all these stretches off indefinitely the high
plateau of the great eastern desert. The whole
breadth of the mountainous tract between the
Arabah and the eastern desert docs. not exceed
fifteen or twenty geographical miles. Of these
mountains the most remarkable is Mount Hor,
near the Wady MCisa. (See IIor, Mount.)
While the mountains on the west of the Arabah,
though less elevated, are wholly barren, those of
Idumaca seem to enjoy a sufficiency of rain, and
are covered with tufts of herbs and occasional
trees. The wadies, too, are full of trees and
shrubs and flowers, while the eastern and higher
parts are extensively cultivated, and yield good
crops.
This mountainous region is at present divided
into two districts. The northern bears the name
(AJebAl, i. e., 'The Mountain," the Gebal of the
Hebrews (Ps. lxxxiii:8), and the Gebalene of
the Greeks and Romans. Commencing at Wady
el-.\hsy, it terminates, according to Burckhardt,
at Wady el Ghuweir, the largest place in it being
Tufileh, perhaps the Tophel of Deut. i:l. The
IDUMEA
854
.r,.,.lnprn district is esh-Shemh. extending as far
as Aklbah and includ.ng Shobak. Wady Musa,
Makn etc Burckhardt mentions a tliird district
Teba^ Hesma; but Robinson says that though
there .^ a sandy tract, el-Hismah with moun
tafns around it, on the east, of Akabah, it does
not constitute a separate division. W- wi.
IDUMEA (id'u-me'a), another form of Idum^A
(which see).
lEZEB (i-e'zer). See AbiezeR.
lEZEBITE. See Abiezrite.
IGAL (i'gal). (Heb.^¥^',/z^-aw/'. avenger).
1. Son of Joseph, and the representative of the
tribe of Issachar among the spies sent to explore
the land of Canaan (Num. xm:?; xiv:37). «. C.
'^2^' Son of Nathan of Zobah and one of David^s
heroes (2 Sam. xxiii:36), B. C. 1046. The
rar^e appears as Joel (i Chron. xi:38). which
Kennicou regards as more likely to be correct
3. Son of Shemaiah, a descendant of ZerubbaDel
(I Chron. iii:22), B. C. before 406. ^
IGDALIAH (ig'da-li'ah). (Heb. "^-^ , yig-dal-
yaw'hoo, magnified of Jah, great is Jelwvah) the
Dier of Hanan, in whose chamber Jfremiah pro-
posed the test of the temperance of the Rechab-
ites (Jer. xxxv:4). B. C. before 606.
IGEAL (Ig'e-al), (Heb. 'if?', yi^aivl, avenger.
I Chron. iii:22). See Igal, 3. ^
IGNORANCE (Ig'nS-rans), (Heb. ^'^^ , shaw ,
^aw'. Lev. iv:2. 6). the want of knowledge or
'" u'^lsTft'en used to denote illiteracy The causes
of ignorance are chiefly three: (l) Want of ideas;
(2) want of a discoverable connection between he
ideas we have ; (3) want of tracing and examining
our ideas As it respects religion, ignorance has
been tettnguished into three sorts :-i. An tnvvi-
ablc ignorance, in which the will has. no part
(Acts xvii:30). It is an msult upon justice, to
suppose It will punish men because they were
fgnorant of things which they were P Y^-'^f J •""
capable of knowing. 2. There is a "^"«/«' ^"^ 06-
stmate ignorance; such an 'g"°^.^"«'/A.tl ?i^-T7T
culpating, aggravates a man s crimes (Acts in:i7;-
t A sort of voluntary ignorance, which is neither
entirely willful nor entirely invincible ; as when a
man has the means of knowledge, and does not use
them (Eph. iv:i8). (See Sin.)
Specific Scripture Allusions. Heathen are
•■z>«^ra«/;"destitute of the true knowledge of Ood
fActsxvii-23). Wicked teachers are ignorant;
they know not what they ou?ht to teach others
(Is Iv^io). Paul sinned "ignorantly against
Chr'ist before his conversion, not kn.ow.n? the
truth of the Christian religion (i^, lim 1.13;^
Peter and John were -ignorant; that 's. not
trained up in the schools of polite learning (Acts
'^I H. S. There are three interpretations of this
mystic title. One is that the letters are initials of
the words "In Hoc Signo" 'in this sign, which ap-
peared on the luminous cross supposed to have
been miraculously displayed before the army of
*^ Another 'is that they are the initials of the words
Jesus Hominum Salvador, 'Jesus Savior ot
^The third is that they are the first three letters
of the Greek word IH20T2, I-ay-sous, Jesus.
This last explanation is upheld by the Cambridge
Camden Society, in a work called. Argument for
ILLYRICUM
the Greek Origin of the Monogram I. H. S.
(Lond. 1841).
IIM (I'im), (Heb. D'"?, ee-yeem', ruins), a short
formof Ije-Abarim. .„_ ^.„
IJE-ABARIM(i'je-ab'a-ritm), (Heb.H JJ^/V •■■^■'
ee-vav'haxv-ab-azv-reem', ruins of Abarim).
1. The forty-seventh station of the Israelites in
the wilderness, "in the borders of Moab (Num.
^^2^' A'd'ty m'the south of Judah, probably within
the territory of Simeon (Josh. xv;29; Num. xxull).
Site unknown. . , • ^ •. „»
IJON (rjon).(Heb.V"»,^^->'^«<. '^'^^\\^P^l
northern Palestine, captured in Naphtali by
Benhadad of Syria (i Kings xv:2o; 2 Chron. xvi.4).
and later by Tiglath-pileser of Assyria (2 Kings
'"'Robinson identifies it with Tell Dibbin (Bibl.
Res iii-375), a hill no feet high, on the eastern
border of Merj Ayun, meadow of springs which
seems to preserve a trace of the old name. Fhe site
is about eight miles north-northwest of Banias.
IKKESH (ik'kesh). (Heb. ^?.^, ik-kashe' , per-
verse), father of Ira the Tekoite, of one of David's
famous guard, and captain of the sixth regiment
of his army (2 Sam. xxiii:26; I Chron. xi;28; xxvu.
9), before B. C. 1046.
ILAI (i'lai), (Heb. '2'?, ee-lah'ee, supreme), an
Ahohite, and one of David's guard (l Chron. xi:29).
He is called Zalmon in the parellel lists (2
Sam. xxiii:28), B. C. 1046.
ILii-FAVOBED (il'fa'verd),(Heb. ^J, rah.ba.^-
injured). . ,.
"And, behold, seven other kme came up after
them out of the river, ill favored and leanfleshed ;
and stood by the other kine upon the brink oi the
river" (Gen. xli:3)-
HiLTTMINATED (il-lu'mT-na'ted), (Gr. 4>aTl^u>,
fo-tidzo, to give light), endowed with the saving
knowledge of Christ and divine things (Heb. x:32).
It was used in the early Christian church to de-
note baptized persons.
IliliYKICaM (il-1 Jr'i-kiim), (Gr. 'IWvpiKiv, tl-loo-
ree-kon\ lit. Ilhrian ; derivation unknown), a
country lying to the northwest of Macedonia, and
answering nearly to that which is at present called
Dalmatia; by which name indeed the southern
part of lUyricum itself was known. .
It lies on the east of the gulf of Venice and is
about 480 miL-s in length and 120 in breadth. It has
Austria and part of Hungary on the north, Masia
or Servia on the east, and part of Macedonia on
the south. Counting from northwest to southeast,
it was divided into Sclavonia, Bosnia, Dalmatia,
and Albania ; but sometimes it was taken in a
more extended sense. It is traversed from north-
west to southeast by the None, Carnic, and Julian
Alps constituting the most easterly portion of the
great Alpine chain. Along the coast are excellent
harbors and numerous islands. The Il.lyrian race
inhabiting the region were wild mountaineers, who
were a thorn in the side of their neighbors, the
Macedonians; and, when they descended to the
seacoast, they so practiced piracy as to bring them
into collision with the Romans, who, in B. C. 229,
uegan to conquer them, and finally made Illyricum,
or Illyria, a province of the empire. It was to
Illyricum that St. Paul informs Timothy that
Titus had gone (2 Tim. iv:io). Paul himself
preached the Gospel in Illyricum, which was at
that time a province of the Roman Empire (Rom.
xv:i9). (Cramer, Ancient Greece; Smith, U\ct.
of Class. Geog.)
IMAGE
855
IMMANUEL
IMAGE (im'Sj), (Heb. plural O'D^n ter-aw
feme', tcraphim). Image is often taken for a
statue, figure, or idol.
The Book of Wisdom, speaking of the causes of
idolatry, says that a father, afflicted for the death
of his son, made an image of him, to which he
paid divine honors. We read (Rev. xiii:i4, 15)
that God permitted the beast to seduce men, whom
it commanded to make an image of the beast,
which became living and animated ; and that all
who refused to adore it were put to death. The
images mentioned in Lev. x.xvi:3o; Is. xxvii :9,
were, according to rabbi Solomon, idols exposed
to the sun, on the tops of houses. Abcnezra says
they were portable chapels or temples, in the form
of chariots, in honor of the sun. (See Idol.)
IMAGE OF GOD (Im'aj), (Heb. '2^>*./W;7^»?,
resemblance; accompanied in Gen. 1:26; v:i by
'^'"^1, dem-ooih' , "likeness").
(1) Man. Man was made in the "image" of
God; he resembled God in the spiritual and im-
mortal nature of his soul, and in his true knowl-
edge, righteousness, and holiness, and in his do-
minion over the creature (Gen. i :26, 27).
(2) Christ. Christ is the "image of the invisi-
ble God;" as God's son, he has the same nature as
his Father, and resembles him in power; and in
his person, God-man, and mediatorial office, he is a
bright representation of all the perfections of God
(Heb. '\:y. Col. i:i3). (See Jesus Christ.)
We are born in the "image" of Adam; like him
in our natural form, and in our rebellion against
God (Gen. v:3); and we bear the "image" of
Christ, and are renewed after it, when our nature
is changed, and we are therein made like God in
spiritual knowledge, righteousness, holiness, and
every other grace (i Cor. xv:49; Col. iii:io).
Iiiterature. See Van Oosterzee, Dogmatics,
vol. I, p. 359. sq.; Laidlaw. Bible Doctrine of Man;
Martensen, Christian Dogmatics, 136-141 ; Wuttke,
Christian Ethics, vol. i, 37, sq.; The Place of
Christ in Mod. TheoL, Fairbairn, 1897; The
Christology of Jesus, Stalker, 1899.
IMAGERY (Im'5j-r5), (Heb. I^"?'f 5, mas-keeth',
an image, Lev. xxvi:i; picture, Num. xxxiii:52).
"The chambers of his imagery" is an expres-
sion found in Ezek. viii :i2, in the description given
by the prophet of the vision shown him of the
Temple. It probably refers to the idol worship
introduced from Eg>'pt and the East. The whole
passage (verses 7-12) represents a scene of idola-
trous worship which was disclosed to the prophet
as through a secret door of entrance (verses
7, 8). On the walls of the apartment were por-
trayed "every form of creeping thing and abomi-
nable beasts, and all the idols of the house of Is-
rael" (verse 10, etc.) A similar chamber of
imagery is referred to in Ezek. xxiii:i4: "Where
she saw men portrayed upon the wall, the images
of the Chaldseans portrayed with vermilion," etc.
Remains found in the ruins of Nineveh and in
cities in Egypt illustrate the practices mentioned
by the prophet.
IMAGE WORSHIP (rm'aj wflr'ship). See
Idol; Idolatry.
IMAGINATION (Im-aj 'I-na'shiin), (Heb.
"' I'T'? , slier-ee-rooth' , firmness, generally in a bad
sense, i. e., hardness of heart, Deut. xxix:i9; often
in Jeremiah as in iiiiiy; '^^''.■, yay'tser, form,'con-
ception. Gen. vi:5; viii:2i; Deut. xxxi:2i, etc.; Gr.
8iaXo7i<r^i, dee-al-og-is-mos' , deliberating with one's
self (Rom. i:2l); Suivoui.^f-anV^'-a^, way of think-
ing (Luke i:5i).
Imagination is that faculty or power of the mind
by which it conceives and forms ideal pictures of
things communicated to it by the organs of sense;
the power to create or reproduce an object of sense
previously perceived; invention as in painting,
sculpture, architecture, new machinery, landscape
gardening, decorating, etc.
It is used of corrupt reasonings in 2 Cor. x:s.
IMLA(im'la),(Heb. ^7T., yeetn-law' , filled, full,
or fulfiUer), father, or forefather, of Micaiah, the
prophet, who ironically foretold Ahab and Jchosh-
aphat of the defeat of Israel and Judah before
their fatal expedition to Ramoth-gilead (2 Chron.
x viii 7, 8), B.C. before 896.
IMLAH (Ira'lah), (Heb. '''^'?', >wot -/a/i', God
doth fill, I Kings xxii:8, 9). See Imla.
IMMANUEL (im-man'n-el), (Heb. 'K^i??, im-
ma-w-noo-ale' ; Sept. 'E/ii/tiai/ouiiX, em-man-oo-ale'), or
Emmanuel.
This word, meaning 'God with us,' occurs in
the celebrated verse of Isaiah (vii:i4), 'Behold,
a virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall
call his name Immanuel.' In forty-three MSS.
and thirty-nine printed editions the word is given
in the separate form '?^ ^^JJ' im-maw-noo ale
immamt el, but, as Dr. Henderson remarks, 'in
the orthography of all compound names, the MSS.
and editions widely differ.' In the name itself
there is no difficulty ; but the verse, as a whole, has
been variously interpreted. From the manner in
which the word God, and even Jehovah, is used in
the composition of Hebrew names, there is no
such peculiarity in that of Immanuel as in itself
requires us to understand that he who bore it must
be in fact God. Indeed, it is used as a proper
name among the Jews at this day. This high
sense has, however, been assigned to it in conse-
quence of the application of the whole verse, by
the Evangelist Matthew (i :23), to our Divine
Savior. Even if this reference did not exist, the
history of the Nativity would irresistibly lead us
to the conclusion that the verse — whatever may
have been its intermediate signification — had an
ultimate reference to Christ.
The state of opinion on this subject has been
thus fairly summed up by Dr. Henderson, in his
note on the text: 'This verse has long been a
subject of dispute between Jews and professedly
Christian writers, and among the latter mutually.
While the former reject its application to the
Messiah altogether — the earlier rabbins explain-
ing it of the queen of Ahaz and the birth of his
son Hezekiah, and the later, as Kimchi and Abar-
bancl, of the prophet's own wife — the great body
of Christian interpreters have held it to be directly
and exclusively in prophecy of our Savior, and
have considered themselves fully borne out by
the inspired testimony of the Evangelist Matthew.
Others, however, have departed from this con-
struction of the passage, and have invented or
adopted various hypotheses in support of such dis-
sent. Grotius, Faber, Isenbiehl, Hezel, Bolten,
Fritsche, Pluschke, Gesenius, and Hitzig, suppose
either the then present or a future wife of Isaiah
to be the '^?:?, al-matv' (rendered "virgin"), re-
ferred to. Eichhorn, Paulus, Hensler and Am-
mon are of opinion that the prophet had nothing
more in view than an ideal virgin, and that both
she and her son are merely imaginary personages,
introduced for the purpose of prophetic illustra-
tion. Bauer, Cube. Steudel. and some others,
think that the prophet pointed to a young woman
in the presence of the king and his courtiers. A
IMMATERIALITY
856
IMPORTUNITY
fourth class, among whom are Richard Simon,
Lowth, Koppe, Dathe, Williams, Von Meyer, 01s-
hausen, and Dr. J. Pye Smith, admit the hypoth-
esis of a double sense ; one, in which the words
apply primarily to some female living in the time
of the prophet, and her giving birth to a son ac-
cording to the ordinary laws of nature, or, as
Dathe holds, to some virgin, who at that time
should miraculously conceive ; and the other, in
which they received a secondary and plenary ful-
fillment in the miraculous conception and birth of
Jesus Christ.'
IMMATERIALITY (im'ma-te'ri-al'i-ty), is
predicated of mind, to denote that as a substance
it is different from matter.
Spirituality is the positive expression of the
same idea. Simplicity is also used in the same
sense. Matter is made up of parts into which it
can be resolved. Mind is simple and has no parts,
and so cannot be dissolved. The materiality of the
soul was maintained by TertuUian, Arnobius, and
others, during the first three centuries. At the
end of the fourth, the immateriality of the soul was
professed by Augustine, Nemesius, and Mamertus
Claudianus. This quality of immateriality is pred-
icated of God. The Absolute Being is one with
itself and cannot be divided. He is free from the
limitations to which matter is subject, i. e. from
the limits of time and space. (See article on
God.)
IMMEB (ira'mer), (Heb. "I^^, itn-mare' , talka-
tive).
1- Head of the sixteenth monthly course in
sacerdotal division of David (l Chron. xxiv:i4).
B. C. 1014.
2. Father of that Pashur who basely misused
the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. xx:i). B. C. before
607.
3. The founder of a family which returned with
Zerubbabel to Jerusalem to the number of 1032
(Neh. vii:4o; Ezr. ii :37). Perhaps identical with
the father of Meshillemoth (Neh. xi:i3), and
Meshillemith (i Chron. ix:i2), whose descendants
were conspicuous in the affairs of Jerusalem after
the captivity. He is doubtless the same with the
one whose descendants put away their foreign
wives (Ezra x ;2o), B. C. before 536. By some he
is identified with the two preceding.
4. One of those returning with Zerubbabel from
Babylon, but who could not prove his Israelitish
descent (Ezra iiisg; Neh. vii:6i), B. C. 536.
The name may be that of a place in Babylon from
which some of those afterwards named came.
5. The father of Zadok, who rebuilt a part of
the wall of Jerusalem. Perhaps the same as 3
(Neh. iii:29). B. C. before 446.
IMMORTAIiITT (rra-mor-tal'i-ty). The quality
of never ceasing to live or exist; exemption from
death and annihilation; life destined to endure
without end.
Immortality is one of the doctrines of natu-
ral religion. At death the body dies, and is dis-
solved into its elements. The soul being dis-
tinct from the body, is not affected by the disso-
lution of the body. How long, or in what state it
may survive after the death of the b«dy, is not
intimated by the term immortality. But the argu-
ments to prove that the soul survives the body, all
go to favor the belief that it will live forever.
See Plato, Phwdon; Porteus, Sermons; Sher-
lock, On the Immortality of the Soul; Watson, In-
timations of a Future State; Bakewell, Evidence
of a Future State: Autonricth, On Man, and His
Hope of Immortality, Tubingen, 1815: Fleming,
Vocab. of Phil.
God is "immortal," and only hath "immortal-
ity;" he hath life in and of himself, and is in-
finitely secure against death, hurt, or ruin of any
kind (i Tim. i:i7; vi:i6). The eternal blessed-
ness of the saints is called "immortality;" it can
never cease, and is free from such pain, corruption,
or unsightliness, as attends death (Rom. ii:7);
and it is brought to light, that is, more clearly
discovered by the gospel dispensation (2 Tim. 1:10).
Compare our Savior's teachings regarding a
future deathless life, both by express declara-
tion and as illustrated by parables (Matt. v:i2;
viii :ii, 12 ; xii :32 ; xiii 136, 43 ; xviii :8, 9 ; xxii :ii-
13; xxv:i-l3, 31-46; Mark viii 135-37; Luke xii:4,
5; xiii:24-29; xvi:l9-3i; xviii 129, 30; John iii:i6;
v :39, 40; vi:47-58; x:28; xi :25 ; xiv:i-6, etc.).
Our mortal body shall put on "immortality,"
when it shall gloriously rise from the dead, and be
no more subject to any tendency towards dissolu-
tion or wasting (l Cor. xv:53).
In the Old Testament the doctrine is taught
but not so clearly as in the New. The sixteenth
psalm, especially as connected with the apostolic
comments (Acts ii:27; xiii:35) is a case in point.
(See also Ps. xviiiij; Is. xxvi:i9; Dan. xii:2, 3.)
IMMTJTABHilTY (ira-mu'ta-bn'i-ty), is the ab-
sence or impossibility of change.
It is applied to the Supreme Being to denote
that there can be no inconstancy in his character
or government. It was argued for by the heathen.
(See Bishop Wilkins, Natural Religion.) The
full conception, however, of God's unchangeable-
ness is to be derived only from the Scriptures, and
the sublimity of the thought contained in them
is one of the indications of Divine revelation (see
Van Oosterzee's Christ. Dogmatics, vol. i, p. 257,
sq.; Watson's Institutes, vol. i, 398; Knapp's
Theology; Dorner, and other writers on System-
atic Theology).^ (See article on God.)
IMNA (im'na), (Heb. ^V^'. yim-naw' , probably
God doth restrain), son of Helem, a descendant of
Asher, and one of tlie chiefs of the tribe (l Chron.
vii:35), B. C. about 1618.
IMNAH (im'nah), (Heb. '"'?', yim-naw' , prob-
ably God doth restrain).
1. Eldest son of Asher, and founder of a family
by his own name (i Chron. vii:30), B. C. 1874.
2. The father of Kore, the Levite, who had
charge of the east gate of the Temple, and the
freewill oft'erings under Hezekiah (2 Chron.
xxxi :i4), B. C. 726.
IMPART (tm-parf), (Gr. iMeTaSlSoi/xi, met-ad-itf-
o-tnce, Luke iii:li; Rom. i:ii), to supply or com-
municate.
To bestow of one's fullness on others (Luke iii :
11). The apostles were willing to "impart their
souls," spending their strength, exerting their skill,
and exposing their life, to edify their hearers (2
Thess. ii :8).
IMPEDIMENT (im-ped'i-mi-nt), (Gr. iiu>yi\d\os ,
mog-il-al' OS), in speecli, something which hinders
one from speaking plainly, or which causes him
to stutter or stammer (Mark vii:32).
IMPLEAD (Tm-pled'), (Gr. e-yraX/u, eiig-kal-eli' o.
Acts xix;38), a law term, meaning to accuse or in-
dict.
It is the city-councilor who speaks in that pas-
sage and points out to the Ephesians the lawful
remedy for their grievances as opposed to one un-
lawful.
IMPORTUNITY (im'por-tu'ni-ty), (Gr. dralSeio,
anah-ee' die-ah, impudence, shamelessness),
s|ii)kcii of an importunate man, jiersisting in his
entreaties (Luke xi:8; comp. Luke xviii;l; I Thess,
v:l7).
IMPOSITION OF HANDS
857
INCARNATION
IMPOSITION OF HANDS (ira'ps-zish'un), an
ecclesiastical action, by which a bishop lays his
hand on the head of a person in ordination, in con-
firmation, or in uttering a blessing.
This practice is also usually observed by the
different churches at the ordination of their min-
isters; when the clergymen present place their
hands on the head of him whom they are ordain-
ing, while one of them prays for a blessing on him,
and on his future labors. There is not full agree-
ment, however, as to the propriety of this cere-
mony. Some suppose it to be confined to those
who received extraordinary gifts m the primitive
times; others think it ought to be retained, as it
was an ancient practice used where no extraor-
dinary gifts were conveyed (Gen. xlviii:i4; Matt.
xix:is). They do not suppose it to be of such
an important and essential nature, that the validity
and usefulness of a man's future ministry depend
upon it in any degree.
Imposition of hands was a Jewish ceremony, in-
troduced not by any Divine authority, but by cus-
tom; it being the practice among those people,
whenever they pray to God for any person, to lay
their hands on his head. Our Savior observed
the same custom both when he conferred his
blessing on children and when he healed the sick,
adding prayer to the ceremony. The apostles,
likewise, laid hands on those upon whom they be-
stowed the Holy Ghost. The priests observed the
same custom when any one was received into their
body. And the apostles themselves underwent the
imposition of hands afresh every time they entered
upon any new design. In the ancient church, im-
position of hands was even practiced on persons
when they married, which custom the Abyssinians
still observe.
IMPOSSIBLE (im-p6s'si-b'l), what cannot be
done.
In respect of God's nature, it is "impossible" for
him to lie, or deny himself (Heb. viiig; Tit. i:2).
In respect of his power, nothing good is "impos-
sible" to him (Luke i.37; xvii:29).
IMPOTENT (ira'po-tent), (Lat. itnpotens), signi-
fies "strengthless," "sick," "infirm." It is the ren-
dering of auBivCiv, as-then-otte' , in John v:3, and in
Acts IV :9; but of dSuwros, ad-oo'fiat-os, in Acts
xiv:8.
IMPRECATION (im-pre'ka-shun). See CuRSE.
IMPRECATOBT PSALMS. See Psalms.
IMPTJDENCY (im'pu-dfn-sy), a word found in
the caption of Is., ch. iii. The old form of im-
pudent, Lat. impudentia.
IMPURITY (im-pu'rl-tj). See Uncleanness.
IMPUTATION (Ira-pO-ta'shun), (Hcb. Clff,
soom ; or CB, seem ; Gr. \oyl(ofiai, log-id' zotn-ahee).
The verb impute occurs fifteen times in the
Authorized Version ; the noun imputation not
at all. The Calvinistic doctrine is that Adam's
sin of disobedience in Paradise is imputed to all
his natural descendants, making each person who
comes into the world chargeable with the guilt
of Original Sin. On the other hand, God justi-
fies those effectually called, not by counting
faith itself, or any other act of obedience, as
merit, but by imputing to them as righteousness
the obedience and satisfaction rendered by Christ
(£iuy. Dict.S As Brown states it, we have "right-
eousness without works imputed" to us, when
the obedience and sufferings of Jesus Christ in
our stead are legally reckoned to the account of
us guilty sinners, to render us righteous in law
before God as a judge ( Rnm. iv:6-TT). Sin is
"imputed." when one is charged with it. with a
view 10 his suffering punishment for it (2 Sam.
xix:i9; Lev. xvii:s) ; and the "not imputing" it,
imports the free and full forgiveness of it (Rom.
v:i3). In order to warrant such "imputation,"
the actor and the one to whom it is imputed
must be one, either really or legally. The Chal-
dean king "imputed" his power to his god, ac-
counted his idol to have assisted him in conquer-
ing the nations (Hab. i:ii).
The Arminian view denies the Calvinistic idea
of imputation, but fully recognizes the benefits
which accrue to the believer from Christ's right-
eousness. It holds firmly to the imputation of
faith for righteousness (Rom. iii :2l ; iv:22).
Hodge Systematic Theol., vol. ii, 192, sq.; Miner
Raymond, Systematic Theol., vol. ii, 106, 336, sq.)
IMRAH (im'rah), (Heb. '"'?'?^ yim-raw' , stub-
born, refractory).
Son of Zopliah, a descendant of Asher, and
one of the chiefs of the tribe (i Chron. vii;36), B.
C. after 1612.
IMRI (Im'ri), (Heb. "'"5'?^, im-ree' , eloquently).
1. A man of Judah, son of Bani, of the family
of Pharez (i Chron. ix:4), B. C. ante 536.
8. Father or forefather of Zaccur, who assisted
in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem under Nehe-
miah (Neh. iii:2), B. C. before 446.
INABILITY (In-a-bil'i-ty), want of power suf-
ficient for the performance of any particular action
or design.
It has been divided into natural and moral.
We are said to be naturally unable to do a thing
when we cannot do it if we wish, because of some
impeding defect or obstacle that is extrinsic to
the will, either in the understanding, constitu-
tion of the body, or external objects. Moral ina-
bility consists not in any of these things, but
either in the want of inclination, or the strength
of a contrary inclination ; or the want of suffi-
cient motives in view to induce and excite the act
of the will, or the strength of apparent motives
to the contrary. It must not, however, be for-
gotten, that moral inability or disinclination is
no excuse for our omission of duty, though want
of natural faculties or necessary means would.
That God may command though man has not a
present moral ability to perform, is evident, if
we consider (l) That man once had a power to
do whatsoever God would command him, he had
a power to cleave to God. (2) That God did rot
deprive man of his ability. (3) Therefore God's
right of commanding, and man's obligation of
returning and cleaving to God, remains firm.
And, again, man's inability is not an excuse for
wrongdoing or the failure to do right, for God's
grace has been promised for ability (Phil. iv:i3:
"I can do all things through Christ, which
strengthcneth me.")
INCANTATION (In-kin-ta'shun). See MagiC.
INCARNATION (In'kar-na'shiin), (Lat. in and
caro, "flcsli").
The earth life of the Christ must begin with
the incarnation as the all-important point which
succeeded the Kenosis or voluntary renunciation
of the divine functions and prerogatives.
"What think ye of Christ?" demanded the Mas-
ter, and the question has lost none of its impor-
tance during the ages that are gone. This is the
keynote of the Christian faith, and the view
which we entertain of him must form the basis
of our attitude towards all Biblical truth.
The prophecies of the Old Testament point to
his work as well as his birth, to his mission as
well as his coming; but our theme covers only
the beginning of this great historical life.
INCARNATION
858
INCARNATION
(1) Conception. Matthew and Luke give in
concise and simple language the announcement
which the angel made to Mary, to the effect that
she should, while yet a virgin, conceive and bring
forth a son. "And thou shalt call his name Jesus,
for he shall save his people from their sins"
(Matt. i:2ij.
These evangelists also record the fulfillment of
the angel's prophecy, and give an account of the
leading facts connected with this wonderful
birth. Paul endorses the statements of both Mat-
thew and Luke, to the effect that the Son of God
was "made of a woman" {ycvd/jicmp ix yvvaiKds).
"When the fullness of time ivas come God sent
forth his son made of a woman, made under the
lazu, that ye might receive the adoption of sons"
(Gal. iv:4-5)-
Just how this virginal conception and birth
were accomplished we do not know. All that we
can say is that from a human standpoint it is
miraculous. From the Divine point of view there
are no miracles.
If this were all the mystery which is beyond
our ken, we might have some excuse for doubt-
ing it, but the constantly recurring phenomenon
of conception, which is the ultimate fact of biol-
ogy, is in some ways still unexplained.
It is evident, however, that some power brought
man into existence from the great unknown, for
man is here, and whatever may have been the
process employed, or the time occupied, there
must have been some point where there was no
parent. It is only fair to presume that the Power
which produced humanity without the aid of
either parent, could, if he chose, produce an-
other man through the agency of the mother
alone.
If we cannot fully explain processes which are
constantly taking place around us, we may well
shrink from the elucidation of a matter which
pertains to the higher order of things. The sum
of our knowledge on this subject is contained
in the words : "He was conceived of the Holy
Ghost and born of the Virgin Mary."
(2) The Son of God. The Son of God became
the son of man by coming into the world as a
helpless babe, the heir of human poverty and
human pain : "He took not on himself the na-
ture of angels, but he took on him the seed of
Abraham" Heb. ii:i6). Nevertheless, he came
of royal stock, both Mary and his reputed father
being descendants of King David, for the proph-
ets had foretold that he should belong to the
royal line and be born in the city of Bethlehem.
"Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he be-
came poor" (2 Cor. viii :9) and lay in the manger
over which stood "the star in the East" (Luke ii :
7, 12. 16).
The next phase of the subject pertains to the
mission of the Son who came from the Father :
"/ came down from heaven not to do mine own
will, but the will of him that sent me" (John
vi:38).
But there is no contradiction here, no conflict
between the will of the Father and of the Son,
for he saith : "My meat is to do the will of him
that sent me and to finish his zvork" (John iv:34).
The Father sends, the Son comes and bears the
power of the Father's name : "/ am come in my
Father's name" (John v:43).
He is "the bread of heaven," who giveth life
unto the world. "/ proceeded and came forth
from God" (John viii:42). And. again. "/ came
forth from the Father and am come into the
world" (John xvii:28).
(3) The Logos. In the prologue to his Gos-
pel, John affirms both the pre-existence and the
divinity of the "Word" or "Logos." "/n thebegin-
ning was the Logos, and ilie Logos was Divine."
It was this Divine Logos who came out of the
pre-existeut state of glory with the Father into
the state of dwelling with man (John xvii:5).
Here again we are at a loss to understand the
method of transition, but the text teaches that
the Son had glory with the Father "before the
world was." "The Logos was made flesh and
dwelt among us" (John i:i4).
It is here distinctly asserted that the Divine
Logos who was "with God" assumed the nature
of man and took up his abode with humanity.
The statement of John that the Logos was
made flesh is his endorsement of the human birth
of Jesus the Messiah. Matthew and Luke re-
cord only the historical fact, but John goes back
of this and represents the conception and birth
as being the incarnation of the pre-existent Logos.
(4) Fleshly Nature. Paul teaches that this
form which the Logos assumed was sinful flesh
^flesh which, like our own, is subject to the rule
of sin: "For zvhat the lawcould not do in that
it ivas weak through the flesh, God sending his
o'wn Son in the likeness of sinful flesh, and for
sin (or by a sacrifice for sin) condemned sin in
the flesh" (Rom. viii:3).
We have seen, therefore, that the Apostle
teaches that he who knew no sin was made sin for
our sakes ; that he redeemed us from the curse by
becoming the curse in our stead ; that he was
"made of woman" ; that, though he was rich, yet
for our sakes he became poor ; that God spared
not his only Son, but delivered him up for us
all ; that he who was crucified on Calvary, yet
lives to make intercession for us : "For though
he was crucified through weakness, yet he liveth
by the power of God" (2 Cor. xiii:4). (See also
2 Cor. v:2l ; viii :4, g; Gal. iii :i3; iv:4; Phil, ii :8.)
The general teaching of these texts is in har-
mony with all the others, and we find that St.
Paul conceives of the incarnation as implying a
self-emptying of the equality with God, and the
assumption of the human nature.
(5) New Testament Teaching. We have,
then, the New Testament doctrine of the incarna-
tion under five heads : ( I ) The Son of God
took upon himself the nature of man." "And
tvas made in the likeness of men: and being
found in fashion as a man, he humbled himself
and became obedient unto death, even the death
of the cross" (Phil, ii:;, 8). (2) He was sent by
the Father. "For he hatli made him to be sin
for us, who knew no sin" (2 Cor. v:2i). (,3)
The coming out of a pre-existent state of glory
into a condition in which "The Son of man hath
not where to lay his head" (Matt. viii:20). (4)
The manifestation in the flesh : "God was man-
ifest in the flesh, justified in the Spirit, seen of
angels, preached unto the Gentiles, believed on
in the world, received up into glory" (1 Tim.
ii:i6). (5) The Kenosis or self-emptying of the
Logos in becoming incarnate. "Who, being in
the form of God, thought if not robbery to be
equal with God, but made himself of no reputa-
tion, and took upon him the form of a servant, and
was made in the likeness of men" (Phil, ii :6, 7).
The history of the Nazarene has shown us that
the Son of God who was also the Son of man,
shared with us both the physical and mental life.
The Gospels everywhere bear witness to his
physical likeness, and show that he felt the bod-
ily weakness of humanity. He was "an hungered,"
and he asked the woman of Samaria for a drink
of water. He was weary, sleeping in the boat
even in the midst of the storm. His heart was
human in its affections. He loved the young
INCENSE
859
INCORRUPTION
ruler who came to him to inquire the way of life.
He loved Lazarus and wept over his grave. His
great heart went out in pity for the hungry
crowds that waited on his teaching. He felt the
throb of righteous indignation, and severely de-
nounced the Scribes and Pharisees. He never
concealed his contempt for hypocrisy, and he even
drove the money changers out of the temple with
a scourge of small cords.
He is represented as "sighing" or "groaning"
and "troubled in spirit" (Mark viii:i2).
He suffered deeply in the garden and agonized
with more than physical pain on Calvary, and
even now while we glory in the cross of Christ,
and glory in our risen Lord, we still have a great
High Priest who can be touched with the feel-
ing of our infirmities. "Let us therefore come
boldly unto the throne of grace, that ive may ob-
tain mercy and find grace to help in time of need"
(Hcb. iv:i4-i6). (See Jesus Christ; Kenosis.)
INCENSE (In'sens), (Hebrew usually l^y^T., iet-
o'reth).
A perfume which gives forth its fragrance by
burning, and, in particular, that perfume which was
burnt upon the altar of incense. (See Altar; Cen-
ser). Indeed the burning of incense seems to have
been considered among the Hebrews so much of
an act of worship or sacred offering, that we read
not of any other use of incense than this among
them. Nor among the Egyptians do we dis-
cover any trace of burnt perfume but in sacerdotal
use; but in the Persian sculptures we see in-
cense burnt before the king. The prohibition
of the Hebrews to make any perfume for pri-
vate use — 'to smell to' — like that prepared for the
altar, merely implies, we apprehend, that the
sacred incense had a peculiarly rich fragrance
before being burnt, which was forbidden to be
imitated in common perfumes.
Incense is denoted by the words "^i??, kit-tare'
(Exod. xxx:i; Jer. xliv:2i); and '^^^1;, ket-o'reth
(Exod. xxx:i; xxxiili; Ezck. xvi:l8); all of which
are equally from the root "'i^S.^aoz-for', which in
Pihel signifies generally to raise an odor by burn-
uig, and in the verbal form it is applied not only
to the offering of incense, but also of sacrifices,
the smoke or effluvium of which is regarded as an
acceiitable or sweet odor to God. Indeed, the
word which denotes an incense of spices in Exod.
xxx:i describes an incense of fat in Ps. Ixvi:i5.
The ingredients of the sacred incense are
enumerated with great precision in Exod. xxx :
34, 35, 'Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte ('^.'^ ?•
shekh-ay' leth, netaph), and onycha and galbanum,
('"^l.'.n, khcl-ben-aw') these sweet spices with pure
frankincense ('T'^?, leb-o-naw'); of each shall
there be a like weight. And thou shalt make of
it a perfume, a confection after the art of the
apothecary, tempered together, pure and holy.'
The further directions are, that this precious
compound should be made or broken up into
minute particles, and that it should be dejios-
ited, as a very holy thing, in the tabernacle 'be-
fore the testimony (or ark). As the ingredi-
ents are so minutely specified, there was nothing
to prevent wealthy persons from having a similar
perfume for private use ; this, therefore, was for-
bidden under pain of excommunication : 'Ye
shall not make to yourselves according to the
composition thereof; it shall be unto thee holy
for the Lord. Whosoever shall make like unto
that, to smell thereto, shall even be cut off from
his people' (Exod. xxx:37, 38).
According to Maimonides the use of incense
was to prevent the stench which would otherwise
have been occasioned by the number of beasts
every day slaughtered in the sanctuary. God or-
dained that incense should be burned in it every
morning and evening, and thereby rendered the
odor of the sanctuary, and of the vestments of
those that ministered exceedingly grateful.
Figurative. Incense was a symbol of prayer.
It was offered at the time when the people were
in the posture and act of prayer; and their ori-
sons were supposed to be presented to God by
the priest, and to ascend to Him in the smoke of
odor of that fragrant offering. This beautiful
idea of the incense frequently occurs in Scrip-
ture (comp. Ps. cxli:2; Mai. i:li; Acts x:4; Rev.
v;8; viii:4).
By it was signified Christ's precious, powerful,
and constant intercession within the vail, on the
ground of his own righteousness, which renders
us and our spiritual services acceptable to God
(comp. Exod. xxx:34-38; Lev. xvi:i2-i4).
INCEST (Tn'sest), an unlawful conjunction of
Cersons related within the degrees of kmdred pro-
ibited by God and the churcn.
In the beginning of the world, and even long
after the deluge, marriages between near relations
were allowed. God prohibits such alliances in
Lev. xviii, and the degrees of consanguinity
within which the prohibition applied are detailed
in verses 6-18. The prohibition of incest and sim-
ilar sensual abominations is introduced with a
general warning as to the licentious customs of the
Egyptians and Canaanites, and an exhortation to
walk in the judgments and ordinances of Jehovah.
Intercourse is forbidden (l) with a motfier ; (2)
with a stepmother; (3) with a sister or half-
sister; (4) with a grand-daughter, the daughter
of either son or daughter; (5) with the daughter
of a stepmother; (6) with an aunt, sister of
either father or mother; (7) with the wife of an
uncle on the father's side; (8) with a daughter-
in-law ; (9) with a sister-in-law, or brother's
wife; (10) with a woman and her daughter, or a
woman and her grand-daughter; (11) with the
sister of a living wife.
Most civilized people have held incest as an
abominable crime (see I Cor. v:i). Lot's incest
with his two daughters can be palliated only by
his ignorance, and the simplicity of his daughters
(Gen. xix:3i).
INCHANTMENTS (In-chant'mffnts). See
WiTCHCRAKT.
INCONTINENT (in-k6n'ti-n<:nt),(Gr.dit()a<r(o,(j/t-
ras-ee'a, want of self-control), given to unchastity
and intemperance (2 Tim. iii:3). Unable to re-
frain from desire of the lawful pleasures of mar-
riage or from concupiscence (2 Cor. vii:5).
INCORPOREALITY OF GOD (In'kor-po'rS-
ai't-ty), is his being without a body.
That God is incorporeal is evident; for (l)
Materiality is incompatible with self-existence, and
God, being self-existent, must be incorporeal. (2)
If God were corporeal, he could not be present
in any part of the world where body is ; yet his
presence is necessary for the support and motion
of body. (3) A body cannot be in two places
at the safne time; yet he is everywhere, and fills
heaven and earth. (4) A body is to be seen
and felt, but God is invisible and impalpable
(John i:i8). (See Immateriality.)
INCORRXTPTION (Jo-kor-rQp'shun), (Or. d^ffap-
cla, af-ihar-sce'ah)\ in general, unchanging, ever
enduring.
INDEPENDENCE OF GOD
860
INFINITY
The body is to know no decay after the resur-
rection (l Cor. XV -.42, 50, 53, 54). In Rom. ii 7
and 2 Tim. i:io the Greek word is rendered im-
mortality, and in Eph. vi :24, sincerity, R. V. un-
corruptness. The crown of the saints is incorrupt-
ible (i Cor. ix:25), also their "inheritance" (l
Pet. i:4).
INDEPENDENCE OF GOD (in'de-pendVns),
is his existence in and of himself, without depend-
ing on any other.
His being and perfections are underived, and
not communicated to him, as all finite perfections
are by him to the creature. This attribute of in-
dependence belongs to all his perfections. (l) He
is independent as to his knowledge. He does not
receive ideas from any object out of himself, as
intelligent creatures do (Is. lx:i.3, 14). (2) He is
independent in power. As he receives strength
from no one, so he does not act dependently on
the will of the creature (Job xxxvi:23). (3)
He is independent as to his holiness, hating sin
necessarily, and not barely depending on some rea-
sons out of himself inducing him thereto; for
it is essential to the divine nature to be infinitely
opposite to sin, and, therefore, to be independently
holy. (4) He is independent as to his bounty and
goodness. He communicates blessings not by
constraint, but according to his sovereign will
(Rom. ix:i8). (See article on God.)
INDIA (in'di-a), (Heb. Tin, ho'doo).
This name occurs only in Esther i:i; viii :
9, where the Persian king is described as reigning
'from India unto Ethiopia, over a hundred and
seven and twenty provinces.' It is found again,
however, in the Apocrypha, where India is men-
tioned among the countries which the Romans
took from Antiochus and gave to Eumenes (l
Mace. viii:8). The occurrence of the name in
this passage is suspicious. Luther substituted
Ionia. At any rate Judas Maccabaeus was mis-
informed if he was told that the Romans had
taken India from Antiochus.
It is evident on the face of the above inti-
mations, and indeed from all ancient history, that
the country known as India in ancient times ex-
tended more to the west, and did not reach so
far to the east — that is, was not known so far to
the east — as the India of the moderns. When we
read of ancient India, we must clearly not under-
stand the whole of Hindostan, but chiefly the
northern parts of it, or the countries between the
Indus and the Ganges : although it is not necessary
to assert that the rest of that peninsula, particu-
larly its western coast, was then altogether un-
known. It was from this quarter that the Persians
and Greeks (to whom we are indebted for the
earliest accounts of India) invaded the country;
and this was consequently the region which first
became generally known. The countries bordering
on the Ganges continued to he involved in ob-
scurity, the great kingdom of t'^e Persians ex-
cepted, which, situated nearly above the modern
Bengal, was dimly discernible. The nearer we
approach the Indus, the more clear becomes our
knowledge of the ancient geography of the
country; and it follows that the districts of which
at the present day we know the least, were
anciently best known. Besides, the western and
northern boundaries were not the same as at
present. To the west, India was not then bounded
by the river Indus, but by a chain of mountains
which, under the name of Koh (whence the
Grecian appellation of the Indian Caucasus'), ex-
tended from Bactria to Makran, or Gedrosia, en-
closing the kingdoms of Candahar and Cabul, the
modern kingdom of Eastern Persia, or Afghanis-
tan. These districts anciently formed part of
India, as well as, further to the south, the less
perfectly known countries of the Arabi and Haurs
(the Arabitae and Oritje of Arrian, vi:2i),
bordering on Gedrosia. This western boundary
continued at all times the same, and was removed
to the Indus only in consequence of the victories
of Nadir Shah.
Toward the north, ancient India overpassed
not less its present limit. It comprehended the
whole of the mountainous region above Cashmir,
Baldakshan, Belur Land, the western boundary
mountains of Little Bucharia, or Little Thibet,
and even the desert of Cobi, so far as it was
known. The discovery of a passage by sea to
the coasts of India has contributed to withdraw
from these regions the attention of Europeans
and left them in an obscurity which hitherto has
been little disturbed, although the current of
events seems likely ere long to lead to our better
knowledge.
From this it appears that the India of Scrip-
ture included no part of the present India, see-
ing that it was confined to the territories pos-
sessed by the Persians and the Syrian Greeks, tliat
never extended beyond the Indus, which, since the
time of Nadir Shah, has been regarded as the
western boundary of India. Something of India
beyond the Indus became known through the con-
quering march of Alexander, and still more
through that of Seleucus Nicator, who penetrated
to the banks of the Ganges; but the notions thus
obtained are not embraced in the Scriptural no-
tices, which, both in the canonical and the Apoc-
ryphal text, are confined to Persian India.
INFANT BAPTISM. See Baptism.
INFANT SALVATION. See Salvation.
INFINITY (in-fin'I-ty), (Heb. '''W^.mis-pawr').
Infinity is taken in two senses entirely differ-
ent, i. e., in a positive and a negative one. Posi-
tive infinity is a quality being perfect in itself,
or capable of receiving no addition. Negative is
the quality of being boundless, unlimited, or end-
less. That God is infinite is evident.
If he be limited, it must either be by himself or
by another; but no wise being would abridge him-
self, and there could be no other being to limit
God.
Infinity follows from self-existence; for a
necessity that is not universal must depend on
some external cause, which a self-existent being
does not.
Creation is so great an act of power that
we can imagine nothing impossible to that Being
who has performed it, but must therefore ascribe
to him infinite power.
It is more honorable to the Divine Being to
conceive of him as infinite than finite.
The Scriptures represent all his attributes
as infinite. His understanding is infinite (Ps.
cxlvii:5). His knowledge and wisdom (Rom.
xi:33). His power (Rom. i :20 ; Heb. xi:3). His
goodness (Ps. xvi:2). His purity, holiness, and
justice (Job iv:i7, 18; Is. vi :2. 3).
His omnipotence and eternity prove his in-
finity ; for were he not infinite, he would be
bounded by space and by time, which he is not.
We must be careful not to conceive of the
infinity of God in a material sense, nor hold that
it excludes other and finite existences. The in-
finity of God is that of Spirit. Extension and
impenetrability do not apply to spirit as to matter.
Literature. Sir William Hamilton, Discussions on
Philosophy: Mansel, Limits of Religious Thought;
Pope, Compend of Christ. Theol., vol. i, 293, sq.;
Hodge, Sys. Theol., vol. v, 380, sq.
INFIRMITY
INFIBMITY (In-£erm'r-ty), (Heh. '^^'!^^, makA-
al-aiv' , sickness, Prov. xviii:i4; Gr. aaitvtka, as-
then' i-ah, weakness or frailty of body).
(1) Disease or weakness of the body (Lev. xii:
2; I Tim. v:23).
(2) Outward afflictions, reproaches, persecu-
tions, and temptations (Heb. v:2; 2 Cor. xii :s,
10 j.
(3) Spiritual weakness, and defects in grace
(Rom. vi:ig). Failings and mistakes committed
through surprise and want of spiritual courage
and strength (Rom. xv:i).
The weakness of God is stronger than men;
the contemned method of salvation through the
death of Christ, is more efTectual to render men
holy and happy, than all the supposedly wise
schemes of men (i Cor. i:25). The weakness
and in/irnnty of Christ, were his frail human na-
ture, and the various reproaches, temptations,
and troubles, he was compassed with (2 Cor.
xiii:4; Heb. v:2). The weakness of the ceremo-
nial law, which occasioned its abolition, was its
insufficiency to justify, sanctify, or save men
(Heb. vii:i8). Christ took our infirmities upon
him, and bare our sickness; he bare the punish-
ment of our iniquity ; he tenderly sympathizes
with his people, and testified his affection, by
curing the distressed (Matt. viii:i7; Heb. iv:i5).
The Holy Ghost helps our infirmities ; he gradu-
ally heals our spiritual diseases; and notwith-
standing them, enables us to worship and serve
God (Rom. viii:26). We ought to bear with the
infinnities of the weak, exercising patience and
love towards the weak, notwithstanding their in-
firmities, and by kindly endeavoring to strengthen
them (Rom. xv:l). The saints glory and take
pleasure in infirmities and troubles, not in them-
selves, but as they are the means of glorifying
God. and the occasions of his communicating
strength to them (l Cor. xii 15, 10).
INFLAMMATION (in'flara-ma'shiin). See
Diseases of the Jews.
INFLTJENCE (fn'flQ-^ns), (Heb. "?'?, kee-
matv' , Job xxxviiiiji).
In this passage allusion is apparently made to
the controlling influence which the planets exert
over each other.
INGATHERING, FEAST OF (In'gath'er-Ing,
fcst 6v). See Festivals.
INHABITEB, INHABITKESS (in-hiblt-er,
inhab'it-res), (Gr. Ka.TOi.Kiui, kat-oy-keh' o).
Inhabiter is used for 'inhabitant' in Rev. viii :
13; xii:t2. It occurs in Coverdale, as Is. xxvi :
9, 'For . . . the inhabitours of the earth lerne
rightuousnesse' ; and xl :22, 'all the inhabitours of
the worlde are in comparison of him but as gres-
hoppers' ; comp. Prayer Book. Ps. Ixxv :4. 'The
earth is weak and all the inhabiters thereof.' The
fem. form inhabitress occurs in Jer. x:i7. marg.,
an attempt to show the gender of the Hebrew
word used in the passage. Comp. Chapman,
Hymne to Venus —
'An inhabitresse
On this thy wood-crowned hill."
(Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
INHERITANCE (rn-hSr'it-ans), (Heb. ^\D^'
nakh-al-aiv').
The laws and observances which determine
the acquisition and regulate the devolution of
property are among the influences which aflfect
the vital interests of states ; and it is therefore of
high consequence to ascertain the nature and
bearing of the laws and observances relating to
this subject, which come to us with the sanction
861
INHERITANCE
of the Bible. We may also premise mat, in a
condition of society such as that in which we
now live, wherein the two diverging tendencies
which favor immense accumulations on the one
hand, and lead to poverty and pauperism on the
other, are daily becoming more and more de-
cided, disturbmg, and baneful, there seems to be
required on the part of those who take Scripture
as their guide, a careful study of the foundations
of human society, and of the laws of property,
as they are developed in the Divine records which
contain the revealed will of God.
That will, in truth, as it is the source of all
created things, and specially of the earth and
its intelligent denizen, man, so is it the original
foundation of property, and of the laws by which
its inheritance should be regulated. God, as the
Creator of the earth, gave it to man, to be held,
cultivated and enjoyed (Gen. 1:28, sq.; Ps. cxv :
lb; Eccles. v:9). The primitive records are too
brief and fragmentary to supply us with any de-
tails respecting the earliest distribution or trans-
mission of landed property ; but from the pas-
sages to which reference has been made, the im-
portant fact appears to be established beyond a
question, that the origin of property is to be
found, not in the achievements of violence, the
success of the sword, or any imaginary implied
contract, but in the will and the gift of the com-
mon Creator and bountiful Father of the human
race. It is equally clear that the gift was made
not to any favored portion of our race, but to
the race itself — to man as represented by our
great primogenitor, to whom the use of the Divine
gift was first graciously vouchsafed.
(1) Patriarchal Inheritance. The impres-
sion which the original gift of the earth was
calculated to make on men, the Great Donor was
pleased, in the case of Palestine, to render, for
his own wise purposes, more decided and em-
phatic by an express re-donation to the patriarch
Abraham (Gen. xiii:i4, sq.). Many years, how-
ever, elapsed before the promise was fulfilled.
Meanwhile the notices which we have regarding
the state of property in the patriarchal ages, are
few, and not very definite. The products of the
earth, however, were at an early period accumu-
lated and held as property. Violence invaded
the possession ; opposing violence recovered the
goods. War soon sprang out of the passions of
the human heart. The necessity of civil govern-
ment was felt. Consuetudinary laws accordingly
developed themselves. The head of the family
was supreme. His will was law. The physical
superiority which he possessed gave him the do-
minion. The same influence would secure its
transmission in the male rather than the female
line. Hence, too, the rise of the rights of primo-
geniture. In the early condition of society which
is called patriarchal, landed property had its ori-
gin, indeed, but could not be held of first impor-
tance by those who led a wandering life, shifting
continually, as convenience suggested, from one
spot to another. Cattle were then the chief prop-
erty (Gen. xxiv:35). But land, if held, was held
on a freehold tenure ; nor could any other tenure
have come into existence till more complex and
artificial relations arose, resulting, in all proba-
bility, from the increase of population and the
relative insufficiency of food.
When Joseph went down into Egypt, he appears
to have found the freehold tenure prevailing,
which, however, he converted into a tenancy at
will, or, at any rate, into a conditional tenancy.
Other intimations are found in Genesis which
confirm the general statements which have just
INHERITANCE
m-i
INHERITANCE
been made. Daughters do not appear to have had
an inheritance. If there are any exceptions to
this rule they only serve to prove it. Thus Job
(the book so called is undoubtedly very old, so
that there is no impropriety in citing it in this
connection) is recorded (xlii:i5) to have given
his daughters an inheritance conjointly with their
brothers — a record which of itself proves the sin-
gularity of the proceeding, and establishes our
position that inheritance generally followed the
male line.
(2) Privileges of Inheritance. How highly
the privileges conferred by primogeniture were
valued, may be learned from the history of Jacob
and Esau. In the patriarchal age doubtless these
rights were very great. The eldest son, as being
by nature the first fitted for command, assumed
influence and control, under his father, over the
family and its dependents ; and when the father
was removed by death, he readily, and as if by
an act of Providence, took his father's place.
Thus he succeeded to the property in succeeding
to the headship of the family, the clan, or the
tribe. At first the eldest son most probably took
exclusive possession of his father's property and
power; and when, subsequently, a division be-
came customary, he would still retain the larg-
est share — a double portion, if not more (Gen.
xxvii :25, 29, 40). That in the days of Abraham
other sons partook with the eldest, and that, too,
though they were sons of concubines, is clear
from the story of Hagar's expulsion. (See
Hagar.) 'Cast out (said Sarah) this bond-
woman and her son ; for the son of this bond-
woman shall not be heir with my son, even with
Isaac' (Gen. xxi:io).
(3) Transfer of Property. The few notices
left us in Genesis of the transfer of property
froin hand to hand are interesting, and bear a re-
markable similarity to what takes place in East-
ern countries even at this day (Gen. xxi :22, sg.;
xxiii:9, s^.). The purchase of the Cave of
Machpelah as a family burying place for Abra-
ham, detailed in the last passage, serves to show
the safety of property at that early period, and
the facility with which an inheritance was trans-
mitted even to sons' sons (comp. Gen. xlix:;?9).
That it was customary during the father's life-
time to make a disposition of property, is evident
from Gen. xxiv 135, where it is said that Abraham
had given all he had to Isaac. This statement is
further confirmed by Gen. xxv :$, 6, where it is
added that Abraham gave to the sons of his con-
cubines 'gifts, sending them away from Isaac his
son, while he yet lived, eastward unto the east
country.' Sometimes, however, so far were the
children of unmarried females from being dis-
missed with a gift, that they shared, with what
we should term the legitimate children, in the
father's property and rights. Thus Dan and
Naphtali were sons of Bilhah, Rachel's maid,
whom she gave to her husband, failing to bear
children herself. So Gad and Asher were, under
similar circumstances, sons of Zilpah, Leah's
maid (Gen. xxx:2-I4). In the event of the eld-
est son's dying in the father's lifetime, the next
son took his place ; and if the eldest son left a
widow, the next son made her his wife (Gen.
xxxviii :7, sq.), the offspring of which union was
reckoned to the firstborn and deceased son.
Should the second likewise die, the third son
took his place (Gen. xxxviii :ll).
(4) Rights of Younger Children. While the
rights of the firstborn were generally established
and recognized, yet were they sometimes set aside
in favor of a younger chilj The blessing of
the father or the grandsire seenit to have been an
act essential in the devolution of power and prop-
erty— in its effects not unlike wills and testa-
ments with us ; and instances are not wanting in
which this (so to term it) testamentary bequest
set aside consuetudinary laws, and gave prece-
dence to a younger son (Gen. xlviii:is, sq.).
Special claims on the parental regards were ac-
knowledged and rewarded by special gifts, as in
the case of Jacob's donation to Joseph (Gen.
xlviii:22). In a similar manner, bad conduct
on the part of the eldest son (as well as of oth-
ers) subjected him, if not to the loss of his rights
of property, yet to the evil influence of his fa-
ther's dying malediction (Gen. xlix:3) ; while the
good and favored, though younger, son was led
by the paternal blessing to participate, and proba-
bly also to reap, the richest inheritance of indi-
vidual and social happiness (Gen. .xli.x:8-22).
(5) Inheritance of the Promised Land.
The original promise made to Abraham of the
land of Palestine was solemnly repeated to Isaac
(Gen. xxvi:3), the reason assigned being, be-
cause 'Abraham obeyed my voice and kept my
charge,' my commandments, my statutes, and my
laws ; while it is expressly declared that the
earlier inhabitants of the country were dispos-
sessed and destined to extermination for the
greatness of their iniquity. The possession of
the promised land was embraced by Isaac in his
dying benediction to Jacob (Gen. xxviii :3, 4), to
whom God vouchsafed (Gen. xxviii :is; see also
XXXV : 10, 11), to give a renewed assurance of the
destined inheritance. That this donation, how-
ever, was held to be dependent for the time and
manner of its fulfilment on the Divine will, ap-
pears fTom Gen. xxxiii:i8, where Jacob, on com-
ing into the land of Canaan, bought for an hun-
dred pieces of money 'a parcel of a field, at the
hand of the children of Hamor.' Delayed though
the execution of the promise was, confidence
never deserted the family of Abraham, so that
Joseph, dying in the land of Egypt, assured his
brothers that they would be visited of God and
placed in possession of Canaan, enjoining on
them, in this conviction, that, when conducted
to their possession, they should carry his bones
with them out of Egypt (Gen. 1:2S).
A promise thus given, thus repeated, and thus
believed, easily, and indeed unavoidably, became
the fundamental principle of that settlement of
property which Moses made when at length he
had effected the Divine will in the redemption
of the children of Israel. The observances and
practices, too, which we have noticed as prevail-
ing among the patriarchs, would, no doubt, have
great influence on the laws which the Jewish
legislator originated or sanctioned.
(6) Division of the Promised Land. The
land of Canaan was divided among the twelve
tribes descended through Isaac and Jacob from
Abraham. The division was made by lot for an
inheritance among the families of the sons of
Israel, according to the tribes, and to the num-
ber and size of families in each tribe. The tribe
of Levi, however, had no inheritance ; but forty-
eight cities with their suburbs were assigned to
the Levites, each tribe giving according to the
number of cities that fell to its share (Num.
xxxiii:5o; xxxiv:i; xxx:i). The inheritance
thus acquired was never to leave the tribe to
which it belonged ; every tribe was to keep strict-
ly to its own inheritance. An heiress, in conse-
quence, was not allowed to marry out of her own
tribe, lest property should pass by her rT><)rriage
into another tribe (Num. xxxvi:6-9). i his re-
striction led to the marriage of heiresses with
their near relations ; thus the daughters of Zelo-
INHERITANCE
INKHORN
phehad 'were married unto their father's broth-
er's sons,' "and their inheritance remained in the
tribe of the family of their fatlier' (ver. ii, 12;
comp. Joseph. Antiq. iv 7, 5). In general eases
the inheritance went to sons, the firstborn re-
ceiving a double portion, 'for he is the beginning
of his father's strength.' If a man had two wives,
one beloved, the other hated, and if the firstborn
were the son of her who was hated, he never-
theless was to enjoy 'the right of the firstborn'
(Deut. xxi:is). If a man left no sons, the in-
heritance passed to his daughters; if there was no
daughter, it went to his brothers ; in case there
were no brothers, it was given to his father's
brothers; if his father had no brothers, it came
into possession of the nearest kinsman (Num.
xxvii :8).
TABLE SHOWING ORDER OF SUCCESSION AS HEIRS.
Father.
I
(1) Sons I I
(1) Daugbters I
(3) Brothers |
(4) Uocles 00 father's side
(S) Next kinsman
Kenerally
(7) The Tear of Jubilee. The land was Je-
hovah's and could not, therefore, be permanently
alienated. Every fiftieth year, whatever land had
been sold returned to its former owner. The
value and price of land naturally rose or fell in
proportion to the number of years th?re were to
elapse prior to the ensuing fiftieth or jubilee-
year. If he who sold the land, or a kinsman,
could redeem the land before the year of jubilee, it
was to be restored to him on his paying to the
purchaser the value of the produce of the years
remaining till the jubilee. Houses in villages or
unwalled towns might not be sold forever ; they
were restored at the jubilee, and might at any time
be redeemed. If a man sold a dwelling house
situated in a walled city, he had the option of re-
deeming it within the space of a full year after it
had been sold ; but if it remained unredeemed, it
belonged to the purchaser, and did not return to
him who sold it even at the jubilee (Lev. xxv :8,
23). The Levites were not allowed to sell the
land in the suburbs of their cities, though they
might dispose of the cities themselves, which, how-
ever, were redeemable at any time, and must return
at the jubilee to their original possessors (Lev.
xxvii:i6). (See Jubilee.)
(8) Wills. The regulations which the laws of
Moses established rendered wills or a testamentary
disposition of (at least) landed property, almost,
if not quite, unnecessary; we accordingly find no
provision for anything of the kind. Some diffi-
culty may have been now and then occasioned
when near relations failed; but this was met by the
traditional law, which furnished minute directions
on the point (Misch. Baia Bathra, iv:3, c. 8, 9)
Personal property would naturally follow the land
or might be bequeathed by word of mouth. At a
later period of the Jewish polity the mention of
wills is found, but the idea seems to have been
taken from foreign nations. In princely families
they appear to have been used, as we learn from
Josephus (Antiq. xiii:i6, i; xvii 13, 2; De Bell.
Jud. ii :2, 3) ; but such a practice can hardly suffice
to establish the general use of wills among the
people. In the New Testament, however, wills
are expressly mentioned (Gal iii:i5; Heb. ix:i7).
Michaelis (Commentaries, 1:431) asserts that the
phrase (2 Sam. xvii :23 ; 2 Kings xxri), 'set
thine house in order,' has reference to a will or
testament. But his grounds are by no means suf-
ficient. J R. B.
Figurative. (I) God himself, and his ever-
lasting salvation, are the inherilaiiee of his people,
to which, through Jesus their Savior, they have a
free and honorable claim on which they live, and
in which they delight and glory (Ps. xvi:5; Jer.
iii;l9; l I'ct. 1:4). (2) Christ's glorious char-
acter of Mediator, and the heathen, or Gentiles, are
his inheritance; he has an honorable claim to his
renown and happiness as God-man, and the Gen-
tiles are given into his hand to be called and con-
verted by him (Heb. 1:4; Ps. ii:8). (3) The
Jews took their inheritance in themselves, when
they were forsaken by God, deprived of their civil
and ecclesiastic enjoyments, and left to look out
for themselves, under the load of their deserved
punishment (Ezek. xxii:i6). (4) The inheritance
of the congregation of Jacob is either the Israel-
ites, who were God's inheritance, or the law, which
God gave them as a valuable possession (Deut.
xxxiii:4). (5) God was the Levites' inheritance;
they lived on his oflFerings (Deut. x:9). (6)
God's testimonies are his people's inheritance; are
of great value, and they delight in and live on
them (Ps. cxix:lll). (7) Children are God's
heritage and reward ; he freely gives them to par-
ents, and cheerfully ought they to devote them to
God (Ps. cxxvii .3).
INIQUITY (in-rk'wl-tj>), (Heb. 1^?, aw-w»<f').
This word means not only sin, but the punish-
ment of sin, and the expiation of it: "Aaron will
bear the iniquities of the people;" he will atone
for them (Exod. xxviit:38). "The Lord "visits the
iniquities of the fathers upon the children" (Exod.
XX :5). The priests bear the iniquity of the peo-
ple; that is, they are charged with the expiation of
it (Exod. x.xviii:38; Lev. x:i7).
INJURIOUS (in-ju'rr-us), (Gr. ippurr^js, hoo-
bris-tace' , I Tim. i:i3), insolent, abusive.
INK (Ink), (Heb. '"?, deh-yo' , Jer. xxxvi:.i8; Gr.
/lAar, w^/'aw, black,2 Cor. iii:3;2 John i2;3johni3).
The ink of the ancients was composed of pow-
dered charcoal, lampblack or soot, mixed with
gum and water. It was intensely black and would
retain its color for ages, but was easily removed
from the parchments with sponge and water (see
Num. v:23). It was not so fluid as ours.
Demosthenes reproaches /Eschines with laboring
in the grinding of ink, as painters do in the grind-
ing of their colors. The substance also found in
an inkstand at Hcrculaneum, looks like a thick
oil or paint, with which the manuscripts there have
been written in a relievo visible in the letters, when
a leaf is held to the light in a horizontal direction.
Such vitriolic ink as has been used on the old
parchment manuscripts would have corroded the
delicate leaves of the papyrus, as it has done the
skins of the most ancient manuscripts of Vergil
and Terence, in the Vatican library; the letters
are sunk into the parchment, and some have eaten
quite through it, in consequence of the corrosive
acid of the vitriolic ink, with which they were
written.
Different colors were used by the Egyptians and
Hebrews for writing. They were of red, blue,
purple, gold and silver tints.
INKHORN (Ink'horn), (Heb. ^^A>.,, keh'seth, a
round vessel).
The Oriental inkhorn was a long tube for hold-
ing pens, and was carried in the girdle. It was
made of brass, copper, silver or hard wood. It.
was about nine or ten inches long, one and a half
or two inches wide, and half an inch deep. To the
upper end of this case the inkstand is attached.
This is square or cylindrical, with a lid moving on
hinges and fastening with a clasp. (See WRITING.)
INN
864
INSPIRATION
INN (in), (Heb. V''?, maw-lone' , Gen. xlii.zy;
xliii:2i; Exod. iv:24,a "resting-place for the night";
while the Gr. KaraXvua, kai-al'oo-»iafi, is used for
an "inn," Luke ii:/; an "eating-room," A. Y.^uest
chamber, Mark xiv:i4; Luke xxii:ii). (See Car-
avansary.)
INNOCENT, INNOCENCY (in'nO-sfnt, tn'no-
s<-n-sy), (Heb. T'lv^, or ]"?■,■>, nik-kaw-yone' , literally
clearness. Gen. xx:5; Ps. xxvi:6).
The signification of these words is well known.
The Hebrews considered innocence as consisting
chiefly in an exemption from external fault com-
mitted contrary to the law; hence they often join
innocent with hands (Gen. xx,xvii :22 ; Ps. xxiv :4 ;
xxvi:6). "I will wash my hands in innocency ;"
and (Ps. I.xxiii:l3 "Then have I cleansed my
heart in vain, and washed my hands in inno-
cency." Josephus admits of no other sins than
those which are put in execution. Sins in
thought, in his account, are not punished by God.
To be innocent, is used sometimes for being ex-
empt from punishment. "I will not treat you as
one innocent" (Jer. xlvi:28), literally, "I will not
make trhee innocent." Calmet.
INNOCENTS, SLAUGHTER OF THE (in'-
n6-scnts, sla'ter), (Matt. ii:i6), the slaying of the
young children of Bethlehem, by order o£ Herod,
in the hope of killing Jesus. (See Herodian F.\m-
ILY, I.)
INORDINATE (in-6r'di-nat), disorderly; ex-
cessive, as passions or desires, (Ezek. xxiii:ii;
Col. iii:5).
INatnSITION (in'kwi-zish'un), (Heb. ^y\'
daw-rash' , search; examination, Deut. xix:i8).
God makes inquisition for blood when in his prov-
idence he discovers and punishes violent men
and oppressors (Ps. ix:i2).
INSCRIPTION or SUPERSCRIPTION (In-
skrip'shun, su'per-skrip'shun), a writing on pillars,
altars, marble or coins (Acts xvii;23; Matt.xxii:20).
Anciently the history of nations and the prin-
ciples of science were thus inscribed. The Gre-
cian history of about 1318 years was inscribed on
the Arundelian marbles. Graevius has filled three
volumes in folio with inscriptions of the ancient
Greeks and Romans. At least an abridginent of
the law of Moses, or a copy of the blessings and
curses, was inscribed on the altar at Ebal ( Deut.
xxvii:8). (See Writing.)
INSPIRATION (in-spt-ra-shun), (Heb. ~?^'?.
nesh'aw-maw ; Lat. inspiratio,^ breathing into).
This word is sometimes used to denote the ex-
citement and action of a fervent imagination in
the poet or orator. But even in this case there is
generally a reference to some supposed divine in-
fluence, to which the e.xcited action is owing. It
is once used in Scripture to denote that divine
agency by which man is endued with the faculties
of an intelligent being, when it is said, 'the inspira-
tion of the ."Mmighty giveth him understanding.'
But the inspiration now to be considered is that
which belonged to those who wrote the Scriptures,
and which is particularly spoken of in 2 Tim. iii :
16, and in 2 Pet. i :2I : 'All Scripture is given bj'
inspiration of God;' 'Holy men of God spake as
they were moved by the Holy Ghost.' These pas-
sages relate specially to the Old Testament; but
there is at least equal reason to predicate divine
inspiration of the New Testament.
Inspiration may be best defined, according to the
representations of the Scriptures themselves, as
an extraordinary divine agency upon teachers
while giving instruction, whether oral or written,
by which they were taught 7vhat and how they
should write or speak. Or we may say more
briefly, that the sacred penmen were completely
under the direction of the Holy Spirit, or that they
wrote under a plenary inspiration.
1. The Fact of Inspiration. To prove that
the Scriptures are divinely inspired we might with
propriety refer to the excellence of the doctrines,
precepts, and promises, and other instructions,
which they contain; to the simplicity and majesty
of their style; to the agreement of the different
parts, and the scope of the whole; especially to
the full discovery they make of man's fallen and
ruined state, and the way of salvation through
a Redeemer ; together with their power to en-
lighten and sanctify the heart, and the accompany-
ing witness of the Spirit in believers. These are
circumstances of real importance, and the discern-
ing advocates of inspiration have not overlooked
them. But the more direct and conclusive evi-
dence that the Scriptures were divinely inspired, is
found in the testimony of the zvriters themselves.
.\nd as the writers did, by working miracles, and
in other ways, sufficiently authenticate their di-
vine commission, and establish their authority
and infallibility as teachers of divine truth, their
testimony, in regard to their own inspiration, is
entitled to our full confidence. For who can
doubt that they were as competent to judge of,
and as much disposed to speak the truth on this
subject as on any other? If then we admit their
divine commission and authority, why should
we not rely upon the plain testimony which they
give concerning the divine assistance afforded
them in their work? To reject their testimony in
this case would be to impeach their veracity, and
thus to take away the foundation of the Christian
religion. And it is well known that those who
deny the justice of the claim which they set up
to divine inspiration, do, in fact, give up the
infallible truth and authority of the Scriptures,
and adopt the principles of deism.
It is, then, of the first importance to inquire
what representations are made by the prophets,
and by Christ and his apostles, respecting the in-
spiration, and the consequent authority, of the
sacred Scriptures.
(1) Testimony of the Prophets. The prophets
generally professed to speak the word of God.
What they taught was introduced and confirmed
by a 'Thus saith the Lord'; or 'The Lord spake
to me, saying.' And, in one way or another, they
gave clear proof that they were divinely com-
missioned, and spoke in the name of God, or as
it is expressed in the New Testament, that God
spake by them.
(2) "Testimony of Jesus Christ and the
Apostles. But the strongest and most satis-
factory proof of the inspiration and divine author-
ity of the Old Testament writings, is found in the
testimony of Christ and the apostles.
The Lord Jesus Christ possessed the spirit of
wisdom without measure, and came to bear wit-
ness to the truth. His works proved that he was
what he declared himself to be — the Messiah, the
great Prophet, the infallible Teacher. The faith
which rests on him rests on a rock. As soon then
as we learn how lie regarded the Scriptures, we
have reached the end of our inquiries. His word
is truth. Now every one who carefully attends
to the four Gospels will find, that Christ every-
where spoke of that collection of writings called
the Scripture, as the word of God ; that he re-
garded the whole in this light; that he treated
the Scripture, and every part of it, as infallibly
Irue, and as clothed with divine authority — thus
distinguishing it from every mere human produc-
tion. Nothing written by man can he entitled to
INSPIRATION
86r,
INSPIRATION
the respect which Christ showed to the Scriptures.
This, to all Christians, is direct and incontro-
vertible evidence of the divine origin of the
Scriptures, and is, by itself, perfectly conclusive.
But there is clear concurrent evidence, and
evidence still more specific, in the writings of the
Apostles. In two texts in particular, divine in-
spiration is positively asserted. In the first (2
Tim. iii:i6) Paul lays it down as the character-
istic of 'all Scripture,' that it 'is given by inspira-
tion of God (6tbirvcv(STo%, theop' nettstos, divinely
mspired) ; and from this results its profitable-
ness.
The other text (2 Pet. 1:21) teaches that 'Proph-
ecy came not by the will of man, but holy men
of God spake as they were moved by the Holy
Ghost.' This passage, which the Apostle Peter
applied particularly to the subject of which he
was speaking, may be considered as explanatory
-of what is intended by inspiration. For to say
that all Scripture is divinely inspired, and that
men of God wrote it as they were moved by the
Holy Ghost, is one and the same thing.
The various texts in which Christ and the
Apostles speak of Scripture as the word of God,
and as invested with authority to decide all ques-
tions of truth and duty, fully correspond with
the te.xts above considered.
From this view of the subject it follows that
the attempt which has been made by a certain
class of writers, to account for the production of
the whole or any part of the Scriptures by the
will or ageiicy, the ingenuity, diligence or fidelity
of men, in the use of the means within their
reach, without the supernatural influence of the
Spirit, is utterly at variance with the teachings of
Christ and the Apostles as to the origin of the
sacred writings.
(3) Inspiration of the New Testament. As
the Christian dispensation surpasses the former in
all spiritual privileges and gifts, it is reasonable
to presume that the New Testament was written
under at least an equal degree of divine influence
with the Old, and that it comes recommended
to us by equal characteristics of infallible truth.
But of this there is clear positive evidence from
the New Testament itself.
In the first place, Jesus Christ, whose works
proved him to be the great unerring Teacher, and
to be possessed of all power in Heaven and earth,
gave commission to liis Apostles to act in his
stead, and to carry out the ivork of instruction
which he had begun, confirming their authority
by investing them with power to perform miracles.
But how could such a commission have answered
the end proposed, had not the Divine Spirit so
guided the Apostles as to render them infallible
and perfect teachers of divine truth?
But, secondly, in addition to this, Jesus ex-
pressly promised to give them the Holy Spirit
to abide with them continually, and to guide
them into all the truth. He said to them, 'When
they shall deliver you up, take no thought how
or what ye shall speak; for it shall be given you
in the same hour what ye shall speak. For it is
not ye that speak, but the Spirit of your Father
that speaketh in you.' Storr and Flatt think this
is the idea intended: 'The instructions which ye
in general give are derived not so much from
yourselves as from the Holy Spirit. Hence, when
ye are called on to defend your doctrines, ye need
feel no anxiety, but may confidently rely on the
Holy Spirit to vindicate his own doctrines, by
suggesting to you the very words of your defense."
If these promises were not fulfilled, then Jesus
was not a true prophet. If they were fulfilled, as
they certainly were, then the Apostles had the
constant assistance of the Holy Spirit, and
whether engaged in speaking or writing, were
under divine guidance, and, of course, were liable
to no mistakes either as to the matter or manner
of their instructions.
In the third place, the writers of the New
Testament manifestly considered themselves to
be under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, and
their instructions, whether oral or written, to be
clothed u'ith divine authority, as the word of
God.
'We speak,' they say, 'as of God.' Again,
'Which things we speak not in the words which
man's wisdom teacheth, but in words which the
Holy Ghost teacheth." They declare what they
taught to be the word of God, and the things
they wrote to be the commandments of God. Now
the Apostles, being honest, unassuming, humble
men, would never have spoken of themselves and
their writings in such a manner, had they not
known themselves to be under the unerring guid-
ance of the Holy Spirit, and their instructions
perfectly in accordance with the mind of God.
(4) Manner of Inspiration. It is perfectly
consistent with the plenary inspiration here men-
tioned, that God operated on the minds of in-
spired men in a variety of ways, sometimes by
audible words, sometimes by direct inward sug-
gestions, sometimes by outward visible signs,
sometimes by the Urim and Thummim, and some-
times by dreams and visions. This variety in the
mode of Divine influence detracted nothing from
its certainty. God made known his will equally
in different ways; and, whatever the mode of his
operation, he made it manifest to his servants
that the things revealed were from him.
But inspiration was concerned not only in mak-
ing known the will of God to prophets and apos-
tles, but also in giving them directions in writing
the sacred books. They wrote as they were
moved by the Holy Ghost. And in this, also,
there was a diversity in the mode of divine in-
fluence. Sometimes the Spirit of God moved
and guided his servants to write things which
they could not know by natural means, such as
new doctrines or precepts, or predictions of
future events. Sometimes he moved and guided
them to write the history of events which were
wholly or partly known to them by tradition, or
by the testimony of their contemporaries, or by
their own observation or experience. In all these
cases the Divine Spirit effectually preserved them
from all error, and influenced them to write just
.so much and in such a manner as God saw to be
best. Sometimes he moved and guided them to
write a summary record of larger histories, con-
taining what his infinite wisdom saw to be adapt-
ed to the end in view, that is, the benefit of his
people in all ages. Sometimes he influenced them
to make a record of important maxims in com-
mon use, or to write new ones, derived either
from their own reason and experience, or from
special divine teaching. Sometimes he influ-
enced them to write parables or allegories, partic-
ularly suited to make a salutary impression of
Divine things on the minds of men ; and some-
times to record supernatural visions. In these
and all other kinds of writing the sacred penmen
manifestly needed special divine guidance, as no
man could of himself attain infallibility, and no
wisdom, except that of God, was sufficient to de-
termine what things ought to be written for per-
manent use in the church, and what manner of
writing would be best fitted to promote the great
ends of revelation.
INSPIRATION
866
INSPIRATION
Some writers speak of different modes and
different kinds, and even different degrees, of in-
spiration. And if their meaning is that God
influenced the minds of inspired men in different
ways; that he adopted a variety of modes in re-
veahng divine things to their minds; that he
guided them to give instruction in prose and in
poetry, and in all the different forms of composi-
tion ; that he moved and guided them to write
history, prophecy, doctrines, commands, promises,
reproofs, and exhortations, and that he adapted
his mode of operation to each of these cases —
against this no objection can be made. It is a
fact, that the Scriptures exhibit specimens of all
these different kinds of writing and these different
modes of divine instruction. Still each and
every part of what was written was divinely in-
spired, and equally so. It is all the word of God,
and clothed with divine authority, as much as if
it had all been made known and written in one
way.
Dr. Henderson, who labors perhaps with too
much zeal against carrying inspiration to extreme
lengths, still says that if those who hold to differ-
ent modifications of inspiration intend that there
are different modifications and degrees of au-
thority given to Scripture, their opinion must meet
with unqualified reprobation from every sincere
believer. He insists that a diversity in the modes
and degrees of divine operation did exist in the
work of inspiration, and that this diversity was
the result of infinite wisdom adapting itself to
different circumstances. He thinks that, unless
we admit such a diversity, we cannot form correct
ideas of the subject. But he is confident that the
distinction which he endeavors to establish is not
in the slightest degree hostile to the divine au-
thority of Scripture. He affirms that fw part of
that holy book was written without miraculous
inAuence; that all parts zvere equally inspired;
that in regard to the whole volume the great end
was infallibly attained, namely, the commitment
to writing of precisely such matters as God de-
signed for the religious instruction of mankind;
that the sacred penmen wrote what had for its
object not merely the immediate benefit of indi-
vidual persons or churches, but what would be
useful to Christians in all future times; and that
in regard to the most minute and inconsiderable
things which the Scripture contains we are com-
pelled to say, this also cometh from the Lord.
(5) Verbal Inspiration. The controversy
among orthodox divines respecting what is called
verbal inspiration, appears to arise, in a great
measure, from the different senses affixed to the
phrase.
The real question, and the whole question at
issue, may be stated thus: did the work of the
Divine Spirit in the sacred penmen relate to the
language they used, or their manner of expressing
their ideas; and if so, how far, and in what
way?
All those with whom we are concerned in the
discussion of this question, hold that Divine in-
spiration had some respect to the language em-
ployed by the inspired writers, at least in the way
of general supervision. In recording what was
immediately spoken with an audible voice by
Jehovah, or by an angel interpreter ; in giving ex-
pression to points of revelation which entirely
surpassed the comprehension of the writers; in
recordmg prophecies, the minute bearings of
which they did not perceive; in short, in com-
mitting to writing any of the dictates of the
Spirit, which they could not have otherwise
accurately expressed, the sacred writers were
supplied with the words as well as the matter.
Even when Biblical writers made use of their
own faculties, and wrote each one in his own
manner, without having their mental constitution
at all disturbed, they were yet always secured by
celestial influence against the adoption of any
forms of speech, or collocation of words, that
would have injured the exhibition of Divine truth,
or that did not adequately give it expression.
The characteristic differences of style, so appar-
ent among the sacred writers, were employed by
the Holy Spirit for the purposes of inspiration,
and were called forth in a rational way. The
writers, being acted upon by the Divine Spirit,
expressed themselves naturally, and while the Di-
vine influence adapted itself to whatever was pe-
culiar in the minds of inspired men, it constantly
guided them in writing the sacred volume. The
Holy Scriptures were written, not under a par-
tial or imperfect, but under a plenary and in-
fallible, inspiration, and were entirely the result
of Divine intervention, and are to be regarded
as the oracles of Jehovah.
(6) Plenary Inspiration, (a) The doctrine
of a plenary inspiration of all Scripture in re-
gard to the language employed, as well as the
thoughts communicated, ought not to be rejected
without valid reasons. The doctrine is so ob-
viously important, and so consonant with the feel-
ings of sincere piety, that those evangelical Chris-
tians who are pressed with speculative objections
against it frequently, in the honesty of their
hearts, advance opinions which fairly imply it.
This is the case, as we have seen, with Dr. Hen-
derson, who says, that the Divine Spirit guided
the sacred penmen in writing the Scriptures ; that
their mode of expression was such as they were
instructed by the Spirit to employ; that Paul
ascribes not only the doctrines which the Apostles
taught, but the entire character of their style,
to the influence of the Spirit. He indeed says,
that this does not always imply the immediate
communication of the words of Scripture; and
he says it with good reason. For immediate
properly signifies, acting without a medium, or
without the intervention of another cause or
means, not acting by second causes.
(l>) Now those who hold the highest views of
inspiration do not suppose that the Divine Spirit,
except in a few instances, so influenced the
writers of Scripture as to interfere with the use of
their rational faculties or their peculiar mental
habits and tastes, or in any way to supersede
secondary causes as the medium through which
his agency produced the desired effect.
In regard to this point, therefore, there ap-
pears to be little or no ground for controversy.
For, if God so influenced the sacred writers that,
either with or without the use of secondary
causes, they wrote just what he intended, and in
the manner he intended, the end is secured; and
what they wrote is as truly his word, as though
he had written it with his own hand on tables
of stone, without any human instrumentality.
The very words of the Decalogue were all such as
God chose. And they would have been equally
so if Moses had been moved by the Divine Spirit
to write them vvith his hand. The expression,
that God immediately imparted or communicated
to the writers the very words which they wrote,
is evidently not well chosen. The exact truth,
is that the writers themselves were the subjects
of the Divine influence. The Spirit employed
them as active instruments, and directed them in
writing, both as to matter and manner. They
wrote 'as they were moved by the Holy Ghost.'
The matter, in many cases, was what they before
knew, and the manner was entirely conformed
INSPIRATION
867
INSPIRATION
to their habits; it was their own. But what was
written was none the less inspired on that ac-
count. God may have influenced and guided an
apostle as infallibly in writing what he had be-
fore known, and that guidance may have been as
really necessary, as in writing a new revelation.
And God may have influenced Paul or John to
write a book in his own peculiar style, and that
influence may have been as real and as necessary
as if the style had been what some would call a
divine style. It was a divine style, if the writer
used it under Divine direction. It was a divine
style, and it was, at the same time, a human
style, and the writer's on'n style, all in one.
Just as the believer's exercises, faith and love,
are his own acts, and at the same time are the
effects of Divine influence.
'In efficacious grace,' says Edwards, 'we are
not merely passive, nor yet does God do some
and we do the rest. But God does all, and we
do all. God produces all, and we act all. For that
is what he produces, namely, our own acts. God
is the only proper author and foundation; we
only are the proper actors. We are, in different
respects, wholly passive and wholly active. In
the Scriptures, the same things are represented
as from God and from us. God is said to convert
men, and men are said to convert and turn.
God makes a new heart and we are commanded
to make us a new heart — not merely because we
must use the means in order to the effect, but the
effect itself is our act and our duty. These
things are agreeable to that text, "God worketh
in you both to will and to do."
(c) The mental exercises of Paul and of John
had their own characteristic peculiarities, as
much as their style. God was the author of
John's mind and all that was peculiar to his mental
faculties and habits, as really as of Paul's mind
and what was peculiar to him. And in the work
of inspiration he used and directed, for his own
purposes, what was peculiar to each. When God
inspired different men he did not make their
minds and tastes all alike, nor did he make their
language alike. Nor had he any occasion for this;
for while they had different mental faculties and
habits, they were as capable of being infallibly
directed by the Divine Spirit, and infallibly speak-
ing and writing Divine truth, as though their
mental faculties, and habits had been all exactly
alike. And it is manifest that the Scriptures,
written by such a variety of inspired men, and
each part agreeably to the peculiar talents and
style of the writer, are not only equally from
God, but, taken together, are far better adapted
to the purposes of general instruction, and all
the objects to be accomplished by revelation, than
if they had been written by one man, and in one
and the same manner.
(d) This view of plenary inspiration is fitted
to relieve the difficulties and objections which
have arisen in the minds of men from the variety
of talent and taste which the writers exhibited,
and the variety of style which they used. See,
it is said, how each writer expresses himself
naturally, in his own way, just as he was accus-
tomed to do when not in^vpired. And see. too,
we might say in reply, how each Apostle, Peter,
Paul or John, when speaking before rulers, with
the promised aid of the Holy Spirit, spoke natur-
ally, 7t<ith his own voice, and in his own way,
as he had been accustomed to do on other occa-
sions were not inspired. There is no more
objection to plenary inspiration in the one case
than in the other. The mental faculties and habits
of the Apostles, their style, their voice, their mode
of speech, all remained as they were. What, then,
had the Divine Spirit to do? What was the
work which appertained to him ? We reply,
his work was so to direct the Apostles in the use
of their own talents and habits, their style, their
voice, and all their peculiar endowments, that
they should speak or write, each in his own way,
just what God would have them speak or write,
for the good of the Church in all ages.
2. Objections from Peculiarities of the
Writers.
(1) Language. The fact that the individual
peculiarities of the sacred penmen are everywhere
so plainly impressed on their writings, is often
mentioned as an objection to the doctrine, that
inspiration extended to their language as well as
their thoughts. This is, indeed, one of the most
common objections, and one which has obtained
a very deep lodgment in the minds of some in-
telligent Christians. It may, therefore, be neces-
sary to take some further pains completely to re-
move ft. And in our additional remarks relative
to this and other objections, it will come in our
way to show that such a writer as Gaussen, who
contends with great earnestness and ability for
the highest views of inspiration, does still, on all
important points, agree with those who advocate
lower views of the subject.
Gaussen says, 'Even if the title of each book
should not indicate to us that we are passing from
one author to another; yet we could quickly
discover, by the change of their characters, that
a new hand has taken the pen. It is perfectly
easy to recognize each one of them, although they
speak of the same master, teach the same doc-
trines, and relate the same incidents.' But how
does this prove that Scripture is not, in all re-
spects, inspired? 'So far are we,' says this
author, 'from overlooking human individuality
everywhere impressed on our sacred books, that,
on the contrary, it is with profound gratitude,
and with an ever-increasing admiration, that we
regard this living, real, human character infused
so charmingly into every part of the Word of
God. We admit the fact, and we see in it clear
proof of the Divine wisdom which dictated the
Scriptures.'
Those who urge the objection above mentioned
are plainly inconsistent with themselves. For
while they deny the plenary inspiration of some
parts of Scripture, because they have these marks
of individuality, they acknowledge inspiration in
the fullest sense in other parts, particularly in the
prophecies, where this individuality of the writers
is equally apparent.
In truth, what can be more consonant with our
best views of the wisdom of God, or with the
general analogy of his works, than that he should
make use of the thoughts, the memories, the
peculiar talents, tastes, and feelings of his ser-
vants in recording his Word for the instruction of
men? Why should he not associate the peculiari-
ties of their personal character with what they
write under his personal guidance? But, inde-
pendently of our reasoning, this matter is decided
by the Bible it,self. '.Ml .Scripture is divinely in-
spired.' and it is all the Word of God. And it is
none the less the Word of God, and none the less
inspired, because it comes to us in the language
of Moses, and David, and Paul, and the other
sacred writers. 'It is God who speaks to us, but
it is also man; it is man, but it is also God.' The
Word of God, in order to be intelligible and
profitable to us, 'must be uttered by mortal
tongues, and be written by mortal hands, and
must put on the features of human thoughts.
INSPIRATION
868
INSPIRATION
This blending of humanity and divinity in the
Scriptures reminds us of the majesty and the
condescension of God. Viewed in this light,
the Word of God has unequaled beauties, and
exerts an unequaled power over our hearts.'
(2) Inaccuracy of Translations, (a) The
objection to the plena'ry inspiration of the Scrip-
tures, from the inaccuracy of the translations and
the various readings of the ancient manuscript
copies, is totally irrelevant. For what we assert
is, the inspiration of the original Scriptures, not
of the translations of the ancient copies. The
fact that the Scriptures were divinely inspired,
cannot be expunged or altered by any subsequent
event. The very words of the Decalogue were
written by the finger of God, and none the less so
because the manuscripts which transmit it to us
contain some variations. The integrity of the
copies has nothing to do with the inspiration of
the original. It is, however, well known that the
variations are hardly worthy to be mentioned.
(b) But if the copies of the Scriptures which
we have are not inspired, then how can the in-
spiration of the original writings avail to our
benefit? The answer is that, according to the
best evidence, the original writings have been
transmitted to us with remarkable fidelity, and
that our present copies, so far as anything of
consequence is concerned, agree with the writ-
ings as they came from inspired men ; so that,
through the gracious care of Divine Providence,
the Scriptures now in use are, in all important
respects, the Scriptures which were given by in-
spiration of God, and are stamped with Divine
authority. In this matter, we stand on the same
footing with the Apostles. For when they spoke
of the Scriptures, they doubtless referred to the
copies which had been made and preserved among
the Jews, not to the original manuscripts written
by Moses and the prophets.
(c) There are some who maintain that all
that was necessary to secure the desired results
was an infallible guidance of the thoughts of the
sacred writers; that with such a guidance they
might be safely left to express their thoughts in
their own way, without any special influence from
above.
Now, if those who take this view of the subject
mean that God not only gives the sacred penmen
the very ideas which they are to write, but, in
some way, secures an infallible connection be-
tween those ideas and a just expression of them
in words, then, indeed, we have the desired re-
sult— an infallible revelation from God, Tnade in
the proper language of the writers. But if any
one supposes that there is naturally such an in-
fallible connection between right thoughts and a
just expression of them in language, without
an effective divine superintendence, he contra-
dicts the lessons of daily experience. But those
to whom we refer evidently do not themselves
believe in such an infallible connection. For
when they assign their reason for denying that
inspiration related to the language of the Scrip-
tures, they speak of the different, and, as they
regard them, the contradictory statements of
facts by different writers.
(d) But it is easy to see that the difficulty
presses with all its force upon those who assert
the inspiration of the thoughts. For surely they
will not say that the sacred writers had true
thoughts in their minds, and yet uttered them
in the language of falsehood. This would con-
tradict their own idea of a sure connection be-
tween the conceptions of the mind and the utter-
ance of them in suitable words, and would clearly
show that they themselves feel it to be necessary
that the Divine guidance should extend to the
words of inspired men as well as their thoughts.
But if an inspired writer, through inadvertence,
committed a real mistake as to a statement of
fact, it must have been a mistake in his thoughts
as well as in his words. If, then, there was a
mistake, it lay in his thoughts. But if there was
no mistake, then there is nothing to prove that
inspiration did not extend to the language. If,
however, there was a real mistake, then the ques-
tion is not, what becomes of verbal inspiration,
but what becomes of inspiration in any sense.
(e) It is sometimes said that the sacred writ-
ers were of themselves generally competent to
express their ideas in proper language, and in this
respect had no need of supernatural assistance.
But there is just as much reason for saying that
they were of themselves generally competent to
form their own conceptions, and so had no need
of supernatural aid in this respect. It is just as
reasonable to say that Moses could recollect what
took place at the Red Sea, and that Paul could
recollect that he was once a persecutor, and Peter
what took place on the mount of transfiguration,
without supernatural aid, as to say that they
could, without such aid, make a proper record
of these recollections. We believe a real and
infallible guidance of the Spirit in both respects,
because this is taught in the Scriptures, and it
is obvious that the Bible could not be what Christ
and the Apostles considered it to be unless they
were divinely inspired.
(3) Diversity in the Narratives. The diver-
sity in the narratives of the Evangelists is some-
times urged as an objection against the position
we maintain in regard to inspiration, but evi-
dently without reason, and contrary to reason.
For what is more reasonable than to expect that
a work of divine origin will have marks of con-
summate wisdom, and will be suited to accom-
plish the end in view. Now it will not be denied
that God deterinined that there should be four
narratives of the life and death of Jesus from
four historians.- If the narratives were all alike,
three of them would be useless. Indeed, such
a circumstance would create suspicion, and would
bring discredit upon the whole concern. The
narratives must then be different. And if, be-
sides this useful diversity, it is found that the
seeming contradictions can be satisfactorily rec-
onciled, and if each of the narratives is given
in the peculiar style and manner of the writers,
then all is natural and unexceptionable, and we
have the highest evidence of the credibility and
truth of the narratives.
(4) An Additional Objection. It is by some
alleged that writers who were constantly under a
plenary divine inspiration would not descend to
the unimportant details, the trifling incidents,
which are found in the Scriptures. To this it
may be replied that the details alluded to must
be admitted to be according to truth, and that
those things which, at first view, seem to be tri-
fles, may, when taken in their connections, prove
to be of serious moment. And it is moreover
manifest that, considering what human beings
and human affairs really are, if all those things
which are called trifling and unimportant were
excluded, the Scriptures would fail of being con-
formed to fact ; they would not be faithful his-
tories of human life ; so that the very circum-
stance which is demanded as proof of inspiration
would become an argument against it. And here-
in we cannot but admire the perfect wisdom
which guided the sacred writers, while we mark
INSTANT
INTERMEDIATE STATE
the weakness and shallowness of the objections
which are urged against their inspiration.
3. iSummarg. On the whole, after carefully
investigating the subject of inspiration, we are
conducted to the important conclusion that 'all
Scripture is divinely inspired ;' that the sacred
penmen wrote 'as they were moved by the Holy
Ghost,' and that these representations are to be
understood as implying that the writers had, in
all respects, the effectual guidance of the Divine
Spirit. And we are still more confirmed in this
conclusion because we find that it begets in those
who seriously adopt it an acknowledgment of
the divine origin of Scripture, a reverence for its
teachings, and a practical regard for its require-
ments, like what appeared in Christ and his Apos-
tles. Being convinced that the Bible has, in all
parts and in all respects, the seal of the Almighty,
and that it is truly and entirely from God, we
are led by reason, conscience, and piety to bow
submissively to its high authority, implicitly to
believe its doctrines, however incomprehensible,
and cordially to obey its precepts, however con-
trary to our natural inclinations. We come to
it from day to day, not as judges, but as learners,
never questioning the propriety or utility of any
of its contents. This precious Word of God is
the perfect standard of our faith, and the rule
of our life, our comfort in affliction, and our sure
guide to heaven. L. W.
Literature. Dick, Essay on the Inspiration of
the Holy Scriptures (Glasg. 4th ed., 1840) ; Ren-
nel, Proofs of Inspiration (Lond., 1822) : Carson,
Theories of Inspiration; Henderson, Divine In-
spiration (4th ed., 1852) ; Lee, Inspiration of the
Holy Scriptures; Hannah. Divine and Human
Elements in Holy Scripture (Bampton Lect. for
5853) ; Westcott. Introd. to the Gospels, pp. 5,
383; Maurice, Theolog. Essays, p. 314; Den-
ziger. Die Theol. Lehre v. d. Inspiration, etc. (in
the Rel. Erklaer., ii. 156-242) ; Liddon, Bampt.
Lect., 1866, pp. 45, 219; Neander, Ch. Dogm., ii,
433, 442, 607; Pres. Fairchild. Elements of The-
ology; Prof. Warfield, Article on Inspiration, (in
Pres. and Ref. Review, April, 1893).
INSTANT (in-stnnt). 1. Very eager and
earnest; persevering (Rom. xii:i2).
2. An instant is a moment or short period of
time (Jer. xviii:?; Luke ii:38). (See also Rom.
,\ii :i2; 2 Tim. iv :2.)
INSTBXTCTION (in-struk'shun). See Educa-
tion; Schools.
INSTBTTMENT (in'stru-m^nt), (Heb.*^?,/f/r/-^^',
something prepared), a general term for any ap-
paratus, as implement, weapon, furniture, utensil,
vessel, etc. (Exod. xxv:g).
Figurative. The second causes, whereby God
executes his works of mercy or judgment, arc his
instruments (Is. xli:i5). Sword, famine, pesti-
lence, and disease are his instruments of death
(Ps. vii:i3). Men's bodies, or members, are 111-
struments of righteousness or unrighteousness:
are. as it were, tools by which they work the one
or the other in outward acts (Rom. vi:l3).
INTELLIGENCE (in-tel'li-jfns), (Heb. T?,
bene, Dan. xi:30), to have an understanding or agree-
ment rather than a quality of mind, with the idea
of treachery or double dealing.
INTENT (in-tenf), (Gr. tva, hm'ah, John xiii:28),
intention or purpose.
INTERCESSION (in'ter-sgsh'iin). (Heb. i'^E.
pau>-gah' , to come upon; Gr. ivrv^x^^'^t en-toong-
khan'o, to meet with, to come between).
(1) Intercession of Christ, His interposing
for sinners by virtue of his being a Mediator.
(i) As to the fact itself, it is evident, from
many places of Scripture, that Christ pleads with
God in favor of his people (Rom. viii:34; Heb.
vii :25 ; i John ii :i).
(2) As to the manner of it: the appearance of
the high-priest among the Jews, in the presence
of God, on the day of atonement, when he of-
fered before him the blood of the sin-offering, is
at large referred to by St. Paul as illustrating
the intercession of Christ (Heb. ix:n, 14, 22, 26;
x:i3, 21).
(3) Christ's intercession is not to remind the
Divine Being of anything which he would other-
wise forget, nor to persuade him to anything
which he is not disposed to do ; but it may serve
to illustrate the holiness and majesty of the Fa-
ther, and the wisdom and grace of the Son ; not
to say that it may have other unknown uses with
respect to the inhabitants of the invisible world.
He is represented, also, as offering up the pray-
ers and praises of his people, which become ac-
ceptable to God through him (Rev. viii :3, 4;
Heb. xiii:is; I Pet. ii:5). He there pleads for
the conversion of unconverted ones ; and for the
consolation, preservation, and glorification of his
people (John xvii ; i John ii:i, 2).
(4) Of the properties of Christ's intercession, it
may be also observed: (a) That it is authoritative.
He intercedes not without right (John xvii:24;
Ps. ii:8). (b) Wise; he understands the nature
of his work, and the wants of his people (John
ii:25). (c) Righteous; for it is founded upon
justice and truth (i John iii :5 ; Heb. vii:26). (d)
Compassionate (Heb. ii:i7; v :8 ; Is. Ixiii:9). (e)
He is the sole advocate (i Tim. ii:5). (f) It is
perpetual (Heb. vii:25). (g) Efficacious (i John
ii :i, 2 ; John xi :42).
(2) Intercession of the Holy Ghost. The
Holy Ghost makes intercession for us with groan-
ings that cannot be uttered ; he excites to prayer,
directs what to ask. and enables us to offer our
requests to God in a duly earnest manner (Rom.
viii :26).
(3) Intercession of Believers. We make in-
tercession for men. when we plead with God on
their behalf, and for his gifts and graces to them
(i Tim. ii:l). In a time of universal apostasy,
God wondered that there was no intercessor,
none to stand up in behalf of religion, and wrestle
with him for the turning away of his wrath (Is.
Iix:l6).
INTEREST (In'ter-est). See UsURY.
INTERHARRIAGE (in-ter mar'rij). See
Marriage.
INTERMEDDLE (in'ter-med'dl), (Heb. -^f.
au'-rai', Prov. 14:10), to take interest in, engage,
mingle in, not of necessity in an offensive way, as
is generally implied in the use of the word now.
INTEBHEDIATE STATE (in'ter-me'di-ate
Stat), a term made use of to denote the state of the
soul between death and the resurrection.
From the Scriptures speaking frequently of the
dead as sleeping in their graves, many have sup-
posed that the soul sleeps till the resurrection,
J. e., is in a state of entire insensibility. But
against this opinion, and that the soul, after
death, enters immediately into a state of reward
or punishment, the following passages seem to be
conclusive : Matt, xvii -.3 ; Luke xxiii :42 ; 2
Cnr. V :6 ; Phil, i :2i ; Luke xvi :22, 23 ; Rev. vi .9.
(See Hades.)
INTERPRETATION
870
INTERPRETATION
INTERPRETATION (in-ter'pre-la'shun) OF
THE OLD TESTAMENT.
/. Introduction. The science of the interpre-
tation of Scripture has passed through as long
and tortuous a course as chemistry or astronomy.
As alchemy and astrology led up to these sciences,
so the efforts of Jews and Christians to explain
the Scriptures have prepared the way for the
modern system of interpretation now current in
the study of any ancient literature. This consists
in giving the plain and obvious meaning of the
text, as understood by the men for whom it was
first written.
The belief that the Bible was a divine book
almost completely closed the eyes of ancient in-
terpreters to its human elements. If they some-
times theoretically admitted them, they prac-
tically ignored them. Its literary character, its
poetry, its history., were overlooked. It was re-
garded as an arsenal of divine sayings. Hence,
both Jews and Christians sought to find their
theories and speculations confirmed by it. They
did not ask what the writers intended^ but rather
what meaning the language would bear. The re-
sult of this abuse of Scripture was that the Bible,
which we regard as a book for the common peo-
ple, was sealed ; so that among the Jews none but
a rabbi was capable of setting forth the sense
of the Old Testament, and among the Christians
only the Church could determine the significance
of the Bible.
2. Ancient J emish Interpretation. Amui.g
the Jews there were two schools of interpreters; the
Palestinian, which used the Hebrew consonantal
text, and the Alexandrian, which used the Sep-
tuagint translation.
(1) The Palestinian School. The character
of Palestinian exegesis may be best observed in
the Talmud, including the Mishna, or develop-
ment of the Law ; the Gemara, or expansion of
the Mishna, and its further modification in the
Baraitha. The Jerusalem Talmud was edited A.
D. 390 ; the Babylonian, A. D. 365-427. The Tal-
mudic commentary is called Midrash. investiga-
tion, embracing the Halacha, legal enactment, and
the Haggada, or illustrations by tales, parables,
or allegories. While the rabbis have reduced
their mode of interpretation to rules, nothing
could seem more lawless, more casuistical, more
fantastic, than some of the interpretations in the
writings named. In the same connection should
be mentioned the Kabala (see article), which re-
gards each letter of Scripture as the source of the
greatest mysteries.
(2) The Alexandrian School. The most
prominent figure in this school is that of Philo,
born about B. C. 20 at Alexandria. Though he
found the allegorical method employed in the exe-
gesis of Homer and other Greek writers, as well
as ill that of the Old Testament, he is worthy of
special prominence, because of his pre-eminent
ability, his effort to reduce the allegorical inter-
pretation to a system of rules, and on account of
his influence, more or less immediately, on the
interpretation of the Church Fathers. While
retaining the literal sense for the instruction of
the common people, he adopted the allegorical for
those who were capable, as he thought, of a
higher conception of the Scriptures, and turned
the plainest narratives into metaphysical abstrac-
tions, since it was his belief that the Greek philos-
ophy, of which he was an ardent admirer, could be
found in the Old Testament.
(3) The New Testament Writers. As might
be expected, Palestinian, and traces of Alexan-
drian, exegesis are found in the New Testament,
both in the Gospels and the Epistles. Paul was
brought up at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts xxii:3).
He was saturated with Jewish learning and
schooled in Jewish modes of thought. When
he became a new creature in Christ, he did not
cease to think and reason like a Jew ; hence, his
mode of interpretation is essentially Jewish, but
the guiding power of the Divine Spirit has at
all times kept him from such extravagances as we
find in the Talmud. Now, while we must admit
that the human method of interpretation employed
was incorrect in form, it was used by Divine wis-
dom as the only suitable means of conveying
truth in New Testament times. An age ac-
customed to the Jewish mode of interpretation
could not make any more use of the modern
method than a boy, who has studied only primary
arithmetic, could make of a treatise on comic sec-
tions. Hence, a New Testament interpretation of
the Old is abundantly justified as a necessity of
Divine Providence.
3. Medieval Jewish Interpretation. The
Middle Ages, which brought no light from the Bible
to the Christian church, were marked by distinct
progress among the Jews in the interpretation of
the Old Testament. Under the inspiration and
example of the Arabs, whose language the Span-
ish Jews spoke, the study of Hebrew grammar at
first flourished several hundred years in Spain,
beginning with Jehudah Ibn Daud, or Chayuj, and
closing with David Kimchi (died 1235), who
wrote in Hebrew. Elias Levita (died 1549), a
celebrated grammarian, belongs to the period of
the Renaissance. Even Rashi (died 1105) shows
the influence of the new learning, although abid-
ing by traditional interpretations ; and Ibn Ezra
(died 1 167), who was in some respects a fore-
runner of the modern critics, is perhaps the most
grammatical and historical of the medieval Jewish
interpreters. David Kimchi, while subject to philo-
sophical presuppositions, also marks a distinct ad-
vance in the history of interpretation.
4. Interpretation by the Church Fathers.
The process begun among the Jewish interpreters of
putting their own ideas and speculations into the
Old Testament, instead of drawing out the mean-
ing of the original writers, was continued by the
Church down to the Reformation.
The effort made was to transform the Old Tes-
tament into a treasury of New Testament teach-
ing; the instrument used was allegory. In this
respect the Church Fathers were following in the
footsteps of New Testament writers, especially of
Paul and of the author of the Epistle to the He-
brews. Clement of Rome (96 A. D.) sees in the
scarlet cord, which Rahab was instructed to bind
in her window, a symbol of the atoning blood of
Jesus Christ. Barnabas (Epistle between 119 and
126 A. D.) finds in the three hundred and eight-
een servants of Abraham a symbol of the name
of Jesus and the cross. Indeed, there is scarcely
an allusion to w'ood, or anything which can be
tortured into a reminder of the cross, which is
not seized upon by Barnabas and other Fathers
as a symbol. Justin Martyr's dialogue with Try-
pho, the Jew (142-148), rests mostly on a use
of the Old Testament, which we must consider
invalid and superficial, and of which the Jew
rightly complained. Such was the uncertainty
and subjective character of interpretation in the
ancient Church that Tertullian (born about 150)
maintained that argument with heretics was use-
less, because the issue was uncertain. He claims
that Apostolic tradition is to be the test of the
meaning of Scripture, thus foreshadowing the ac-
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871
INTERPRETATION
tion of the Council of Trent. Nor did the labors
of Origen (born 185, died 254), wonderful as
they may be considered, produce sounder methods
of interpretation. He sought, as the result of
immense labor, through the preparation of his
hexaplar text of the Old Testament, by placing
the Hebrew text with the various Greek trans-
lations in parallel columns, to advance the knowl-
edge of the true text of the Old Testament.
Through the errors of subsequent transcribers in
disregarding the critical signs, the ancient text of
the Septuagint fell into great confusion. Besides,
Origen, who may be considered the leading repre-
sentative of the Alexandrian school, and a great
admirer of Philo, sought to systematize the alle-
gorical mode of interpretation. He considered
that Scripture had a threefold sense, consisting
of body, or literal ; soul, or moral ; spirit, or mys-
tical. The literal sense was useful for the most
simple Christians. Through the allegorical inter-
pretation he found an easy refuge from all diffi-
culties in the Old Testament. The influence of
Origen was permanent in the Church, although
the Fathers who succeeded him did not go to as
great lengths.
There were glimmerings of right principles of
interpretation, as appears from the writings of
Augustine (born 354, died 430), the great theo-
logian, and Jerome (born 346, died 420), the great
Biblical scholar of the ancient Church; but these
principles, while recognized, had no controlling
effect. Augustine adopted the seven exegetical
rules of Tichonius, which were mostly harmful to
right interpretation. While his exegetical works
contain good comments on Old Testament pas-
sages, they are largely composed of fanciful inter-
pretations of Scripture. Among the Church
Fathers, Jerome was the only Hebrew scholar
worthy of the name. Besides him, with the ex-
ception of Origen, none could go back of transla-
tions of the Old Testament. Jerome enjoyed the
best advantages for the study of the Old Testa-
ment that the time afforded. He spared neither
pains nor expense to master the Hebrew language.
His Latin translation of the Bible was a work of
great merit, which, after a test of centuries, dis-
placed its older rivals, and became the Vulgate
of the Romish Church. While Jerome had much
of the freedom and insight of the modern critic,
he was not an original interpreter, and could not
break loose from the faults of his time.
Only one of the Fathers earned the title of "the
exegete," Theodore of Mopsuestia (born about
350, died 429), the intimate friend and companion,
from boyhood, of Chrysostom, to whom in early
manhood he owed his conversion. He was the most
conspicuous representative of the School of An-
tioch, which stood for the historical and natural
interpretation of Scripture. While he had no
knowledge of Hebrew, he had a remarkable in-
tuitionof the historical and grammatical mode of
exegesis. He was a strong opponent of the
methods of Origen. But he was really a thou-
sand years in advance of his time. His works
were brought under the suspicion of Nestorianism,
and were condemned one hundred and twenty-five
years after his death.
The allegorical method, against which Theodore
had stoutly contended, continued dominant, and
was current among the schoolmen. Nicholas De
Lyra (born 1270. died 1340), who was a Hebrew
scholar, and who had enjoyed the benefit of the
studies of the Spanish Jews of the Middle Ages,
does indeed "make the first beginnings of a school
of natural exegesis ... by ascertaining the
literal meaning." and, through his influence on
Luther, paves the way for the following period;
but, on the whole, the jjcriod from the Apostolic
Fathers to the Reformation, in the history of
exegesis, might be characterized as that of "the
misinterpretation of the Old Testament."
5. Interpretation from the 'K.eformation
to the Eighteenth Century. Two things are
characteristic of the period introduced by the Ref-
ormation in llic interpretation of the Old Te;-ta-
nient ; the freeing of Scripture from the bondage
of the Church tradition, and the study of it in the
original languages. Both were of the greatest im-
portance. Until the Reformation, the Bible for
the few who used it could mean to the loyal
Romanist only what the Church decreed it should
mean ; hence the motive was wanting to go behind
the official text of the Romish Church as found
in the Vulgate. This attitude was entirely
changed by the Reformation. The Bible became
the source of authority; hence the Reformers did
not care for the interpretations of the Fathers.
Their sole question was what the Scriptures them-
selves taught. This rendered necessary a careful
study of the Bible in the original languages, for
which the way had been prepared by Reuchlin's
translation of Kimchi's grammar. Hence we may
trace the Bible of Luther and the other reformers
back to the studies of Spanish Jews in the Mid-
dle Ages, under the tuition of the Arabs. Neither
Luther (born 1483, died 1546) nor Calvin (born
1509, died 1564) were profound Hebrew scholars,
but they marked an infinite advance over the bar-
ren waste of scholastic exegesis. They rriani-
fested a free attitude in their judgment of the
binding authority of certain parts of the Old Tes-
tament, while yielding loyal and unquestioning
obedience to Scripture as a whole. Their position
in this respect was in sharp contrast to that of
the theologians of the Post-Reformation period,
who sought, after the manner of an orthodox
Jewish scholar of the second century, to make a
hedge about the Scriptures. The effort was made
by these theologians to find the same infalfiMlity
in the Bible which the Fathers had found in the
Church as the custodian of Apostolic tradition.
This effort extended to defining the limits of the
Scripture to claiming, with reference to the vowel
points, that they had been supernaturally com-
municated ; that the Old Testament was of equal
authority with the New; that the rule of faith was
to be found in the clear passages of Scripture, and
that the obscure passages were to be interpreted
by them. Thus the theologians of the Post-Re-
formation period brought the Scriptures once
more under a yoke of bondage, the rule of faith
which was really a barrier to free interpretation.
But there were critical tendencies at work, both
among Protestants and Catholics. Even Carlstadt
(born about 1483, died iS4i) had maintained that
the Pentateuch could not have been written by
Moses, and Luther had asked what difference it
would make if he were not the author of it. Yet
the main current among Jews, Catholics, and
Protestants, during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, was to suppress free inquiry about the
origin and composition of the Scriptures. But
such investigations on the part of individuals
could not be kept back.
(1) Spinoza (born 1632, died 1667) may be re-
garded the father of modern criticism. He was
a learned Jew of acute mind who lived in Amster-
dam, and who was excommunicated by the Jews
because of his critical theories. The principles of
interpretation enunciated by him are essentially
in accord with those held by the modern critical
school.
(2) A little later two French Catholics made
important contributions to Old Testament criti-
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872
INTERPRETATION
cism. One, a priest, Richard Simon (born 1638,
died 1712), who is sometimes called the father of
Biblical introduction, was the author of a Critical
History of the Old Testament.
(3) Astruc (born 1684, died 1766), a Catholic
layman, was the founder of the literary analysis
of the Pentateuch in his "Conjectures Upon the
Original Memoirs xvhich Moses Seems to Have
Used in Composing the Book of Genesis."
(4) The condition of the text, which has an
important bearing on interpretation, also received
great attention in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. After a hard fought battle between the
Buxtorfs, father (born 1564, died 1629) and son
(born 1599, died 1664), on the one hand, and Ca-
pellus on the other, it was proved conclusively that
the vowel points used in reading Hebrew, far
from being original with Moses, were an inven-
tion of the Massoretes (after 600 A. D. ), the
guardians of Jewish text criticism. Kennicott, an
English, and De Rossi, an Italian, scholar, devo-
ted great attention to the comparison of Old Tes-
tament Hebrew MSS., leading to the negative re-
sult, that none of those in existence originated
before the Middle Ages, and that the variations
in their readings were so slight as to be of no
account.
(5) Lowth and Herder were eminent as exe-
getes, but no scholar arose who effected a general
change in the principles of interpretation as in-
troduced by the theologians succeeding the Refor-
mation. They went to the Bible for proof texts to
establish the doctrines of the church ; and since
they sought these by sound, rather than through
a historical, interpretation, they found them in the
Old Testament as well as the New. Human
agency in the production of Scripture was lost
sight of, and God was considered the author of
Scripture in such a sense that the writers were
hardly more than amanuenses of the Divine Spirit.
6. Interpretation During the Nineteenth
Century. The last hundred years has marked
an epoch in the history of Old Testament inter-
pretation. Ecclesiastical and theological fetters
are being struck off from the Old Testament, so
that the ancient writers can deliver their message
to us in some such way as they sought to deliver
it to their contemporaries. Up to the present
century, with a few exceptions, the Cliurch was in-
clined to regard the Old Testament purely as a
divine book. Now the critics are teaching the
church that the Old Testament is best understood
when we give the human element in Scripture
its due place ; that, as we draw nearer the Master
by dwelling on his humanity, so we see God's
infinite wisdom in his dealings with Israel more
clearly when we recognize the human and dis-
pensational limitations of the Old Testament mes-
sengers and those to whom they were sent. High-
er criticism cannot disprove the fact of a Divine
revelation; indeed, it does not seek to do so; it
simply deals with the temporal and natural pe-
culiarities of those who bore it. and to whom it
was given through many centuries. While such
critics as Kuenen may claim that prophecy in an-
cient Israel was the product of mere naturalism,
the history of ancient religions does not furnish
a parallel to any such naturalistic development as
is sometimes claimed for the Old Testament. The
results of the prophecies demand a supernatural
cause. The origin of the Old Testament, in its
relation to the New. cannot be explained merely
as a human production. No higher critic, so far
as he is a careful and conscientious investigator,
is to be regarded an enemy of revealed relig-
ion on account of his investigations. Whatever
his personal attitude may be to the religion of
Israel, his investigations, so far as they are con-
ducted in a scientific spirit, with an honest effort
to know the truth, are to be hailed with satisfac-
tion. This may serve to explain a seeming in-
consistency in the attitude of evangelical higher
critics to results which are sometimes called "de-
structive." They are not destructive of the au-
thority of the Old Testament, as tested by the
New, but of traditional views with respect to its
origin and composition. Hence, they claim they
do not affect the fact of a Divine revelation, but
rather the manner of it.
The Old Testament interpreter, in the closing
years of the nineteenth century, has entered into
possession of the following most important helps
for interpretation, which are mainly the fruit of
studies during the last hundred years:
(1) With reference to the text. At least some
progress has been made in seeking to determine
the original text of the Old Testament. Many of
the suggestions in the Hebrew text of the Old
Testament edited by Haupt, from which the trans-
lation of the Polychrome Bible is being prepared,
are doubtless arbitrary and subjective, but it is a
step in the right direction which must be followed
by others until scholars shall settle with reasona-
ble unanimity on a critical text of the Old Testa-
ment.
(2) The discovery of the meaning of words
found in the Old Testament is of the utmost im-
portance. Most of these are clear, because they
often occur ; many are very obscure, because they
are found only once. To determine their signifi-
cation it is not only necessary to compare the
different ancient versions, but also to trace them
in cognate languages like Arabic, Aramaic, and
Assyrian. In some of these respects, Gesenius
introduced a new era through his lexicon, which
has passed through many editions since his death,
and is now being reproduced in this country with
all the appliances of modern scholarship.
(3) Not less important is a study of the struc-
ture and connection of sentences. In this regard,
Gesenius did a conspicuous service, but it was
Ewald who unlocked the treasuries of Hebrew
syntax, and who has been the inspiration of all
subsequent Hebrew grammarians and interpret-
ers through his insight and commanding genius.
(4) It is also of the utmost importance to know
the manners and customs and the geography of
the country where the Old Testament was pro-
duced. The present century has been character-
ized by the most interesting antiquarian and geo-
graphical researches, not only in Palestine itself,
but in the scat of the great world powers with
which Israel had to do, and in whose domain at
different times they found a home, Egypt and
.Assyria. The value of these researches as aids
to interpretation cannot be overestimated. (See
EnvpT ; .Assyria.)
(5) But as exegesis is a historical science, as
well as grammatical and critical, it is especially
dependent on the researches of the higher critics,
because these determine the relative age and suc-
cession of documents, and no right interpretation
of these documents can be given, as a whole, out
of their proper historical setting. No truthful his-
tory of Israel's religion or development of it, as
a state, can be given without using the results of
higher criticism. Its most important discoveries
have been made in the Hexateuch (Pentateuch
r.nd Joshua), in Psalms, Isaiah, Zechariah, and
Daniel. But none are comparable to those brought
to light in the Hexateuch. It has been found that
the laws of ancient Israel, both civil and relig-
iNTREAT
813
IRI
lous, as therein detailed, resting on foundations
laid by Moses, and all ultimately gathered in a
law hook known by his name, were of slow
growth, and did not attain their final form until
the reorganization of the Jewish state under Ne-
hemiah and Ezra (B. C. 445-444). Reading the
Old Testament in the light of this reconstruc-
tion of the Pentateuch, there is not a religious
or legal institution which does not show traces
of development. The critics discovered long ago
that the Hexateuch was composed of three main
documents. With reference to this there is now
almost unanimous agreement among German Old
Testament scholars, and the number of those who
give their assent to this view in Great Britain
and America is constantly increasing. These doc-
uments, known as the Jehovistic, B. C. 640, made
up of the Yahvistic, written in Judah B. C. 850,
and the Elohistic, written in Ephraim, B. C. 750;
the Deuteronomic. B. C. 621, including Deuter-
onomy and the Deuteronomic portions of Joshua;
and the Priests' Code were all welded together
by some unknown editors, and were published by
Ezra, B. C. 444. Even these documents contain
others of still greater antiquity. The mode of
composition employed is sometimes called "patch-
worK.' It preserves the component parts. It is
characteristic of Orientals, and can be easily
traced in many places in Chronicles by means of
an English reference Bible. Let any one examine
the component part of i Chron. xvi. cutting out
the original passages from an English Bible, and
pasting them on cardboard by the side of the
corresponding passages of the Chronicles. There is
much divergence among critics in details as to the
age of the documents named and the editions
through which they have passed, but very little
as to their literary, legal, and theological charac-
teristics.
The present dominant school of criticism, which
considers the Priests' Code the youngest part of
the Pentateuch, was founded by Graf, who pub-
lished in 1866 his Historical Books of the Old
Testament. But it was the further analysis of
Wellhausen (born 1844) and his lucid statement of
critical results which won the day in Germany.
In Holland the most conspicuous critic of the
same school was Kuenen (born 1828, died 1891) ;
in Great Britain, the lamented W. Robertson
Smith (born 1846, died 1894), a brilliant scholar
and devout Christian, who made a gallant fight
for liberty ; and in America, C. A. Briggs (born
1841). who has sought a like result. 'The best
summary of the modern critical views of the
Old Testament is found in Driver's Literature of
the Old Testament.
While the Old Testament, in its general teach-
ing, is level with the comprehension of plain,
unlettered people, a large proportion of its litera-
ture, especially that which is legal and prophetic,
gains immeasurably in interest and instructive-
ness when interpreted in historic light, and with
the instruments afforded by modern criticism.
The Old Testament, which was primarily de-
signed to be a light to the feet and a lamp to the
path of the Jewish congregation, loses nothing
in real power or authority through the most
searching investigation. S. I. C.
INTREAT (ln>.et'\ (Gr. iraparaX^u, par-ah-al-
eh'o, I Tim. v:i), to. exhort in a kindly spirit with-
out rebuking. In the A. V. of 161 1 entreat and
intreat are used indifferently in both senses of the
word. It signifies to deal with.
nrWARD (in'wSrd), (Heb. TiB, sode. Job xix:
19), intimate, familiar, confideDtial,
IOTA (t-S'ta), (Aulh. Vers, -jof), the smallest
Icttrr (i( the (ireck alphabet (1); derived from the
Hebrew^rt^/ (") and the SyriacywrtVi, and employed
metaphorically to express the minutest trifle.
It is, in fact, one of several metaphors de-
rived from the alphabet — as when alpha, the first
letter, and omega, the last, are employed to ex-
press the beginning and the end. We are not
to suppose, however, that this proverb was ex-
clusively apposite in the Greek language. The
same practical allusion equally existed in He-
brew, some curious examples of which may be
seen in Wetstein and Lightfoot. One of these
may here suffice: — In the Talmud (Sanhed. xx:
2) it is fabled that the book of Deuteronomy came
and prostrated itself before God, and said, 'O
Lord of the universe, thou hast written in me thy
law, but now a testament defective in some
parts is defective in all. Behold, Solomon en-
deavors to root the letter jod out of me,' i. e.,
in the text, C^ti nDT Kb, "he shall not mul-
tiply wives' (Deut. xvii:i7). 'The holy, blessed
God answered. — Solomon, and a thousand such as
he, shall perish, but the least word shall not
perish out of thee.' This is, in fact, a parallel
not only to the usage but the sentiment, as con-
veyed in Matt. v:i8, 'One jot, or one tittle, shall
in no wise pass from the law.'
IPHEDEIAH aph'e-de'ya), (Heb. '^T'F: yif-
deh-yaiv' , Jah will liberate), one of the "sons" of
Shashak, a descendant of Benjamin (I Chron. viii:
25); mentioned as cliief of the tribe and resident
at Jerusalem (B. C. between 1612 and 1588).
IR (ir), (Heb. "'*?', eer, a city, town), a Benja-
mite, father of Shuppim and Huppim (i Chron.
vii:i2). He is probably to be identified with a son
of Benjamin (Gen. xlvi:2i), and not with Iri of
I Chron. vii7.
IRA (i'ra), (Heb. ^^'T?, ee-raw', citizen, or watch-
ful).
!• A Tekoite, son of Ikkesh, one of David's
"thirty" guards (i Chron. xi:28; 2 Sam. xxiii :26)
and commander of the sixth regiment of troops
(l Chron. xxviiig), B. C. 1046-1014.
2. An "Ithrite." or Jethrite, another of David's
famous heroes (2 Sam. xxiii :38; I (Thron. xi:
40), B. C. 1046.
3. A Zairite, David's chaplain (2 Sam. xx:26),
B. C. about 1022. Perhaps identical with 2.
IRAD (i'rSd), (Heb. 1^?. ee-rawtf, fugitive),
son of Enoch, and an antediluvian patriarch of
the Cainite line (Gen. iv:i8), B. C. after 4045.
IRAM (i'ram), (Heb. ^t'^', re-rawm' , city-wise),
an Edomite leader in Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi:43;
I Chron. i:54), probably contemporaneous with the
Horite kings (perhaps B.C. 1618).
IR-HAHERES (ir-ha-he'res), (Heb. ^Tp: Ty,
ecr ha-hch' res, A. \ . "the ritv of destruction"), is
the name or epithet of a city of Egypt (Is. xix:i8).
If the prophecy is to be taken properly, Ir-ha-
hercs must refer to one of the cities partly, at
least, inhabited by Jews. Such a one was Onion,
which was destroyed by Titus, while Alexandria
and perhaps the other three alluded to in the
prophecy remained. If the prophecy is to be taken
tropically the best meaning can only be deter-
mined by verbal criticism.
IRI (i'ri), (Heb. *T?, ee-ree' , citizen), a Benja-
inite, the last enumerated of the five sons of Bela
(I Chron. vii:7), B.C. between 1856 and 1658.
IRIJAH
raiJAH (i-ri'jah), (Heb. •"'""'^T, yir-ee-yaw' ,
fearful of ]ah), son of Shelemiah, "a captain of the
word" at the gate of Benjamin in Jerusalem where
he arrested the prophet Jeremiah, alleging that he
was about to desert to the Chaldaeans, and con-
ducted him back to the princes (Jer. xxxvii:l3, 14),
B. C. about 597.
IR-NAHASH (ir-na'hash), (Heb. ^^'r'''?', eer-
naw-khawsh'y city of the serpent), a city of Judah
which some supposed to have been named from
the abundance of serpents in its neighborhood,
but more probably from a person named Nahash,
or from an image of the animal worshiped here
(I Chron. iv:i2). It has been identified by Schwarz
and Van de Velde with Deir-Nakhaz,&asX of Beit-
Jibrin.
IRON (i'ron). 1. (Heb. l'XT,j'/r-«?^«', place of
alarm), a city of Naphtali (Josh. xix:38), probably
identical with Zarun (Saulcy, Narrat. ii. 382;
Robinson, Research., iii:6i, 62, notes).
2. (Heb. 'p3, bar-ze/e'), a well-known and serv-
iceable metal.
Much stress has been laid upon the absence of
iron among the most ancient remains of Egypt ;
but the speedy decomposition of this metal, espe-
cially when buried in the nitrous soil of Egypt,
may account for the absence of it among the
remains of the early monarchs of a Pharaon'c
age (Wilkinson's Ancient Egypt, iii:246).
(1) Early Mention. Tubal-Cain is the first
mentioned smith, 'a forger of every instrument of
iron' (Gen. iv:22). From that time we meet
with manufactures in iron of the utmost variety
(some articles of which seem to be anticipations
of what are commonly supposed to be modern in-
ventions) ; as iron zveapons or instruments (Num.
xxxv:i6; Job xx:24); barbed iron, used in hunting
(Job xli:7); an iron bedstead (Deut. iii:ll);
chariots 0/ iron (Josh. xvii:i6, and elsewhere);
iron weights (shekels) (i Sam. xvii:/); harrows
of iron (2 Sam. xii;3i); iron armor (2 Sam.
xxiii:7); tools (i Kings vi7; 2 Kings vi:6);
horns (I Kings xxii:ii); nails, hinges (i Chron.
xxii:3); fetters (Ps. cv:i8); bars (Ps. cvii:i6);
iron bars used in fortifying the gates of towns
(Ps. cvii:i6; Is. xlv:2); a pen of iron (Job xix:
24; Jer. xvii:i), a pillar (Jer. i:i8); yokes (Jer.
xxviii:l3; pan (Ezek. iv:3); trees bound with iron
(Dan. iv:i5); gods of iron (Dan. v;4); threshing
instruments (Amos i:3); and in later times, a« iron
Cate (Acts xii:io); the actual cautery (l Tim. iv:2);
reastplates (Rev ix;g).
(2) Plentiful in Palestine. The mineral
origin of iron seems clearly alluded to in Job
xxviii :2. It would seem that in ancient times it
was a plentiful production of Palestine (Deut.
viii:g). There appear to have been furnaces for
smelting at an early period in Egypt (Deut. iv:
20). The requirement that the altar should be
made of 'whole stones over which no man had
lift up any iron,' recorded in Josh, viiir^l, does
not imply any objection to iron as such, but
seems to be merely a mode of directing that, in
order to prevent idolatry, the stones must not
undergo any preparation by art. Iron was
prepared in abundance by David for the build-
ing of the temple (i Chron. xxii:3), to the
amount of one hundred thousand talents (l
Chron. xxix:/), or rather 'without weight' (l
Chron. xxii:i4). Working in iron was consid-
ered a calling (2 Chron. ii:/). (See Smith.)
Iron seems to have been better from some coiyi-
tries, or to have undergone some hardening pr^D-
874 ISAAC
aration by the inhabitants of them, such as were
the people called Chalybes, living near the Euxine
Sea (Jer. xv:i2); to have been imported from
Tarshish to Tyre (Ezek. xxvii:i2), and 'bright
iron' from Dan and Javan (ver. 19). The su-
perior hardness of iron above all other substances
is alluded to in Dan. ii :40. It was found among
the Midianites (Num. xxxi:22), and was part
of the wealth distributed among the tribes at their
location in the land (Josh. xxii:8).
Figurative. Iron is metaphorically alluded to
in the following instances : AflSiction is signi-
fied by the furnace for smelting it (Deut. iv:2o).
Under the same figure, chastisement (Ezek.
xxii:i8, 20, 22). Reducing the earth to total
barrenness by turning it into iron (Deut. xxviii:
23). Slavery, by a yoke of iron (Deut. xxviii:
48). Strength, by a bar of it (Job xl :i8) ;
the extreme of hardness (Job xli:27) ; severity oif
government, by a rod of iron (Ps. ii :9) ; afflic-
tion, by iron fetters (Ps. cvii:io); prosperity,
by giving silver for iron (Is. Ix:i7); political
strength (Dan. ii:33); obstinacy, by an iron
sinew in the neck (Is. xlviii :4) ; giving super-
natural fortitude to a prophet, making him an
iron pillar (Jer. i:i8); destructive power of
empires, by iron teeth (Dan. vii:7); deteriora-
tion of character, by becoming iron (Jer. vi:28;
Ezek. xxii:i8), which resembles the idea of the
iron age; a tiresome burden, by a mass of iron
(Ecclus. xxii:is) ; the greatest obstacles, by walls
of iron (2 Mace, xi :9) ; the certainty with which
a real enemy will ever show his hatred, by the
rust returning upon iron (Ecclus. xii:io). Iron
seems used, as by the Greek poets, metonymically
for the sword (Is. x :34), and so the Sept. under-
stands it, /idxoipa. The following is selected as
a beautiful comparison made to iron (Prov.
xxvii:i7). 'Iron (literally) uniteth iron; so a
man uniteth the countenance of his friend,' gives
stability to his appearance by his presence. A
most graphic description of a smith at work is
found in Ecclus. xxxviii :28. J. F. D.
IBPEEIi (ir'pe-el), (Heb. ^^T, yir-peh-ale' ,
God will heal), a city of Benjamin mentioned
between Rekem and Taralah (Josh. xviii:27). It
has been conjecturally identified with el-Kustul,
situated on a conical hill in the district west of
Jerusalem.
IBBIGATION (ir-rr-ga-shun). See Water.
IB-SHEMESH (ir'she'raesh), (Heb. l^^f IT.
eer shek'mesh, city of the sun), a city in Dan
(Josh. xix:4i) supposed to be the same with Beth-
Shemesh, the temple of the sun (i Kings iv:9).
IBXJ (i'ru), (Heb. ''"1"^, ee-roo' , citizen), the first
named of the sons of the great Caleb, son of
Jephunneh (l Chron. iv:i5), B.C. 1618. By some it
IS claimed that the name should be Ir.
ISAAC (i'zak), (Heb. pO?^ yits-khawk', laugh-
ter, i. e.. mockery i"^^^.^; ■■.■is-khawk' , he will laugh,
in Ps. cv:g; Jer. xxxiii:26; Amos viiig, 16; Gr.
'l<jaiK,ee-sak-ak').
The only son of Airaham and Sarah, born in
his parents' old age.
The promise of a son had been made to them
when Abraham was visited by the Lord in the
plains of Mamre, and appeared so unlikely to be ful-
filled, seeing that both Abraham and Sarah were
'well stricken in years,' that its utterance caused
the latter to laugh incredulously. Being reproved
for her unbelief she denied that she had laughed.
The reason assigned for the special visitation thus
ISAAC
875
ISAAC
promised was, in effect, that Abraham was pious,
and would train his offspring in piety, so that he
would become the founder of a great nation, and
all the nations of the earth should be blessed in
him.
In due time Sarah gave birth to a son, who
received the name of Isaac. The reason assigned
in Gen. xxi :6 for the adoption of this name, has
reference to the laughter occasioned by the an-
nouncement of the divine intention — and Sarah
said, God hath made me to laugh, all that hear
will laugh with me' — the laugh of incredulity
being changed into the laugh of joy (comp. Gen.
xxi:6; xvii:i7; xviii:i2).
The first fact that we read of in the history of
Isaac, is the command given to his father to offer
the youth — 'thy son, thine only son Isaac, whom
thou lovest' — for a burnt-offering on a mountain
in the land of Moriah. Abraham proceeded to
obey the divine direction, and was on the point of
slaying Isaac, when his hand was withheld by the
interposition of God, a ram for sacrifice being
provided instead.
(1) 'VTiews Regarding the Offering TJp of
Isaac. This event has found no few detractors.
Eichhorn (Bibt. f. Bibt. Lit. i. 45, .j?. ) regarded
the whole as a vision; Otmar (Henkes' Mag. ii.
517), as the explanation of an hieroglyph; Bruns
(Paulus Memorab. vi:i, sg.) finds the source
of it in the Phoenician custom of sacrificing chil-
dren. Some compare (Rosenmiiller, Morgenl.
i. ys) with this narrative the Grecian story of
Iphigenia, and other fables of a similar kind.
The general aim of certain writers has been, as
they consider it, to relieve the Bible from the
odium which the narrated circumstances are in
their opinion fitted to occasion. That the passage
is free from every possible objection, it may be
too much to assert ; it is, however, equally clear
that many of the objections taken to it arise from
viewing the facts from a wrong position, or under
the discoloring medium of a foregone and ad-
verse conclusion. The only proper way is to
consider it as it is represented in the sacred page.
The command, then, was especially designed to
try Abraham's faith. The trial was made, the
fact was ascertained, the victim was not slain.
What is there in this to which either religion or
morality can take exception? This view is both
confirmed and justified by the words of God
(Gen. xxii:i6. sq.). 'because thou hast not with-
held thy only son. in blessing I will bless thee, and
in multiplying I will multiply thy seed as the stars
of the heaven, and in thy seed shall all the na-
tions of the earth be blessed.'
(2) Marriage. Isaac passed his youthful days
under the eye of his father, eng.-iged in the care of
flocks and herds up and down the plains of
Canaan. At length his father wished to see him
married. Abraham therefore gave a commission
to his oldest and most trustworthy servant to the
effect that, in order to prevent Isaac from taking
a wife from among the daughters of the Canaan-
ites. he should proceed into Mesopotamia, and.
under the divine direction, choose a partner among
his own relatives for his beloved son. Rebekah,
in consequence, becomes Isaac's wife, when he was
now forty years of age.
In connection with this marriage an event is re-
corded which displays the peculiar character of
Isaac, while it is in keeping with the general tenor
of the sacred record regarding him. Probably in
expectation of the early return of his father's mes-
senger, and somewhat solicitous as to the result of
fhe embassy, he went out to meditate in tlie field
at the eventide. While there engaged in tranquil
thought, he chanced to raise his eyes, when lo! he
beheld the retinue near at hand, and soon con-
ducted his bride into his mother's tent. In uni-
son with all this is the simple declaration of the
history, that Isaac 'loved her.' Isaac was evident-
ly a man of kind and gentle disposition, of a
calm and reflective turn of mind, simple in his
habits, having few wants, good rather than great,
fitted to receive impressions and follow a guide,
not to originate important influences, or perform
deeds of renown.
(3) Children. Isaac having, in conjunction
with his half-brother Ishmael, buried Abraham his
father, 'in a good old age. in the cave of Mach-
pelah,' took up a somewhat permanent residence
'by the well Lahai-roi,' where, being blessed of
God, he lived in prosperity and at ease. One
source of regret, however, he deeply felt. Re-
bekah was barren. In time, two sons, Jacob and
Esau, are granted to his prayers. As the boys
grew, Isaac gave a preference to Esau, who seems
to have possessed those more robust qualities of
character in which his father was defective, and
therefore gratified him by such dainties as the
pursuits of the chase enabled the youth to offer;
while Jacob, 'a plain man dwelling in tents,' was
an object of special regard to Rebekah — a divi-
sion of feeling and a kind of partiality which be-
came the source of much domestic unhappiness,
as well as of jealousy and hatred between the two
sons.
(4) Denies His 'Wife. A famine compels
Isaac to seek food in some foreign land. Divinely
warned not to go down to Egypt, the patriarch ap-
plies to a petty prince of Philistia, by name
Abimelech, who permits him to dwell at Gerar.
Here an event took place which has a parallel in
the life of his father Abraham. Rebekah was his
«ou«in ; afraid lest she should be violently taken
from him, and his own life sacrificed to the lust
of Abimelech, he represented her as his sister, em-
ploying a latitude of meaning which the word 'sis-
ter' admits in Oriental usage. The subterfuge
was discovered, and is justified by Isaac on the
grounds which prompted him to resort to it.
Another parallel event in the lives of Abraham
and Isaac may be found by comparing together
Gen. xxvi:26, sq.. and xxi :22, sq. If these par-
allels should excite a doubt in the mind of any
one as to the credibility of the narratives, let him
carefully peruse them, and we think that the sim-
plicity and naturalness which pervade and charac-
terize them will effectually substantiate the reality
of the recorded events, and explode the notion that
fiction has had anything to do in bringing the nar-
rative into its present shape.
(5) Pronounces a Blessing 'Upon Jacob.
Isaac, in his old age, was, by the practices of
Rebekah and the art of Jacob, so imposed upon
as to give his blessing to the younger son Jacob,
instead of to the firstborn. Esau, and with that
blessing to convey, as was usual, the right of
headship in the family, together with his chief
possessions. In the blessing which the aged
patriarch pronounced on Jacob it deserves no-
tice how entirely the wishcd-for good is of an
earthly and temporal nature, while the imagery
which is employed serves to show the extent to
which the poetical element prevailed as a constit-
uent part of the Hebrew character (Gen. xxyii:
27, sq.). Most natural, too, is the extreme agita-
tion of the poor blind old man. on discovering the
cheat which had been put upon him: 'And Isaac
trembled very exceedingly, and said (to Esau),
Who? where is he that hath taken venison and
brought it me. and I have eaten, and have blessed
him? Yea, and he shall be blessed." Equally
ISAAC
876
ISAIAH
natural is the reply of Esau. The entire passage
is of itself enough to vindicate the historical char-
acter and entire credibility of those sketches of the
lives of the patriarchs which Genesis presents.
The stealing, on the part of Jacob, of his father's
blessing having angered Esau, who seems to have
looked forward to Isaac's death as affording an
opportunity for taking vengeance on his unjust
brother, the aged patriarch is induced, at his wife's
entreaty, to send Jacob into Mesopotamia that,
after his own example, his son might take a wife
from amongst his kindred and people, 'of the
daughters of Laban, thy mother's brother.'
This is the last important act recorded of Isaac.
Jacob having, agreeably to his father's command,
married into Laban's family, returned, after some
time, and found the old man at Mamre, in the
city of Arbah, which is Hebron, where Abraham
and Isaac sojourned.
(6) Death. Here, 'being old and full of days'
(i8o), Isaac 'gave up the ghost, and died, and was
gathered unto his people, and his sons Esau and
Jacob buried him' (Gen. xxxv :27, sq.).
(7) Character. Isaac, the gentle and dutiful
son, the faithful and constant husband, became the
father of a house in which order did not reign. If
there were any very prominent points in his char-
acter they were not brought out by the circum-
stances in w^hich he was placed. He appears less
as a man of action than as a man of suffering,
from which he is generally delivered without any
direct effort of his own. Thus he suffers as the
object of Ishmael's mocking, of the intended sacri-
fice on Moriah, of the rapacity of the Philistines,
and of Jacob's strategem. But the thought of his
sufferings is effaced by the ever present tokens of
God's favor; and he suffers with the calmness and
dignity of a conscious heir of heavenly promises,
without uttering any complaint, and generally
without committing any action by which he would
forfeit respect. Free from violent passions, he
was a man of constant, deep, and tender affections.
Thus he mourned for his mother till her place was
filled by his wife. His sons were nurtured at
home till a late period of 'l^eir lives ; and neither
his grief for Esau's marriage, nor the anxiety in
which he was involved in consequence of Jacob's
deceit, estranged either of them from his affec-
tionate care. His life of solitary blamelessness
must have been sustained by strong habitual piety
such as showed itself at the time of Rebekah's bar-
renness (xxv:2i), in his special intercourse with
God at Gerar and Beer-sheba (xxvi:2, 23), in the
solemnity with which he bestows his blessing and
refuses to change it. His life, judged by a world-
ly standard, might seem inactive, ignoble, and un-
fruitful ; but the "guileless years, prayers, gracious
acts and daily thank-offerings of pastoral life" are
not to be so esteemed, although they make no
show in history. Isaac's character may not have
exercised any commanding influence upon either
his own or succeeding generations; but it was
sufficiently marked and consistent to win respect
and envy from his contemporaries. By his pos-
terity his name is always joined in equal honor
with those of Abraham and Jacob; and so it was
even used as part of the formula which Egyptian
magicians in the time of Origen (Contra Celsum,
i :22) employed as efficacious *o bind the demons
whom thev adjured (comp. Gen. xxxi :42, 53).
(Smith, Bib. Diet).
ISAIAH (i-za'ya or i-za'ya), (Heb. ''•"''V^^r. J'"/'-
ah-yaw' hoo ; LXX, 'H<rofas).
/. Ufe and Times of the Prophet Isaian.
The heading of this book places the prophet un-
der the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hez-
ekiah, kings of Judah ; and an examination of the
prophecies themselves, independently of the head-
ing, leads us to the same chronological results.
Chapter vi, in which is related the call of Isaiah,
is thus headed: 'In the year in which King Uz-
ziah died [i. e., B. C. 735] I saw the Lord,' etc.
Isaiah was accordingly born about 765. His
father's name is given as Amoz (not Amos, with
which it was confounded by some ancient Fa-
thers).* According to a Jewish rabbinical tradi-
tion, Isaiah was either the brother or nephew of
King Amaziah, a tradition which has been sup-
ported in modern times by pointing to the occur-
rence of the name of Jehovah as a part of Isa-
iah's name. This, it has been said, was custom-
ary in the earlier periods of Israel's history only
in royal circles. But no safe conclusion can be
drawn from these data, and, as a matter of fact
we must confess that of his earlier personal life
nothing is known.
The age in which he lived, however, was crit-
ical, and is one of the best understood of all Bib-
lical periods. It is the age in which the great
Assyrian monarchs, Tiglath-pileser III, Shalma-
neser IV, Sargon, and Sennacherib undertook
and carried on extensive campaigns of conquest
in Northern Palestine, as well as against Israel
and Judah. It was an age in which the true
mission of Israel was in need of being specially
emphasized. And to this work Isaiah was di-
vinely called. If we assume that he began his
prophetic work in B. C. 735, and take into ac-
count the data in chapters 36-39 of the book,
which indicate that he was active in public life
in the fifteenth year of the reign of Hezekiah ;
i. e., B. C. 713, we shall have a life of public
service extending over at least twenty-two years
How much longer he lived and prophesied it is
not easy to determine precisely. Some modern
scholars, led by Staudlein, Jahn, Bertholdt, and
Gesenius, have advanced the opinion that Isaiah
lived to a much later period, and that his life
extended to the reign of Manasseh, the successor
of Hezekiah. For this opinion the following
reasons are adduced :
(1) According to 2 Chron. xxxii :32, Isaiah
wrote the life of King Hezekiah. It would hence
appear that he survived that king.
(2) We find a tradition current in the Talmud,
in the Fathers, and in Oriental literature, that
Isaiah suffered martyrdom in the reign of Manas-
seh, by being sawn asunder. It is thought that an
allusion to this tradition is found in the Epistle
to the Hebrews (xi:37). in the expression, they
were sawn asunder (iirpl(r0ri<rav), which seems
to harmonize, though somewhat vaguely, with
2 Kings xxi :i6, 'Moreover Manasseh shed inno-
cent blood very much.'
(3) The authenticity of the second portion of
the prophecies of Isaiah being assumed, the na-
ture of this portion would seem to confirm the
idea that its author had lived under Manasseh.
These arguments, however, cannot be regarded
as conclusive. The first can only prove that Isa-
iah survived Hezekiah ; but even this does not
follow with certainty, because in 2 Chron. xxxii:
32, where Isaiah's biography of Hezekiah is men-
tioned, the important words, 'first and last,' are
omitted ; while in chapter xxvi :22, we read,
'Now the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and
last, did Isaiah, the son of Amoz, write.' If
*This coDfusioD was due to ignorance of the Hebrew lan-
Buage. The Fathers were accustomed to the use of the Greek
Version of the Scriptures, in which Amoz and Amos are pre-
cisely the same in spelling.
ISAIAH
877
ISAIAH
we take into consideration this important omis-
sion, we can easily believe that Isaiah died before
Hezekiah. although he wrote his biography up to
a tcrlain point ; more especially if we bear in
mind that, according to the books of Kings and
Chronicles, the latter years of the reign of Hez-
ekiah were devoid of important events. We cer-
tainly find, in all ages of literature, biographies
of persons written during their lifetime.
We may well suppose that the history of Hez-
ekiah terminated with the glorious aid granted
to him in his war with the Assyrians, and with
the events immediately consequent upon that war.
In reply to the second argument, we observe
that it is not certain that the word ^irpiffflijtrai',
"they u'ere sa7vn asunder," is used in Hebrews
with reference to Isaiah. The statement in the
i'"athers, and in Oriental writers is entirely de-
duced from the Jewish tradition, which is
throughout of so doubtful a character that no
conclusive argument can be based upon it.
With regard to the third argument, we re-
mark, that the differences discernible, if we com-
pare the latter with former portions of Isaiah,
can, and ought to be, differently accounted for.
Such merely e-xternal attempts at explanation
always prove unsatisfactory when closely exam-
ined.
On the other hand, the superscription of the
book indicates that the prophet's public ministry,
if not his life, closed either during the life of
Hezekiah or very soon after that king's death.
According to this superscription, all the prophe-
cies of Isaiah were uttered within the period
from Uzziah to Hezekiah. Not one of the proph-
ecies which is headed by a separate superscrip-
tion of its own is placed after the fifteenth year
of Hezekiah ; and the internal evidence leads us
in none beyond this period. Hence, we infer that
the prophetic ministry of Isaiah terminated soon
after its fullest development, to which it attained
during the period of the Assyrian invasion, in the
reign of Hezekiah.
According to these statements Isaiah belongs to
the cycle of the most ancient prophets whose
predictions have been preserved in writing. He
was a contemporary of Hosea and Amos, al-
though younger than those prophets, who be-
longed to the kingdom of Israel. He was like-
wise a contemporary and co-worker of the prophet
Micah in the kingdom of Judah.
Isaiah was a resident, and perhaps a native,
of Jerusalem. He was married, his wife being
called "the prophetess" (viii:3). Two of his
sons are mentioned, Shear-jashub and Maher-
shalal-hash-baz. These significant names, which
he gave to his sons, prove how much the prophet
lived in his vocation. He did not consider his
children to belong merely to himself, but ren-
dered them living admonitions to the people. In
their names were contained the two chief points
of his prophetic utterances: one (Maher-shalal-
Itiish-ba:, "Spoil-speeds-booty-hastes") recalled
to mind the severe and inevitable judgment
wherewith the Lord was about to visit the world,
and especially his people ; the other, Shcar-ja-
shub, which signifies "The-remnant-shall-return,"
pointed out the mercy with which the Lord
would receive the elect, and with which, in the
midst of apparent destruction, he would take
care to preserve his people and his kingdom.
His wife's name, "the prophetess," cannot
mean the wife of a prophet, but indicates that
the prophetess of Isaiah had a prophetic gift,
like Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah. The appel-
lation here given denotes the genuineness of their
conjugal relation.
Even the dress of the prophet was subservient
to his vocation. According to chapter xx :2, he
wore a garment of haircloth or sackcloth. This
seems also to have been the costume of Elijah,
according to 2 Kings i :8 ; and it was the dress of
John the Baptist. Hairy sackcloth is in the Bible
the symbol of repentance (compare Is. xxii:i2;
.\-xxvii:i, 2, and i Kings xxi:27). This costume
of the prophets was a sermo propheticus realis,
a prophetic preaching by fact. The prophetic
preacher comes forward in the form of personi-
fied repentance. What he does, exhibits to the
people what they should do. Before he has
opened his lips his external appearance pro-
claims lUTaTMiTc, repent.
2. Lost Writings Jlscribed to Isaiah. Be-
sides the prophecies which have been preserved
to us, Isaiah also is said to have written two
historical works. It was part of the vocation of
the prophets to write the history of the kingdom
of God. to exhibit in this history the workings
of the law of retribution, and to exhort to the
true worship of the Lord. History, as written by
the prophets, is itself retroverted prediction, and,
as such, offers rich materials for prophecy, strict-
ly so-called. Since all the acts of God proceed
from his essence, a complete understanding of
the past implies also the future ; and, vice versa,
a complete understanding of the future implies
a knowledge of the past. Most of the historical
books in the Old Testament have been written by
prophets. The collectors of the Canon placed
most of these books under the head ^*^''^i,/>rop/i-
ets; hence, it appears that, even when these his-
torical works were remodeled by later editors,
these editors were themselves prophets. The
Chronicles are not placed among the ^'X'D^,
prophets; this is no sign that they were not writ-
ten by a prophet. Their author constantly indi-
cates that he composed his work from abstracts
taken verbatim from historical monographs writ-
ten by the prophets ; consequently the books of
Ruth, Ezra, Nchemiah, and Esther are the only
historical books of the Old Testament which did
not originate from prophets.
The first historical work of Isaiah was a biog-
raphy of King Uzziah (comp. 2 Chron. xxvi :22,
'Now the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and
last, did Isaiah the prophet, the son of Amoz,
write'). The second historical work of Isaiah
was a biography of King Hezekiah, which was
subsequently inserted in the annals of Judah and
Israel. These annals consisted of a series of pro-
phetic monographs, which were received partly
entire, and partly in abstracts, and are the chief
source from which the information contained in
file Chronicles is derived. In this work of Isa-
iah, although its contents are chiefly historical,
numerous prophecies were inserted. Hence it is
called in 2 Chron. xxxii :32, The I'ision of Isa-
iah. In a similar manner the biography of Solo-
mon by Ahijah is called in 2 Chron. i.x:29. The
Prophecy of Ahijah. The two historical works
of Isaiah were lost, together with the annals of
Judah and Israel, into which they were embod-
ied. Whatever these annals contained that was
of importance for all ages, has been preserved
to us by being received into the historical books
of the Old Testament, and the predictions of the
most distinguished prophets have been formed
into separate collections. After this was effected,
legs care was taken to preserve the more diffuse
ISAIAH
878
ISAIAH
annals, which also comprehended many statements,
of value only for particular times and places.
3, The Boofc of Isaiah. (1) Structure and
Content. At the very first glance the Book of Isa-
iah is seen to consist of three very distinct parts.
It is divided into 66 chapters. Of these, chapters
i-xxxv constitute a more or less homogeneous
collection and are distinctly prophetic. Chapters
xxxvi-xxxix contain a historical sketch of some
events during Hezekiah's reign, and chapters xl-
Ixvi constitute another homogeneous collection,
and are as distinctly prophetic as chapters i-xxxv.
The first of these sections may be further
subdivided into five groups of prophetic dis-
courses as follows: (a) Chapters i-xii, dealing
generally with the political, social and moral
conditions in Judah during the time of the
threatened Assyrian and Syrian invasions. Chap-
ter i has been quite properly entitled The Great
Arraignment. It contains a severe denunciation
of the lukewarmness and formalism of the people
as well as of the princes and rulers. Chapters
ii-iv constitute a connected discourse, opening
with a glowing picture of the future exaltation
of Zion, then showing by way of contrast its
present need and low moral condition, and clos-
ing with another picture of its future glory.
Chapter v presents in a parable — that of the
vine — the care of Jehovah for Judah. Chapter
vi gives an account of the vision in the last year
of Uzziah's life with which the prophet's minis-
try began. Chapters vii, x:4, consist of a series
of oracles delivered during the reign of Ahaz.
The remainder of chapter x (verses 5-34) is a dis-
course against Assyria. Chapter xi predicts the
advent of the Messiah, and chapter xii is a short
psalm of thanksgiving to Jehovah, (b) Chapters
xiii-xxiii contain a series of so-called "Bur-
dens," J. e., denunciatory oracles on the nations
dwelling in Palestine and adjacent countries.
The first of these oracles is entitled the Burden
of Babylon, and occupies chapters xiii and xiv ;
the second is the Burden of Moab, in chapters xv
and xvi ; the third, the Burden of Damascus, in
chapter xvii ; the fourth, the Burden of Ethio-
pia, in chapter xviii ; the fifjh. the Burden of
Egypt, in chapter xix. This section is interrupted
here by the insertion of a historical fragment,
chapter xx, after which come the sixth Burden,
t. e., that of the "Wilderness of the Sea." chap-
ter xxi:l, 10; the seventh, i. e., the Burden of
Dumah, xxi:il-l2; the eighth, i. e., the Burden
of Arabia, xxi:i3-i7; the ninth, i. e., the Burden
of the Valley of the Vision (Judah), chapter
xxii ; and the tenth, i. e., the Burden of Tyre,
chapter .xxiii. (c) Chapters xxiv-xxvii are of the
nature of an eschatological vision. They deptct
the final judgment and consummation of all
things brought about by the confusion, desola-
tion, and collapse of the world, out of which,
however, Israel is saved and its dead are raised
to life again. (d) Chapters xxviii-xxxiii have
been entitled the "Book of Zion." They con-
tain discourses addressed directly to Zion, ad-
monishing and warning it by the example of
Samaria (chapters xxviii and xxix), pointing
out the folly of an Egyptian alliance (chapters
xxx and xxxi), promising a restoration to ideal
conditions (chapter xxxii), and denouncing the
conquering Assyrian (chapter xxxiii), (e) Chap-
ters xxxiv and xxxv give a picture of the re-
demption of Israel, the judgment of Edom, and
the return of the captives home.
The second main division of the book narrates
Sennacherib's invasion and demand for the sub-
missign of Ilczekiah, and the disastrous ending
of the invasion (comp. 2 Kings xvii 130; xx:i9),
the sickness of Hezekiah (chapter xxxviii), and
the mission of Merodach Baladan to Hezekiah
(chapter xxxix).
The third division of the book, comprising xl-
Ixvi, has been called the Book of Consolations.
Its standpoint is the end of the Babylonian exile,
B. C. 550-540, and it is designed evidently to com-
fort and encourage the captives and assure them
of speedy restoration to their native land. The
prophecy is continuous and, although capable of
minute and detailed analysis, it cannot be sub-
divided into oracles and discourses as readily as
the first section. The best analysis made is that
into three parts, i. e. (i) chapters xl-xlviii, (2)
chapters xlix-li.x, and (3) chapters Ix-lxvi.
In the first of these divisions the prophet aims
to assure the Jews in exile of the certainty of res-
toration. Chapter xl opens with an exhortation
to the people to be of good cheer, for the Great
and Divine Deliverer is about to come. The way
should be prepared for him. Nothing can hinder
him, because no creature can compare with him,
nor can any human conception express him (xl:
1-26) ; hence Jacob is to take courage (27-31).
Jacob is Jehovah's favored servant ; therefore for
his benefit Jehovah stirred up the "righteous man
from the east" (Cyrus) (xliii-g); the servant of
Jehovah should fear no ill ; Jehovah who protects
him knows the end from the beginning (10-29).
Jehovah's servant, the Israel of xli :8 is a com-
plex and ideal personality whose head (the Mes-
siah) is at times so prominently before the mind
of the prophet that he is spoken of exclusively as
"The Servant," whereas at other times, what is
said of the servant can only refer to the Israel of
God, the people of whom the Messiah is the Head
and representative. In chapter xlii:i-i2, the Mes-
siah as the Servant of Jehovah is looked to as
about to accomplish a double work; i. e. (i) that
of enlightening the world and leading it to the
true knowledge of God, and (2) that of redeem-
ing Israel, his people, and restoring it to its glory.
The mention of Israel leads the prophet to fall
back on the more general meaning of the term
servant, and, speaking of Israel as the servant, to
account for the woes of the Babylonian captivity
as caused by the spiritual blindness and deafness
of this servant (xlii 113-25). From these woes, how-
ever, Jehovah was determined to redeem the peo-
ple and to enlarge it by the adoption into its fold
of the nations of the earth (xliii-xliv 15). Inxliv:
6; xlv :2S, the greatness and power of Jehovah once
more come into the foreground of the prophet's
thought. Chapters xlvi and xlvii are occupied
with the impending fall of Babylon, the former
chapter containing a derisive picture of the down-
fall of its idols and the latter of the city itself.
Chapter xlviii is a recapitulation of the thoughts
of chapters xl-xlvii, closing with a triumphant call
by the prophet in the name of Jehovah unto his
servant Israel to come out of Babylon.
The second section of this great prophecy (xlix-
lix) may be entitled the Servant of Jehovah. The
preceding section had been designed to produce the
conviction of the certainty of the restoration. In
this one the conviction is assumed to have been
formed in the hearts of the people and they are
urged to fit themselves for their privileges and en-
joy them when they came. The section opens
with a dramatic introduction of the Servant of
Jehovah and his double work. In chapter 1 the
servant himself declares the character of his work
and the difficulties in his way. In chapters li and lii
to Iv. verse 12, the prophet reverts to the thought
of the return, and is filled with the joy of triumph
as he realizes the certainty of the event. Chapters
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ISAIAH
lii:i3; liii:i2, once more present the Servant of
Jehovah, but now as the ideal leader, who through
humiliation, suffering, and death, not for his own
sins but for those of others, is lifted to a higher
pedestal of honor and joy. This prophecy has
rightly been viewed as fulfilled exhaustively only
in the career of Jesus Christ, the true and ideal
Servant of Jehovah. In liv-lvi :8 further prom-
ises of restoration are addressed to the people. In
Ivi :9-lviii the prophet reproves Israel and calls
for reformation. This is followed by repentance
and the people are represented as confessing their
sins in chapter lix.
The third and last section of the prophecy (Ix-
Ixvi) depicts in glowing colors the Future Glory
of the Restored Israel. The darkness of the past
is in chapter Ix represented as dispelled and the
"light" of Zion has dawned upon her. This is
followed by an enumeration of Jehovah's favors to
the redeemed Zion (Ixi, Ixii). In chapter Ixiii Is-
rael's triumph over her enemies is foreshadowed
first in a dramatic dialogue between the prophet
and Jehovah as a victor returning from the con-
quest of Edom, and afterwards in songs of thanks-
giving and praise for the conquest of Israel's ene-
mies. In chapter Ixv the new relation of God to
his people is assured and a new era of prosperity
is foreshadowed ; and in Ixvi the view of the res-
toration of the temple-service leads to the ap-
preciation of the greatness and majesty of Je-
hovah, who transcends all earthly temples, and is
above visible service. The whole prophecy then
closes with a contrasted portraiture of the glory
of Zion and the judgment to be visited upon her
enemies.
(2) Integrity of the Book of Isaiah. The
question of the integrity of Isaiah was first raised
by Koppe in his German translation of Lowth's
Isaiah (pub. 1778). Until this time the title given
to the whole collection in chapter i:i was tacitly
accepted as a certificate of the fact that Isaiah, the
Son of Amoz, had written the whole book. Koppe
denied the validity of this position, and was quick-
ly answered by Kocher (1786). From this be-
ginning the controversy has been carried on in-
volving more and more of the book in its suc-
cessive stages. At the present day three general
views may be distinguished. First, that of those
who believe in the unity of the book. Second,
that of those who divide it into three parts, as-
cribing each to one general author; i. e., (l)
chapters i-xxxv by Isaiah, the son of Amoz; (2)
chapters xxxvi-xxxix reproduced from 2 Kings;
(3) chapters xl-lxvi by Deutero-Isaiah. called
also the "Great Unknown prophet of the Exile."
Third, that of those who find in parts i and iii a
multiplicity of authors. The majority of scholars
for the present occupies the second of these posi-
tions. "The reasons for the unity of the book may
be given rs follows:
first View for Unity of Isaiah.
(a) Isaiah's name is attached to the whole col-
lection (i:i), "The vision of Isaiah, the son of
Amoz, which he saw concerning Judah and Jeru-
salem, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Heze-
kiah kings of Judah." It is here clearly stated
that Isaiah was the author of the following pro-
phecies, uttered duringthe reign of four successive
kings. This inscription is of great importance,
even if it originated not from Isaiah, but from a
later compiler. If we adopt the latest date at
which this compilation could have been made, we
must fix it at the time of its reception into the
canon in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Con-
sequently the compiler could not be separated by
many years from the Deutero-Isaiah who is said
to have prophesied just before Babylon was con-
quered, or who, according to most critics, wrote
even after the fall of Babylon. It is not credible
that a compiler living so near the times of the
author, should have erroneously ascribed these
prophecies to Isaiah, who lived so much earlier,
especially if we bear in mind that this so-called
Deutero-Isaiah must have been a very remarkable
person in an age so devoid of the prophetic spirit
as that in which he is said to have lived.
It is still less credible that a Deutero-Isaiah
should himself have fraudulently ascribed his
prophecies to Isaiah. None of the adversaries of
the authenticity of chapters xl-lxvi make such an
assertion.
If the compiler lived before the exile, the in-
scription appears to be of still greater importance.
That the collection was made so early is very
likely, from the circumstance that Jeremiah and
other prophets apparently made use of the prophe-
cies of Isaiah. This fact indicates that the prophe-
cies of Isaiah early excited a lively interest, and
that the compiler must have lived at a period
earlier than that which is ascribed to the Deutero-
Isaiah himself. From all this we infer that the
compiler lived before the exile. The opponents of
the authenticity of chapters xl-lxvi have felt the
weight of this argument. They have therefore
attempted to remove it by various hypotheses,
which have received a semblance of probability
from the circumstance that even the considerate
Vitringa has in question the authenticity of the
heading. Vitringa has conjectured that this head-
ing originally belonged to the first chapter alone.
He has further conjectured that it originally con-
tained only words, prophecy of Isaiah, the son of
Amos, which he saw concerning Judah and Jeru-
salem. The following words, he says, were added
by the compiler, who enlarged the particular in-
scription of the first chapter to a general one of
the whole collection. According to Vitringa the
inscription does not suit the whole book, the con-
tents of which are not confined to Judah and Jeru-
salem alone. This had been felt even by Kimchi,
who, anticipating the objection, observes, quaecun-
que contra gentes profert, ca omnia propter Judam
dicit. "Whatsoever Isaiah utters against the na-
tions, he says on account of Judah." Judah and
Jerusalem are the chief subject, and, in a certain
sense, the only subject of prophecy. There is no
prophecy concerning other nations without a bear-
ing upon the covenant-people. If this bearing
should be wanting in any portion of the prophecy,
that portion would be a piece of divination and
soothsaying. No prophet against foreign nations
prophesied concerning them with the view of
spreading his predictions among them, because the
mission of all prophets is to Israel. The predic-
tions against foreign nations are intended to pre-
serve the covenant-people from despair, and
to strengthen their faith in the omnipotence
and justice of their God. These predictions
are intended to annihilate the reliance upon
political combinations and human confedera-
cies. They are intended to lead Israel to
the question, 'If they do these things in the
green tree, what shall be done in the dry?' If
this is the punishment of those who are less in-
timately allied with God. what shall then become
of us to whom He has more clearly revealed Him-
self? But they are also intended to indicate the
future conversion of the heathen, 'and to open to
the view of the faithful the future glory of the
kingdom of God, and its final victory over the
kingdoms of this world ; and thus to extirpate all
narrow-minded and national particularism. God
shall be revealed not only as Jehovah, but also as
Elohim. His relation to Israel is misunderstood,
ISAIAH
880
ISAIAH
if that relation is exclusively kept in view without
any regard to the universe. Therefore the whole
collection is justly entitled "Prophecies concerning
Judah and Jerusalem." No matter whether this in-
scription originated from Isaiah himself or from
an ancient compiler. That the Hebrew word for
"vision" means not merely a vision, but also a
collection of visions and prophecies, may be
learned from 2 Chron. xxxii 132, and Nah. i:l. It
means a collection of prophecies and visions
united like a picture in an historical frame (comp.
Jer. xiv :i4), although it may also denote the
separate prophecy, as in Obadiah, verse I. The
Hebrew for "vision" has no plural (comp. Hit-
zig's Commentary on chapter i:i; Ewald,
Prufheten, 1, p. 59).
(d) It cannot be proved that there ever existed
any so-called prophetic anthology as has been sup-
posed to exist in the book of Isaiah. We find
nothing analogous in the whole range of prophetic
literature. It is generally granted thit the collec-
tions bearing the names of Jeremiah and Ezekiel
contain only productions of those authors whose
name they bear. In the book of the Minor Proph-
ets, the property of each is strictly distinguished
from the rest by headings. The authenticity of
only the second portion of Zechariah has been at-
tacked; and this with very feeble arguments, which
have been refuted. De Wette himself has, in the
latest editions of the Introduction, confessed that
on this point he is vanquished.
But even if it could be proved that the prophe-
cies of Zechariah belonged to two different au-
thors, namely (as Bertholdt and Gesenius sup-
pose), to the two Zechariahs, each of whom hap-
pened to be the son of a Barachiah, this identity
of names might be considered an inducement for
uniting the productions of the two authors in one
connection; still this case would not be analogous
to what is asserted to be the fact in Isaiah. In
Isaiah, it is alleged not only that a series of chap-
ters belonging to a different author was subjoined,
commencing about chapter xxxiv, but it is affirmed
that, even in the first thirty-three chapters, the
genuine and spurious portions are intermixed. Be-
fore we admit that the compilers proceeded here
in a manner so unreasonable, and so contrary to
their usual custom, we must expect some cogent
proof to be adduced.
(c) According to the opinion of several crit-
ics, all spurious portions of Isaiah belong to one
and the same author. But it so happens that the
portion which is most emphatically declared to
be spurious, namely, chapters xiii and xiv, bear
an inscription which expressly ascribes them to
Isaiah. Now, as the internal arguments against
the authenticity of all the portions which are
said to be spurious are nearly identical, if the
opposition to chapters xiii and xiv is given up,
it cannot with consistency be maintained against
the other portions. This argument serves also as an
answer to those who ascribe the portions which
they consider spurious to several authors. The
contents of these portions are similar. They con-
tain predictions of the fall of Babylon, and of the
redemption of Israel from captivity. Whatever
proves the genuineness of one of these portions
indirectly proves the others also to be genuine.
(d) According to Josephus (Antiq. xi, c, 1,
I, 2), Cyrus was induced by the prophecies of
Isaiah respecting him, to allow the return of the
Jews, and to aid them in rebuilding the temple.
The credibility of Josephus, who in regard to
facts nf ancient history is not always to be relied
upon, is here supported by two circumstances.
First, the favor shown hv Cyrus to the Jews,
which remains inexplicable except by the fact
mentioned, in combination with the influence of
Daniel. In modern times, the favor of Cyrus to
the Jews has been called a prudential measure ;
but it does not appear what he could either hope
or fear from a people so enfeebled as the Jew:;
were at that period. It has been added that
Cyrus was favorable to the Jews on account of
the similarity between the Persian and the Jewish
religions; but there is no historical proof that the
Persians, on any other occasion, favored the
Jews on account of their religion. The favors
shown to Nehemiah on behalf of Israel were only
personal favors, owing to his position at the
Persian court. We allow that all this would
be insufficient to prove the correctness of the
above statement in Josephus, but it must render
us inclined to admit its truth.
The second argument is much stronger; it is
that the statement of Josephus is supported by
the edict of Cyrus (Ezra i). This edict pre-
supposes the fact related by Josephus, so that
Jahn calls the passage in Josephus a commentary
on the first chapter of Ezra, in which we read
that Cyrus announces in his edict that he was
commanded by Jehovah to build him a temple
in Jerusalem, and that he received all the con-
quered kingdoms of the earth as a gift from
Jehovah. This cannot refer to any other predic-
tions of the prophet, but only to what are called
the spurious portions of Isaiah, in which the
Lord grants to Cyrus all his future conquests,
and appoints him to be the restorer of his temple
(comp. xli:2-4; xliv;24-28; xlv:i-i3; xlvi:ii;
xlviii :i3-i5). The edict adopts almost the words
of these passages (comp. the synopsis in the
above-mentioned work of Kleinert, p. 142). In
reply to this it is alleged that Cyrus was de-
ceived by pseudo-prophecies forged in the name
of Isaiah ; but if Cyrus could be deceived in so
clumsy a manner, he was not the man that his-
tory represents him ; and to have committed for-
gery is so contrary to what was to be expected
from the author of chapters xl-lxvi, that even
the feelings of our opponents revolt at the suppo-
sition that the Deutero-Isaiah should have forged
vaticinia post eventum in the name of the proph-
ets. Had these prophecies been written, as it
is alleged, only in sight of the conquest of Baby-
lon, Cyrus would have been deceived before the
eyes of the author, and this could not have been
effected without collusion on the part of the au-
thor. This collusion would be undeniable, since
the author again and again repeats that he was
proclaiming unheard-of facts, which were be-
yond all human calculation.
(a) In the books of the prophets who lived
after Isaiah, and before the period of the so-
called Deutero-Isaiah, we find imitations of
those prophecies which have been ascribed to the
lattei Since Gesenius has demonstrated that all
the portions which have been considered spurious
are to be ascribed to only one author, it can be
shown that they were all in existence before the
time assigned to the Deutero-Isaiah, although
we can produce the imitations of only some of
these portions. But even those who ascribe these
portions to different authors must grant that
their objections are invalidated, if it can be
shown that later prophets have referred to these
portions, because the arguments employed against
them closely resemble each other ; consequently
these prophecies stand and fall together. This
verbal coincidence between Jeremiah and the
.so-called Deutern-Isaiah is in this respect most
importint. Jeremiah frequently makes use of
the earlier prophets, and he refers equally, and
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881
ISAIAH
in the same manner, to the portions of Isaiah
whose genuineness has been questioned, as to
those which arc deemed authentic. The most
striking is the coincidence of Jeremiah 1:51 with
the predictions against Babylon in Isaiah. Jere-
miah liere gives to God the appellation. The
Holy One of Israel, which frequently occurs in
Isaiah, especially in the portions whose authentic-
ity is questioned, but is found only three times
in the other books of (he Old Testament. Isa-
iah uses this appellation with peculiar predilec-
tion, because it points out the omnipotent cove-
nant-fidelity of the Lord ; which was to be con-
sidered, especially as it guarantees the truth of
the contents of the prophecies attacked.
(b) Again, the most ancient production of Jew-
ish literature after the completion of the canon
furnishes proof of the integral authenticity of
Isaiah. The book of Jesus Ben Sirach, com-
monly called Ecclesiasticus, was written as early
as the third century before Christ, as Hug has
clearly demonstrated in opposition to those who
place it in the second century before Christ. In
Ecclesiasticus xlviii 122-25, Isaiah is thus praised:
'For Hezekiah had done the thing that pleased
the Lord, and was strong in the ways of David
his father, as Isaiah the prophet, who was great
and faithful in his vision, had commanded him.
In his time the sun went backward, and he
lengthened the king's life. He saw by an ex-
cellent spirit what should come to pass at the
last, and he comforted them that mourned in
Zion. He showed what should come to pass
forever, and secret things or ever they came.'
This commendation especially refers, as even
Gesenius grants, to the disputed portions of the
prophet, in which we find predictions of the most
distant futurity. The comfort for Zion is found
more particularly in the second part of Isaiah,
which begins with the words, 'Comfort ye, com-
fort ye, my people.' The author of this second
part himself says (xlviiirj), 'I have declared the
former things from the beginning ; and they went
forth out of my mouth, and I showed them.'
Thus we perceive that Jesus Ben Sirach. the
learned scribe, confidently attributes the debated
passages to Isaiah in such a manner as plainly in-
dicates that there was no doubt in his days re-
specting the integral authenticity of that book,
which has the testimony of historical tradition in
its favor. Jesus Ben Sirach declares his in-
tention (Ecclus. xliv:i) to praise the most cel-
ebrated men of his nation. The whole tenor of
these chapters shows (•hat he does not confine
himself to celebrated authors. VVe therefore say
that the praise which he bestows upon Isaiah is
not intended for the book personified, but for the
person of the prophet. If Ben Sirach had enter-
tained doubts respecting the genuineness of those
prophecies on which, in particular, he bases his
praise, he could not have so lauded the prophet.
In the Jewish synagogue the integral authen-
ticity of Isaiah has always been recognized. This
general recognition cannot be accounted for ex-
cept by the power of tradition based upon truth ;
and it is supported as well by the New Testa-
ment, in which Isaiah is (|Uoled as the author of
the whole collection which bears his name, as
also by the express testimony of Joscphus. es-
pecially in his Antiquities (x. 2. 2 and xi. I. i).
(c) After such confirmation it would be super-
fluous to mention the Talmudists.
It is very remarkable that in the far from
scanty historical accounts of this period, con-
sidering all circumstances, no mention is made
of any prophet to whom we could well ascribe
these prophecies. This is the more remarkable,
66
because at that period prophctism was on the
wane, and the few prophets who still existed
excited on that account the greater attention.
What Ewald (p. 57) writes concerning the tune
about the conclusion of the Babylonian exile, is
quite unhistoncal. He says, 'In this highly ex-
cited period of liberty regained, and of a national
church re-established, there were rapidly pro-
duced a great number of prophecies, circulated in
a thousand pamphlets, many of which were of
great poetical beauty.' What Ewald states about
a new flood of prophetic writings which then
poured tortli. is likewise unhistorical. History
shows that during the exile prophetism was on
the wane. What we read in the books of Jere-
miah and Ezekiel proves that these prophets were
isolated ; and from the book of Ezra we learn
what was the spiritual condition of the new
colony. If we compare with their predecessors
the prophets who then prophesied. Haggai, Zech-
ariah, and Malachi, we cannot say much about a
revival of the prophetic spirit towards the con-
clusion of the exile. Everything concurs to
show that the efficiency of prophetism was draw-
ing towards its end. The later the prophets are,
the more do they lean upon the earlier prophets;
so that we are enabled to trace the gradual
transition of prophetism into the learning of
scribes. Prophetism dug, as it were, its own
grave. The authority which it demands for its
earlier productions necessarily caused that the
later were dependent upon the earlier, and the
more this became the case during the progress
of time, the more limited became the field for
new productions. It is not only unhistorical,
but, according to the condition of the later pro-
ductions of prophecy, quite impossible, that about
the conclusion of the exile there should have
sprung up a fresh prophetic literature of great
extent. In this period we hear only the echo
of prophecy. That one of the later prophets
of whom we possess most, namely, Zechariah,
leans entirely upon Jeremiah and Ezekiel, as
upon his latest predecessors. There is not a ves-
tige of an intervening prophetic literature. The
weakness of our opponents' position is mani-
fested by their being obliged to have recourse
to such unhistorical fictions in order to defend
their opinions.
(d) For those who accept the authority of the
New Testament a final argument for the unity
of Isaiah is based on the uniform usage of the
second part by the Christian canon. Through-
out the New Testament Isaiah is quoted by name
as the author not only of those parts of the book
bearing his name which are conceded by all to
be bis. but also of those parts which are said to
be by another prophet or other prophets (comp.
Matt. iii:3; viii:i7; xii:l7; Mark i:2; Luke iii:
4; iv:l7; John i :23 ; xii :38, 41; Acts viii:30;
Rom. X :i6, 20). It is evident that the New Tes-
tament writers either knew or did not know the
truth as to the composition of the passages cited.
If they did not know, their authority is proved
to be defective: if they knew, they told what
they knew to be contrary to fact, in case the
critical theory is correct. No such difficulty
arises, however, if the traditional theory is true.
As against these considerations^, the argument
of the advocates of the decisive theory must be
examined. It is necessary, however, to single
out in this class those who accept the authority
of Jesus and the New Testament, and state their
views on the attitude of the New Testament
towards the question of the authorship of Isaiah.
In general, the apparent citation of a passaee
under the name of an Old Testament author does
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not commit the New Testament writer to any
view of the authorship of the writing quoted from.
If the name of the autlior be given, it is given
simply as a mark of identification, and not neces-
sarily as a definite ascription of the writing to
him. In this sense the whole Psalter is credited to
David, includmg anonymous Psalms (such as the
second, cited in Acts iv :25 as David's). In accord-
ance with this usage also JVIatthew quotes from
Zechariah ascribing the prophecy to Jeremiah
(Matt. xxvii:9). As an identification of an old
prophecy the citation was adequately introduced,
but as a writing it was not assigned to its own
author.
Such usage does not diminish the authority
of the New Testament on those matters on which
it was designed to give light, but leaves such
matters to be distinguished from others by a
careful examination of each in its setting and
separate intent. The New Testament writers
were not omniscient, nor was it necessary that
they should be. Their lack of special informa-
tion on such an unessential matter in no way
weakens their trustworthiness on matters which
came not only within tlieir province as historians
of the life of Jesus and the Apostolic age, but also
within their own personal observation.
But if difficulty be found with this standpoint,
it may be still further reasoned that even the
verbal inerrancy of the New Testament writers
need not be afifected by the discovery, if it shall
prove to be such, of the separate authorship of a
portion of Isaiah. The name Isaiah is not such
as to show that only the son of Amoz contempo-
rary of Hezekiah, bore it. In its cognates Joshua,
Hoshea, etc., it was a favorite one. If there-
fore another prophet bearing the same name
Isaiah lived in the latter part of the period of the
exile and uttered the discourses of Is. xl-lxvi it
would be very easy for his personality and work
to be blended with those of the earlier Isaiah
and thus have the books of the two pass under
one title and in one volume. In such a case, the
evangelists and apostles could speak with strictest
accuracy of these utterances as writings or words
of Isaiah's. This hypothesis which practically
reduces the question into one of the lower or
textual criticism, leaves the field clear for an
unbiased examination of the grounds on which
the divisive theory is based. These grounds are
the following:
(e) The distinguishing features of the literary
style of chapters xl-lxvi are so different from that
of chapters i-xxxix that if Isaiah the son of Amoz
was the author of these chapters he could not
have been also the author of the others. These
differences touch first of all the choice of words.
The author of chapters xl-lxvi uses many char-
acteristic and important words never found in the
discourses of the son of Amoz. Such are the
terms to choose, to praise, to spring forth, pleas-
ure, to break forth, good will, acceptance, to re-
joice. Besides single words there are character-
istic phrases peculiar to Is. xl-lxvi. Such are
the expressions "th\) sons" with a feminine pro-
noun referring to Zion (xlix:i7, 22, 25; li:20;
liv:i3; Ix :4, 9; lxii:5). When Isaiah speaks of
the sonship of Israelites it is as God's sons that
he thinks of them (i:2, 4: xxx:i, 9). "I am
Jehovah and there is none else" (xlv:5, 6. 18. ."^i,
22'). "I am the first and I am the last" (xliv:6) ;
"I am he" (xli:4; xliii:io, 13; xlvi:4; xlviii:T2'),
"I am thy God." "thy Savior" (xli:lo, 13; xliii:
3; xlviii:l7). These phrases never occur in
chapters i-xxxix. Besides these words and
phrases a series of others occur in chaps, xl-
lxvi which, though used in the first part of the
collection, are so used very rarely and in other
senses than those here attached to them. (See
Driver, Inlrod. to the Lit. of the Old Test., p.
239). More broadly the second Isaiah has some
stylistic characteristics, such as the repetition of
words (xl:i; xliii :il; xlviii:il, 15; li :9, 12, 17,
lii:i, 11; lvii:i, 14, 19; lxii:io; lxv:i), the
repetition of the same word in successive clauses
or verses (xi:i2, 13; 1:;, 9, etc.), the omission
of the relative particle. The converse of this is
true also, i. e., words, phrases, and stylistic pe-
culiarities found in Isaiah the son of Amoz are
never found in the second Isaiah. Such are the
words, " the Lord" (not Jehovah, but the He-
brew l'"!?, aw-done') "of Hosts" (i:24; iii:i;
x:i6, 33; xix:4); not-gods (ii :8, 18, '20; x:ii;
xix:i, 3; xxxi:7); the escaped (iv:2; x:2o; xv:
9; xxxvii:3i, 32); a trampling down (v:5; vii:
2S, x:6; xxviii:i8); and the phrases "In that
clay," found frequently as shown by examples
from two or three chapters (iii:i8; iv:i, 2; vii:
18, 20, 21, 23 — in Is. Ixi-l.xvi only once, lii :6) ; "And
it shall come to pass" (iv:3; vii: 18, 21, 23; x:i2;
xi:ii); "head and tail, palm branch and rush"
(ix:i4; xix:is); "a consummation and that de-
termined" (.x:23; xxviii:22); "flying fiery ser-
pent" (xiv:29; x.xx :6) ; and of habits of thought
or style the first Isaiah shows the tendency to
draw figures from the harvest (ix:3; xvii:S, 11;
xviii:4) ; the figure of the fat reduced to leanness
(.x:i6; xvii :4) ; the figure of the scourge (.x:26;
xxviii:i5, 18); the smearing of the eyes of the
blind (vi:io; xxix:i8). These lists are .by no
means exhaustive. They simply represent in a
few examples the relation of the style of the two
authors. In addition it should be remarked that
there are rhetorical and poetical characteristics
in these writings — such as the construction of
sentences, the movement and rhythm of periods —
which cannot be presented in lists of examples,
but must be observed in the reading of the writ-
ings as units.
These differences cannot be accounted for upon
the basis of difference of age in the prophet
Isaiah uses the same style in his earliest and his
latest writings (comp. ch. vi with x.xix-xxxiii and
xxxvii). Nor are they to be accounted for on
the basis of difference of subject. In i-xxxix the
enemies of Judah are the Assyrians, in xl-lxvi, the
Babylonians. In the first part the fact of pres-
ervation from these enemies and the mode of it
are the general subjects, in the second part the
subject is the liberation from their power and
restoration to their own land. Between these two
topics no such difference exists as calls for a
different phraseology and style. The only rea-
sonable explanation of these facts is difference of
authorship.
(f) The historical setting of chapters xl-lxvi
is that of the latter part of the exile period (545-
535). The prophecy opens with a general call
to be of good cheer (xl:i), and seems to be ad-
dressed throughout to a people under oppression
and away from home. Jerusalem is ruined and
deserted (xliv:26; lxiii:i8; jxiv:io). This con-
dition of things is not new, but of long standing
(lviii:l2; lxi:4). The prospect of return is, how-
ever, very vivid. In fact restoration is alluded
to as if imminent (xl:2; xlvi:i3; xlviii :20, etc.).
There is no reference of the remotest kind to the
times of Ahaz and Hezekiah or even of Manas-
seh. So clear is the situation and so manifest
the adaptation of the prophecy to the conditions
of the later period, that those who ascribe it to
Isaiah the son of Amoz suppose that the prophet's
consciousness was projected into the future, SO
ISAIAH
883
ISCARIOT
that while living in the days of Hezekiah he
realized the world of the days of Cyrus. This is
a hypothesis so much out of analogy with the
Biblical idea of prophecy that it must not be
resorted to except for the strongest possible rea-
sons. But the chief reason for pressing it seems
to be the fact that the predictive element would
be eliminated if the view were not accepted. It
is alleged that the prophet appeals to the fulfil-
ment of predictive prophecy (xli:26; xlii:9; xliii :
8-10; xlviii :3-8j and such an appeal would have
no value if the prophecy dates from the period of
the exile. But a close examination of these pas-
sages shows that this way of reasoning has no
force. The predictions alluded to are such as
would be realized very soon. It was not neces-
sary that an interval of more than 150 years
should have elapsed in order to give validity to
the fulfilment of predictive prophecies. On the
other hand, the manner in which these coming
events are spoken of indicates that they are in
the near future. Cyrus is already "stirred up"
(xli;2 25; xlv:i3). He is on the horizon not
only of the prophetic vision, but also of the his-
torical situation. Upon the whole the prophet
speaks as a man in contact with those whom
he addresses and if he lived at the time of Heze-
kiah, his discourses must have remained a sealed
and meaningless book for a century and a half.
(g) The content of thought or theology of
chapters xl-lxvi is of a different type from that
of chapters i-xxxix. The two parts do not con-
tradict each other ; neither is it impossible to con-
ceive of the same man's entertaining and express-
ing the ideas respectively characteristic of each.
And yet as a matter of experience differences as
marked as are here shown at once produce the im-
pression of difference in personality. The basal
thoughts of the two Isaiahs are of course those
of the religion of Israel in general. All the
writers of the Old Testament hold and teach
these thoughts. But the characteristic features
of the first Isaiah are absent from the second and
vice versa those of the second do not appear in
the first. Isaiah the son of Amoz is distinctively
a statesman and a reformer. He appears before
the kings of his day with a message from Je-
hovah as to what they should do in view of the
political and social situations in which they are
implicated. The second Isaiah is an evangelical
preacher. His idea of God is that he is the
Creator of the Universe, the Life-giver and sus-
tainer of all, the Author of history, the First and
the Last, the Incomparable one. The central
idea in the conception is his infinitude. Isaiah
the son of Amoz dwells rather on the majesty of
God and his special care over Israel. The first
Isaiah presents the doctrine of the remnant or
preservation of a nucleus of Israel through all
catastrophes that may be visited on the nation
as a result of judgment for their sins. In the
second Isaiah this doctrine appears only by im-
plication (lix:2o; lxv:8) ; but in place of it there
emerges the doctrine of the call of Israel to a
high function and a glorious ultimate destiny.
Finally, as regards the Messiah, the two parts
of the book differ radically. In the first the Mes-
siah is a glorious King of the line of David,
whose reign is marked by peace and prosperity.
In the second, the Messiah is the Servant of Je-
hovah, the head of the people of God (never al-
luded to by the title of King) whose mission and
function are blended with those of the people.
He redeems the people by suffering.
(t) As a separate reason for looking on the
two sections outlined as the works of two differ-
ent men is given the cumulative force of the oc-
currence of the above lines of difference. Either
the literary, the historical, or the theological dif-
ferences alone would have pointed to the con-
clusion claimed by the advocates of the divisive
theory. But the concurrence of all the consid-
erations above enumerated, it is said, adds to the
force of each, separately taken, and gives the
highest degree of probability to the conclusion.
There remains to be considered the third gen-
eral victv of the integrity of Isaiah. This view
has been elaborated since 1890 by Duhm (in
Nowack's Handkommentar, 1892). Hackmann
{Die Zukunftscrzcartung des Jcs., 1893), and
Cheyne (Introd. to the Book of Isaiah, 1895), also
in liaupt's Sacred Books of the Old Testavunt,
vol. Isazah, 1898. In the judgment of these schol-
ars, the book of Isaiah is neither the work of one
man, nor that of two or three, but a compilation of
fragments some of which are genuine and some
date from as late a period as the second or even
first century B. C. The reasons alleged for this
view are mainly slight differences of style and
grammatical peculiarities, and apocalyptic con-
tact. These reasons have not, however, found
favor among expert scholars. They are too sub-
jective and conjectural. Those who hold them
seem often to imagine or create the difficulties
which they are ostensibly determined to remove.
In any case the theory of. a multiplicity of authors
for Isaiah may be left to be discussed by ex-
perts at whose hands it is certain to receive the
careful attention it may deserve.
4. Helps to the Study of Isaiah. (1) Com-
mentaries. Of the commentaries on the book of
Isaiah, that by J. Addison Alexander (New
York and London, 1846) is an almost exhaustive
summary of the views propounded to the date
of its publication, containing in a compact form
the interpretations of all his predecessors, as
well as those of the author himself. Of the com-
mentaries that have appeared since the publication
of this work, the most important are those of:
Delitzsch (1866, 4th ed. i88g; Eng. tr. 1802).
Nagelsbach (in Lange's Bible Work, 1877; Eng.
tr. 1878). T. R. Birks {Book of Isaiah, 1878).
T. K. Cheyne {Prophecies of Is. with Com. and
Atf- 1880). Oreli (1887; Eng. tr. 1889). G. A.
Smith (in the Expositor's Bible, vol. I, cc. x-
xxxix, 1888; vol. 2, cc. xl-lxvi. i8fX3). A. Dill-
mann (in Kurzgcifasstcs E.r. Handbuch su dem
.4lt. Testam., 1890). Bernhard Duhm (in No-
wack's Handkomtnentar zu .Alt. Testam., 1892).
J. Skinner (in the Cambr. Bible, 1896-98).
(2) Introductions and Critical Discussions.
T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Isaiah Chronologic-
ally Arranged, etc., 1870: Introduction to the
Book of Isaiah. 1895; G. Douglas, Isaiah One and
His Book One, 1895 ; Kennedy, Argumenl for
Unitv of Isaiah. 1801.
(3) Life and Times of Isaiah. A. H. Sayce,
Life and Times of Isaiah, 1883; S. R. Driver,
Life and Times of Isaiah (Men of the Bible Se-
ries), 1893; Sinker, Hezekiah and His Age.liq^.
A. C. 7..
ISCAH (Is'kah), (Heb. ^W-.yis kaw', watchful),
daughter of .'Vhram's brother, Haran, and sister of
Lot and Milcah (Gen. xi:29; comp. v:3i). Accord-
ing to Jewish tradition and Jerome {Quaest. in Gen-
esis) she is identical with Sarah.
ISCABIOT (is-kar'i-ot), (Gr. 'IvKapiiImit, is-kar-
ee-o'tace, perh. from Heb. '^"'"^i? '^''*, eesh ker-ee-
yoth', man of Kcrioth), a surname of Judas the
traitor, to distinguish hini from others of the same
name (Matt. x;4, etc.). (See Judas Iscariot.)
ISHBAH
884
ISHMAEL
ISHBAH (ish'bah), (Heb. ^'^T-. yish-bakh' , he
will praise), a descendant of Judah, and "father,"
or founder of Eshtemoa (i Chron. iv:i7). He was
probably a son of Mered by Hodiah. He is per-
haps the same as Ishi, ver. 20; and perhaps iden-
tical with the Naham of ver. 19 (B. C. after 1612).
ISHBAK {ish'ba.k),(Heb. '^Ti^ yish-bawk\ leav-
ing), a son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv:2; i
Chron. i:32), whose descendants comprised a tribe
in northern Arabia. Pool thinks that the location
of the settlements of this people may be recovered
in the name of the valley called Sabak, or Sibak
in the Dahna, in the highland country of North-
eastern Arabia.
ISHBI-BENOB (tsh'bi-be'nob), (Heb. 3^? '??)'.
yish-bee' beh-7iobe' , my seat is at Nob), one of the
giants, or Rephaim, who carried a spear which
weighed 300 shekels, twelve pounds and a half.
This giant, being on the point of killing David,
who was fatigued in the battle, was himself killed
by Abishai, son of Zeruiah (2 Sam. xxi;i6, 17),
B. C. about 1018. (See Giants.)
ISH-BOSHETH (ish'bo'sheth), (Heb. "'^^-i'X
^("i/z-^ii'^/;^//?, man of shame, "bashful"), a son of
King Saul, and the only one who survived him.
In I Chron. viii :33, and ix :39, this name is
given as '^"5"f?*, esh-bah'al ; Baal was the name
of an idol, accounted abominable by the He-
brews, and which scrupulous persons avoided
pronouncing, using the word bosheth, 'shame' or
'vanity,' instead. This explains why the name
Eshbaal is substituted for Ish-bosheth, Jerub-
baal for Jerubbesheth (comp. Judg. viii :35 with
2 Sam. xi:2i), and Merib-baal for Mephibosheth
(comp. 2 Sam. iv 14 with i Chron. viii :34 and
ix:4o).
(1) Succeeds Saul. Ishbosheth was not pres-
ent in the disastrous battle at Gilboa, in which his
faihcr and brothers perished; and, too feeble of
himself to seize the scepter which had fallen from
the hands of Saul, he owed the crown entirely to
his uncle Abner, who conducted him to Mahanaim,
beyond the Jordan, where he was recognized as
king by ten of the twelve tribes. He reigned
seven, or, as some will have it, two years—if a
power so uncertain as his can be called a reign.
Even the semblance of authority which he pos-
sessed he owed to the will and influence of Abner,
who himself kept the real substance in his own
hands.
(2) ftuarrels with. Atner. A sharp quarrel
between them led at last to the ruin of Ish-bo-
sheth. Although accustomed to tremble before
Abner, even his meek temper was roused to re-
sentment by the discovery that Abner had in-
vaded the harem of his late father Saul, which
was in a peculiar manner sacred under his care
as a son and a king. By this act Abner exposed
the king to public contempt, if it did not indeed
leave himself open to the suspicion of intending
to advance a claim to the crown on his own be-
half. Abner highly resented the rebuke of Ish-
bosheth, and from that time contemplated unit-
ing all the tribes under the scepter of David.
Ish-bosheth, however, reverted to his ordinary
timidity of character. At the first demand of
David, he restored to him his sister Michal. who
had been given in marriage to the son of Jesse
by Saul, and had afterwards been taken from him
and bestowed upon another. It is, perhaps, right
to attribute this act to his weakness; although,
as David allows that he was a righteous man, it
may have been owing to his sense of justice.
(3) Death. On the death of Abner, Ish-bo-
sheth lost all heart and hope, and perished mis-
erably, being murdered in his own palace, while
he took his mid-day sleep, by two of his officers,
Baanah and Rechab. They sped with his head
to David, expecting a great reward for their
deed ; but the monarch — as both right feeling and
good policy required — testified the utmost horror
and concern. He slew the murderers, and placed
the head of Ish-bosheth with due respect in the
sepulcher of Abner (2 Sam. ii:8-ii; iii:6-39; iv),
B. C. 1048.
(4) Difficulty in Chronology. There is a
serious difficulty in the chronology of this reign.
In 2 Sam. ii:io Ish-bosheth is said to have
reigned two years ; which some understand as the
whole amount of his reign. And as David
reigned seven and a half years over Judah before
he became king of all Israel upon the death -Of
Ish-bosheth, it is conceived by the Jewish chro-
nologer {Seder Olam Rabba, p. 37), as well as
by Kimchi and others, that there was a vacancy
of five years in the throne of Israel. But it is the
more usual, and perhaps the better course, to
settle this question by supposing that the reigns
of David over Judah, and Ish-bosheth over Israel,
were nearly contemporaneous, and that the two
years are mentioned as those from which to date
the commencement of the ensuing events — name-
ly, the wars between the house of Saul and that
of David.
ISHI (i'shi), (Heb. ^^P^yish-ee', salutary).
1. The son of Appaim, a descendant of Judah,
and father of Sheshan (l Chron. ii:3l), of the
house of Hezron. (B. C. probably after 1612.)
2. Forefather (father) of several Simeonites
who headed an expedition of five hundred men,
in which they took Mount Seir from the Anial-
ekites, and possessed it (i Chron. iv:42), B. C.
ante 726.
3. Father of Zoheth and Ben-zoheth (l Chron.
iv:2o), B. C. perhaps about 1017.
4. A chief of Manasseh, famous for valor, living
east of the Jordan (i Chron. v:24), B. C. about
720.
5. (Heb. *'!'"'^, isJi'ee, my husband), a word
occurring in Hos. ii;i6, and means "my man" or
"husband."
ISHIAH (I-shi'ah), (Heb. ~X'^\ yish-shee-yaw' ,
Jehovah will lend), the fifth son of Izrahiah, a
descendant of Issachar; a chief of his tribe in the
time of David (i Chron. vii:3), B. C. 1618.
ISHIJAH (i-shi'jah), (Heb. as above), a layman
of the Israelites among the "sons" of Harim, who
gave up his foreign wife (Ezra x:3i), B. C. 459.
ISHMA (ish'ma), (Heb. ^'^^., yish-?naw' .Ae.'&o-
late), a descendant of Judah (I Chron. iv.3), ap-
parently son of the founder of Etam, and closely
connected with Bethlehem (ver. 4), B. C. probably
1612.
ISHMAEIi (ish 'ma-el), (Heb. ^*<.??f':, yish-
maw-ale' , God hears).
/. Abraham's eldest son, borne t/^him by Hagar
(Gen. xvi:ii) fourteen years beiofe the birth of
Isaac (B. C. about 2248), the circumstances of
whose birth, early history, and final expulsion
from his father's tents are related in the articles
Abr.ah.am and Hac.\r (See also Isaac; Inherit-
ance). He afterwards made the desert into which
he had been cast his abode, and by attaching him-
self to, and acquiring influence over, the native
tribes, rose to great authority and influence. It
would seem to have been the original intention
ISHMAEL
885
ISHMAELITE
of his mother to have returned to Egypt, to which
country she belonged ; but this being prevented,
she was contented to obtain for her son wives
from thence.
(1) Friendship of Ishmael and Isaac. Al-
though their lots were cast apart, it does not ap-
pear that any serious alienation existed between
Ishmael and Isaac; for we read that they both
joined in the sepulchral rites of their father Abra-
ham (Gen. XXV :9). This fact has not been
noticed as it deserves. It is full of suggestive
matter. As funerals in the East take place almost
immediately after death, it is evident that Ishmael
must have been called from the desert to the death-
bed of his father; which implies that relations of
kindness and respect had been kept up, although
the brevity of the sacred narrative prevents any
special notice of this circumstance. Ishmael had,
probably, long before received an endowment from
his father's property, similar to tliat which had
been bestowed upon the sons of Keturah (Gen.
XXV :6).
(2) Death and Children. Nothing more is
recorded of him than that he died at the age of
137 years, and was the father of twelve sons, who
gave their names to as many tribes (Gen. xvii;20;
x.xv:i2-i6). He had also two daughters, one of
whom became the wife of Esau.
(3) Not the Founder of the Arabian Na-
tion. It has been shown, in the article Ar.\bia,
that Ishmncl has no claim to the honor, which is
usually assigned to him, of being the founder of
the Arabian nation. That nation existed before he
was born. He merely joined it, and adopted its
habits of life and character; and the tribes which
sprang from him formed eventually an miportant
section of the tribes of which it was composed.
The celebrated prophecy which describes the
habits of life which he, and in him his descend-
ants, would follow as recorded in Gen. xvi:ii, 12,
"A wild man ; his hand will be against every man,
and every man's hand against him," is, therefore,
to be regarded not as describing habits which he
would first establish, but such as he would adopt.
This passage means that he and his descendants
would lead the life of the Bedouins of the Arabian
deserts; and how graphically this description por-
trays their habits, may be seen in the article
Arabia. The last clause, 'He shall dwell in the
presence of all his brethren,' is pointedly alluded
to in the brief notice of his death, which states
that 'he died in the presence of all his brethren'
(Gen. XXV :i8). Of this expression various ex-
planations have been given, but the plainest is the
most probable ; which is, that Ishmael and the
tribes springing from him should always be lo-
cated near the kindred tribes descended from
Abraham. And this was a promise of benefit in
that age of migration, when Abraham himself had
come from beyond the Euphrates, and was a
stranger and sojourner in the land of Canaan.
There was thus, in fact, a relation of some iin-
portance between this promise and the promise of
the heritage of Canaan to another branch of Abra-
ham's offspring. It had seemingly some such
force as this — The heritage of Canaan is, indeed,
destined for another son of Abraham ; but still the
lot of Ishmael, and of those that spring from him.
shall never be cast far apart from that of his
brethren. This view is confirmed by the circum-
stance, that the Israelites did, in fact, occupy the
country bordering on that in which the various
tribes descended from Abraham or Terah had
settled — the Israelites, Edomites, Midianitcs. Mo-
abites. Ammonites, etc. Most interpreters find in
this passage, a promise that the descendants of
Ishmael should never be subdued. But we are
unable to discover this in the text ; and, more-
over, such has not been the fact, whether we re-
gard the Ishmaelites apart from the other Ara-
bians, or consider the promise made to Ishmael as
applicable to the whole Arabian family.
(4) Character. Ishmael appears to have been
a wild and wayward child. His training and dis-
position unfitted him for the tame and unexciting
life of a mere shepherd. In his boyhood and ear-
ly youth he had been the darling of the great
Abraham, and had grown impatient of restraint,
and overbearing, from the flattery shown him as
the heir-apparent of a desert prince. He could
never have dreamed of any other than an easy,
dignified life, in which he might enjoy himself
without a care as the head of a tribe. High-
spirited, and fond of listening, at the watch-fires
of his father's herdsmen, to their stories of en-
counters and feuds with hostile neighbors at the
wells, or with the freebooters of the desert, he had
early given his whole heart to the excitement of
border life on the wild wastes. The chase of the
gazelle or the wild goat, and the more dangerous
pursuit of the bear or the leopard, had inured him
to exertion and wild adventure, and the tastes of
his youth clung to him through life. If he could
not gratify them as the son of a great emir,
he would do so as the head of a tribe of his own,
and would outrival the bands who had of old so
often harried the folds of Abraham. His emblem
would be the wild ass of the desert, which no man
can tame, with its home in the pathless wilderness.
He would live in wild freedom, afar from the
hated communities of those who had banished him
from their midst.
2. A prince of the royal line of Judah, who
found refuge among the Ammonites from the ruin
which involved his family and nation. After the
Chaldaeans had departed he returned, and treach-
erously slew the too-confiding Gedaliah, who had
been made governor of the miserable remnant left
in the land. (See Gedaliah.) Much more
slaughter followed this, and Ishmael, with many
people of consideration as captives, hastened to re-
turn to the Ammonites. But he was overtaken
near the pool of Gibeon by Johanan. a friend of
Gedaliah, and was compelled to abandon his prey
and escape for his life, with only eight attendants,
to Baalis, king of the Ammonites, with whom he
appears to have had a secret understanding in
these transactions (B. C. 588), (Jer. xl:7; xli:is;
2 Kings xxv:23-2S).
3. A son of Pashur (Ezr. x:22), who put away
his Gentile wife. (B. C. 459.)
4. Father or forefather of Zebadiah (2 Chron.
xix :ii). B. C. 900.
5. A man nf Judah, son of Jehohanan, and cap-
tain in the force that assisted Jehoiada in repla-
cing Joash on the throne (2 (Hiron. xxiii :i ) , B. C.
877.
6. A Benjamite. son of Azel, and descendant
of Saul (i (Thron. viii:38; ix:44), B. C. before
588.
ISHMAELITE (ish'ma-el-ite), (Heb. :><¥^?"!?'
hah-yish-maw-ay-lee' , i Chron. ii:i7; '':??^'f'''Z', AaA-
yish-meh-ay-lee' , xxvii:3o; ^*:**?p^!'; yish-meh-ay-
Uem' , Gen. xxxvii:25; 2''^X?'?'f.'L', hah-yish-meh-
ay-leem' , Gen. xxxvii:27i 28), a descendant of Ish-
mael.
The term appears to have been a general name
for the .\brahamic peoples of the east country, the
Bene-Kedem. The name is applied in its strict
sense to the Ishmaelites. It is also applied to
Jether. the father of Amasa. try David's sister
.\bigail (i Chron. ii:i7). (See Ithra; Jether.)
ISHMAIAH
886
ISRAEL
The Arabs claim Ishinael to be the firstbon,
of Abraham, and the majority of their doctors
(but the point is in dispute) assert that this son,
and not Isaac, was offered by Abraham in sacri-
fice. The scene of this sacrifice is Mount Arafat,
near Mecca, the last holy place visited by pil-
grims, it being necessary to the completion of pil-
grimage to be present at a sermon delivered there
on the 9th of the Mohammedan month Zu-l-Hej-
jeh, in commemoration of the offering, and to
sacrifice a victim on the following evening after
sunset, in the valley of Mine. The sacrifice last
mentioned is observed throughout the Moslem
world, and the day on which it is made is called
"The Great Festival" (Mr. Lane's Mod. Egypt,
ch. iii.).
Mohammed's descent from Ishmael is totally
lost, for an unknown number of generations to
Adnan, of the twenty-first generation before the
prophet ; from him downwards the latter's descent
is, if we may believe the genealogists, fairly
proved. But we have evidence far more trust-
worthy than that of the genealogists; for while
most of the natives of Arabia are unable to trace
up their pedigrees, it is scarcely possible to find
one who is ignorant of his race, seeing that his
very life often depends upon it. The law of blood-
revenge necessitates his knowing the names of his
ancestors for four generations, but no more ; and
this law extending from time immemorial has
made any confusion of race almost impossible.
(Smith, Bib. Diet.).
The Ishmaelites carried on traffic with Egypt
(Gen. x.xxvii :25. 27; xxxixti). (See Ishmael.)
ISHMAIAH (Ish-ma'ya), (Heb. '"'^^'^'f^', yish-
mah-yaw', Jah will hear).
1. A Gibeonite, and chief of those who left
Saul and came over to David at Ziklag (l Chron.
xii:4), B. C. 1046.
2. Son of Obadiah, and viceroy of the tribe of
Zebulun in the time of David and Solomon (i
Chron. xxviing"), B. C. 1014.
ISHMEELITE (ish'me-el-ite), the form by which
the descendants of Ishmael are denominated (i
Chron. ii;i7), and in the plural (Gen. xxxvii:25, 27,
28; xxxix;!). ^
ISHIHEBAI (rsh'me-rai), (Heb."!"??'?. yish-mer-
ah'ee, preservative), a chief of the Benjamites, and
one of the family of Elpaal residing at Jerusalem
(I Chron. viii:i8), B. C. before 588.
ISHOD (i'shod), (Heb. "'^'"'f"'^, eesh-hode' , man
of renown), one of the tribe of Manasseh, and son
of Hammoleketh, sister of Machir of Gilead (i
Chron. vii;i8), B.C. 1658.
ISHPAN (ish'p&n), (Heb. If??, yish-pawn' , he
will hide), one of the "sons" of Shashak, resident
at Jerusalem, and a chief of the tribe of Benjamin
(I Chron. viii:22), B. C. before 588.
I8HTOB (ish'tob), (Heb. D'i'O-lfi'K, eesh-tobe' ,
man of Tob), apparently a petty kingdom of the
country of Aram, mentioned with Zobah, Rehob
and Maacah (2 Sam. x;6, 8). Probably the real
signification is "the men of Tob," a district men-
tioned in the history of the Maccabees.
ISHUAH (tsh'u-ah), (Heb. ^W-, yish-vaw' , he
will level), the second named of the sons of Asher
(Gen. xlvi:l7); the A. V. renders the same word
IsuAH (I Chron. vii:30), B. C. bet. 1856 and 1640.
ISHUAI (ish'u-ai), (Heb. 'l??, yish-vee' , level),
the third son of Asher (I Chron. vii 130), and founder
of the family bearing his name (Num. xxvi;44),
"Jesuitcs" (B. C. 1S56). Elsewhere the name is
Isui and Jesui (Gen. xlvi:i7; Num. xxvi:44).
ISHTJI (Tsh'u-i), (Heb. *1?\ yish-vee', level), the
second named of the sons of Saul by Ahinoam
(l Sam. xiv:49). In 1 Sam. xxxi:2 his place is
taken by Abinadab, which allows the inference
that he died young, or that he is identical with
Abinadab.
ISLE, ISLAND (il, i'land), (Heb. •'^, ee, habit-
able places).
The Hebrew word is invariably translated,
either by the former or by the latter of these
English words, which, having the same mean-
ing, will be considered as one. It occurs in the
three following senses: First, that of dry
land in opposition to water; as 'I will make the
rivers islands' (Is. xlii:is). In Is. xx :6, the
Isle of Ashdod means the country, and is so ren-
dered in the margin. In Is. xxiii :2, 6, 'the isle'
means the country of Tyre, and in Ezek. xxvii :
6, 7, that of Chittim and Elishah. (See also Job
xxii:30.) Second, it is used in Hebrew and Eng-
lish according to its geographical meaning, for a
country surrounded by water, as in Jer. xlvii 14,
'the isle (margin) of Caphtor,' which is probably
that of Cyprus. 'The isles of the sea' (Esth. x :i)
are evidently put in opposition to 'the land,' or
continent. In Ps. xcviiri, 'the multitude of the
isles' seem distinguished from the earth or conti-
nents, and are evidently added to complete the de-
scription of the whole world. Third, the word is
used by the Hebrews to designate all those coun-
tries divided from them by the sea. In Is. xi:ii,
after an enumeration of countries lying on their
own continent, the words, 'and the islands of the
sea,' are added in order to comprehend those
situate' beyond the ocean. The following are
additional instances of this usage of the word,
which is of very frequent occurrence (Is. xlii:
10; lix:i8; lxvi::i9; Jer. xxv:22; Ezek. xxvii:
3, is; Zeph. ii:ii). It is observed by Sir I.
Newton (on Daniel, p. 276), 'By the earth the
Jews understood the great continent of all Asia
and Africa, to which they had access by land,
and by the isles of the sea they understood the
places to which they sailed by sea, particularly
all Europe.'
J. F. D.
ISMACHIAH (is'ma-ki'ah), (Heb. ''^'^^9?, yis-
mak-yaw-hoo' , Jah will sustain), a Levite, charged
by Hezekiah with the oversight of the sacred offer-
ings (2 Chron. xxxi:i3), B. C. 726.
ISMAIAH (is'ma-i'ah), (Heb. '""^^^tr, yisk-
mah-yaw' , Jehovah hears), one of the chiefs of
those warriors who joined themselves to David
when he was at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:4). He is de-
scribed as "a hero (Gibbor) among the thirty and
over the thirty" — i. e. David's bodyguard; but
his name does not appear in the lists of the guard
in 2 Sam. xxiii, and I Chron. xi. Possibly he was
killed in some encounter before David reached the
throne (B. C. 1000). (Smith, Diet, of the Bib.)
(See ISHMAIAH, I.)
ISP AH (is'pah), (Heb. "|'?^ yish-paw' , he will
scratch), one of the "sons" of Beriah, and a chief
of the tribe of Benjamin resident at Jerusalem,
originally from the vicinity of Aijalon (l Chron.
viii:i6), B.C. before 588.
ISRAEL (iz'ra-el), (Heb. ^?<??r, j'K-raH/-a/(f').
1. The sacred name, divinely bestowed upon
the patriarch Jacob (Gien. xxxii :28) after his
wrestling with the angel (Hos. xii:4) at Peniel.
It is explained to mean, a prince with God, a
contender ivith God, or a soldier of God. Winer
(Heb. Lexicon) interprets it pugnator Dei. Al-
ISRAEL, CONSTITUTION OF
887
ISRAEL, CONSTITUTION OF
though, as applied to Jacob personally, it is an
honorable or poetical appellation, it is the com-
mon prose name of his descendants ; while, on
the contrary, the title Jacob is given to them only
in poetry.
2. Israelites. \l) The name became the na-
tional name of the twelve tribes collectively.
They are so called in E.xod. iii:i6 and after-
wards.
(2) It is used in a narrower sense, excluding
Judah, in i Sam. xi :8. It is so used in the fa-
mous cry of the rebels against David (2 Sam. xx ;
1), and against his grandson (t Kings xii:i6).
Thenceforth it was assumed and accepted as the
name of the Northern Kingdom, in which the
tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Levi, Dan, and Sim-
eon had no share.
(3) After the Babylonian Captivity, the re-
turned exiles, although they were mainly of the
kingdom of Judah. resumed the name Israel as
the designation of their nation ; but as individuals
they are almost always described as Jews in the
Apocrypha and New Testament. Instances
occur in the Books of Chronicles of the application
of the name Israel to Judah (c. g., 2 Chron. xi :
3; xii:6) ; and in Esther of the name Jews to the
whole people. The name Israel is also used to
denote laymen, as distinguished from priests,
Levites and other ministers (Ezra vi:l6; ix:l; x:
25; Neh. xi ;3, etc.). (Smith, Bib. Diet.)
ISRAEL, CONSTITUTION OF.
1. Patriarchal Government. The government
of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob was a patriarchal
government. So long as they resided in the land
of Canaan, they were subject to no foreign power,
but tended their flocks and herds wherever they
chose to go (Gen. xiii:6-i2), and vindicated their
wrongs by arms whensoever they had sustained
any injury (Gen. xiv). They treated with the
petty kings who reigned in different parts of
Palestine as their equals in dignity, and concluded
treaties with them in their own right (Gen. xiv:
13, 18-24; xxi:22-32; xxvi:i6, 27-33; xxxi : 44-
54). . ^ .
The patriarchal power was a sovereign donun-
ion; so that parents may be considered as the
first kings, and children the first subjects. They
had the power of disinheriting their children
(Gen. xlix:3, 4; I Chron. v:i), and also of pun-
ishing them with death (Gen. xxxviii:24), or of
dismissing them from home without assigning any
reason (Gen. xxi:i4). Further, the patriarchs
could pronounce a solemn blessing or curse upon
their cliildren, which at that time was regarded as
a high privilege and of great consequence. Thus
Noah cursed his son Canaan (Gen. ix:25) ; Isaac
blessed Jacob (Gen. xxvii :28, 29, 33) ; and Jacob
blessed his sons (Gen. xlix). On the decease of
the father, the eldest son by a natural right of
succession inherited the paternal power and do-
minion, which in those days was one of the rights
of primogeniture. To this right the sacerdotal
dignity, in the first ages, seems to have been an-
nexed; so that the heads of families not only pos-
sessed a secular power, but also officiated as
priests in the families to which they belonged
(Gen. viii:20; xii 17, 8; xxxv:i-3).
Although the sons of Jacob exercised, each, the
supreme power in his own family, during their
father's life (Gen. xxxviii:24), yet the latter ap-
pears to have retained some authority over Jhem
(Gen. xlii:i-4, 37,38; x!iii:i-i3; 1:15-17). After-
wards, however, as the posterity of Jacob in-
creased in Egypt, it bo:ame necessary to have
magistrates or governors invested with more ex-
tensive authority; these are termed Elders (Exod.
iii:i6), being probably chosen on account of their
age and wisdom. The Sholerim or "officers of the
children of Israel" (Exod. v:i4, 15, 19), have
been conjectured to be a kind of magistrates
elected by them ; but, from the context of the
sacred historian, they rather appear to have been
appointed by the Egyptians, and placed over the
Israelites in order to oversee their labor.
2. Gheocratic. On the departure <>f the Israel-
ites from the land of their oppressors, under the
guidance of Moses, Jehovah was pleased to in-
stitute a new form of government, which has been
rightly termed a Theocracy; the supreme legisla-
tive power being exclusively vested in God or in
his oracle, who alone could enact or repeal laws.
The Hebrew government appears not only de-
signed to subserve the common and general ends
of all good governments — viz., the protection of
the property, liberty, safety, and peace of the sev-
eral members of the community (in which the
true happiness and prosperity of states will always
consist) ; but also to set apart the Hebrews or
Israelites a holy people to Jehovah and a kingdom
of priests.
In the Theocracy of the Hebrews, the laws were
given to them by God, through the mediation of
Moses, and they were to be of perpetual force and
obligation so long as their polity subsisted.
The judges by whom these laws were ad-
ministered were represented as holy persons, and
as sitting in the place of God (Deut. 1:17; xix:
17). These judges were usually taken from the
tribe of Levi ; and the chief expounder of the law
was the high priest. In this there was a singular
propriety ; for the Levites. being devoted to the
study of the law, were (as will be shown in a
subsequent page) the literati among the Israelites.
In difficult cases of law. however, relating both
to government and war, God was to be consulted
by LTrim and Thummim and in matters which
concerned the welfare of the state. God frequently
made known his will by prophets whose mission
was duly attested, and the people were bound to
hearken to their voice. In all these cases, Jehovah
appears as sovereign king, ruling his people by his
appointed ministers.
3. The Civil Constitution. This had respect
to the classification of the people, succession and
right of inheritance of land and property. (See
Inheritance.)
The nation, from the twelve sons of Israel,
formed a great family called "the house of Is-
rael" (Heb. '^Spif? ^^^..bayth yis-ra-ui-ale'). Genea-
logically it was divided (Josh. vii:i4, 16-18) into:
(1) Heads or Princes of Tribes and Fami-
lies. (HlH. '"''rr^, mat-teh', or Krr, shay'bef).
All the various branches of .Abraham's descend-
ants, like the ancient Germans or the Scottish
cl.ans kept together in a body according to their
tribes and families; each tribe forming a lesser
commonwealth, with its own peculiar interests,
and all of them at last uniting into one great re-
public. The same arrangement, it is well known,
obtained among the Israelites, who appear to
have been divided into twelve great tribes, pre-
viously to their departure from Egypt.
(2) Families or Clans. By Moses, however,
they were subdivided into certain greater families,
which are called mish-paw-khoth (Heb. ninjtj?j j^
ox families.
_ (3) Households. (Heb. f^*3, bah'yith, house;
-'t '^ ", hayth awb, house of father, Num. i:2;
Josh. vii:i4). A technical term expressing the
larger divisions or family groups each of which
ISRAELITE
ISRAEL. KINGDOM OF
again had heads sometimes called heads of houses
of fathers, and sometimes simply heads. These are
likewise the same persons, who in Josh, xxiii :2,
and xxiv:i, are called Elders (Heb. IP?, zaw
kane'). (Compare also Deut. xix:i2 and xxi :
1-9). It does not appear in what manner these
heads or elders of families were chosen, when any
of them died. The princes of tribes do not seem
to have ceased with the commencement, at least,
of the monarchy; from i Chron. xxvii:i6-22, it is
evident that they subsisted in the time of David ;
and they must have proved a powerful restraint
upon the power of the king. (See Hebrews, Re-
ligion OF THE.)
ISRAELITE (iz'ra-el-ite), (Heb. "^MT?"': yis-
reh-ay-lee', having power with God, or God's fight-
er), a descendant of Jacob, and consequently a
citizen of the chosen nation of Israel.
The name is applied to the twelve tribes de-
scended from the sons of Jacob while still in
Egypt (Exod. iii:i6) ; to the ten northern tribes,
after the time of Saul (2 Sam. ii ig. 10, 17. 28),
and under David (2 Sam. xix :40) ; to the tribes,
with the exception of Judah, which set up a sepa-
rate kingdom at Samaria after the reign of Solo-
mon (i Kings xiirig). The term "Jews" gradu-
ally supplanted this term, because, after the return
from the captivity of Babylon, the tribe of Judah
was the most numerous, and foreigners had
scarcely any knowledge of the other tribes. In
the New Testament "Israelite" is used to desig-
nate those belonging to the true spiritual theoc-
racy (2 Cor. xi:22). (See Israel.)
ISRAELITISH (iz'ra-el-i'tish), (Heb. ""'jXT'?'.
yis-reh-ay-leeth'), the designation of a woman
whose son was stoned (Lev. xxiv:lo £f).
ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF.
(1) Rivalry of Ephraim and Judah. The
separation of the Hebrew nation into two parts,
of which one was to embrace ten of the tribes,
and be distinctively named Israel, had its origin
in the early power and ambition of the tribe of
Ephraim. The rivalry of Ephraim and Judah be-
gan almost from the first conquest of the land ;
nor is it without significance that, as Caleb be-
longed to the tribe of Judah, so did Joshua to
that of Ephraim. From the very beginning
Judah learned to act by itself; but the cen-
tral position of Ephraim, with its fruitful and
ample soil, and the long-continued authority of
Joshua, must have taught most of the tribes west
of the Jordan to look up to Ephraim as their
head; and a still more important superiority was
conferred on the same tribe by the fixed dwelling
of the ark at Shiloh for so many generations
(Josh, xviii, etc.). Judah could boast of Hebron,
Maclipelah, Bethlehem, names of traditional sanc-
tity; yet so could Ephraim point to Shechem, the
ancient abode of Jacob; and while Judah, being
on tlie frontier, was more exposed to the attack
of the powerful Philistines. Ephraim had to fear
only those Canaanites from within who were not
subdued or conciliated. The haughty behavior of
the Ephraimites towards Gideon, a man of Man-
asseh (Judg. viii:i), sufficiently indicates the pre-
tensions they made. Still fiercer language to-
ward Jephtliah the Gileadite (Judg. xii:i) was an-
swered by less gentleness than Gideon had sliown.'
and a bloody civil war was the result, in which
their pride met with a severe punishment. This
may in part explain their quiet submission, not
only to the priestly rule of Eli and his sons, who
had their center of authority at Shiloh, but to
Samuel, whose administration MS'ted from Ihrte
towhs of Benjamin. Of course his prophetical
character and personal excellence eminently con-
tributed to the result ; and it may seem that Eph-
raim, as well as all Israel besides, became habitu-
ated to the predominance of Benjamin, so that no
serious resistance was made to the supremacy of
Saul,
(2) A National Union. At his death a new
schism took place through their jealousy of Ju-
dah ; yet, in a few years' time, by the splendor of
David's victories, and afterwards by Solomon's
peaceful power, a permanent national union might
seem to have been effected. But the laws of in-
heritance in Israel, excellent as they were for pre-
venting permanent alienation of landed property,
and the degradation of the Hebrew poor into
predial slaves, necessarily impeded the perfect
fusion of the tribes, by discouraging intermar-
riage, and hindering the union of distant estates
in the same hands. Hence, when the sway of
Solomon began to be felt as a tyranny, the old
jealousies of the tribes revived, and Jeroboam, an
Ephraimite (i Kings xi:26), being suspected of
treason, fled to Shishak, king of Egypt.
(3) Defection of the Ten Tribes. The death
of Solomon was followed by a defection of ten of
the tribes, which established the separation of Is-
rael from Judah (B. C. 975). This was the most
important event which had befallen the Hebrew
nation since their conquest of Canaan. The chief
territory and population were now with Jeroboam,
but the religious sanction, the legitimate descent,
lay with the rival monarch. From the political
danger of allowing the ten tribes to go up to the
sanctuary of Jerusalem, the princes of Israel, as it
were in self-defense, set up a sanctuary of their
own ; and the intimacy of Jeroboam with the king
of Egypt may have determined his preference for
the form of idolatry (the calves) which he estab-
lished at Dan and Bethel. In whatever else his
successors differed, they one and all agreed in up-
holding this worship, which, once established, ap-
peared essential to their national unity. Never-
theless it is generally understood to have been a
worship of Jehovah, though under unlawful and
degrading forms.
(4) Worship of Baal. Worse by far was the
worship of Baal, which came in under one mon-
arch only, .^hab. and was destroyed after his son
was slain, by Jehu. A secondary result of the rev-
olution was the ejection of ihe tribe of Levi from
their lands and cities in Israel ; at least, such as
remained were spiritually degraded by the com-
pliances required, and could no longer oflfer any
resistance to the kingly power by aid of their
sacred character. When the priestly tribe had
thus lost independence, it lost the power to assist
the crown. The succession of Jeroboam's family
was hallowed by no religious blessing; and when
his son was murdered, no Jehoiada was found to
rally his supporters and ultimately avenge his
cause. The example of successful usurpation was
so often followed by the captains of the armies,
that the kings in Israel present to us an irregular
series of dynasties, with several short and tumult-
uous reigns. This was one cause of disorder and
weakness to Israel, and hindered it from swallow-
ing up Judah ; another was found in the relations
of Israel towards foreign powers.
(5) The Center of the Monarchy. Jeroboam
originally fixed on Shechem as the center of his
monarchy, and fortified it ; moved perhaps not
only by its natural suitability, but by the remem-
brances of Jacob which clung to it, and by the aus-
picious fact that here first Israel had decided for
him against Rehoboam. But the natural delight-
fulness o£ Tir:-ih (Cant. vi:4) led him, perhaps
ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF
889
ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF
late in his reign, to erect a palace there (l Kings
xiv:i7). After the murder of Jeroboam's son,
Baasha seems to have intended to fix his capital at
Ramah, as a convenient place for annoying the
king of Juilah, whom lie looked on as his only
dangerous enemy ; but when forced to renounce
this plan (xv:i7, 21). he acquiesced in Tirzah.
which continued to be the chief city of Israel, until
Omri who, since the palace at Tirzah had been
burned during the civil war (i Kings xvi:i8),
built Samaria, with the ambition not uncommon
in the founder of a new dynasty (xvi;24). Sam-
aria continued to the end of the monarchy to be
the center of administration; and its strength ap-
1>cars to have justified Omri's choice. (For
details, see Samaria ; also Tirzah, 2.)
There is reason to believe that Jeroboam carried
back with him into Israel the good will, if not the
substantial assistance, of Snishak; and this will
account for his escaping the storm from Egypt
which swept over Rehoboam in his fifth year.
During that first period Israel was far from quiet
within. Although the ten tribes collectively had
decided in favor of Jeroboam, great numbers of
individuals remained attached to the family of
David and to the worship at Jerusalem, and in the
first three years of Rehoboam migrated into Ju-
dah (2 Chron. xi:i6, 17).
(6) Rival Sanctuaries. Perhaps it was not
until this process commenced that Jeroboam was
worked up to the desperate measure of erecting
rival sanctuaries with visible idols (i Kings xii:
27) : a measure which met the usual ill success of
profane statecraft, and aggravated the evil which
he feared. It set him at war with the whole order
of priests and Levites, whose expulsion or subju-
gation, we may be certain, was not effected with-
out convulsing his whole kingdom, and so occupy-
ing him as to free Rehoboam from any real dan-
ger, although no peace was made. The king of
Judah improved the time by immense efforts in
fortifying his territory (2 Chron. xi:s-ii); and,
although Shishak soon after carried off the most
valuable spoil, no great or definite impression
could be made by Jeroboam. Israel having so far
taken the place of heathen nations, and being al-
ready perhaps even in alliance with Egypt, at an
early period — we know not how soon — sought and
obtained the friendship of the king^ of Damascus.
(7) TJnion with King of Damascus. A sense
of the great advantage derivable from such a
union seems to have led Ahab afterwards to be-
have with mildness and conciliation towards Ben-
hadad. at a time when it could have been least
expected (l Kings xx:3l-34). From that trans-
action we learn that Bcnhadad I had made in
Damascus 'streets for Omri.' and Omri for Ben-
hadad in Samaria. This, no doubt, implied that
'a quarter' was assigned for Syrian merchants in
Samaria, which was probably fortified like the
'camp of the Tyrians' in Memphis, or the English
factory at Calcutta; and in it, of course, Syrian
worship would be tolerated. Against such inter-
course the prophets, as might be expected, entered
their protest (vers. 35-43) : but it was in many
ways too profitable to be renounced. In the reign
(if Baasha, Asa, king of Judah, sensible of the
dangerous advantage gained by his rival through
the friendship of the Syrians, determined to buy
them off at any price (see Judah, Ki.ngdom of);
and by sacrificing 'the treasures of the house of
the Lord and the treasures of the king's house'
(xv:i8), induced Benhadad I to break his league
with Baasha and to ravage all the northern dis-
trict of Israel. This drew off the Israelitish mon-
arch, and enabled .Asa to destroy the fortifications
of Ramah, which would have stopped the course
of his trade (xv:i7), perhaps that with the sea-
coast and with Tyre. Such was the beginning of
the war bctivcen Israel and Syria, on which the
safety of Judah at that time depended. Cordial
union was not again restored between the two
northern states until the days of Rezin, king of
Syria, and Pekah, the son of Remaliah, when
Damascus must have already felt the rising power
of Nineveh. The renewed alliance instantly
proved so disastrous to Judah, which was reduced
to extremest straits (Is. vii:2; 2 Kings xv:37; 2
Chron. xxviii 15, 6), as may seem to justify at
least the folicy of Asa's proceeding. Although
it was impossible for a prophet to approve of it
(2 Chron. xvi 7), we may only so much the more
infer that Judah was already brought into most
pressing difhculties, and that the general course
of the war, in spite of occasional reverses, was
decidedly and increasingly favorable to Israel.
(8) Wars of Syria and IsraeL The wars of
Syria and Israel were carried on chiefly under
three reigns, those of Benhadad II, Hazael, and
Benhadad III, the first two monarchs being gen-
erally prosperous, especially Hazael, the last being
as decidedly unsuccessful. Although these results
may have depended in part on personal qualities,
there is high probability that the feebleness dis-
played by the Syrians against Jehoash and his son
Jeroboam was occasioned by the pressure of the
advancing empire of Nineveh.
Asa adhered, through the whole of his long
reign, to the policy of encouraging hostility be-
tween the two northern kingdoms ; and the first
Benhadad had such a career of success that his
son found himself in a condition to hope for an
entire conquest of Israel. His formidable inva-
sions wrought an entire change in the mind of
Jehoshaphat ( i Kings xxii :44) , who saw that if
Israel were swallowed up by Syria there would be
no safety for Judah. We may conjecture that
this consideration determined him to unite the
two royal families; for no common cause would
have induced so religious a king to select for his
son's wife Athaliah the daughter of Jezebel. The
age of Ahaziah. who was sprung from this mar-
riage, forces us to place it as early as B. C. 912,
which is the third year of Jehoshaphat and sixth
of Ahab. Late in his reign Jehoshaphat threw
himself most cordially (i Kings xxii:4) into the
defense of Ahab, and by so doing probably saved
Israel from a foreign yoke. Another mark of the
low state into which both kingdoms were falling,
is, that after Ahab's death the Moabites refused
their usual tribute to Israel, and (as far as can be
made out from the ambiguous words of 2 Kings
iii:27), the united force of the two kingdoms
failed of doing more than irritate them. Soon
after, in the reign of Jchoram, .son of Jehoshaphat,
the Edomitcs followed the example, and estab-
lished their independence. This event possibly
engaged the whole force of Judah, and hindered
it from succoring Samaria during the cruel siege
which it sustained from Benhadad II. in the
reign of Jchoram. son of .Ahab. The declining
years and health of the king of Syria gave a short
respite to Israel ; but, in B. C. 885. Hazael, by de-
feating the united Hebrew armies, commenced
the career of conquest and harassing invasion by
which he 'made Israel like the dust by threshing.'
Even under Jehu he subdued the trans-Jordanic
tribes (2 Kings x:32). Afterwards, since he
took the town of Gath (2 Kings xii:i7) and pre-
pared to attack Jerusalem— an attack which
Jehoash. king of Judah, averted only by strictly
following Asa's precedent — it is manifest that all
ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF
890
ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF
the passes and chief forts of the country west of
the Jordan must have been in his hand. Indeed,
as he is said, 'to have left Jehoahaz only fifty
horsemen, ten chariots, and ten thousand foot-
men,' it would seem that Israel was strictly a con-
quered province, in which Hazael dictated (as
the English to the native rajahs of India) what
military force should be kept up.
(9) Delivery of Israel. From this thraldom
Israel was delivered by some unexplained agency.
We are told merely that 'Jehovah gave to Israel
a savior, so that they went out from under the
hand of the Syrians ; and the children of Israel
dwelt in their tents as beforetime' (2 Kings xiii :
5). It is allowable to conjecture that the (appar-
ently unknown) deliverer was the Assyrian mon-
archy, which, assaulting Hazael towards the end
of the reign of Jehoahaz, entirely drew away the
Syrian armies. That it was some urgent, power-
ful, and continued pressure, considering the great
strength which the empire of Damascus had at-
tained, seems clear from the sudden weakness of
Syria through the reigns of Jehoash and Jero-
boam II, the former of whom thrice defeated
Benhadad III and 'recovered the cities of Israel;'
the latter not only regained the full territory of
the ten tribes, but made himself master (for a
time at least) of Damascus and Ilamath. How
entirely the friendship of Israel and Judah had
been caused and cemented by their common feai
of Syria is proved by the fact that no sooner
was the power of Damascus broken than new war
broke out between the two kingdoms, which
ended in the plunder of Jerusalem by Jehoash,
who also broke down its walls and carried off
hostages ; after which there is no more alliance
between Judah and Israel. The empire of Da-
mascus seems to have been entirely dissolved un-
der the son of Hazael, and no mention is made
of its kings for eighty years or more. When
Pekah, son of Remaliah, reigned in Samaria,
Rezin, as king of Damascus, made a last but in-
effectual effort for its independence.
(10) The Assyrian Power. The same As-
syrian power which had doubtless so seriously
shaken, and perhaps temporarily overturned, the
kingdom of Damascus, was soon to be felt by Is-
rael. Menahem was invaded by Pul (the first
sovereign of Nineveh whose name we know),
and was made tributary. His successor, Tiglath-
pileser, in the reign of Pekah, son of Remaliah,
carried captive the eastern and northern tribes
of Israel (j. e., perhaps all their chief men as
hostages?), and soon after slew Rezin, the ally
of Pekah, and subdued Damascus. The following
emperor, Shalmaneser, besieged and captured Sa-
maria, and terminated the kingdom of Israel,
B. C. 721.
This branch of the Hebrew monarchy suffered
far greater and more rapid reverses than the
other. From the accession of Jeroboam to the
middle of Baasha's reign, it probably increased in
power ; it then waned with the growth of the
Damascene empire ; it struggled hard against it
under Ahab and Jehoram, but sank lower and
lower ; it was dismembered under Jehu, and made
subject under Jehoahaz. From B. C. 940 to B. C.
850 is. as nearly as can be ascertained, the period
of depression ; and from B. C. 914 to B. C. 830
that of friendship or alliance with Judah. But
after (about) B. C. 850 Syria began to decline,
and Israel soon shot out rapidly ; so that Joash
and his son Jeroboam appear, of all Hebrew mon-
archs, to come next to David and Solomon. How
long this burst of prosperity lasted does not dis-
tinctly appear; but it would seem that entire do-
minion over the ten tribes was held until Pekah
received the first blow from the Assyrian con-
queror.
(H) Causes of 'Weakness. Besides that
which was a source of weakness to Israel from
the beginning, viz., the schism of the crown with
the whole ecclesiastical body, other causes may
be discerned which made the ten tribes less pow-
erful, in comparison with the two, than might
have been expected. The marriage of Ahab to
Jezebel brought with it no political advantages
at all commensurate with the direct moral mis-
chief, to say nothing of the spiritual evil ; and
the reaction against the worship of Baal was a
most ruinous atonement for the sin. To suppress
the monstrous iniquity, the prophets let loose
the remorseless Jehu, who, not satisfied with the
blood of Ahab's wife, grandson, and seventy sons,
murdered first the king of Judah himself, and
next forty-two youthful and innocent princes of
his house : while, strange to tell, the daughter
of Jezebel gained by his deed the throne of Judah,
and perpetrated a new massacre. The horror of
such crimes must have fallen heavily on Jehu,
and have caused a widespread disaffection among
his own subjects. Add to this that the Phceni-
cians must have deeply resented his proceedings;
so that we get a very sufficient clue to the pros-
tration of Israel under the foot of Hazael during
the reign of Jehu and his son.
Another and more abiding cause of political
debility in the ten tribes was found in the imper-
fect consolidation of the inhabitants into a single
nation. Since those who lived east of the Jordan
retained, to a great extent at least, their pastoral
habits; their union with the rest could never have
been very firm ; and when a king was neither
strong independently of them, nor had good
hereditary pretensions, they were not likely to
contribute much to his power. After their con-
quest of the Hagarenes and the depression of the
Moabites and Ammonites by David, they had
free room to spread eastward ; and many of their
chief men may have become wealthy in flocks
and herds (like Machir, the son of Ammiel, of
Lodebar, and Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sam.
xvii:27), over whom the authority of the Israel-
itish crown would naturally be precarious ; while
west of the Jordan the agrarian law of Moses
made it difficult or impossible for a landed no-
bility to form itself, which could be formidable
to the royal authority. That the Arab spirit of
freedom was rooted in the eastern tribes may
perhaps be inferred from the case of the Re-
chabites, who would neither live in houses nor
plant vines ; undoubtedly, like some of the Na-
bathsans, lest by becoming settled and agricul-
tural they should be enslaved. Yet the need of
imposing this law on his descendants would not
have been felt by Jonadab had n.ot an opposite
tendency been rising — that of agricultural settle-
ment.
(12) Influence of the Prophets. Although
the priests and Levites nearly disappeared out of
Israel, prophets were perhaps even more numer-
ous and active there than in Judah, and Abijah,
whose prediction first endangered Jeroboam (l
Kings xi:29-4o), lived in honor at Shiloh to his
dying day (xiv:2). Obadiah alone saved one
hundred prophets of Jehovah from the rage of
ijezcbel (xviii:i3). Possibly their extra-social
character freed them from the restraint imposed
on priests and Levites; and while they felt less
bound to the formal rites of the Law, the kings
of Israel were also less jealous of them. (See
Hebrews, Religion of the; see also Chronol-
ogy.) F. W. N.
ISSACHAR
891
ITCH
ISSACHAR (Is'sa-kar), (Hcb. '^-'^'T-, yis-saws-
kawr' , lie will bring reward).
1. Ghe Ninth Son of Jacob. Son of Jacob
and Leah, born 13. C. about 2CKX), who gave name
to one of the tribes of Israel (Gen. xxx:i8; Num.
xxvi:25).
2. The Tribe of Issachar. (1) Character-
istics. Jacob, on his deathbed, speaking meta-
phorically of the character and destinies of his
sons, or rather of the tribes which should spring
from them, said, 'Issachar is a strong ass couch-
ing down between two burdens' (Gen. xlix:i4,
15). Remembering the character of the ass in
eastern countries, we may be sure that this com-
parison was not intended in disparagement. The
ass is anything but stupid ; and the proverbial
obstinacy which it sometimes exhibits in our
own country is rather the result of ill-treatment
than a natural characteristic of the animal. Its
true attributes are patience, gentleness, great ca-
pability of endurance, laborious exertion, and a
meek submission to authority. Issachar, there-
fore, the progenitor of a race singularly docile,
and distinguislied for their patient industry, is
exhibited under the similitude of the meekest and
most laborious of quadrupeds. The descriptive
character goes on : 'And he saw that rest was
good, and the land that it was pleasant, and he
bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a servant
unto tribute ;' which probably does not imply that
reproach upon Issachar, as addicted to ignomini-
ous ease, which some commentators find in it. It
seems simply to mean that finding itself in pos-
session of a most fertile portion of Palestine, the
tribe devoted itself to the labors of agriculture,
taking little interest in the public affairs of the
nation. Accordingly Josephus says' that the heri-
tage of the tribe 'was fruitful to admiration,
abounding in pastures and nurseries of all kinds,
so that it would make any man in love with hus-
bandry' (Aniiq. v. 1. 22). But although a de-
cided preference of agricultural over commercial
or military pursuits is here indicated, there seems
no reason to conclude, as some gather from the
last clause, that the tribe would be willing to pur-
chase exemption from war by the payment of a
heavy tribute. The words do not necessarily
imply this ; and there is no evidence that the tribe
ever declined any military service to which it
was called. On the contrary, it is specially com-
mended by Deborah for the promptitude with
which it presented itself in the war with Jabin
(Judg. v:i5); and in the days of David honor-
able testimony is borne to its character (l Chron.
xii:32). In this passage the 'children of Issa-
char' are described as 'men that had understand-
ing of the times, to know what Israel ought to
do;' which, compared with Esther i:i3, has
been supposed to mean that they were skilled in
the various practical applications of astronomy.
But what need there was of astronomy on the
occasion of calling David to the throne of Israel
after the death of Abner and Ishbosheth, is not
very easy to discover. It more probably means
that they were men held in esteem for their pru-
dence and wisdom, at»1 who knew that the time
was come when it was no longer safe to delay
calling David to the throne of all Israel.
(2) Numbers. Quitting Egypt the tribe of Is-
sachar numbered 54,000 adult males, which gave
it the fifth numerical rank among the twelve tribes,
Judah. Simeon, Zebulun, and Dan being alone
above it. In the wilderness it increased nearly
10,000, and then ranked as the third of the tribes,
Judah and Dan only being more numerous (Num.
i:xxvi).
(3) Territory. The territory of the tribe com-
prehended the whole of the plain of Esdraelon
and the neighboring districts — the granary of
Palestine. It was bounded on the east by the
Jordan, on the west and south by Manasseh, and
on the north by Asher and Zebulun. It contained
the towns of Megiddo, Taanach, Shunem, Jez-
reel, and Bethshan, with the villages of Endor,
Aphek, and Iblcam, all historical names ; the
mountains of Tabor and Gilboa, and the valley of
Jezreel, were in the territory of this tribe, and
the course of the river Kishon lay through it.
3. The seventh son of Obed-Edom ; a Kor-
hite Levite, who was doorkeeper in the Temple
(I Chron. xxvirs), B. C. 1014.
IS8HIAH (is-shi'ah), (Heb. ^''^..yisA-s/u-e-yaw' ,
Jehovah will lend).
1- A Levite; the second son of Uzziel of the
house of Kohath (i Chron. xxiv:2S). The con-
text seems to locate him in the time of David.
2. Son of Rehabiah the grandson of Moses
through Eliezer. He lived in the time of David
and was the head of the large family named
after his father (i Citron, xxiv :2I ; comp. xxiii :
17; xxvi:2S). The name is elsewhere given Jesh-
aiah.
ISSUE (rsh'o), (Heb. "1?^^, vio-leh'deth, chil-
dren, posterity, Gen. xlviii:6; Matt. xxii:25). It is
applied also to anything worthless or ignoble (Is.
xxii:24).
The issues from death, mean, all the means
of escape from sin or misery, and all the persons
redeemed, belong to the Lord (Ps. lxviii:20).
Out of the hear.t are the issues of life; the holy
thoughts and good works of men demonstrate
spiritual life to be in their heart, and prepare
them for eternal life (Prov. iv:23).
ISSTJE, RXJNNING (Heb. "I??, maw-kore').
A running of blood, seed, etc. (Lev. xii:7;
Ezek. xxiii :2o). An issue of this kind was
very polluting; but a mother's did not pollute
her sucking child. The references in Lev. xv :
2, 3; xxii:4; Num. v:2; 2 Sam. iii :29 are prob-
ably to gonorrhcea of the milder form. The
virulent forms did not appear until the fifteenth
century. (See Chardin, Voyages en Perse, ii :
200; Michaelis, Lau's of Moses, iv:282. )
I80AH (ish'u-ah), (i Chron. vii:30). See Ishuah.
ISUI (rs'u-f), (Heb. "y^.' yish-vee', level, Gen.
xlvi:l7). See IsnuAl.
ITALIAN BAND or COHORT (I-tSl'yan),
(Acts x:i), was probably a Roman cohort from
Italy, stationed at Csesarea; so called to distin-
guish it from the other troops, which were drawn
from Syria and the adjacent regions. (Compare
Josephus De Bell. Jud. iii 42.)
This is the only mention of the word Italian in
the Scriptures. (Conybcare and Howson, Life
and Letters of St. Paul, I, 143, Am. Ed.)
ITALY (rt'a-ly), (Gr. 'IraXla, ee-talee' ah\ oc-
curs five times in Scripture (Acts xviii:2; xxvii:i,
6; Hcb. xiii:24, and subscription).
We do not know the ancient name of Italy in
the Hebrew language. Jerome has sometimes
rendered Chiltim, Italy (Num. xxiv:24; Ezek.
xxvii:6) and in Is. IxviriQ. he translates Tubal,
Italy, though according to others, the Tibarenians
are here meant. In the New Testament, written
in Greek, there is no ambiguity in the word Italy ;
it signifies that country including the whole
natural peninsula between the Alps and the
Straits of Messina, of which Rome is the capital.
ITCH (Itch). See Plague.
ITHAI
892
ITUR/EA
ITHAI (i'thai), (l Chron. xi:3l). See IttAI.
ITHAMAR (!th'a-mar), (Heb. I^'T*^, cctk-aw-
mawr' , palm-island), fourth son of Aaron.
He was consecrated to the priesthood along
with his brothers (Exod. vi :23 ; Num. iii :2, 3).
Nothing is individually recorded of him, except
that the property of the tabernacle was placed
under his charge (Exod. xxxviii:2l), and that
he superintended all matters connected with its
removal by the Levitical sections of Gershon and
Merari (Num. iv;28).- The sacred utensils and
their removal were entrusted to his elder brother
Eleazar. Ithamar, with his descendants, occupied
the position of common priest until the high-
priesthood passed into his family in the person of
Eli, under circumstances of which we are igno-
rant. Abiathar, whom Solomon deposed, was the
last high-priest of that line ; and the pontificate
then reverted to the elder line of Eleazar in the
person of Zadok (i Kings ii:34).
ITHIEL (Ith'i-el), (Heb. ^f^'-T^', eeth-ee-ale' ,
God with me).
1- Father of Maaseiah and son of Jesaiah of
the tribe of Benjamin. One of his descendants
is mentioned as returning from Babylon with a
party (Neh. xi:7), B. C. long before 536.
2. A person to whom, with Ucal, Agur Ben-
Jakeh addressed his prophecy (Prov. xxx:l), B.
C. perhaps about 990.
ITHMAH (Ith'mah), (Heb. '"'^'T, yith-maw' ,
orphanage), a Moabite belonging to David's body-
guard, according to the supplementary list of
I Chron. xi:46 (B. C. 1046).
ITHNAN (Ith'nan), (Heb. I^H'!, yith-namn' , ex-
tensive), a city in the south of Judah (Josh. xv:23),
given between Hazor and Ziph. As it is men-
tioned with Kedesh and Telem it doubtless lay on
the borders of the desert. No trace of it has been
found as yet.
ITHRA (Ith'ra), (Heb. ^^v'T. yith-raw' , excel-
lence), an Islimaelite (i Chron. iiiiy), but owing to
a probable error in transcription he is called an
"Israelite" in 2 Sam. xvii:25. He was the father,
by Abigail, David's sister, of Amasa, a general
under David (i Kings ii:5), H. C. ante 1023, else-
where (2 Sam. xvii:25), called Jether. (5n the
term "Israelite" see: Keil and Delitzsch, Books
of Sam. p. 433, Eng. transl.; Wordsworth, hooks oj
Sam. p. III.
ITHRAN (Ith'ran), (Heb. 'l'-?'. yith-rawn' , ex-
cellent).
!• A Horite, son of Dishon and grandson of
Seir (Gen. xxxvi :26 ; I Chron. i:4l). He was
probably, like his father, a commander, "duke,"
of a tribe of the Horim (Gen. xxxvi :3o), B. Q.
about 1964.
2. Apparently a son of Zophah, a descendant of
Asher (i Chron. vii:37); probably the same as
Jetiier (ver. 38), B. C. long after 1856.
ITHREAM (Ith're-am), (Heb. ^TTT, yith-rch-
awm', residue of the people), sixth son of David,
born to him in Hebron of Ezlah, his "wife" (2 Sam.
iii.5; I Chron. iii:3), B. C. 1045.
ITHRITE (or, hcntT,Je/henfe), (ith'rite), (Heb.
"yT-.yith-ree'), the descendant of some man named
Jether resident in Kirjath-jearim (i Chron. ii:53).
It was the appellation of Ira and Gareb, two
of David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii 138 : i Chron. xi :
40). According to some, the term "Ithrite" de-
notes the posterity of Jethro, father-in-law of
Moses. Others consider Jether but another form
of Ithra (2 Sam. xvii:25), David's brother-in-
law, from whom sprang the family of Ithrites.
Still others derive the term from Jattir, a moun-
tain district of Judah, from which the two Ithrite
heroes of David may have come.
ITTAH-KAZIN (it'tah-ka'zin), (Heb. Hl^ "?.
ayth kaw-iseen' , time of a judge), a city of Issachar
on the boundary of Zebulun (Josh. xix:l3), be-
tween Gath-hepher and Remmon-methoar. It has
not been identified.
ITTAI (Il'ta'i), (Heb. '•?'<, it-tah'ee, timely).
1- Son of Ribai of Gibrah, a Benjamite hero
of David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii:29). In the par-
allel passage (i Chron. xi:3i) the name is Ithai,
Heb. ith-ay. (B. C. 1046.)
2. A Philistine of Gath in the army of David,
commanding the 600 heroes who had made up
David's band during his wanderings in Judah (2
Sam. xv:l8, 19; comp. I Sam. xxiii a3 ; xxvii :
2; xxx:9, 10). After the organization of the
army by David at Maha.naim, Ittai is placed in
command of a third part, holding equal rank
with Joab and Abishai (2 Sam. xviii:2, 5, 12).
No further mention of him occurs, nor of the
conduct in battle of the faithful stranger. From
the expression, "thy brethren" (2 Sam. xv:2o),
it is likely that he was not the only Philistine
numbered in David's force.
ITXTRiEA (it'u-rae'a or re'a), (Or. 'Iroupoia, ee-
too-rah'yah), a district in. the northeast of Pales-
tine, forming the tetrarchy of Philip.
The name is supposed to have originated with
yet-oor', or Jetur, enclosure, nomadic camp, one
of Ishmael's sons (i Chron. i:3i). In i Chron.
v:i9, this name is given as that of a tribe or na-
tion with which Reuben (beyond the Jordan)
warred; and from its being joined with the names
of other of Ishmael's sons it is evident that a tribe
descended from his son Jetur is intimated.
During the exile this and other border coun-
tries were taken possession of by various tribes,
whom, although they are called after the original
names, as occupants of the countries which had
received those names, we are not bound to regard
as descendants of the original possessors. These
new Iturseans were eventually subdued by King
Aristobulus (B. C. 100) ; by whom they were con-
strained to embrace the Jewish religion, and were
at the same time incorporated with the state (Jo-
seph. Antiq. xiii. II. 3). Nevertheless the Iturac-
ans were still recognizable as a distinct people
in the time of Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 23). As al-
ready intimated, Herod the Great, in dividing his
dominions among his sons, bequeathed Ituraea to
Philip, as part of a tetrarchy composed, according
to Luke, of Trachonitis and Ituraea ; and as Jo-
sephus {Antiq. xvii : 8. 8) mentions his territory
as composed of Auranitis, Trachonitis, and Bata-
naea, it would appear as if the Evangelist re-
gard Auranitis and Paneas as comprehended un-
der IturKa. The name is indeed so loosely ap-
plied by ancient writers that it is difficult to fix its
boundaries with precision. Perhaps it may suf-
fice for general purposes to describe it as a dis-
trict of indeterminate extent, traversed by a line
drawn from the Lake of Tiberias to Damascus;
and by different writers, and under different cir-
cumstances, mentioned with extensions in various
directions, beyond the proper limits of the name.
The present Jedur probably comprehends the
whole or greater part of the proper Itursa. This
is described by Burckh.irdt (Syria, p. 286) as
'lying south of Jebelkessoue, east of Jebel es-
Sheik (Mount Hermon), and west of the Hadj
road.' He adds that it now contains only twenty
IVAH
893
IZRI
inhabited villages. By the help of these lights
we may discover that Ituraea was a plain country,
about thirty miles long from north to south, and
twenty-four from east to west, having on the
north Abilene and the Damascene district ; on the
south Auranitis and part of Bashan ; on the east
the stony region of Trachonitis; and on the west
the hill country of Bashan.
IVAH (t'vah), (Heb. '"'v?, iv-vaw' , or W, av-
vaiv'), a city belonging to Assyria whence colo-
nists were deported to Samaria (2 Kings xviii;34;
xix:i3; Is. xx.\vii:i3).
In 2 Kings xvii 124, the cognate form "Ava" oc-
curs. Rawlinson identifies it with Hit of Baby-
lonia, the 'Is of Herodotus (1:179), which was
renowned for its bituminous springs that are still
plentiful enougli to mark the identity of the place.
It is probably the Ahava of Ezra (viii:is). Hit
or 'Is lay on the east side of the Eu]ihratcs be-
tween Scpharvaim and Hena, with which it seems
to have had a political alliance before the reign
of Sennacherib (2 Kings xix:i3). Rich. First
Memoir on Babylon, p. 64; Chesney, Euphrates
Expedition, i. 55.
rVORY (i'vsry), (Heb. °'?'^f!?, shen-hab-beein' ,
ivory tusk, I Kings x:22; 2 Chron. ix:2i; Rev.
xviii:i2).
'Elephant's tooth,' or simply 'elephant,' is a
common name for ivory, not only in the Oriental
languages and in Greek, but also in the Western
tongues; although in all of them teeth of other
species may be included. The tusks are called
horns (Ezek. xxvii:i5). Elephants' teeth were
largely imported as merchandise, and also lirought
as tribute into Egypt. The processions of human
figures bearing presents, etc., still extant on the
walls of palaces and tombs, attest by the black
crisp-haired bearers of huge teeth, that some of
these came from Ethiopia or Central Africa ; and
by white men similarly laden, who also bring an
Asiatic elephant and a white bear, that others
came from the East. Pha-nician traders had
ivory in such abundance that the chief seats of
their galleys were inlaid with it. In the Scrip-
tures, according to the Chaldee Paraphrase, Ja-
cob's bed was made of this substance (.Gen. xlix :
33) ; we find King Solomon importing it from
Tarshish (i Kings x 122) ; and if Ps. xlv :8 was
written before his reign, ivory was extensively
used in the furniture of royal residences at a still
earlier period.
The tusks of African elephants are generally
much longer than those of the Asiatic ; and it
may be observed in this place, that the ancients,
as well as the moderns, are mistaken when they
assert elephants' tusks to be a kind of horns.
They are genuine teeth, combining in tliemselves,
and occupying, in the upper jaw, the whole mass
of secretions which in other animals form the
upper incisor and laniary teeth. They are used
for defense and offense, and for holding down
green branches, or rooting up water-plants; but
still they are not absolutely necessary, since there
is a variety of elephant in the Indian forests en-
tirely destitute of tusks, and tlie females in most
of the races are either without them, or have them
very small ; not turned downwards, as Bochart
states, but rather straight, as correctly described
by Pliny. (See Elei'hant.) C. H. S.
iV Y (i-vy) (Or ici<r<r(5s, kis-sos'), is mentioned only
once, and that in the .-Vpocrypha (2 Mace. vi7),
where the Temple is described as being desecrated
by the Gentiles, and the Jews forced to depart
from the laws of their fathers: 'And when the
feast of Bacchus was kept, the Jews were com-
pelled to go in procession to Bacchus, carrying
ivy.' The term Kurais or kittAs seems to have
been applied by the Greeks in a general sense, and
to have included many plants, and among them
some climbers, as the convolvulus, besides the
common ivy, which was especially dedicated to
Bacchus.
It is well known that in the Dionysia, or
festivals in honor of Dionysus, and in the pro-
cessions c.ilied eiaffoi, thee'as-oy, with which they
were celebrated, women ateo tiwk part, in the dis-
guise of Baccha, Naiadee, Nympluc, etc, adorned
with garlands of ivy, etc.
lYAR (e'ySr), (Heb. "''<, ee-yanuf"), the late name
of that month which w;is the second of the sacred,
and the seventh of the civil, year of the Jews, and
which began with the new moon oi. May.
The few memorable days in it are the loth, as
a fast for the death of Eli ; the 14th, as the second
or lesser Passover, for those whom uncleanness
or absence prevented from celebrating the feast
in Nisan (Num. ix:ii); the 23d, as a feast-.
instituted by Simon the IVIaccabee in memory of
his taking the citadel Acrai in Jerusalem (i Mace.
xiii:5i, 52) ; the 28th, as a fast for the death of
Samuel.
The name lyar does not occur in the Old Tes-
tament, this month being always described as the
second month, except in four places in which it is
called Ziv (i Kings v:i, ^7; Dan. ii :3i ; iv:33).
Ziv is not considered to be a proper name, but an
appellative. It radically means bright, an appro-
priate epithet of the month of llowers. J. N.
IZEHAK (Iz'e-har), (Xum.iiii9). Soe IzHAR,
IZEHARITES (tz'e-hax-ites), (Heb. "l^V"?.
hmv-yits-haw-rce'), a family of Levites descended
from Izhar, son of Kohath (Num. iii;27), called
elsewhere Izharites (which see).
IZHAR (lz'har),(Heb.'l?V!, j7V5-//awr'. anoint-
ing), grandson of Levi, and second son of Kohath
(Ex. vi:l8, 21; Num. iii:i9, xvii; i Chron. vi:2, 18).
In I Chron. vi :22, Amminadab appears in the
place of Izhar as the son of Kohath and father of
Korah, which must be an error of transcription ;
for in verse 38 Izhar appears again in the proper
place.
IZHARITES Crz'har-ttes), (Heb. '1''>"?. haw
yits-haw-ree' ), aime as IZHAR.
Shelomolli was chief of the family in the time
of David (i Chron. xxiv:22), and with his breth-
ren had charge of the Temple treasure (i Chron.
xxiv:22; xxvi .-23, 29). The name is Izeharites
in Num. iii :27. (Sec Izeii.\kites.)
IZRAHIAH (Tz'rahf'ah), (Heb. '^T^'T., yis-
rakh-yaiii' , Jah will bring forth).
1. A "son" of Uzzi, a descendant of Issachar
through Tola (l Chron. vii:3). B. C. about 1014.
2. A leader of the singers, who joined in the
celebration over the completion of the walls of
Jerusalem (Neh. xii:42), B. C. 446.
IZRAHITE (tz'ra-hite), (\\ch.~\'?.,yiz-ravjJ;h'\
the [xitrony lic appe.lation of Shamhuth, Davids
general (i Chron. xxvii:8). He was probably a
descendant of Zerah, son of Judah.
IZRI (Tz'ri), (Heb. ^'^\,yiis-^e^, the Jezerite), a
Levile, leader of the fourth division of singers
under David ( i Cliron. xxv :i i ) ; probably the same
as Zeri, son of Gcduthun (i Chron. xxv :3), B.C.
1014.
JAAKAN
894
JABESH
JAAKAN (ja'a-kan), (Heb. ''\\H?.^-,yak-ak-awn'<
wrestler), father of the Bene-jaakan of Num.
xxxiii:3o-32; Deut. x:6, and son of Ezer, son of
Seir, the Horite (i Chron. i:42), where his name is
given as Jakan, B.C. 1780. He is called Akan in
Gen. xxxvi:27. *
JAAKOBAH (ja-a-ko'bah), (Heb '"'PP^-, yah-
ak-o'baw, another form of Jacob), one of the pros-
perous descendants (princes) of Simeon that emi-
grated to the valley of Gedor in the time of Heze-
kiah (I Chron. iv:36), B. C. about 710.
JAALA or JAALAH (ja-a'la or ja-a'lah), (Heb.
^^S-, yah-al-aw' , wild goat), one of the Nethinim
("servants of Solomon"), whose descendants re-
turned from exile with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:56;
Neh. vii:58). B. C. 536. _^
■TA AT.ATVr (ja-a'lam), (Heb. 2,'?-, yah-lawm' ,
whom God hides), a son of Esau by Ahoiibamah,
daughter of Anah (Gen. xxxvi:5, 14, 18; I Chron.
i:35), B. C. 1740.
JAANAI (ja'a-nai or ja-a'nai), (Heb. 'i?-, yah-
an-ak'ee, responsive), a chief Gadite who dwelt in
Bashan (i Chron. v:i2), B. C. 1070. ^ .
JAARE-0IlEGITII(ia'a-re-6r'e-g'(m),(Heb.D"?'il*'
'^J?!, yah-ar-ay' o-reg-eem' , woods of weavers),
the father of Elhanan, belonging to Bethlehem,
who slew the brother of Goliath (2 Sam. xxitip),
B. C. 1080. (See Jair, 4)-
JAASAT7 (ja'a-sau), (Heb. ^!?^-, yah-as-00'
they will do), one of the family of Bani who mar-
ried a strange wife (Ezra x;37), B. C. 457.
JAASIEIi (ja-a'si-el), (Heb. '*?"'?-^", yah-as-ee-
ale', whom God created), son of Abner, in David's
time, cousin of Saul (i Chron. xxvii;2l), B. C.
1015, called Jasiel (i Chron. xi;47), and named
among those on the increased list of David's
heroes. ,.,%>■«
JAAZANIAH(ja-az'a-ni'ah), (Heb. ^''^■>l?'l, yah-
az-an-yaw' , Jehovah hears).
1. The son of a Maachathite (2 Kings xxv:23;
Jer. xl:8). (B. C. 588.)
3. A chief man of the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv:
3). (B. C. 600.)
3. A wicked prince of Judah against whom
Ezekiel was told to prophesy (Ezek. xi:i). (B. C.
594)
4. Son of Shaphan ; seen by Ezekiel in a vision
worshiping in the "chambers of imagery" (Ezek.
viii:ii). (B. C. 593)
JAAZEB (ja-a'zer or ja'zer), (Heb. '^"W-, yah-
az-ayr' , helpful. See Jazer.
JAAZIAH (ja'a-zi'ah), (Heb. ^'^V^~, yah-az-ee-
yaw'hoo, whom Jehovah consoles), a third son of
Merari in the days of Solomon (l Chron. xxiv:26,
27), B.C. loio. ,
JAAZIEL (ja-a'zi-el), (Heb. '??'.'-^-. yah-az-ee-
ile', comforted by God), one of the Levites of the
3.!cond order in the time of David (l Chron. xv;i8),
B C. 1015,
JABAL (ja'bal), (Heb. -5^, -^aw-bawV , a
stream).
A descendant of Cain, son of Lamech and
Adah, who is described in Gen. iv ;20, as 'the fa-
ther of such as dwell in tents, and have cattle.'
This obviously means that Jabal was the first who
adopted that nomade life which is still followed
by numerous Arabian and Tartar tribes in Asia.
JABBOK (jab'bok), (Heb. P^t, yaw-boke' , pour-
ing forth).
One of the streams which traverse the country
east of the Jordan, and which, after a course
nearly from east to west, falls into that river
about thirty miles below the lake of Tiberias. It
seems to rise in the Hauran mountains, and its
whole course may be computed at si.xty-five
miles. It is mentioned in Scripture as the bound-
ary which separated the kingdom of Sihon, king
of the Amorites, from that of Og, king of Bashan
(Josh. xii:2); and it appears afterwards to
have been the boundary between the tribe of Reu-
ben and the half tribe of Manasseh. The earliest
notice of it occurs in Gen. xxxii :22.
The Jabbok now bears the name of Zerka, the
blue fiver. In its passage westward across the
plains, it more than once passes underground ;
and in summer the upper portion of its channel
becomes dry. But on entering the more hilly
country immediately east of the Jordan, it re-
ceives tribute from several springs, which main-
tain it as a perennial stream, although very low
jabbok.
in summer. The water is pleasant, and the bed
being rocky the stream runs clear (Burckhardt's
Syria, p. 347; Irby and Mangles, Travels, p.
319; Buckingham, Palestine, ii. log; Lindsay, ii.
123).
JABESH (ja'besh), (Heb. ^^'^^,ya'W-l>asAe',dry,
parched). , , ... ,
1. Father of Shallum, the fifteenth kmg of
Israel (2 Kings xv:lo). (B. C. before 770.)
lABESH-GILEAD
895
JACOB
3. A short form of Jabesh-Gilead (j Sam. xi :
3. 9. 10; x.\xi:i2, 13; I Chron. x:i2).
JABESH-GILSAI) ( ja'besh-gll'e-ad), (Heb.
~*7^ "'■?* ,yaw-bashe' ghil-avjd , Jabeshof Gilcad),
a town beyond the Jordan, in the land of Gilcad.
Jabesh belonged to the half tribe of Manas.seh,
and was sacked by the Israelites for refusing
10 join in the war against Benjamin (Judg. -xxi :
8). It is chiefly memorable for the siege it sus-
tained from Nahash, king of the Ammonites,
the raising of which formed the first exploit of
the newly-elected King Saul, and procured his
confirmation in the sovereignly. The inhabitants
had agreed to surrender, and to have their right
eyes put out' (to incapacitate them from military
service), but were allowed seven days to ratify
the treaty. In the meantime Saul collected a
large army, and came to their relief (i Sam. xi).
This service was gratefully remembered by the
Jabeshites ; and, about forty years after, when
the dead bodies of Saul and his sons were gib-
beted on the walls of Bethshan, on the other side
of the river, they made a forced march by night,
took away the bodies, and gave them honorable
burial (i Sam. xxxi).
Jabesh still existed as a town in the time of
Eusebius, who places it six miles from Pella
towards Gerasa ; but the knowledge of the site is
row lost, unless we accept the conclusion of
Mr. Buckingham, who thinks it may be found in
a place called Jehaz or Jejaz, marked by ruins
upon a hill, in a spot not far from which, accord-
ing to the above indications, Jabesh must have
been situated (Travels, ii. 130-134). Robinson
(Bih. Res. p. 320) supposes it to be the ruins of
ed-Deir in the Wady Yabes.
JABEZ O'a'bez), (Heb. Y??!, yah-bayts', who
causes sorrow, possibly a high place).
1. A town of Judah where the families of the
scribes dwelt (i Chron. ii:ss).
2. The head of a family of Judah (l Chron.
iv:9, 10). (B. C. 1444)
JABIN (ja'bin), (Heb. T^l,, yaw-been' , discemer,
intelligent).
1. A king of Razor, and one of the most pow-
erful of all the princes who reigned in Canaan
when it was invaded by the Israelites. His do-
minion seems to have extended over all the north
part of the country; and after the ruin of the
league formed against the Hebrews in the south
by Adonizedek, king of Jerusalem, he assembled
his tributaries near the waters of Merom (the
lake Huleh), and called all the people to arms.
This coalition was destroyed, as the one in the
south had been, and Jabin himself perished in
the sack of Hazor, his capital. ( B. C. about 1169.)
This prince was the last powerful enemy with
whom Joshua combated, and his overthrow
seems to have been regarded as the crowning act
in the conquest of the Promised Land (Josh, xi:
1-14).
2. King of Hazor, and probably descended
from the preceding. It appears that during one
of the servitudes of the Israelites, probably when
they lay under the yoke of Cushan or Eglon, the
kingdom of Hazor was reconstructed. The nar-
rative gives to this second Jabin even the title of
'king of Canaan ;' and this, with the possession of
900 iron-armed war-chariots, implies unusual
power and extent of dominion. The iniquities of
the Israelites having lost them the Divine pro-
tection, Jabin gained the mastery over them ; and,
stimulated bv the remembrance of ancient wrongs.
oppressed them heavily for twenty years. From
this thraldom they were relieved \\ the great vic-
tory won by Barak in the plain of Esdraelon, over
the hosts of Jabin, commanded by Sisera, one of
the most renowned generals of those times, B. C.
1285. The well-compacted powrr of the king of
Hazor was not yet, however, entirely broken. The
war was still prolonged for a time, but ended
in the entire ruin of Jabin, and the subjugation
of his territories by the Israelites (Judg. iv.)
This is the Jabin whose name occurs in Ps.
Ix.xxiii .().
JABNEEL (jab'ne-el),(Heb. '*<t?- vab-neh-aW .
built of God).
1- A town on tlie boundary of Judah near the
sea (Josh. xv:ii) ; probably the same as Jarneh
which see).
2. A city on the border of Naphtali, called
"the village by the sea" Josh, xix :33. Site not
identified.
JABNEH (jab'neh), (Heb. '^.<?-, yab-neh' , a
building).
A Philistine town between Joppa and Ashdod
(2 Chron. xxvi:6), taken by Uzziah. Its site is
probably marked by the modern Yebna, a village
about twelve miles distant from Jaffa ; in a fine
open plain, surrounded by hills and covered with
herbage. Northeast of Yebna is a lofty hill, from
which is an extensive and pleasing view of Ramla,
distant about five miles. On sloping hills of easy
ascent, by which the plains are bordered, Yebna,
Ekron, Ashdod, and Ashkalon were in sight.
JACHAN (ja'kan), (Heb. I??!, yah-kawn' .
troublesome), the chief of a family o( Gad
(I Chron. v:l3), B.C. 1 100.
JACHIN (ja'kin). (Heb.!"?^, yaw-keen', he shall
establish).
!• A son of Simeon (Gen. xlvi:lo; Exod. vi :
15) and founder of the Jachinites (Num. xxvi :
12). (B. C. 1700.)
2. The name of one of the brazen pillars in
Solomon's temple (l Kmgs vii;2i;2Chron. iii:i7).
3. A priest of Jerusalem after the captivity (1
Chron. ix:io; Neh. xi:io). (B. C. 445.)
4. The head of the family of one of the sons
of Aaron (i Chron. xxiv:i7). (B. C. 1015.)
JACHINITES (ja'kin-ites), {Heb. *"?;, yaw-
kee-nce' , see aliovc), a family founded by Jachin.
Simeon's son (Num. xxvi:i2). (See Jachin, i).
JACINTH (ja'smth), (Gr. Wkh-Sos, hoo-ak' en-thos,
hyacinth), a precious stone (Rev. xxi:2o); but prop-
erly a flower (Rev. ix:i7) of deep purple color.
(See Leshem.)
JACOB (ja'kob), (Heb. 2pl";i, yah-ak-obe' , heel-
catcher, i. e., supplanter).
I- The second son of Isaac by his wife Re-
bekah. Her conceiving is stated to have been su-
pernatural. Led by peculiar feelings she went to
inquire of the Lord, and was informed that she
was indeed with child, that her offspring should
be the founders of two nations, and that' the elder
should serve the younger : circumstances which
ought to be borne in mind when a judgment is
pronounced on her conduct in aiding Jacob to se-
cure the privileges of birth to the exclusion of
his elder brother Esau- conduct which these
facts, connected with the birth of the boys, may
well have influenced.
I. Personal History. As the boys grew,
Jacob appeared to partake of the gentle, quiet
and retiring character of his father, and was
accordingly led to prefer the tranquil safety and
JACOB
JACOB
pleasing occupations of a shepherd's life to the
bold and daring enterprises of the hunter, for
which Esau had an irresistible predilection. Jacob,
therefore, passed his days in or near the paternal
tent, simple and unpretending in his manner of
life, and finding in the flocks and herds which
he kept, images and emotions which both filled
and satisfied his heart. His domestic habits and
atfections seem to have cooperated with the re-
markable events that attended his birth, in win-
ning for him the peculiar regard and undisguised
preference of his mother, who probably in this
merely yielded to impressions which she could
scarcely account for, much less define, and who
had not even a fairvt conception of the magnitude
of influence io which her predilection was likely
to rise, and the sad consequences to which it
could hardly fail to lead.
(1) Buys Esau's Birthright. That selfishness,
and a prudence which approached to cunning, had
a seat in the heart of the youth Jacob, appears
but too plain in his dealing with Esau, when he
exacted from a famishing brother so large a
price for a mess of pottage as the surrender
of his birthright. Nor does the simple narra-
tive of the Bible afford grounds by which this
act can be well extenuated. Esau asks for food,
alleging as his reason, 'for I am faint.' Jacob,
unlike both a youth and a brother, answers, 'Sell
me this day thy birthright.' What could Esau
do? 'Behold,' he replies, 'I am at the point to
die, and what profit (if by retaining my birth-
right I lose my life) shall this birthright do
me?' Determined to have a safe bargain, the
prudent Jacob, before he gave the needed refresh-
ment, adds, 'Swear to me this day.' The oath
was given, the food eaten, and Esau 'ivcnt his
way' leaving a home where he had received so
sorry a welcome.
The leaning which his mother had in favor of
Jacob would naturally be augmentvid by the con-
duct of Esau in marrying, doubtless contrary to
his parents' wishes, two Hittite women, who are
recorded to have been a grief of mind unto Isaac
and to Rebekah.
(2) Secures Isaac's Blessing. Circumstances
thus prepared the way for procuring the transfer
of the birthright, when Isaac, being now old, pro-
ceeded to take steps to pronounce the irrevocable
blessing which acted with all the force of a mod-
ern testamentary bequest. Tliis blessing, then, it
was essential that Jacob should receive in prefer-
ence to Esau. Here Rebekah appears the chief
agent ; Jacob is a mere instrument in her hands.
Isaac directs Esau to procure him some venison.
This Rebekah hears, and urges her reluctant fa-
vorite to personate his elder brother. Jacob sug-
gests difficulties ; they are met by Rebekah, who
is ready to incur any personal danger so that
her object be gained. Her voice is obeyed, the
venison is brought, Jacob is equipped for the
deceit; he helps out his fraud by direct false-
hood, and the old man, whose senses are now
failing, is at last with difficulty deceived. It
cannot be denied that this is a most reprehensi-
ble transaction, and presents a truly painful
picture ; in which a mother conspires with one son
in order to cheat her aged husband, with a view
to deprive another son of his rightful inheritance.
Justification is here impossible; but it should
not be forgotten in the estimate we form that
there was a promise in favor of Jacob; that
Jacob's qualities had endeared him to his mother;
and that the prospect which arose was dark to
her and threatening when she saw the neglected
Esau at the head of the house, and his hateful
wives assuming command over herself.
(3) Jacob's Departure. Punishment in this
world often follows close upon the heels of trans-
gression. Fear seized the guilty Jacob, who is
sent by his father, at the suggestion of Re-
bekah, to the original seat of the family, in order
that he might find a wife among his cousins,
the daughters of his mother's brother, Laban the
Syrian. Before he is dismissed Jacob again re-
ceives his father's blessing, the object obviously
being to keep alive in the young man's mind
the great promise given to Abraham, and thus to
transmit that influence which, under the aid of
Divine providence, was to end in placing the
family in possession of .the land of Palestine, and
in so doing to make it' 'a multitude of people.'
(4) Dream at Bethel. It appears, from the
language which Jacob employs (Gen. xxviii:i6) in
relation to the dream that he had when he tarried
all night upon a certain plain on his journey east-
ward, that his idea of the Deity was little more
than that of a local god — 'Surely the Lord is in
tliis place, and / knew it not.'
(5) Meets Kachel. Jacob, on coming into the
land of the people of the East, accidentally met
with Rachel, Laban's daughter, to whom, with
true eastern simplicity and politeness, he showed
such courtesy as the duties of pastoral life sug-
gest and admit. And here his gentle and af-
fectionate nature displays itself under the influ-
ence of the bonds of kindred and the fair form
of youth : 'Jacob kissed Rachel, and lifted up his
voice and wept.'
(6) Serves Laban. After he had been with
his uncle the space of a month, Laban inquires
of him what reward he expects for his services.
He asks for the 'beautiful and well-favored Ra-
chel.' His request is granted on condition of a
seven years' service — a. long period truly, but
to Jacob 'they seemed but a few days for the
love he had to her.' When the time was expired,
the crafty Laban availed himself of the customs of
the country, in order to substitute his elder and
'tender-eyed' daughter Leah. In the morning
Jacob found how he had been beguiled ; but La-
ban excused himself, saying, 'It must not be done
in our country, to give the younger before the
firstborn.' Another seven years' service gains
for Jacob the beloved Rachel. Leah, however,
has the compensatory privilege of being the mother
of the firstborn — Reuben. Three other sons suc-
cessively follow, namely, Simeon, Levi, and Judah,
sons of Leah. This fruitfulness was a painful
subject of reflection to the barren Rachel, who
employed language on this occasion that called
forth a reply from her husband which shows
that, mild as was the character of Jacob, it was
by no means wanting in force and energy (Gen.
XXX :2). An arrangement, however, took place,
by which Rachel had children by means of her
maid, Bilhah. of whom Dan and Naphtali were
born. Two other sons — Gad and Asher — were
born to Jacob of Leah's maid, Zilpah. Leah her-
self bare two more sons, namely. Issachar and
Zebulun ; she also bare a daughter, Dinah. At
length Rachel herself bare a son, and she called
his name Joseph.
Most faithfully, and with great success, had
Jacob served his uncle for fourteen years, when
he became desirous of returning to his parents.
At the urgent request of Laban. however, he is
induced to remain. The language employed upon
this occasion (Gen, xx.x:25. sq.) shows that Ja-
cob's character had gained considerably during his
service both in strength and comprehensiveness;
JACOB
897
JACOB
but the means which he employed in order to
make his bargain with his uncle work so as to
enrich himself prove too clearly thai iiis moral
feelings had not undergone an equal improve-
ment, and that the original taint of prudence,
and the sad lessons of his mother in deceit, had
produced some of their natural fruit in his
bosom.
(7) Departs from Laban. The prosperity of
Jacob displeased and grieved Laban, so that a
separation seemed desirable. His wives are ready
to accompany him. Accordingly he set out, with
his family and his property, "to go to Isaac his
father in the land of Canaan.' It was not till
the third day that Laban learned that Jacob had
fled, when he immediately set out in pursuit of
his nephew, and after seven days' journey over-
took him in Mount Gilead. Laban, however, is
divinely warned not to hinder Jacob's return.
Reproach and recrimination ensued. Even a
charge of theft is put forward by Laban, 'Where-
fore hast thou stolen my gods?' In truth, Rachel
had carried ofT certain images which were the
objects of worship. Ignorant of this misdeed,
Jacob boldly called for a search, adding, 'With
whomsoever thou findest thy gods let him not
live.' A crafty woman's cleverness eluded the
keen eye of Laban. Rachel, by an appeal which
one of her sex alone could make, deceived her
father. Thus one sin begets another ; superstition
prompts to theft, and theft necessitates deceit.
Laban's conduct on this occasion called forth
a reply from Jacob, from which it appears that
his service had been most severe, and which also
proves that however this severe service might
have encouraged a certain servility, it had not
prevented the development in Jacob's soul of a
high and energetic spirit, which when roused
could assert its rights and give utterance to senti-
ments just, striking, and forcible, and in the most
poetical phraseology'.
Peace, however, being restored, Laban, on the
ensuing morning, took a friendly, if not an af-
fectionate farewell of his daughters and their
sons, and returned home. Meanwhile Jacob, go-
ing on his way. had to pass near the land of
Seir. in wliich Fs.tu dwell. Remembering his own
conduct and his brother's threat, he was seized
with fear, and sent messengers before in order
to propitiate Esau.
(8) News from Esau. Jacob, informed by his
messengers thai Ksaii came to meet liim willi
four hundred men, justly suspected his intentions
were murderous, and sent off before him a large
present of two hundred and twenty goats, two
hundred and twenty sheep, thirty milk-camels
villi their colls, forty kine, and ten bulls, twenty
she-asses and ten foals. These he divided into
five droves, and ordered the drivers of each to
tell Esau, as they met him, that it was a present
to him. By this means he hoped to appease his
brollier's anger.
(9) ■Wrestling All Night. Immediately pre-
ceding his interview with Esau, Jacob passed
the night in wrestling with 'a man,' who is after-
wards recognized as the angel of God, and who
at length overcame Jacob by touching the hollow
of his thigh. His name also was on this event
changed by the mysterious antagonist into Israel,
'for as a prince hast thou power with God and
with men, and hast prevailed' (Gen. xxxii:28).
It is added that on this account his descendants
abstained from eating the thigh of slaughtered
animals.
(10) Reconciled to Esau. Having crossed the
Jabbok, he divided his family into three divisions,
57
that, if Esau murdered the foremost, the others
might flee. The two handmaids, and their chil-
dren, went foremost ; Leah and hers next ; and
Rachel and Joseph last, that she might have most
opportunity to get otT, if there was danger. Ac-
cording to Jacob's direction, they all, in the
humblest manner, did obeisance to Esau. Partly
moved by this deportment, but chiefly by the hand
of God, Esau met Jacob with the most tender
affection, generously refused his present, because
he had much wealth already ; but Jacob urged
him. because, said he, 'I have everything, and
have had the great happiness to meet thee in
kindness and love.' So Esau accepted of the
present, and they became friends once more.
(11) Departs for Bethel. Having, by the mis-
conduct of Hamor the Hivite and the hardy valor
of his sons, been involved in danger from the
natives of Shechcm in Canaan, Jacob is divinely
directed, and under the Divine protection pro-
ceeds to Bethel, where he is to 'make an altar
unto God that appeared unto thee when thou
fleddest from the face of Esau thy brother.'
Obedient to the Divine command, he first puri-
fies his family from 'strange gods,' which he hid
under 'the oak which is by Shechem;' after which
God appeared to him again with the important
declaration, 'I am God Almighty,' and renewed
the .Xbrahaniic covenant.
(12) Death of Rachel. While journeying from
Beth-el to Ephrath, his beloved Rachel lost her
life in giving birth to her second son, Benjamin.
At length Jacob came to his father Isaac at
Mamre, the family residence, in time to pay
the last attentions to the aged patriarch.
(13) Loss of Joseph. Not long after this be-
reavement Jacob was robbed of his beloved son
Joseph through the jealousy and bad faith of his
brothers. This loss is the occasion of showing
us how strong were Jacob's paternal feelings ;
for on seeing what appeared to be proofs that
'some evil beast had devoured Joseph,' the old
man 'rent his clothes, and put sackcloth upon
his loins, and mourned for his son many days,
and refused to be comforted.' — 'I will go down
into the grave unto my son mourning' (Gen.
Nxxvii :35).
(14) Egypt. A widely extended famine in-
duced Jacob to send his sons down into Egypt,
where he had heard there was corn, without know-
ing by whose instrumentality. The patriarch,
however, retained his youngest son Benjamin,
'lest mischief should befall him,' as it had be-
fallen Joseph. The young men returned with the
needed supplies of corn. They related, however,
that they had been taken for spies, and that there
was but one way in which they could disprove
the charge, namely, by carrying down Benjamin
to 'the lord of the land.' Tliis Jacob vehemently
refused: 'Me have ye bereaved: Joseph is not,
and Simeon is not, and ye will lake Benjamin;
my son shall not go down with you; if mischief
befall him, then shall ye bring down my gray
hairs with sorrow to the grave' (Gen. xlii:38).
The pressure of the famine, however, at' length
forced Jacob to allow Benjamin to accompany
his brothers on a second visit to Egj'pt ; whence
in due time they brought back to their father the
pleasing intelligence. 'Joseph is yet alive, and he
is governor over all the land of Egypt.' How
naturally is the effect of this on Jacob told, 'and
Jacob's heart fainted, for he believed them not.'
When, however, they had gone into particulars,
he added, 'Enough, Joseph my son is yet alive;
I will go and sec him before I die.'
Encouraged 'in the visions of the night,' Jacob
JACOB
JACOB
goes down I'o Egypt. (B. C. about 2050.) 'And
Joseph made ready his chariot, and went up to
meet Israel his father, to Goshen, and presented
himself unto him; and he fell on his neck, and
wept on his neck a good while (Gen. xlii:46).
And Israel said unto Joseph, Now let me die,
since I have seen thy face, because thou art yet
alive (Gen. xlvi:29). Joseph proceeded to con-
duct his father into the presence of the Egyptian
monarch, when the man of God, with that self
consciousness and dignity which religion gives,
instead of offering slavish adulation, 'blessed
Pharaoh.' Struck with the patriarch's venerable
air, the king asked, 'How old art thou?' What
composure and elevation is there in the reply,
'The days of the years of my pilgrimage are an
hundred and thirty years ; few and evil have
the days of the years of my life been, and have not
attained unto the days of the years of the life
of my fathers in the days of their pilgrimage ;' and
Jacob blessed Pharaoh, and went out from be-
fore Pharaoh tGen. xlvii:8-lo).
Jacob, with his sons, now entered into posses-
sion of some of the best land of Egypt, where
they carried on their pastoral occupations, and
enjoyed a very large share of earthly prosperity.
The aged patriarch, after being strangely tossed
about on a very rough ocean, found at last a
tranquil harbor, where all the best affections of
his nature were gently exercised and largely un-
folded. After a lapse of time Joseph, being in-
formed that his father was sick, went to him,
when 'Israel strengthened himself, and sat up
in his bed.' He acquainted Joseph with the
Divine promise of the land of Canaan which yet
remained to be fulfilled, and took Joseph's sons,
Ephraim and Manasseh, in place of Reuben and
Simeon, whom he had lost.
(15) Death. Then having convened his sons,
the venerable patriarch pronounced on them also
a blessing, which is full of the loftiest thought,
expressed in the most poetical diction, and
adorned by the most vividly descriptive and en-
gaging imagery, showing how deeply religious his
character had become, how freshly it retained its
fervor to the last, and how greatly it had in-
creased in strength, elevation and dignity: — 'And
when Jacob had made an end of commanding
his sons, he gathered up his feet into the bed
and yielded up the ghost, and was gathered unto
his people' (Gen. xlix:33). (B. C. 1846.')
J. R. B.
2. Character. In Jacob may be traced
a combination of the quiet patience of his father
with the acquisitiveness which seems to have
marked his mother's family; and in Esau, as
in Ishmael, the migratory and independent char-
acter of Abraham was developed into the enter-
prising habits of a warlike hunter-chief. Jacob,
whose history occupies a larger space, leaves on
the reader's mind a less favorable impression
than either of the other patriarchs with whom
he is joined in equal honor in the New
Testament (Matt. viii:ii). But in consider-
ing his character we must' bear in mind
that we know not what limits were set
in those days to the knowledge of God
and the sanctifying influence of the Holy
Spirit. A timid, thoughtful boy would acquire
no self-reliance in a secluded home. There was
little scope for the exercise of intelligence, wide
sympathy, generosity, frankness. Growing up a
stranger to the great joys and great sorrows of
natural life — deaths, and wedlock, and births;
inured to caution and restraint in the presence of
a more vigorous brother; secretly stimulated by
a belief that God designed for him some superior
blessing, Jacob was perhaps in a fair way to
become a narrow, selfish, deceitful, disappointed
man. But, after dwelling for more than half a
lifetime in solitude, he is driven from home by
the provoked hostility of his more powerful
brother. Then in deep and bitter sorrow the out-
cast begins life afresh long after youth has passed,
and finds himself brought first of all unexpectedly
into that close personal communion with God
which elevates the soul, and then into that en-
larged intercourse with men which is capable of
drawing out' all the better feelings of human
nature. An unseen world was opened. God re-
vived and renewed to him that slumbering prom-
ise over which he had brooded for threescore
years, since he learned it in childhood from his
mother. Angels conversed with him. Gradually
he felt more and more the watchful care of an
ever present spiritual Father. Face to face he
wrestled with the representative of the Almighty.
And so, even though the moral consequences of
his early transgressions hung about him, and
saddened him with a deep knowledge of all the
evil of treachery and domestic envy, and partial
judgment, and filial disobedience, yet the increas-
ing revelations of God enlightened the old age
of the patriarch ; and at last the timid "sup-
planter," the man of subtle devices, waiting for the
salvation of Jehovah, dies the "soldier of God"
uttering the messages of God to his remote pos-
terity. (Smith, Bib. Diet.)
3. "Deception of Isaac Palliated. Bishop
Home gives the following considerations on this
subject:
The proposition of deceiving Isaac originated
not with Jacob, but with Rebekah. Jacob remon-
strated against it, as likely to bring a curse upon
him, rather than a blessing; nor would consent to
perform his part, till she engaged to take all the
blame on herself: "On me be thy curse, my son;
only obey my voice."
From this speech, and from the earnestness and
solicitude discovered by Rebekah, it may not un-
fairly be presumed that she had some special rea-
son for what she did ; that Isaac was about to take
a wrong step in a concern of great moment, which
ought to be prevented, and could be prevented by
no other means.
The rectitude of Rebekah's judgment seems
evidently to have been recognized and allowed
by Isaac, at the conclusion of the matter. For
though he had blessed Jacob, intending to bless
Esau, yet, as if recollecting himself, he con-
firmed and ratified that blessing in the strongest
terms : "Yea, and he shall be blessed." Still
further — at sending him away, he again repeated
the benediction, in the most solemn and affect-
ing manner: "God give thee the blessing of Abra-
ham !" It is difficult to assign any other reason
why, if so disposed, upon discovering the fraud,
he might not have reversed the proceeding. Nay,
by the kind meeting of the brothers afterwards,
one should be inclined to suppose that Esau him-
self acquiesced at length in the propriety of
what had been done.
If such were the case, Isaac was only deceived
into what was right, and what he himself ac-
knowledged to be so in the conclusion. The de-
ception was like those often practiced by phy-
sicians for the benefit of their patients; and
casuists must decide upon it in the same manner.
The offense of Jacob is certainly alleviated, if
not entirely taken off, by the circumstance of
Rebekah pledging herself to bear the blame: as
the conduct of Rebekah seems justified by that
JACOB'S WELL
899
JAHAZA
of Isaac ratifying and confirming to Jacob the
blessing originally intended for Esau. Upon the
whole, if there were any offense, it was one that
might be forgiven; and if God. notwithstanding,
continued to bless Jacob, he did forgive it. and
had reasons for so doing. (Bp. Home's IVorks,
vol. vi, pp. 477, 478.) (See Rebekah ; Esau;
Marriage.)
II. Jacob, the father of Joseph, the husband
of the Virgin Mary (Matt. 1:15, 16). (B. C. before
40.)
JACOB'S WELL ( ja-kob's wel). Jacob's Well
is not mentioned in the Old Testament, but was
made famous by the meeting of Jesus with the
woman of Samaria at that place, as recorded in
John 4:5-30. It is located near Shechem, other-
wise known as Sychar, the modern Kablus. This
is one of the very few spots in Palestine which
have been closely identified with our Savior's
presence. It is about half a mile north from
Joseph's Tomb at the base of Mt. Gcrizim.
Maundrell, in 1697, found the depth of the well
to be 105 feet, with 15 feet of water. Capt.
Anderson, who visited it in 1866, found it to be
only 75 feet. It may have been twice that depth
originally. When visited by Farrar in 1870, it
was only about 20 feet deep, and was in a state
of hopeless ruin.
JADA (ja'da), (Heb. ^7^, yavj-daw', knowing),
a brother of Shamraai, son of Oiiam and grandson
of Jerahmeel (i Chron. ii;28, 32), B.C. 1450.
JADAU (ja'dau or ja-da'u), (Heb, "^S-, yad-
dav' , knowing), one of the Bene-Nebo who had
taken a strange wife (Ezra x:43), B. C. 457.
JADDUA (jad-du'a), (Heb. ^11!, yad-do&ah),
knowing.
1. A Levite who sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x:2i). (B. C. 445.)
2. Son of Jonathan, the high priest. The last
of the high priests spoken of in the Old Testa-
ment (Neh. xii:ll, 22). (B. C. 520.)
JADON (ja'don), (Heb. P^t, yaw-done' , judge),
called the Meronothite; he assisted in repairing
the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:7), B. C. 445.
JA£L (ja'el), (Heb. "^T,, yaw-ale' ,vi\\A goat).
Wife of Heber, the Kenite. When Sisera, the
general of Jabin, had been defeated, he alighted
from his chariot, hoping to escape best on
foot from the hot pursuit of the victorious
Israelites. On reaching the tents of the nomade
chief, he remembered that there was peace be-
tween his sovereign and the house of Heber,
and therefore applied for the hospitality and
protection to which he was thus entitled. This
request' was very cordially granted by the wife
of the absent chief, who received the vanquished
warrior into the inner part of the tent, where
he could not be discovered by strangers with-
out such an intrusion as eastern customs would
not warrant. She also brought him milk to drink,
when he asked only water; and then covered
him from view, that he might enjoy repose the
more securely. As he slept, a horrid thought
occurred to Jael, which she hastened too promptly
to execute. She took one of ilic tent nails, and
with a mallet, at one fell blow, drove it through
the temples of the sleeping Sisera. (B. C. about
1406.) Soon after, Barak and his people arrived
in pursuit, and were shown the lifeless body of
the man ibey sought (Judg. iv:i7-22). This deed
drew much attention to Jael, and preserved the
camp from molestation by the victors; and there
is no disputing that her act is mentioned with
great praise in the triumphal song wherein De-
borah and Barak celebrated the deliverance of
Israel (Judg. v:24).
It does not seem difficult to understand the
object of Jael in this painful transaction. Her
motives seem to have been entirely prudential,
and, on prudential grounds, the very circum-
stance which renders her act the more odious —
the peace subsisting between the nomade chief
and the king of Hazor — must, to her, have seemed
10 make it the more expedient. She saw that the
Israelites had now the upper hand, and was aware
that, as being in alliance with the oppressors of
Israel, the camp might expect very rough treat-
ment from the pursuing force ; which would be
greatly aggravated if Sisera were found sheltered
within it. This calamity she sought to avert,
and to place the house of Heber in a favorable
position with the victorious party. She probably
justified the act to herself by the consideration
that as Sisera would certainly be taken and slain,
she might as well make a benefit out of his inev-
itable doom as incur utter ruin in the attempt to
protect him. Attempts have been made to vin-
dicate her, because of the usages of ancient war-
fare, of rude times and ferocious manners. There
was not, however, warfare, but peace between the
house of Heber and the prince of Hazor. The
existence of a set of usages in any civilized so-
ciety under which the act of Jael would be
deemed right is hardly conceivable.
JAG UK (ja'gur), (Heb. '^'^^''■„ yaw-goor' , lodging-
place), a town of Southern Judah (Josh. xv:2l),
which remains unidentified.
JAH (jah), (Heb. •'',, ya-wh : Gr. Kirpios, Lat.
dominus. Lord), an abbreviated form of Jehovah
(Ps. lxviii:4). Jah is also used in the construction of
many Hebrew words, and is indicative of some
real or supposed excellency of the object of ap-
plication.
JAHATH (ja'dith). (Heb. I^Q!, yakh'aih, one-
ness, union).
1. A grandson of Gershom, son of Judah (i
Chron. iv:2). (B. C. 1600.)^
2. A descendant of Gershom, son of Levi (i
Chron. vi:20). (B. C. 1450.)
3. A son of Shelomoth, one of the Levite rep-
resentatives of the Kohathite family of Izhab (1
Chron. xxiv:22). (B. C. 1014.)
4. A Levite who helped oversee the repairing of
the Temple (2 Chron. xxxiv:i2). (B. C. 623.)
5. Head of the most numerous house of his
tribe, the son of Shimei, son of Laadan (i
Chron. xxiii:io, il). Possibly the same as 2,
the errors having crept in through transcrip-
tion.
JAHAZ (ja'hSz), (Heb. V!?:, yah'hats, trodden
down, a thrashing floor), a town beyond Jordan
where the decisive battle was fought between the
Israelites and Sihon, king of the Ammonites
(Num. xxi:23; Deut. ii:32; Judg. xi:2o). The city
was assigned to the Merarite Levites from the
tribe of Reuben (Josh. xiii:l8; xxi;36; I Chron.
vi:78). The Babylonian conquerors overran Jahaz,
which is involved in the denunciations uttered in
Jer. xlviii:2i, 34; Is. xv:4. The city was at this
time in the hands of the Moabites.
JAHAZA (ja'ha-za), JAHAZAH (ja'ha-zah)
and JAHZAH (jah'zah), (Josh. xxi:36; Jer. xlviii:
21), other forms of Jahaz (which seel.
j'AHAZIAH
iX)0
JAMBRES AND JANNES
JAHAZIAH (ja'ha-zi'ah). (Heb. 'TJ'?-, yakh-
zc/i-yaw' , vvlunn Jehovah beholds), one of the sons
ji Tikvah, who with others was appointed by Ezra
to determine wliat Jews had taken foreign wives
(E2rax;l5), B. C. 459-
JAHAZIEIi (ja-ha'zi-el), (Heb. '^^''H!, yakh-as-
ce-ale' , beheld by God).
1. One of the heroes who deserted itie cause
of Saul and joined David at Ziklag (l Chron.
xii:4). (B. C. loss.)
2. A priest and trumpet blower with Benaiah
whose duty it was to appear in the rninistrations
before the ark after David had brought ii to
Jerusalem (l Chron. xvi:6). (B. C. 1043.)
3. A Kohathite Levite whose house is enumer-
ated in the time of David (l Chron. xxiii'.ig;
xxiv:23). (B. C. between 1618 and 1014)
4. The son of Zecliariah. a Levite, who was
inspired by the Holy Spirit to uplift Jehoshaphat
by his predictions of decided triumph, when he
was anticipating the coming of a great army of
Moabites, Ammonites, and Mehunims (2 Chron.
xx:l4-l7). (B. C. about 896.)
5. One of the sons of Jahaziel, chief of the
"sons of Shechaniah" who returned from the cap-
tivity with Ezra (Ezra viii:S), (B. C. before 4S9.)
The text here is probably corrupt and should read
"Sons of Zathoe," or "Zathi."
JAHDAI (jah'da-i), (Heb. "^\^'.,yek-(ia7v' ee, Juda-
istic), a father of six sons spoken of in the geneal-
ogy of Caleb (i Chron. ii:47), B. C. before 612,
JAHDIEL (jah'di-el), (Heb. ^^^'^^l, yakh-dee-
ale' , unity of God), one of the heads of the half-
tribe of Manasseh (l Chron. v:24), B. C. 720.
JAHDO (jah'do), (Heb. ""-, yakh-doe' , his
union), a Gadite, son of Buz and father of Je-
shishai (l Chron. v:i4), B. C. between 1093 and 782.
JAHIiEEL (jah'le-el), (Heb. 'M'^T, yakh-leh-
ale' , hoping in God), the third of the three sons of
Zebulun (Gen. xlvi.14; Num. xxvi:26), and the
founder of the family of Jahleelites (B. C. 1700).
The name occurs as Jahziel (i Chron. vii:l3).
JAHLEELITES, THE (jah'le-el-ites), (Heb.
V?< .HIlI, hah-yakh-leh-ay-lee'), the descendants of
]ahli:i;l (Num. xxvi;26).
JAHMAI (jah'raai), (Heb. ^^H-, yakh-mak'ee,
hot), one of the heads of the house of Tola, grand-
son of Issachar (i Chron. vii:2), B. C. about 1658.
JAHZAH (jab'zah), (Heb. ^^V?-, yah-tsaw' , a
place stamped, threshing floor, I Chron. vi:78).
See Jahaz.
JAHZEEL (jah'ze-el), (Heb. ^^VH!, yakh-tseh-
ale' , God apportions), the first-named of the four
sons of Naphtali (Gen. xlvi:24), founder of the
family of the Jahzeelites. The name is mentioned
in I Chron. vii: 13 and spelled Jahziel; Heb. Yack-
tsiel' (B. C. 1856).
JAHZEELITES (jah'ze-el-ites), (Heb. '^>?>'n!.
yakh-tich-a-lee' , Num. xxvi;48). See Jahzeel.
JAHZEBAH (jah'ze-rah), (Heb. '^l?.'?!, yakh-
zay-raw' , led back by God), a priest of Immer (l
Chron. ix:l2), and son of Meshullam, probably the
same as Ahasai (Neh. xi;i3), B. C. ante 536.
JAILER (jal'er), (Or. S((Tiw<t)i\ai, des-mof-00' lax,
guard of a jirisoner), the keeper of Paul and Silas
when imprisoned at Philippi (Acts xvi 123, 27, 36).
JAIK (ja'ir), (Heb. "'"'S^.j/aw-isr^', enlightener).
1. A son of Segub, of the tribe of Manasseh
by his mother, and of Judah by his father. He
appears to have distinguished himself in an ex-
pedition against the kingdom of Bashan, the time
of which is disputed, but may probably be referred
to the last year of the life of Moses (B. C.
1451). It seems to have formed part of the op-
erations connected with the conquest of the coun-
try east of the Jordan. He settled in the part of
Argob bordering on Gilead, where we find twenty-
three villages named collectively Hayoth-jair, or
'Jair's villages' (Num. ,xxxii:4i; Deut. iii:i4;
Josh. xiii:3o; i Chron. ii:22; I Kings iv:l3).
2. Eighth judge of Israel, of Gilead. in Manas-
seh, beyond the Jordan; and therefore, probably
descended from the preceding, with whom, in-
deed, he is sometimes confounded. He ruled twen-
ty-two years, and his opulence is indicated in a
manner characteristic of the age in which he
lived. 'He had thirty sons, that rode on thirty
ass-colts, and they had thirty cities, which are
called Havoth-jair, in the land of Gilead.'
The twenty-three villages of the more ancient
Jair were probably among the thirty which this
Jair possessed (Judg. x:3). (B. C. 1210.)
3. A Benjamite, father of Mordecai, the uncle
of Esther (Esth. ii :5). (B. C. before 518.)
4. (Heb. -Ti yaw-oor, wooded; marg. text
'yaor'). Father of Elhanan, a hero of David's
army who slew Lahmi, Goliath's brother (i
Chron. -XX :s). In the parallel passage (2 Sam.
xxi:i9)- the name is ]aare-oregim, through a
probable error of transcription. (B. C. before
1018.)
JAIBITE (jair-ite), (Vieh.'^~^^'J^,hah-yaw-e-ree'\
an appellation of Ira, chief ruler or priest of David
(2 Sam. xx:26), supposed to have been the de-
scendant of the great Jair of Manasseh (See
Jair, 2.)
JAIHTTS (ja'i-riis), (Gr. Idetpoj, ee-ak'i-ros), a
ruler of the synagogue at Capernaum, whose
daughter Jesus restored to life (Mark v:22; Luke
viii:4I), A. D. 27
JAKAN (ja'kan), (Heb. 15^-, j'a/i-«,5-aw«', wrest-
ler, I Chron. i:42). The name is identical with
Jaakan (which see)
JAKEH (ja'keh), (Heb. '^1?.*, yaw-keh' , obedient,
pious), is taken by some to be the name of the
father of Agur, author of the A[juthegms (Prov.
xxx:i i^.). According to the traditional view it is
supi)osed to be a name of mystical import applied
to David. Others identify Agur with Solomon,
making Jakeh a name of David.
JAEISI (ja'kim), (Heb. ^T', ya-w-keem' , whoii
God lifts up).
1. At the head of the twelfth course of priests
of David (i Chron. xxiv:i2). (B. C. 1014.)
2. A Benjamite, one of the sons of Shimhi
resident at Jerusalem (i Chron. viii:i9). (B. C,
about 588.)
JALON (ja'lon\ (Heb. W'-,, yaw-lone', lodging,
abiding), a son of Ezra mentioned in the geneal-
ogy of Judah (1 Chron. iv:i7), B. C. about 1618.
JAMBRES and JANNES (jam'brSz and jan'-
nez), (Gr. 'laiifSpf/^ xal lavw/s, ee-am-brace' and ee-
an-nuce' , probably of Egyyitian etymology), two of
the Egyptian magicians who attcmjited by their
enchantments to counteract the influence on Pha-
raoh's mind of the miracles wrought by Moses.
JAMES
901
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
Their names occur nowhere in the Hebrew
scriptures, and only once in the New Testament
(2 lim. iii:8). The Apostle Paul became ac-
quainted with them, most probably, from an an-
cient Jewish tradition, or, as Theodoret expresses
it, 'from Jlic utmirittcn teaching of the Jczvs.'
They are found frequently in the Talmudical and
Rabbinical writings, but with some variations.
The Pythagorean philosopher, Numenius, men-
tions these persons in a passage preserved by
Euscbius (Pr<cp. Ilvaiig. ix:8), and by Origen
{c.Ccls.'w. p. 198, Ed. Spencer) ; also Pliny (Hist.
Nat. xxx:i). There was an ancient apocryphal
writing entitled Jauncs and Jamhrcs, which is
referred to by Origen (in Matt. Comment, sec.
117; Opera, v. 29), and by Ambrosiastcr, or Hil-
ary the Deacon ; it was condemned by Pope Ge-
lasius. (Lightfoot's Sermon on lannes and lam-
bres; Works, vii. 89; Lardner's Credibility, pt.
ii. ch. XXXV. in Works, vii. 381.) J. E. R.
JAKES (jamz),(Gr. 'Idicw/Sot, ee-ak'o-bos). Three
persons of this name are mentioned in the New
Testament.
1. James, the Son of Zebedee {Matt, iv:
21) and brother of the evangelist John (Mark v:37).
Their occupation was that of tishcrmen, probably
at IJetlisaida, in partnership with .Simon I'eter
(Luke v:lo). On comparing the account given in
Matt. iv:2l, Mark i:iQ, with that in John i, it would
appear that James and John had been acquainted
with our Lord, and had received him as the Messiah
some time before he called them to attend upon him
statedly — a call with which they immediately com-
plied. Their mother's name was Salome. We
find James, John, and Peter associated on sev-
eral interesting occasions in the Savior's life.
They alone were present at the Transfiguration
(Matt. xvii:i; Mark ix:2; Luke ix:28): at the
restoration to life of Jairus's daughter (IVLirk
V :37 ; Luke viiit.si); and in the garden of
Gethsemane during the agony (Mark xiv:33;
Matt. xxvi:37; Luke xxii:39). With Andrew they
listened in private to our Lord's discourse on the
fall of Jerusalem (Mark xiii:3). James and his
brother appear to have indulged in false notions
of the kingdom of the Messiah, and were led by am-
bitious views to join in the request made to Jesus
by their mother (Matt. xx:20-23; Mark x:35).
Character. From Luke ix 154, we may in-
fer that their temperament was warm and im-
petuous. On account, probably, of their boldness
and energy in discharging their Apostleship, they
received from their Lord the appellation of
Boanerges, or Sons of Thunder (For the various
explanations of this title given by the fathers see
Suiceri, T/ies. Eccles. s. v. Bpom}, and Liicke's
Commcntar, Bonn. 1840; Einleitung, c. i. sec. 2,
p. 17). James was tbe first martyr among the
Apostles. Clement of Alexandria, in a fragment
preserved by Euscbius (Hist. Eccles. i. 9). re-
ports that the officer who conducted James to the
tribunal was so influenced by the bold declaration
of his faith as to embrace the gospel and avow
himself also a Christian; in consequence of which
he was beheaded at the same time.
2. James the Less, the Son of Alpheeus,
one of the twelve A|)0stles (Mark iii:l8; Matt. x:3;
Luke vi;i5; Acts i:i3). His mother's name was
Mary (Matt. xxvii:5(); Mark xvi^oi; in the l.itter
passage he is called James lAe Less (A niKpds, the
Little), either as being younger than Janus the son
of Zebedee, or on account of his hiw stature
(Mark xvi:i; Luke xxiv:io|.
3. James, the "Brother of the Lord(iiSe\<t>it
ToO Kupiov, Gal. i:i9). Whcthcrthis Jai-ie;^ is iden-
tical with the son of AlpliKus is a question which
Dr. Neander pronounces to be the most difficult in
the Apostolic history, and which cannot yet be con-
sidered as decided. We read in Matt. xiii:55, 'Is
not his mother called Mary, and his brethren James,
and Joses, and Simon, and Judas?' and in I\lark vi:
3, 'Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary, and
brother of James and Joses. and of Juda and
Simon? and are not his sisters here with us?'
Those critics who suppose the terms of affinity in
these and parallel passages to be used in the more
lax sense of near relations have remarked that in
Mark xv :40, mention is made of 'Mary, the
mother of James the less and of Joses;' and that
in John xix :2s, it is said, 'there stood by the
cross of Jesus his mother and his mother's sister,
Mary,thewife of Cleophas, and Mary Magdalene;'
they therefore infer that the wife of Cleophas is
the same as the sister of the mother of Jesus,
and. consequently, that James (supposing Cleo-
phas and Alphseus to be the same name, the for-
mer according to the Hebrew, the latter accord-
ing to the Greek orthography) was a first cousin
of our Lord. and. on that account, termed his
brother, and that the other individuals called the
brethren of Jesus stood in the same relation.
Objection. Against this view it has been al-
leged that in several early Christian writers James,
the brother of tha Lord, is distinguished from the
son of Alph.neus ; that the identity of the names
Alphoeus and Cleophas is somewhat uncertain ;
and that it is doubtful whether the words 'his
mother's sister.' in John xix :2s, are to be con-
sidered in apposition with those immediately fol-
lowing. (Lardner's Supplement, ch. xvi.. Works,
vi. p. 174; Neander, History of the Planting, etc.
vol. ii. pp. 9, 22. Eng transl.) Dr. Nicmeyer
enumerates not less than five persons of this name,
by distinguishing the sen of Alphsus from James
the Less, and assuming that the James last men-
tioned in Acts i:i3 was not the brother, but the
father of Judas (Charakteristik der Bibel, Halle,
1830, i. 399) J. E. R.
JAMES, EPISTLE OF. This is called by
Eusebius { Hist Eccles. ii. 23 ) the first of the
Catholic Epistles. As the writer simply styles
himself James, a servant of God and of the Lord
Jesus Christ, doubts have existed, both in ancient
and modern times, respecting its authorship.
1. Author. It has been ascribed to no less
than four different persons, viz., James, the son
of Zebedee; James, the son of Alphaeus (who
were both of the number of the twelve apostles) ;
James, our Lord's brother (Gal. iiig) ; and to an
anonymous author, who assumed the name of
James in order to procure authority to a supposi-
titious writing.
The chief authority for ascribing this epistle to
James the son of Zebedee, is the inscription to the
Syriac manuscript, published by Widmandstadi,
wherein it is termed 'the earliest writing in the
New Testament,' and to an Arabic MS. cited by
Cornelius a Lapide. Isidore of Seville, and other
Spanish writers interested in maintaining that
James traveled into Spain (Calmct's Com-
mentary) : assert that James the son of Ze-
bedee visited in person the 'twelve tribes scat-
tered' through that as well as other countries, and
afterwards addressed to them this epistle. The
Mozarabic liturgy also supports the same view,
and the old Italic, published by Martianay. con-
tains the inscription E.rplicit Epistola Jacobi fit.
Zebedai. But this o]>inii)n has obtained very few
suffrages; for. as Calmet has observed (Prcf. to
his Commentary), it is not credible that so gteat
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
902
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
progress had been made among the dispersed
Jews before the martyrdom of James, which toolt
place at Jerusalem about A. D. 42 ; and if the
author, as has been commonly supposed, alludes
to St. Paul's Epistles to the Romans (A. D. 58)
and Galatians (.A. D. 55), it would be a mani-
fest anachronism to ascribe this epistle to the
son of Zebedee.
The claim to the authorship of the epistle, there-
fore, rests between James 'the Lord's brother,'
and James the son of Alphaeus. In the preceding
article the difficult question, whether these names
do not, in fact, refer to the same person, has been
examined: it suffices, in this place, to state that
no writer who regards James 'the Lord's brother'
as distinct frc-m James the son of Alphxus, has
held the latter to be the author of the epistle : and
therefore, if no claim be advanced for the son of
Zebedee, James 'the brother of the Lord' remains
the only person whom the name at the head of
this epistle could be intended to designate.
Hegesippus, cited by Eusebius {Hist. Ecclcs. ii :
23), acquaints us that James, the brother of Jesus,
who obtained the surname of the Just, governed
the church of Jerusalem along with, or after the
apostles. Eusebius (/. c.) relates that he was the
first who held the episcopate of Jerusalem (Je-
rome says for thirty years) ; and both he and Jo-
sephus {Antiq. xx:g, i) give an account of his
martyrdom. To him, therefore, is the authorship
of an epistle addressed to the Jewish Christians
with good reason ascribed. The other opinion,
which considers the epistle as pseudepigraphical,
is treated below.
2. Authenticity and Canonicity. Eusebius,
as above, observes that 'James, the brother of
Jesus, who is called Christ, is said to have written
the first of the Catholic epistles; but it is to be
observed that it is considered spurious. Not
many of the ancients have mentioned it, nor
that called the Epistle of Jude. . . . Neverthe-
less, we know that these, with the rest, are pub-
licly read in most of the churches.' To the same
effect St. Jerome : — 'St. James, surnamed the
Just, who is called the Lord's brother, is the au-
thor of only one epistle, one of the seven called
Catholic, which, however, is said to have been
published by some other who assumed his name,
although in the progress of time it gradually ac-
quired authority.' Dr. Lardner is of the opinion
that this statement of St. Jerome is a mere repe-
tition of that of Eusebius. It was also rejected in
the fourth century by Theodore of Mopsuestia,
and in the sixth by Cosmas Indicopleustes. (See
Antilegomena.) It is, however, cited by Clem-
ens Romanus in his first or genuine Epistle to the
Corinthians (ch. x., comp. with James ii:2i, 23;
and ch. xi, comp. with James ii :2s, and Heb.
xi:3i). It seems to be alluded to in the Shep-
herd of Hermas, 'Resist the devil, and he will
be confounded and flee from you.' It is also
generally believed to be referred to by Irenaeus
(Htr. iv:i6, 2), 'Abraham believed God, and
it was,' etc. Origen cites it in his Comment, on
John i :xix, iv, 306, calling it, however, the re-
puted epistle of James. (See Antilegomena.)
We have the authority of Cassiodorus for the fact
that Clemens Alexandrinus commented on this
epistle; and it is not only expressly cited by
Ephrem Syrus (0pp. Grac. iii:5i, 'James the
brother of our Lord says "weep and howl," ' to-
gether with other references), but it forms part of
the ancient Syriac version, a work of the second
century, and which contains no other of the Anti-
leRomena, except the Epistle to the Hebrews. But
though 'not quoted expressly by any of the Latia
fathers before the fourth century' (Hug's Intro-
duction), it was, soon after the time of the Coun-
cil of Nice, received both in the eastern and west-
ern churches without any marks of doubt, and
was admitted into the canon along with the other
scriptures by the councils of Hippo and Carthage.
Nor (with the above exceptions) does there ap-
pear to have been a voice raised against it since
that period until the era of the Reformation, when
the ancient doubts were revived by Erasmus (who
maintains that the author was not an apostle,
Annot. in New Testament), Cardinal Cajetan
{Comment. iny Canonic. Epist., 1532), and Luther.
Cajetan observes that 'the salutation is unlike that
of any other of the apostolical salutations, con-
taining nothing of God, of grace, or peace, but
sending greetings after the profane manner, from
which, and his not naming himself an apostle, the
author is rendered uncertain.
(1) Luther's Opinion. We have already re-
ferred to Luther's opinion (See Antilegomena),
who is generally accused of calling this an epistle
of straw. The following are his words : — 'This
epistle in comparison with the writings of John,
Paul, and Peter, is a right strawy epistle {eine
rechte stroherne epist cl), being destitute of an
evangelic character' {Prcef. to New Testament).
And again {Praf. to James and John) : 'This
epistle, although rejected by the ancients, I not-
withstanding praise and esteem, as it teaches no
doctrines of men, and strenuously urges the law
of God. But, to give my opinion frankly, though
without prejudice to any other person, I do not
hold it to be the writing of an apostle — and these
are my, reasons: first, it directly opposes St. Paul
and other scriptures in ascribing justification to
works, saying that Abraham was justified by
works, whereas St. Paul teaches that Abraham
was justified by faith without works; . . . but
this James does nothing but urge on to the law
and its works, and writes so confusedly and un-
connectedly that it appears to me like as if some
good pious man got hold of a number of say-
ings from the apostle's followers, and thus flung
them on paper ; or it is probably written by some
one after the apostle's preaching.' The centuria-
tors of Magdeburg follow the same train of
thought. 'In addition to the argument derived
from the testimony of antiquity, there are other
and by no means obscure indications from which
it may be collected that the authors of these epis-
tles (James and Jude) were not apostles. The
Epistle of James differs not slightly from the
analogy of doctrine, in ascribing justification not
to faith alone, but to works, and calls the law "a
law of liberty," whereas the law "generates to
bondage." . . . Nor is it unlikely that it was
written by some disciple of the apostles at the
close of this (the first) century, or even later'
(Cent. i. I. 2. c. 4 col. 54). The same sentiments
are followed by Cheunits, Brentius, and others
among the Lutherans, and among the Greeks by
Cyril Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople in the
seventeenth century (Lcttres Anecdotes de Cy-
rille Lucar. .'Vmst. 1718, Letter vii. p. 85).
(2) Arrangement by Luther. As Luther
was the first who separated the canonical from
the deutero-canonical or apocryphal books in
the Old Testament (see Deutero-canonical
Books), he also desired to make a similar distinc-
tion in the New (see Antilegomena; Hagiog-
rapha); but the only variation which he ac-
tually adopted consisted in his placing the Epistle
to the Hebrews between the Epistles of John and
James. (See Judas or Jude.)
(3) Arrangement by Calvinists. The Cal-
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
903
JAMINITES, THE
vinists, who never questioned the authority of this
epistle, followed the arrangement of the Council
of Laodicea, in which the Epistle of James ranks
as the first of the Catholic epistles ; while the
Council of Trent followed the order of the
Council of Carthage and of the apostolical can-
ons, viz., four Gospels, Acts, fourteen epistles of
Paul (viz., Romans, i and 2 Corinthians, Gala-
tians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians. i and 2
Thessalonians, i and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon,
Hebrews), i and 2 Peter, i, 2, and 3 John,
James, Jude, Apocalypse. The Lutherans them-
selves soon acquiesced in the decisions of the
universal church in regard to the canon of the
New Testament, until the controversy, which had
long slept, was again revived in Germany in mod-
ern times (De Wettc, Einleilung).
(4) Opinion of De Wette. De Wette main-
tains that although this epistle was anterior to the
Clementine, it could not have been written so
early as the lime of James, principally because
the degree of tranquility and comfort which ap-
pears to have been enjoyed by those to whom
the epistle was addressed, seems to him to be
inconsistent with the state of persecution which
the Christians were subject to during the life-
time of St. James. He conceives it to have been
written by some one who assumed the name of
James in order to give authority to his arguments
against Paul's doctrine of justification.
(5) Opinion of Neander. But no one in
modern times has combated this opinion with
greater success than Neander (History of the
First Planting of the Christian Church, vol. ii).
Neander (whose reasonings will not admit of
abridgment) maintains that there is no discrep-
ancy whatever between St. Paul and St. James ;
that it was not even the design of the latter to op-
pose any misapprehension respecting St. Paul's
doctrine, but that they each addressed different
classes of people from different standpoints,
using the same familiar examples. 'Paul,' he says,
'was obliged to point out to tiiose who placed their
dependence on the justifying power of the works
of the law the futility of such works in reference
to justification, and to demonstrate that justifica-
tion and sanctification could proceed only from
the faith of the gospel : James, on t\\i other hand,
found it necessary to declare to those who im-
agined that they could be justified in God's sight
by faith in the Jewish sense . . . that this
was completely valueless if their course of life
were not conformed to it.' And in another place
he observes that James 'received the new spirit
under the old forms, similarly to many Catholics
who have attained to free evangelical convictions,
and yet have not been able 10 disengage them-
selves from the old ecclesiastical forms; or, like
Luther, when he had already attained a knowledge
of justification by faith, but before he was aware
of the consequences flowing from it as opposed
to the prevalent doctrines of the church.'
3. Age 0/ the Epistle, By those who con-
sider James the Just, bishop of Jerusalem, to
have been the author of this epistle, it is generally
believed to have been written shortly before his
martyrdom, which took place A. D. 62, six years
before the destruction of Jerusalem, whose im-
pending fate is alluded to in chap. v. Neander
fixes its date at a time preceding the separate
formation of Gentile Christian churches, before
the relation of Gentiles and Jews to one another
in the Christian Church had been brought under
discussion, in the period of the first spread of
Christianity in Syria, Cilicia, and the adjacent
regions. It is addressed to Jewish Christians,
the descendants of the twelve tribes ; but the fact
of its being written in Greek exhibits the author's
desire to make it generally available 10 Chris-
tians.
4. Contents and Character. This epistle
commences with consolatidus addressed to the
faithful converts, with exhortations to patience,
humility, and practical piety (ch. i;i-27). Undue
respect to persons is then condemned, and love
enjoined (ch. ii). Erroneous ideas on justification
arc corrected (ii. 1 3-26), the temerity of.new teachers
is repressed (iii:i2); an unbridled tongue is in-
veighed against, and heavenly wisdom contrasted
with a spirit of covetousncss (13-18). Swearing is
Croliibited (v:l2). The efficacy of prayer is proved
y examples, and the unction of the sick by the
])resbyters, together with prayer and mutual confes-
sion, are enjoined as instruments of recovery and
of forgiveness of sins (v:i4-l8). The approach-
ing advent of the Lord is foretold (v:7).
The style of this epistle is close and senten-
tious, and is characterized by Calmet as con-
sisting of 'expressions thrown together without
connection, and adorned by poetical similitudes.'
It has, however, been illustrated by no one with
greater felicity than by the learned and pious
Bishop of Limerick, who has adduced inany ex-
amples from James of poetical parallelism —
which was the principal characteristic of Hebrew
poetry. In reference to one of these passages (iii.
1-12) the bishop observes that 'its topics are so
various, and, at first sight, so unconnected, not to
say incongruous, that it may be thought a rash
undertaking to explore the writer's train of
thought, and to investigate the probable source
and the orderly progress of his ideas — an evidence
at once most brilliant and satisfactory that the
easy flow of a great mind, when concentrated on a
great object, will be found at least as logically
just as it may be poetically beautiful.' 'His gen-
eral manner,' he observes, 'combines the plainest
and most practical good sense with the most vivid
and poetical conception ; the imagery various and
luxuriant; the sentiments chastened and sober;
his images, in truth, are so many analogical argu-
ments, and if, at the first view, we are disposed
to recreate ourselves with the poet, we soon feel
that we must exert our hardier powers to keep
pace with the logician' (Jebb's Sacred Literature).
Seller designates the style of this epistle as 'some-
times sublime and prophetical, nervous, and full
of imagery' (Biblical Hermcneutics, sec. 315;
Wright's translation, p. 548). Wetstein (note to
ch. iv:5) conceives the author to have been fa-
miliar with the book of Wisdom. The eloquence
and persuasiveness of St. James' Epistle, as an
ethical composition, are such as must command
universal admiration. W. W.
JAItUN (ja'min), (Heb. Tr*, yaw-meen' , right
side or hand).
1. Second mentioned of the sons of Simeon (Gen.
xIvi:io; Exod. vi:i5; I Chron. iv:24). (B. C.
1856.)
2. A son of Ram and a great man in the house
of Hezron (i Chron. ii:27). (B. C. 1650.)
3. A priest who assisted Ezra and Nehemiah
in expounding the law (Neh. viii:7). (B. C.
410.)
JAMINITES, THE (ja'min - ites, the), (Heb.
!•'.-"■?, hay -yaw- wee -nee'), the descendants of
jA.\llN, I (Num. xxvi:i2). (See Jamin.)
JAMLECH
JAMLECH (jam'lek), (Heb. Tr-, yam-lake'.
He— i. e. God— makes king), a Simeonite chieftain
(i Chron. iv;34), probably in tlie time of Hezekiah
(see ver. 41), whose family invaded the valley of
Gedor{B.C. 71 1).
JANGLING (jan'gling), (Or. iiaraioXoyia, mat-ah-
yol-og-ee'yah, i Tim. i:6), babbling, vain talking,
and in Tit. i;io the noun, "vain talkers," are those
who utter senseless, empty things.
JANNA (jan'na), (Gr. '\a\iv6., ee-an-nah' ), father
of Melchi and son of Joseph (Luke iii:24), B. C.
200.
JANNES and JAMBRES (jan'nez and jam'-
brez). See Jambres and Jannes.
JANOAH (ja-no'ah), tyiehS'''-'''-,, yaw-7io'akli, or
■^V "t, yaw-no' khaw, quiet).
1. A north Galilee place in the land of Napthali,
taken in the first invasion of Tiglath-Pileser (2
Kings xv:2g). Hunin now stands on the spot
that would answer to the location of the ancient
Jonoah ( Porter, Handbook, Syr. and Pal. p. 444).
2. A place on the boundary of Ephraim (Josh,
xvi :6, 7). It is doubtless the modern Yanim,
about ten miles southeast of jVafi/ils (Neapolis).
(Van de Velde ii. 303; Robinson, iii. 297.)
JANOHAH (ja-no'hah). See Jan(jah, 2.
JANTJM (ja'nura), (Heb. '^'^',j'aa'-«i:£'w', asleep),
a townof Judah (Josh. XV :53), probably not far intra
Hebron. It has not been positively identified,
thougli it may be Jenheh.
JAPHETH (ia'pheth),(Heb. ^S', yeh'feth, wide-
spread).
A son of Noah. In Gen. v:32 he is mentioned
third in order, but some think, from Gen. x :2I
(comp. ix:23; that he was the eldest of Noah's
sons, begotten one hundred years before the flood.
In Gen. x;2, sq., he is called the progenitor of the
extensive tribes in the west (of Europe) and
north (of Asia), of the Armenians, Medes,
Greeks, Thracians, etc. The Arabian traditions
(D'Herbelot, B'M. Orient.) rank Japheth among
the prophets, and enumerate eleven of his soils,
the progenitors of as many Asiatic nations, viz.
(iin or Dshin (Chinese), Seklab (Sla%X)nians),
Manshuge, Gomari, Turk (Turks), Khalage,
Khozar, Ros (Russians), Sussan Gaz, and
Torage. In these traditions he is therefore sim-
ply called progenitor of the Turks and Barbarians.
E. M.
JAPHIA (ja-phi'a), (Heb. ^'?t. yaw-fee' ah,
bright, splendid).
1. King of Lachish at the time the Israelites
conquered Canaan (Josh. x:3). He was one of
the five kings who instigated a confederacy against
Joshua and lost his life at Makedah. (B. C.
1618.)
3. One of fourteen sons born unto David
in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v:is; i Chron. iii 7; xiv:
6). (B. C. after 1000.)
3. A town spoken of as the boundary of Zebu-
Ion as it ascended from Daherath to Japhia (Josh.
xix:l2). Robinson identifies the place with
Ya^a, a mile and a half southwest of Nazareth.
{Researches iii. 194; Porter, Handbook, p. 385.)
JAPHLET (japh'let), (Heb. "-^ ir(i,yaf-late' , whom
God delivers).
A son of Heber, the son of Asher, and called
the father of three sons and a daughter (i Chron.
vii :32, 33). (B. C. between 1856 and 1658.)
JAPHLETI (iaph'le-ti), (Heb. 'V'.';?!, yaf-lay-
tee').
904 JARMUTH
A branch of the descendants of Japhlet seem
to have settled along the boundary between Eph-
raim and Dan (Josh. xvi:3). Others reeard the
name as a trace of one of the original Canaanit-
ish settlements.
JAPHO (ja'pho), (Heb. '2', yaw-fo' , beauty,
Josh. xix:46), otherwise called Joppa, now known
as Ydfa (2 Chron. ii:i6; Ezra iii 7).
"It is 150 stadia from Antipatris, six miles west
of Rama, and ten hours from Jerusalem at' the
west end of the mountain road." (Robt. Young,
LL.D. Concordance.)
JARAH (ja'rah), (Heb. •"''^-, yali-raiv' , honey
I Chron. ix:42), a short form of Jehoadah (which
see).
JAE.EB (ja'reb), ()Ach.'^Ty,yaw-rabe' , adversary),
occurs as a proper name in Hos. v;l3; x:6, where a
" King Jareb " is spoken of as the false refuse and
the final subjugator of the kingdom of Israel.
It is probably a figurative title of the king of
Assyria (Hos. viij; x:6), and from its parallel-
ism with Asshur it is applicable to the country
rather than the ruler himself.
JAKED(ja'red), (Heb. ''l',jr/i';-^rt', descent, low-
ground).
1- An antediluvian patriarch, father of Enoch
(Gen. v: 15-20; i Chron. i:2; Luke iii 137). (B.
C. 3712.) He died at the age of 962. The name
appear; also as Jeked.
2. A man of Judah, apparently the son of Ezra
by Jehudijah. He is signalized as the founder
of (jedor (1 Chron. iv:i8). The A. V. has Jered.
JABESIAH (jare-si'ah), (Heb. "rf^-^-, yah-ar-
esh-yaw' , origin uncertain), one of the Bene-
Jeroham, a chief of the Benjamites resident at
Jerusalem (i Chron. viii:27), B. C. before 588.
JARKA (jar'ha), (Heb. ^^'^T.yar-khaw').
The Egyptian slave of a Hebrew named She-
shan, who married the daughter of his master, and
was. of course, made free. As Sheshan had no
sons, his posterity is traced through this connec-
tion (l Chron. 11:34-41), which is the only one
of the kind mentioned in Scripture. Jarha was
doubtless a proselyte, and the anecdote seems to
belong to the period of the sojourn in Egypt, al-
though it is not easy to see how an Egyptian could
there be slave to an Israelite. (B. C. ante 1658.")
(See Hervey, Genealogy, p. 34.)
Some have supposed that the name of Jarha's
wife was Ahlai (ver. 31: comp. 34), but the mas-
culine form of the word, and the use of Ahlai
(xi:4i) for a man, is opposed to this conclu-
sion.
It has been thought by others that Ahlai was
an error in transcription for Altai (ver. 35) ; still
others that Ahlai was a name given to Jarha on
his incorporation into the family of Sheshan,
while others again suppose that Ahlai was a son
of Sheshan, born after the marriage of his
daughter.
JARIB (ja'rib), (Heb. "^"'-t.yaw-rebe' ,a.Axers;\\\ ).
1. Son of Simeon (l Chron. iv:24); called
Jachin (Gen. xlvi:lo). (See Jachin.)
2. One of the "chief heads sent by Ezra to Je-
rusalem from Babylon to procure a company of
priests" (Ezra viii:i6). (B. C. 4.^,9.)
3. One of the priests of the house of Jeshua
who married a foreign wife, whom Ezra forced
him to put away (Ezr. x:i8). (B. C. 459.)
JARMXTTH (jar'muth), (Heb.^^™"?-. yar-fiiooth' ,
height, hill I.
JAROAH
906
JASHER, BOOK OF
1. A town in the low country of Judah (Josh.
xv:3S); inhabited after the Babylonian captivity
(Neh. xi:29). Its king, Piram, was one of the
five who were put to death at Makedah, for hav-
ing planned to slay Gibeon who had formed an
alliance with Israel (Josh, x 13, 5, 23; xii:ii). It
has been identified with Yannuk, seven miles
northeast of Beit-Jibrin (Porter. Handbook, p.
281).
2. A city of Issachar, given to the Levites of
Gershom; it was a city of refuge (Josh, xxirap),
called Remetli (Josh. xix:2i) and Ramoth (i
Chron. vi73).
JAKOAH ( ja-ro'ah), (Heb. .'^"'t. yaw-ro' akh, new
moon), a chief man of the tribe of Gad resident in
Bashan (I Chron. v:i4), B. C. before 740.
JASHEN (ja'shen), (Heb. "!?", j'flw .j//a«^', sleep-
ing), named in 2 Sam. xxiii;32 as the father of
several of David's bodyguard. He is called
Hashem in the parallel passage (I Chron. xi:34),
B. C. 1000.
JASHEB, BOOK OF (ja'sher, book 6v), (Heb.
"'i'';'! ^??, say'fer hay-yaw-shawr' , the book of the
righteous).
This work is no longer extant, but cited in
Josh. x:i3, and 2 Sam. i:i8. In the former it
is thus introduced: 'And the sun stood still, and
the moon stayed, until the people had avenged
themselves upon their enemies. Is not this writ-
ten in the book of Jasher? So the sun stood still
in the midst of heaven, and hasted not 10 go
down about a whole day,' etc. And in the pas-
sage referred to in 2 Sam. i, it stands thus (ver.
17) : 'And David lamented with this lamentation
over Saul and over Jonathan his son;' (ver. 18) :
'Also he bade them teach the children of Judah
the use of the bow ; behold, it is written in the
book of Jasher.' After which follows the lam-
entation of David. As the word Jasher signifies
just or upright, by which word it is rendered in
the margin of our Bibles, this book has been gen-
erally considered to have been so entitled as con-
taining a history of just men.
(1) A Poetical Work. Bishop Lowth, how-
ever (Prcrlcit. pp. 306. 307), conceives, from the
poetical character of the two passages cited from
it, that it was most probably a collection of na-
tional songs written at various times, and thai
it derived its name from jashar, 'he sang.'
(2) Various Conjectures. It is, at the same
time, by no means an improbable conjecture that
the book was so called from the name of its au-
thor. Joscphus (Antiq. v. i, 17) speaks of the
book of Jasher as one of the 'books laid up in
the temple.' Jerome is of the opinion that the
book of Jasher is no other than the book of Gen-
esis, which is also the opinion of some Jewish
authors. Others suppose it to include the Penta-
teuch (see Calmct's Comment in he). Mr.
Home (Introd. vol. i.) asserts that 'some un-
derstand by the book of Jasher the book of
Judges, as mention is therein made of the stand-
ing still of the sun.' ( ?) From the passage above
referred to, 2 Sam. i :i8— 'Also he bade them teach
the children of Israel the use of the bow' —
it has been supposed by some (see Dr. Adam
Clarke's Comment, in loe.. and Home's Introd.
vol. i.) that the book of Jasher contained a treatise
on archery; but it has been observed (see Par-
ker's translation of De Wette's Introd. vol. i. p.
301) that, according to the ancient mode of cita-
tion, which consisted in referring to some partic-
ular word in the document, 'the bow ' which the
children of Israel were to be taught indicated
the poetical passage from the book of Jasher in
which the 'bow of Jonathan' is mentioned (2
Sam. i:22). De Wette's translator supposes that
our English translators of the Bible were per-
haps ignorant of this manner of reference, and
he instances this as a 'ludicrous instance.'
(3) Rabbinical 'Works. The Book of Jasher
is also the title of two Rabbinical works, one of
which was written by Rabbi Tham in the thir-
teenth century, and printed at Cracow in 1617. It
is a treatise on Jewish laws. The other was
printed in 1625, and contains (see Batolocci's
Bibliothcca Rabbiniea, and Home's Introd. vol.
ii., Bibliogr. App.) some curious but many fab-
ulous narrations ; among other things, that it
was discovered at the destruction of the temple
in possession of an old man, who was found
shut up in some place of concealment, and who
had a great number of Hebrew books. It was
brought to Spain, preserved at Seville, and pub-
lished at Naples.
In the year 1751 there was published in Lon-
don, by a type-founder of Bristol named Jacob
Hive, a book entitled 'The Book of Jasher, with
Testimonies and Notes explanatory of the Text:
to which is prefixed Various Readings: trans-
lated into English from the Hebrews by Alcuin
of Britain, who went a pilgrimage into the Holy
Land.' This book was noticed in the Monthly
Review for December, 1751, which describes it as
a palpable piece of contrivance, intended to im-
pose upon the credulous and ignorant, to sap the
credit of the books of ^JoseS: anc to blacken the
character of Moses himself. The reviewer adds
that 'the Book of Jasher appears to have been
constructed in part fron the apocryphal writings
of the Rabbins ; in part from a cento of various
scraps stolen from the Pentateuch • and in the
remainder from the crazy imaginings of the au-
thor' (Hive). Prefixed to thiE work is a nar-
rative professing to be from the pen of Alcuin
himself, giving a detailed account of ais discovery
of the Hebrew book of Jasher. 'n the city of
Gazna in Persia, during a pilgrimage which he
made from Bristol to th: Holy Land, and of his
translation of the same into English. This
clumsy forgery in modern English, which ap-
peared with the chapters ot the thirteenth cen-
tury, and the numerical versicular divisions of the
sixteenth, having been exnosed at the time of its
appearance, and sunk into well-merited oblivion,
was again revived in 1827, ivlien it was reprinted
at Bristol, and published in -^ondor. as a new dis-
covery of the Book of Jasher. A prospectus of a
second edition of this reprint was issued in 1833
by the editor, who herein styles himself the Rei'.
C. R. Bond. Both Hive's and Bond's editions con-
tain the following pretended testimony to the
value of the work from the celebrated WyclifTc:
'I have read the book of Jasher twice over, and I
much approve of it, as a piece of great antiquity
;'nd curiosity, but I cannot assent that it should
be made a part of the canon of Scripture.'
(4) Sun and Moon Standing Still. The chief
interest connected with the Scriptural book of
Jasher ari.ses from the circumstance that it is
referred to as the authority for the standing still
of the sun and moon. There are few passages in
Biblical literature the explanation of which has
more exercised the skill of commentators than
this celebrated one. We shall here give a brief
account of the most generally received interpre-
tations.
The first is that which maintains that the pas-
sage is to be literally understood. According to
this interpretation, which is the most ancient, the
JASHER, BOOK OF
906
JASPER
sun itself, which was then believed to revolve
round the earth, stayed its course for a day.
Those who take this view argue that the the-
ory of the diurnal motion of the earth, which
has been the generally received one since the time
of Galileo and Copernicus, is inconsistent with
the Scripture narrative. Notwithstanding the
general reception of the Copernican system of
the universe, this view continued to be held by
many divines, Protestant as well as Roman Cath-
olic, and was strenuously maintained by Buddeus
{Hist. Ecclcs. V. T., Halle, 1715, i744. P- 828. ^<l-)
and others in the last century.
But in more recent times the matter has been
explained so as to make it accord with the now
received opinion respecting the earth's motion,
and the Scripture narrative supposed to contain
rather an optical and popular, than a literal ac-
count of what took place on this occasion. So
that it was in reality the earth, and not the sun,
which stood still at the command of Joshua.
Another opinion is that first suggested by Spi-
noza ( Tract. Theolog.-Politic. c. ii. p. 22, and
c. vi.), and afterwards maintained by Le Clerc
(Comment, in loc). that the miracle was pro-
duced by refraction only, causing the sun to ap-
pear above the horizon after its setting, or by
some other atmospherical phenomena, which pro-
duced sufficient light to enable Joshua to pursue
and discomfit his enemies.
(5) Quotation from Poetical Work. Others
believe with Wakefield that the book of Jasher
was a poetical work written to celebrate the won-
derful military achievements of Israel, and that
the author of the book of Joshua merely quoted
this passage without expecting any one to under-
stand it as history.
It will be seen that the sense of ilie narrative in
Joshua is complete without this quotation which
is duly credited to the book of Jasher.^ Neither
historians nor poets expect such descriptions to
be cramped within the bonds of literal interpreta-
tion. We find often similar expressions in mod-
ern verse, and it is frequently noted in the early
poets among the Romans and also the Creeks ; for
instance in the Iliad we find:
"They fought like fire conglob'd; nor hadst thou
deemed
The sun exempt from danger, nor the moon."
Yet no one would suppose that Homer intended
to convey the idea that the sun or moon was in
actual danger of destruction in consequence of the
furious fighting before ihe walls of Troy.
An illustration very similar to that used in the
book of Jasher is found in the Odyssey, where
it is said thai :
"Pallas backward held the rising day.
The wheels of night retarding, to detain
The gay Aurora in the wavy main."
When a historian makes a quotation from a
poetical work and duly credits it as in the case
of Joshua, it is not supposed that' his readers will
interpret a rhetorical hyperbole as literal his-
tory.
(6) Opinion of Maimonides. The last opin-
ion we shall mention is that of the learned Jew
Maimonides {More Nevo. ii. c. 53), viz. that
Joshua only asked of the Almighty to grant that
he might defeat his enemies before the going
down of the sun, and that God heard his prayer,
inasmuch as before the close of day the five kings
with their armies were cut in pieces. Grotius,
while he admitted that there was no difficulty in
the Almighty's arresting the course of the sun,
or making it reappear by refraction, approved
of the explanation of Maimonides, which has
been since that period adopted by many divines,
including Jahn, among the Roman Catholics (who
explains the whole as a sublime poetical trope,
Introd. p. ii. sec. 30), and among orthodox Prot-
estants, by a writer in the Berlin Evangelische
Kirchenzeitung, Nov. 1832, supposed to be the
editor. Professor Hengstenberg (Robinson's Bib-
lical Repository, 1833, vol. iii, p. 791, sq. See Hop-
kins' Plumhlinc Papers, Auburn, 1862, ch. vii.).
JASHOBEAM (ja-sho'be-am),(Heb. ^'^'^^"^yaw
shob-a-ium' , returning people).
1. The chief of David's captains, who came to
him at Ziklag and distinguished himself and his
band by slaying 300 men at one time (i Chron.
xi:ii). He is the same with Adino the Eznite
(2 Sam. xxiii:8), the difference in the Hebrew
being slight. (See Eenite.)
The exploit of breaking through the host of the
Philistines to procure David a draught of water
from the well of Bethlehem is ascribed to the
three chief heroes, and therefore to Jashobeam,
who was the first of the three (2 Sam. xxiii:i3-
17; I Chron. xi:is-i9).
2. A man named among the Korhites who
came to David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:6). (B.
C. 1053.)
3. There is mention of a Jashobeam who com-
manded 24,000, and did duty in David's court in
the month Nisan (i Chron. xxvii:2). He was
the son of Zabdiel ; if, therefore, he was the same
as the first Jashobeam, his patronymic of 'the
Hachmonite' must be referred to his race rather
than to his immediate father.
JASHTJB (jash'ub), (Heb. 312);, yaw-shooV , he
who returns).
1. The son of Issachar, who founded the fam-
ily of the Jashubites (Num. xxvi:24; i Chron.
vii :i) ; called Job (Gen. xlvi :i3). (B. C. 1856).
2. One of the "sons" or former inhabitants of
Bani whom Ezra forced to put away his foreign
wife (Ezra x:29). (B. C. 459.)
JASHXTBI-LEHEM (jash'u-bl-le'hem), (Heb.
"D? "^^Ft, yaw-shoo' be-leh' khem, returner of
bread), apparently a descendant of Shelah (i
Chron. iv:22), B. C. about 995. By others it is sup-
posed to mean Naomi and Ruth, who returned
\ixo\n jashubi"\.o return") to Bethlehem after the
famine. Perhaps, however, it is a place, and, from
its connection with Maresha, situated on the west-
ern side of the tribe.
JASHTTBITES, THE (jash'ub-ites), (Heb.'^fT'
yaw-shoo-hcc'), the descendants of Jashijb, son of
issachar (Num xxvi;24).
JASIEL (ja'si-el), (Heb. ^i^'V]/>l, yaA-as-ee-a/e' ,
God creates). See Jaasiel.
JASON {]a'son),{Gr.'ld(ruv,ee-as'oan,a common
Greek name frequently used by the Hellenizing
Jews for /esus or Joshua), a kinsman of St. Paul
and his host at Thessalonica, where the Jews
forced his house in order to seize the Apostle.
Not finding the Apostle, they dragged Jason
himself and some other converts before the ma-
gistrates, who released them with an admonition
(A. D. 53). Jason appears to have accompanied
the Apostle to Corinth (Acts xvii:s-9; Rom.
xvi :2i).
JASPER (j5s'per).
1. The last stone in the breastplate of the high-
priest, and the first in the foundations of the new
Jerusalem (Exod. xxviii:2o; Rev. xxi;l9).
JATHXIEL
SOT
JEBUS
2. Jasper is an opaque species of quartz, of dif-
ferent colors, often banded or spotted, and sus-
ceptible of a high polish. The dark green kind
is supposed to be the variety of the Bible. From
the apparent inconsistency of Rev. iv:3; xxi:ii
with the opaque character of this stone, it has
been suggested that some transparent gem was
denoted by jasper in the New Testament — per-
haps the diamond or the translucent chalcedony.
JATHNTEL (jath'ni-el), (Hcb.
Vk-:.-!"
yath-
nee-ale' , whom God bestows), fourth son of Mesh-
elemiah, a doorkeeper in the tabernacle (I Chron.
xxvi:2), B. C. 1014.
JATTIR (jSt'tir), (Heb. "'"'i'-, yat-teer' , redun-
dant), one of the nine cities which were given out
of Judah to the Levites of Kohath's family (Josh.
xv:48; xxi;i4; I Chron. vi:57).
It was here David used to meet his friends in
his early wandering days (i Sam. xxx:27). It
was the possible home of his two Ithrite heroes
(2 Sam. xxiii:38; i Chron. xi:40). It may be
identical with the modern Attir, fifteen miles
south of Hebron (Robinson, Researches, ii. 194,
625).
JAVAN (ja'van), (Heb. )^,", yaw-vawn' , effer-
vescing).
1- The fourth son of Japheth (Gen. x:2, 4; I
Chron. i :s, 7). (B. C. post 2514.) The interest
connected with his name arises from his being the
supposed progenitor of the original settlers in
Greece and its isles. (See N-ivtions, Disper-
sion OF.)
2. A country or city of Arabia Felix from
which the Syrians imported stores of iron, cas-
sia, and calamus. The name appears in Is. Ixvi:
19. where it is coupled with Tarshish, Pul, and
Lud, and more particularly with Tubal and the
"isles afar oflF," as representatives of the Gentile
world; again in Ezek. xxvii:i3. where it is cou-
pled with Tubal and Meshech, as carrying on con-
siderable commerce with the Tyrians, who im-
ported from these countries slaves and brazen
vessels; in Dan. viii:2i; x :20 ; xi ;2, in reference
to the Macedonian empire ; and lastly in Zcch. ix :
13, in reference to the Grxco-Syrian empire, where
Alexander is called the king of Javan. Javan
was evidently the name given by the Hebrews to
Greece. Sayce, in his Higher Criticism states that
a Yivana or "Ionian," is referred to in one of
the cuneiform tablets found at Tel-el-Amarna,
which corresponds letter for letter with the He-
brew Javan. (See Tell Amarna, Tablets of.)
JAVELIN (jav'lln). See Arms, Armor.
JAW (ja), (Heb., usually '^), lekh-ee' , ren-
dered jawbone), jaws, Ps. xxii;i5; jaw teeth, Prov.
xxx:i4.
JAZER (Heb. '^W., yah-zare' , I Chron. vi:8l;
xxvi:3i), a city of Gilead on the east of Jordan,
taken from the Amoritcs (Num. ■xxi:32), and
afterwards given to the Levites. It is now in
ruins (Josh. xiii:25, xxi:39; i Chron. vi:8i; Num.
xxxii:i, 3, 35; 2 Sam. xxiv;5). In the time of
David it was occupied by the Hebronites (i Chron.
xxvi:3l).
JAZIZ (ja'ziz), (Heb. "^T^, yaiv-zeez' , prominent),
a Hagaritc who had charge of David's flocks,
probably east of the Jordan (l Chron. xxvii:3i),
B. C. 1014.
JEAIiOXTST ()6I'us-j?), (Heb. ^??i?, /t;«-aw' .
Gr. f'/Xos, (hay' hs], proiicriy, suspicion of a wife's
fidelity (Num. v:l4).
(l) In general it is that particular uneasiness
which arises from the fear tliat some rival may
rob us of the affection of one whom we greatly
love, or suspicion that he has already done it.
The first sort of jealousy is inseparable from love,
before it is in possession of its object; the latter
is unjust, generally mischievous, and always trou-
blesome. (2) It is often used of Jehovah's sensi-
tive regard for the true faith of his people (Exod.
XX :s, etc.; 2 Cor. xi :2) ; used for anger or in-
dignation, or intense interest for the welfare of
another (Ps. lxxix:5; i Cor. x:22; Zech. i:i4;
viii:2). (3) Paul says to the Corinthians that he
is jealous over them with a godly jealousy, that he
might present them as a chaste virgin to Christ
(2 Cor. xi:2). The word, however, is frequently
used to express the vindictive acts of dishon-
ored love. Thus the Psalmist (lxxix:5), repre-
senting the church as smarting under Divine
judgments, occasioned by her infidelity to God,
says, "How long, Lord, shall thy jealousy burn
like fire?" (See also I Cor. x:22).
JEALOTJSY, IMAGE OF (jel'us-y Im-aj),(Heb.
'^?t'I?l' -l??, say'mel hak-kin-aw'], the image seen
by Ezekiel in the vision of the abominations of
Jewish idolatry (Ezek. viii:3, 5).
This was probably the obscene image of Baal
or Asherah, which had been placed in the temple
by Manasseh (2 Kings xxi:7).
JEALOTJSY OFFERING (jel'us-y of'fer-ing),
(Heb. !^"**^iP '"'-f^, min-khath' ken-aw-oth' , liter-
ally, offering of jealousies, an intensive plural).
This was the name of a "meat offering" which
a man, who suspected the fidelity of his wife with-
out being able to prove her supposed guilt, had to
bring to the priest, when she was to be sub-
jected to the ordeal of the bitter waters (Num.
V 111-31). After certain solemn and impressive
preparations and actions the woman was given
the water to drink upon which the dust of the
pavement had been cast and with which a bitter
substance had been mingled. (See Comm. Dr.
Adam Clarke.)
Regarding the Waters of Jealousy Calmet says:
"There is something extremely curious, if not
inexplicable, in the solemn process prescribed in
Num. v:ii-3i for the detection and punishment
of a woman who had excited her husljand's jeal-
ousy, without affording him the ordinary means
of proving her infidelity."
JEAKIM (je'a-rim), (Heb. ^'"'^''„ yeA-aw-reem' ,
forests), a mountain named in specifying the
northern boundary of the inheritance of Judah.
It was a woody mountain, on which the city of
Balah, or Kirjath-jearim, was situated (Josh. xv:lo).
Robinson (AVw Researches p. 154) identifies this
with a ridge seven miles west of Jerusalem.
JEATERAI (je-at'e-rai), (Heb, '^f^^r, yeh-aw-
ther-ah'ee, whom Jehovah leads), a Levite, son of
Zerah, of the family of Gershom (I Chron. vi:2l);
probably the same as Ethni (ver. 41).
JEBERECHTAH (je-ber-e-krah),(Heb. '''T?^??-
yeb-eh-rek-yaw' hoo, whom Jehovah blesses), the
father of a Zechariah whom Isaiah made a witness
of his marriage to the "prophetess" (Is. viii;2),
B. C. about 739.
JEBUS (je'bus), (Heb. ^^^I, yeb-oos' trodden
one of the names of Jerusalem derived from the
ancient Canaanitish city which stood on one
of its southwest hills, afterward called Zion (Josh.
xv:8; xviii:i6, 28; Judg. xix:io; i Chron. xi:4, 5).
(See Jerusalem.)
JEBUSI
908
JEHDEIAH
JEBUSI (je-bu'si), (Heb. "v^^", yeb-oo-see' , the
Jebusite), the name of the city Jehus (Josh. xv:8,
xviii:i6, 28). In the first passage the A. V. renders
it "Jebusite."
JEBUSITE, JEBUSITES (jeb'u-site, jeb'u-
sites), (Hebrew always singular "P^^'A hah-yeb-
00-see' , except that it is "??"'-' in 2 Sam. v:6;
xxiv:i6, 18; I Chron. xxi:i8, and 'P''^' in 2 Sam.
v:8; I Chron. xi:6; Zech. ix:7). The A. V. has
"Jebusi" (Josh. xviii:i6, 28).
This was one of the most powerful of the
nations of Canaan, who settled about Mount Mo-
riah, where they built Jerusalem, and called it
Jebus, after the name of their founder (l Chron.
xi:4). They are recounted among the seven
Canaanitish cities doomed to destruction (Gen.
x:i6; xv:2i; Exod. iii :8, 17; xiii :5 ; Deut. vii :
i; x.x:i7; Josh, iii: 10; i.x:i; -xi i^j xii:8; xxiv :
11; Judg. iii:S; I Kings ix;20; i Chron. i:i4).
Although they were defeated with much
slaughter, and Adonizedek, their king, slain by
Joshua (Josh, x.), they were not wholly subdued,
but were able to retain their city till after his
death (Judg. i:8), and were not entirely dispos-
sessed of it till the time of David (2 Sam. v).
By that time the inveteracy of the enmity between
the Hebrews and such of the original inhabitants
as remained in the land had much abated, and the
rights of private property were respected by the
conquerors. This we discover from the fact that
the site on which the temple afterwards stood be-
longed to a Jebusite named Araunah, from whom
it was purchased by King David, who declined to
accept it as a free gift from the owner (2 Sam.
xxiv:i8-25). This is the last we hear of the
Jebusites.
In the apocryphal .A.cts of the Apostles there
is an allusion 10 a cave in Cyprus "where the race
of the Jebusites formerly dwelt." Also to "a
pious Jebusite, a kinsman of Nero."
JECAMIAH (jek-a-ml'ah), (Heb. '"'t^U^"': yek-am-
yaiv\\\t who assembles the people), the fifth named
son of King Jeconiah (l Chron. iii:l8) born dur-
ing the captivity in Babylon (B. C. after 598). In
I Chron. ii:4i the same name is rendered Jeka-
MTAH.
JECHOLIAH (jek-o-li'ah), (Heb. ""-;?"!, yek-ol-
yati<\ able through Jehovah), wife of KingAmaziah
of Judah and mother of his successor, Uzziah (2
Kings xv:2), B. C. 824-807.
JECHONIAS (jek-o-ni'as), (Q,x.'\ix°''^'>-^,ee-ek-o-
ni'as, the Greek form of the name of King Jeco-
niah, which see (Matt. i:ll, 12).
JECOLIAH (jek-o-li'ah), (Heb. ^'tiT-., yek-ol-
yaw' , able through Jehovah, 2 Chron. xxvi:3). See
Jecholiah.
JECONIAH (jdk'o-Di'ah), (Heb. ^t??", yek-on-
.vote'. Jehovah establishes), a short form of
Jehoiachin. last but one of the kings of Judah (l
Chron. iii: 16, 17; Jer. xxiv:i, x.xvii :20, xxviii :4,
xxix:2: Esth. ii:6). (See Jehoiachin.)
JEDAIAH (je-da'ya), (Heb. '"'"Ti yed-aw-ya-w' ,
praised of Jah).
1. Chief of the second course of priests after
they were divided in the reign of David (l Chron.
xxiv:7). (B. C. 1014)
2. A priest during the time of the high-priest
Jeshua (l Chron. ix:io: Neh. xi:io), and seemed
to belong to Jeshua's family (Ezra ii:36: Neh.
vii :39) ; probably identical with the Jedaiah in
Neh. xii :6, and the Jedaiah whom the prophet
was directed to honor with a wreath (Zech. vi :io.
14). (B. C. 536-520.)
3. A man spoken of in the history of Simeon
as settling in the valley of Gedor; father of
Shimri and ancestor of Ziza (i Chron. iv:37).
(B. C. before 711.)
4. Son of Harumaph and one of the builders of
the wall of Jerusalem after the return from
captivity (Neh. iii:io). (B. C. 446.)
JEDIAEL (je-dl'a-el), (Heb. ^^T'^yed-ee-ah-
ale' , known of God).
1. A patriarch of the tribe of Benjamin. 17,-
200 of whose descendants are enumerated as
warriors in David's census (i Chron. vii :6, 11):
perhaps the same as Ashbel (l Chron. viii:i).
8. A Korhite Levite, son of Meshelemiah, and
doorkeeper of the temple in the reign of David
(l Chron. xxvi:i, 2), (B. C. 1014.)
3. The son of Shimri, a brave chief of Manas-
seh, who marched with David as he went to Zik-
lag (l Chron. xi :45 ; xii:20). (B. C. before
1000.)
JEDIDAH (jed'i-dah), (Heb. ~'T'^?.,,yed-ee-daw' ,
darling or only one), mother of King Josiah, and
daughter of Adaiah; she was the wife of King
Amon (2 Kings xxii:i), B. C. 648-639.
JEDIDIAH (jed'i-di'ah), (Heb. ""T"'', yed-ce-
deh-yaw\ darling of Jehovah), a name bestowed on
David's son Solomon by the Lord, through the
prophet Nathan, in token of divine favor (2 Sam.
xii:25).
JEDUTHUN (jed'u-thiin), (Heb. |1''^^T, yed-00-
thoon' , he who praises), a Levite of Merari's fami-
ly, and one of the four great masters of the temple
music (l Chron. xvi:4i, 42; xxv:i).
This name is also put for his descendants, who
occur later as singers and players on instruments
(2 Chron. xxxv:i5; Neh. xi:i7). In the latter
signification it occurs in the superscriptions to Ps.
xxxix ; Ixii ; Ixxvii; but Aben Ezra supposes it to
denote here the requiring of a song, and Jarchi,
of a musical instrument. (B. C. about 960.)
JEEZEB (je-e'zer), (Heb. "!?"**, ee-eh'zer, help-
less), son of Gilead (Num. xxvi:3o); a short form of
Abiezer (Josh. xvii:2, etc.). (See Abiezer).
JEEZEBITES (je-e'zer-ites), the descendants
of Jeezer (which see) (Num. xxvi:30).
JEGAB-SAHADUTHA (je'gar-sa-ha-du'tha),
(Chald. ^'O^'j.'i ^d', yeg-ar' sah-kad-oo-thau>' ,
heap of testimony), the Aramaean name given by
Laban the Syrian to the heap of stones which he
erected as a memorial of the covenant between
Jacob and himself, while Jacob commemorated the
same by setting up a pillar (Gen. xxxi:47). Gal-
eed. a " witness heap," is given as the Hebrew
equivalent.
JEHALELEEL (je-ha-le'le-el), (Heb. ^*'?f.?"'-
yeh-hal-lel-ale' , praiser of God), a descendant of
Judah, whose own immediate parentage is not
known. Four of his sons are mentioned (l Chron.
iv:l6), B. C. about 1618.
JEHALELEIi (je-hal'e-lel), (Hebrew same as
above), a Merarite Levite, whose son, Azariah, took
part in the restoration of the ternple in the time of
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix:l2), B. C. 719.
JEHDEIAH (jeh-de'iah or -ya), (Heb. '''''""*'
yekli-deh-yaw' Iwo, unity of Jah).
1. A representative of the"sons"of Shubael who
seems to have had charge of one of the divisions
JEHEZEKEL
909
JEHOAHAZ
111 the temple service (i Chron. xxiv:20. (B.
C. 1014.)
2. A Mcronothilc wlio had charge of breeding
stock for David and Soloinon (i Chron. xxvii:
30). (B. C. 1014.)
JEHEZEKEI, (je-hez'e-keI),(Heb. '^^^^^O'^.-.yei-A-
ct-kale' , God will streiigtlicn/.
A priest in David's time who commanded the
twentieth course in the service of the house of
Jehovah (l Chron. xxiv: 16).
JEHIAH (je-hi'ah), (Hcb. J^'O]', yekh-ee-yaw' ,
Jill livLtlu, one of the porters for the ark when
brimglit by David to Jerusalem (i Chron. xv:24);
elsewhere (ver. 18) Jehikl (which see).
JEHIEL (je-hi'el), (Heb. '^^"^'[.yekh-ee-aU' , God
lives).
1. One of the rulers of the house of God who
contributed to the renewal of the temple service
in the lime of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv:8). (B. C.
623.)
2. A Lcvite "of the second degree," appointed
by David to play upon a psaltery on the occasion
of the removal of the ark to Jerusalem (i Chron.
xv:i8, 20; xvi:5), in which former passage he
anil those named with him are called "porters."
Ho is apparently the 1 ehiah of ver. 24. By some
he is identified with the Gershonite head of the
Bene-Laadan in the time of David (xxiii:8), who
had charge of the treasures (xxix:8). If so. his
descendants were called Jchieli, Jehielites (xxvi.
21). (B.C. 982.)
3. "Son of Hachmoni," who seems to have been
royal tutor in the later part of David's reign (I
Chron. xxvii :32). (B. C. about 1030.)
4. In the original text, Jehuel, a Lcvite during
the reign of Hezekiah who assisted him in his
religious reforms (2 Chron. xxix:l4), and had
charge later of the sacred offerings (xxxi:ii).
(B. C. 726.)
5. Father of Obadiah; he with 2l8 males re-
turned from Babylon with Ezra (Ezra viiiig).
(B. C. before 459.)
6. The second named of the six brothers of
Jehoram, and son of King Jehoshaphat (2 Chron.
xxi:2). These brothers were all murdered by
Jehoram upon his accession (ver. 4). (B. C.
850.)
T- Shechaniah's father, of the "sons" of Elam
(Ezra x:2); probably the same as the one who
put away a foreign wife (Ezra x:26). (B. C.
4S9)
8. A priest who also had to put away his
wife (Ezra x:2i). (B. C. 459.)
9. A forefather of Saul the king (i Chron. ix:
35). (B.C. about 1618.)
10. One of the sons of Hotham the Aroerite, of
the guard of David, included in the supplementary
list (I Chron. xi:44). (B. C. 1046.)
JEHIELI (je-hl'e-h), (Heb. '!'«<'''?:, yeU-ee-ay-
lee"), Jehielite (l Chron. xxvi:2I).
JEHIZKIAH (je'hiz-ki'ah), (Heb. HTIH^, J'<rM-
iz-kee-yaw'hoo, same as Hezekiah, whom Jehovah
strengthens), son of .Shallum, one of the heads of
the tribe of Ephraim, who, at the suggestion of
the prophet Oded, insisted on clemency towards
prisoners from Judah (2 Chron. xxviii:i2), B. C.
about 738.
JEHOADAH (je-hO'a-dab), (Heb. ^'^t^':,. yeh-
ho-ad-daw', whom Jehovah adorns), son of Ahaz
and great grandson to Meribbaal, a descendant of
Saul (I Chron. viii:36), called Jarah in the paral-
lel passage (I Chron. ix:42), B. C. after 1037.
JEHOADDAN (jS-ho-5d'dan), (Heb. 1?^'"*, yeh
ho ad- dawn' , Jehovah pleased, same as Jehoadahi,
yueen to King loash, (2 Kings xiv:2; 2 Chron.
XXV ;l), 1!. C. S62-837.
JEHOAHAZ (je-hO'a-haz), (Heb. 'C"?^T, yeh-ho-
aw-khawz' , Jehovah sees).
1. Son of Jehu, king of Israel, who succeeded
his father (B. C. 85O), and reigned seventeen
years (2 Kings x:3S). As he followed the evil
courses of the house of Jeroboam, the Syrians
under Hazael and Bcnhadad were suffered to
prevail over him. Overwhelmed by his calami-
ties, Jehoahaz at length acknowledged the author-
ity of Jehovah over Israel, and humbled himself
before him; in consideration of which a deliverer
was raised up for Israel in the person of Joash,
this king's son, who was enabled to expel the
Syrians and re-establish the affairs of the king-
dom (2 Kings xiii:i-9, 25).
2. Called Shallum, seventeenth king of Judah,
son of Josiah, whose reign began and ended in
the year B. Q. 608. After his father had been
slain in resisting the progress of Pharaoh-necho,
Jehoahaz, who was then twenty-three years of
age, was raised to the throne by the people (2
Kings xxiii:3i, 36). He found the land full of
trouble, but free from idolatry. Instead, how-
ever, of following the excellent example of his
father, Jehoahaz fell into the accustomed crimes
of his predecessors ; and under the encourage-
ments which his example or indifference offered,
the idols soon reappeared. It seems strange that
in a time so short, and which must have been
much occupied in arranging plans for resisting or
pacifying the Egyptian king, he should have been
able to deserve the stigma which the sacred record
has left upon his name. But there is no limit, ex-
cept in the greatness of the Divine power, to the
activity of evil dispositions. The sway of Je-
hoahaz was terminated in three months, when
Pharaoh-necho, on his victorious return from
the Euphrates, thinking it politic to reject a king
not nominated by himself, removed him from the
throne, and set thereon his brother Jehoiakim.
This reign was the shortest in the kingdom of
Judah, although in that of Israel there were sev-
eral shorter. The deposed king was at first taken
as a prisoner to Riblah in Syria, but was eventu-
ally carried to Egypt, where he died (2 Kings
xxiii:3D-35; 2 Chron. xxxvi:i-4; i Chron. iii:
is; Jer. xxii:io-l2).
The anointing of this king has drawn attention
to the defect of his title as the reason for the addi-
tion of that solemn ceremony. It appears from
I Chron. iii: 15 that Josiah had four sons, of
whom Johanan is expressly said 10 have been 'the
firstborn.' But he seems to have died before his
father, as we nowhere find his name historically
mentioned, while those of the other brothers are
familiar to us. If, therefore, he died childless,
and Jehoahaz were the next son, his claim would
have been good. But he was not' the next son.
His name, as Shallum, occurs last of the four in
I Chron. iii: 15; and from the historical notices
in 2 Kings xxiii and 2 Chron. xx.xvi we ascertain
that when Josiah died the ages of the three sur-
viving sons were, Eliakim (Jehoiakim) twenty-
five years, Jehoahaz (Shallum) twemy-three
years, Mattaniah (Zedekiah) ten years; conse-
quently Jehoahaz was preferred by the popular
favor above his elder brother Jehoiakim, and the
anointing, therefore, was doubtless intended to
give to his imperfect' claim the weight of that sol-
emn ceremony. It was .ilso probably suspected
JEHOASH
910
JEHOIAKIM
that, as actually took place, the Egyptian king
would seek to annul a popular election unsanc-
tioned by himself; but as the Egyptians anointed
their own kings, and attached much importance
to the ceremony, the possibility that he would
hesitate more to remove an anointed than an un-
anointed king might afford a further reason for
the anointing of Jehoahaz. (See Anointing.)
Jehoahaz is supposed to be the person who is
designated under the emblem of a young lion
carried in chains to Egypt (Ezek. xix :3. 4).
3. A name of the youngest son of Jehoram (2
Chron. xxi:i7) ; Josiah's father (2 Chron. xxv:
23) ; usually called Ahaziah (which see).
JEHOASH (ie-h5'ash), (Heb. ^T'^*.. yeh-ho-
awj',^', Jehovah given). See Joash.
JEHOHANAN(]e-ho-ha'nan), (Heb. W?'^?,r^^-
ho-khaiu-naivn' , Jehovah favored).
This is at times rendered Johanan and comes
to us as John.
1. A Korhite doorkeeper to the house of Je-
hovah during the reign of David ( i Chron. xxvi :
3). (B. C. 1014.)
2. A man of Judah who commanded 280,000
men under Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xvii:is). In
all probability the same as the father of Ishmael,
the latter of whom assisted Jehoiada in the resto-
ration of Jehoash (2 Chron. xxiii:i). (B. C.
about 910.)
3. One of the Bene-Bebai, whom Ezra forced
to put away his Gentile wife after the captivity
(Ezra x:28). (B. C. 459-)
4. A priest (Neh. xii:i3), who represented the
house of Amariah in the time of Joiakim. (B. C.
about 406.)
5. One of those who took part in the musical
thanksgiving worship at the dedication, by Nehe-
miah, of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii:42).
(B.C. 446.)
JEHOIACHIN (ie-hoi'a-kin),(Heb. ''\T^''^\,yeh-
ho-yaiv-keen' , Jehovah will establish), by contrac-
tion Jeconiah and Coniah, nineteenth king of
Judah, ar d son of Jehoiakim.
(1) Reign. When his father was slain, B. C.
599, the king of Babylon allowed him, as the
rightful heir, to succeed. He was then eighteen
years of age according to 2 Kings xxiv :8 ; but
only eight according to 2 Chron. xxxvi -.9. Many
attempts have been made to reconcile these dates,
the most usual solution being that he had reigned
ten years in conjunction with his father, so that
he was eight when he began his joint reign, but
eighteen when he began to reign alone. There
are, however, difficulties in this view, which, per-
haps, leave it the safest course to conclude that
'eight' in 2 Chron. xxxvi 19 is a corruption of the
text, such as might easily occur from the relation
of the numbers eight and eighteen.
Jehoiachin followed the evil courses which had
already brought so much disaster upon the royal
house of David, and upon the people under its
sway. He seems to have very speedily indicated a
political bias adverse to the interests of the Chal-
dxan empire; for in three months after his ac-
cession we find the generals of Nebuchadnezzar
again laying siege to Jerusalem, according to the
predictions of Jeremiah (xxii:i8). Convinced of
the futility of resistance Jehoiachin went out and
surrendered as soon as Nebuchadnezzar arrived
in person before the city.
(2) Captivity. He was sent away as a
captive to Babylon, with his mother, his
generals, and his troops, together with the
artificers and other inhabitants of Jerusalem,
to the number of ten thousand. Thus ended
an unhappy reign of three months and
ten days. If the Chaldsean king had then put an
end to the show of a monarchy and annexed the
country to his own dominions, the event would
probably have been less unhappy for the nation.
But still adhering to his former policy, he placed
on the throne Mattaniah, the only surviving son
of Josiah, whose name he changed to Zedekiah
(2 Kings xxiv:i-i6; 2 Chron. xxxvi :9, 10; Jer.
xxix 13; xxxvii:i).
(3) Belease. Jehoiachin remained in prison
at Babylon during the lifetime of Nebuchadnez-
zar; but when that prince died, his son, Evil-
merodach, not only released him, but gave him
an honorable seat at his own table, with prece-
dence over all the other dethroned kings who were
kept at Babylon, and an allowance for the sup-
port of his rank (2 Kings xxv:27-30; Jer. lii:3i-
34). To what he owed this favor we are not
told; but the Jewish commentators allege that
Evil-merodach had himself been put into prison
by his father during the last year of his reign,
and had there contracted an intimate friendship
with the deposed king of Judah.
The name of Jeooniah reappears to fix the
epoch of several of the prophecies of Jeremiah
(Jer. xxiv:i), and of the deportation which ter-
minated his reign (Esth. ii:6). In the genealogy
of Christ (Matt. i:ii) he is named as the 'son
of Josias,' his uncle.
JEHOIADA (je-hoi'a-da), (Heb. ^it'^^, yeh-ho-
yaw-daw' , God-known).
1.- A high-priest in the times of Ahaziah and
Athaliah. He is known only from the part which
he took in recovering the throne of Judah for
the young Joash, who had been saved by his wife
Jehoshebah from the massacre by which Athaliah
sought to exterminate the royal line of David.
The particulars of this transaction are related
under other heads. (See Athaliah; Joash.)
Jehoiada manifested much decision and forecast
on this occasion ; and he used for good the great
power which devolved upon him during the mi-
nority of the young king, and the influence which
he continued to enjoy as long as he lived. The
value of this influence is shown by the miscon-
duct and the disorders of the kingdom after his
death. He died B. C. 834, at the age of 130,
and his remains were honored with a place in the
sepulcher of the kings at Jerusalem (2 Chron.
xxiii. xxiv:i6).
2. Father of David's warrior, Benaiah (2 Sam.
viii:i8; xx :23 ; xxiii :20, 22; i Kings i :8, 26,
32, 36, 38, 44 ; ii :2S, 29, 34, 35, 46 ; iv :4 ; I Chron.
xi:22, 24; xviii:i7; xxvii:5). (B. C. before 1046).
3. (Neh. iii:6.) See Joiada.
4. Son of Benaiah, and a chief adviser of David
according to i Chron. xxvii:34; but doubtless
the son of Jehoiada is meant (2.).
5. A second priest, under Seraiah, the high-
priest. He was deposed at the beginning of Zed-
ekiah's reign, and Zephaniah was appointed priest
in his stead (Jer. xxix:2S-29).
JEHOIAKIM (je-hoi'a-krm), (Heb. nTT''""', >-<?.«■
ko-ya7v-keeni' ,]e'aov3.\i established).
1, Name and Family. Jehoiakim was the
second son of Josiah and eighteenth king of Judah.
His name was originally Eliakim but its equiva-
lent, Jehoiakim, was bestowed upon him by Pha-
raoh-necho, the Egyptian king. He was the second
son of Josiah by Ze'budah.the daughter of Pedaiah
of Rumah (2 Kings xxiii-36), bom B. C. 633.
JEHOIAKIM
911
JEHONATHAX
2. Personal History.
(1) Uade King:. On the death of his father the
people raised to the throne his younger brother
Jehoahaz or Shalhim (Jer. xxii:ii) but
three months after, when the Egyptian king re-
turned from the Euphrates, he removed Jehoahaz,
and gave the crown to the rightful heir, Eliakim,
whose name he changed to Jehoiakim. This change
of name often took place in similar circumstances;
and the altered name was in fact the badge of a
tributary prince. Jehoiakim began to reign in
B. C. 6o8, and reigned eleven years. He of course
occupied the position of a subordinate ruler of
the Egyptian empire. However heavy may have
been the Egyptian yoke, Jehoiakim was destined
to pass under one heavier still.
(2) Vassal to Nebuchadnezzar. In the third
year of his reign Jehoiakim, being besieged in
Jerusalem, was forced to submit to Nebuchad-
nezzar, and was by his order laden with chains,
with the intention of sending him captive to
Babylon (2 Chron. xxxvi :6) ; but eventually the
conqueror changed his mind and restored the
crown to him. Many persons, however, of high
family, and some even of the royal blood, were sent
away to Babylon. Among these was Daniel, then
a mere youth. A large proportion of the treasures
and sacred vessels of the temple were also taken
away and deposited in the idol-temple at Babylon
(Dan. i:i, 2). The year following the Egyptians
were defeated upon the Euphrates (Jer. xlvi:2),
and Jehoiakim, when he saw the remains of the
defeated army pass by his territory, could not
but perceive how vain had been that reliance
upon Egypt against which he had been constantly
cautioned by Jeremiah (Jer. xliv:24-3o). In the
same year the prophet caused a collection of
his prophecies to be written out' by his faithful
Baruch, and to be read publicly by him in the
court of the temple.
(3) Destroys the Roll. This coming to the
knowledge of the king, he sent for it and had it
read before him. But he heard not much of the
bitter denunciations with which it was charged,
before he took the roll from the reader, and
after cutting it in pieces threw it into the brasier
which, it being winter, was burning before him
in the hall. The counsel of God against him. how-
ever, stood sure ; a fresh roll was written, with
the addition of a further and most awful de-
nunciation against the king, occasioned by this
foolish and sacrilegious act. 'He shall have none
to sit upon the throne of David ; and his dead
body shall be cast out in the day to the heat and
in the night to the frost' (Jer. xxxvi 130). All this,
however, appears to have made little impression
upon Jehoiakim, who still walked in his old
paths.
(4) Rebellion and Death. After three years
of subjection, Jehoiakim, finding the king of
Babylon fully engaged elsewhere, and deluded by
the Egyptian party in his court, ventured 10 with-
hold his tribute, and thereby to throw off the
Chaldaean yoke (2 Kings xxiv:i). This step,
taken contrary to the earnest' remonstrances of
Jeremiah, was the ruin of Jehoiakim. It might
seem successful for a little, from the Chaldaeans
not then having leisure to attend to the affairs
of this quarter. In due time, however, the land
was invaded by their armies, accompanied by
a vast number o* auxiliaries from the neighbor-
ing countries, the Eaomites, Moabiies, and others,
who were for the most part actuated by a fierce
hatred against the Jewish name and nation. The
events of the war arc not related. Jerusalem
was taken, or rather surrendered on terms, which
Josephus alleges were little heeded by Nebuchad-
nezzar. It is certain that Jehoiakim was slain,
but whether in one of the actions, or, as Josephus
says, after the surrender, we cannot determine
His body remained exposed and unlamentcd with-
out the city, under the circumstances foretold
by the prophet — 'They shall not lament for him,
saying, Ah, my brother! or, Ah, sister! They
shall not lament for him, saying, Ah, lord! or,
Ah, his glory! He shall be buried with the burial
of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates
of Jerusalem' (Jer. xxii:i8, 19; i Chron. iii :
15; 2 Kings xxiii:34-37; xxiv:i7; 2 Chron. xxxvi:
4-8).
It was not the object of Nebuchadnezzar to
destroy altogether a power which, as tributary
to him, formed a serviceable outpost towards
Egypt, which seems to have been the great final
object of all his designs in this quarter. He
therefore still maintained the throne of Judah,
and placed on it Jehoiachin, the son of the late
king. He, however, sent away another body, a
second corps of the nobles and chief persons
of the nation, three thousand in number, among
whom was Ezekiel, afterwards called to prophesy
in the land of his exile.
5. Character. Jehoiakim was from all ac-
counts a vicious and irreligious person (see 2
Kings xxiii:37; xxivig; 2 Chron. xxxvi :$, 8).
The vindictive pursuit and murder of Uri.I.\h
(which see) indicate his cruelty and irreligion
(Jer. xxvi:20-23). His daring impiety is evi-
denced by his treatment of the roll which con-
tained Jeremiah's prophecy. His selfishness is
shown by the large sums he squandered in build-
ing luxurious palaces for himself when his coun-
try was impoverished by the heavy tributes laid
upon it both by Egypt and Babylon (Jer. xxii :
17-19). So bitter was the hatred against him
that, according to the Rabbins, men whispered
that on the dried skin of the corpse, as it lay
naked before all. the name of the demon, Co-
donazer. to whom he had sold himself, ap-
peared stamped in clear Hebrew letters. (See
Mc. & Strong's Cyc; Stanley's His. of the Jew-
ish Church: Geike's Hours zi'ilh the Bible.)
JEHOIABIB (je-hoi'a-rrb), (Heb. ^^V^":. yeh-
ho-yau'-reeb', Jehovah a defender, or Jehovah
impels, or doth contend, i Chron. ix:TO. xxiv:7,
only; elsewhere, both in Hebrew and A. V., the
name is abbreviated to JoiARin). head of the first
twenty-four courses of priests during King David's
time. (B. C. 1014.) Some of his descendants re-
turned from Babylon (Nch. xi:io), ^and his
course is mentioned as returning (Neh. xii :6).
JEHONADAB (je-h6n'a-d5b), (Heb. -li''^',-
yeh-ho-naiv-dawb' , Jehovah impels). 2 Kings x;i5.
See JONADAB.
JEHONATHAN (ie-h6n'a-than). (Heb. V^J'T.
yek-ho-itaii'-tha-wit' , Jehovah-given).
1. Son of Uzziah, who was superintendent of
the treasures and cellars of King David's store-
houses (i Chron. xxvii:2S). (B. C. 1014.)
2. A Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the
people the Law in the cities of Judah (2 C^ron.
xvii:8). (B. C. 910.)
3. A priest (Neh. xii: 18), representing the
family of Shemaiah during the generation after
the return from Babylon (ver. 6). (B. C. after
S36.)
JEHORAM
912
JEHOSHAPHAT
XEHOBAH (je-ho'ram), (Heb. ^7^''''], yeh-ho-
ratum', exalted by Jehovali), contracted form
JORAM (pT'^ , yo-rawm' ).
The eldest son and successor of Jehoshaphat,
and fifth king of Judah, who began to reign
(separately) B. C. 853, at the age of thirty-five
years, and reigned twelve years (2 Kings i:l7;
ii;:i). He was associated with his father in the
later years of his life, but he profited little by
this association.
(1) Marriage and Idolatry. He had unhap-
pily been married to Athaliah, the daughter of
Ahab and Jezebel ; and her influence seems to
have neutralized all the good he might have de-
rived from the example of his father. One of the
first acts of his reign was to put his brothers to
death and seize the valuable appanages which their
father had in his lifetime bestowed upon them.
After this we are not surprised to find him giving
way to the gross idolatries of that new and
strange kind — the Phcjenician — which had been
brought into Israel by Jezebel, and into Judah by
her daughter Athaliah (2 Kings viii:i8, 19), A
prophetic writing from the aged prophet Elijah
produced no good effect upon him (2 Chron. xxi :
12-15). For these atrocities the Lord let forth
his anger against Jehoram and his kingdom.
(2) Wars. The Edomites revolted, and, accord-
ing to old prophecies (Gen. x.\vii:40), shook off
the yoke of Judah. The Philistines on one side,
and the Arabians and Cushites on the other,
also grew bold against a king forsaken of God,
and in repeated invasions spoiled the land of all
its substance ; they even ravaged the royal pal-
aces ; and took away the wives and children of
the king, leaving him only one son. Ahaziah (2
Chron. .x.xii :i).
(3) Sickness and Death. Jehoram was in his
last days afflicted with a frightful disease in his
bowels, which, from the terms employed in describ-
ing it, appears to have been malignant dysentery
in its most shocking and tormenting form. After
a disgraceful reign, and a most painful death,
public opinion inflicted the posthumous dishonor
of refusing him a place in the sepulcher of the
kings.
(4) Character. Jehoram was by far the most
impious and cruel tyrant that had as yet occu-
pied the throne of Judah, ibough he was
rivaled or surpassed by some of his successors
(2 Kings viii:i6-24; 2 Chron. xxi:4). (See
JoR.\M.)
JEHOSHABEATH (je'ho-shab'e-ath), (Heb.
ril%r'."'_ yeh-ho-shab-e-ath' , Jehovah sworn), the
form in which the name of Jehosheb.\ (which
see) is given in 2 Chron. xxii:ii. It is stated
there, but not in Kings, that she was the wife of
Jehoiada, the high-priest (2 Chron. xxii:ii). (See
Jf.hosheb.^.)
JEHOSHAPHAT (je-hosh'a-phit), (Heb. '^? r "'■
veh-ho-s/ia'iii-fawt' Jehovah judged).
/. The fourth king of Judah, and son of Asa,
whom he succeeded at the age of thirty-five,
and reigned twenty-five years.
(1) Fortifies Kingdom and Resists Idolatry.
He commenced his reign by fortifying his king-
dom against Israel; and having thus secured him-
self against surprise from the quarter which gave
most disturbance to him. he proceeded to purge
the land from the idolatries and idolatrous monu-
ments by which it was still tainted. Even the
high places and groves, which former well-dis-
posed kings had suffered to remain, were by th«
zeal of Jehoshaphat in a great measure destroyed.
The chiefs, with priests and Levites, proceeded
from town to town, with the book of the Law
in their hands, instructing the people, and call-
ing back their wandering affections to the religion
of their fathers. This was a beautiful and in-
teresting circumstance in the operations of the
young king.
(2) Enjoys Divine Protection. Jehoshaphat
was too well instructed in the great principles of
the theocracy not to know that his faithful con-
duct had entitled him to expect the Divine pro-
tection. Of that protection he soon had manifest
proofs. At home he enjoyed peace and abundance,
and abroad security and honor. His treasuries
were filled with the 'presents' which the bless-
ing of God upon the people, 'in their basket and
their store,' enabled them to bring. His renown
extended into the neighboring nations, and the
Philistines, as well as the adjoining Arabian tribes,
paid him rich tributes in silver and in cattle. He
was thus enabled to put all his towns in good
condition, to erect fortresses, to organize a power-
ful army, and to raise his kin-dom to a degree
of importance and splendor which it had not en-
joyed since the revolt of the ten tribes.
(3) Alliance with Ahab. The weak and im-
pious Ahab at that time occupied the throne of
Israel ; and Jehoshaphat, having nothing to fear
from his power, sought, or at least did not repel,
an alliance with him. This is alleged to have been
the grand mistake of his reign ; and that it was
such is proved by the consequences.
After a few years we find Jehoshaphat on a
visit to Ahab, in Samaria, being the first time
any of the kings of Israel and Judah had met
in peace. He here experienced a reception worthy
of his greatness ; but Ahab failed not to take
advantage of the occasion, and so worked upon the
weak points of his character as to prevail upon
him to take arms with him against the Syrians,
with whom, hitherto, the kingdom of Judah never
had had any war or occasion of quarrel. How-
ever, Jehoshaphat was not so far infatuated as to
proceed to the war without consulting God, who,
according to the principles of the theocratic gov-
ernment, was the final arbiter of war and peace.
The false prophets of Ahab poured forth ample
promises of success, and one of them, named
Zedekiah, resorting to material symbols, made him
horns of iron, saying. 'Thus saith the Lord, with
these shalt thou smite the Syrians till they be
consumed.' Still Jehoshaphat was not satisfied;
and the answer to his further inquiries extorted
from him a rebuke of the reluctance which Ahab
manifested to call Micah, 'the prophet of the
Lord.' The fearless words of this prophet did not
make the impression upon the king of Judah
which might have been expected ; or. probably,
he then felt himself too deeply bound in honor to
recede. He went to the fatal battle of Ramoih-
Gilead, and there nearly became the victim of a
plan which Ahab had laid for his own safety at
the expense of his too-confiding ally. He per-
suaded Jehoshaphat to appear as king, while he
himself went disguised to the battle. This brought
the heat of the contest around him, as the Syrians
took him for .\hab ; and if they had not in
time discovered their mistake, he would certainly
have been slain. Ahab was killed, and the battle
lost. (See Ah.\b) ; but Jehoshaphat escaped, and
returned to Jerusalem,
(4) Extended His Reforms. On his return
from this imprudent expedition he was met bv
the just reproaches of the prophet Jehu. The best
atonement he could make for this error was by
JEHOSHAPHAT
913
JEHObHAPHAT
the course he aciually took. He resumed his la-
bors in the further extirpation of idolatry, in
the instruction of the people, and the improve-
ment of his realm. He now made a tour of his
kingdom in person, that he might see the or-
dinances of God duly established, and witness
the due execution of his intentions respecting
the instruction of the people in the divine law.
This tour enabled him to discern many defects
in the local administration of justice, which he
then applied himself to remedy. He appointed
magistrates in every city, for the determination
of causes civil and ecclesiastical. Then he estab-
lished a supreme council of justice at Jerusalem,
composed of priests, Levites, and 'the chiefs of
the fathers' ; to which difficult cases were referred
and appeals brought from the provincial tribunals.
This tribunal also was inducted by a weighty
but short charge from the king, whose conduct in
this and other matters places him at the very
head of the monarchs who reigned over Judah
as a separate kingdom.
(5) Revival of Commerce. The activity of
Jehoshaphat's mind was then turned towards the
revival of that inaritime commerce which had
been established by Solomon. The land of Edom
and the ports of the Elanitic Gulf were still under
the power of Judah ; and in them the king pre-
pared a fleet for the voyage to Ophir. Unhappily,
however, he yielded to the wish of the king of
Israel, and allowed him to take part in the en-
terprise. For this the expedition was doomed
of God, and the vessels were wrecked almost as
soon as they quitted port. Instructed by Eliezer,
the prophet, as to the cause of this disaster,
Jehoshaphat equipped a new fleet, and having
this time declined the co-operation bf the king of
Israel, the voyage prospered. The trade was
not', however, prosecuted with any zeal, and was
soon abandoned. (See Commerce.)
In accounting for the disposition of Jehoshaphat
to contract alliances with the king of Israel, we
are to remember that there existed a powerful
tie between the two courts in the marriage of
Jehoshaphat's eldest son with Athaliah.the daugh-
ter of Ahab; and, when we advert to the part in
public affairs which that princess afterwards took,
it may well be conceived that even thus early
she possessed an influence for evil in the court of
Judah.
(6) Alliance with Joram. After the death of
Ahaziah. king of Israel, Joram. his successor,
persuaded Jehoshaphat to join him in an expedi-
tion against Moab. This alliance was, however,
on political grounds, more excusable than the
two former, as the Moabites, who were under
tribute to Israel, might draw into their cause the
Edomites, who were tributary to Judah. Be-
sides, Moab could be invaded with most advantage
from the south, round by the end of the Dead
Sea; and the king of Israel could not gain ac-
cess to them in that quarter but by marching
through the territories of Jehoshaphat. The lat-
ter not only joined Joram with his own army,
but required his tributary, the king of Edom. to
bring his forces into the field. During seven
days' march through the wilderness of Edom,
the army suffered much from want of water ;
and by the time the allies came in sight of the
army of Moab, they were ready to perish from
thirst. In this emergency the pious Jehoshanhat
thought, as usual, of consulting the Lord ; and
hearing that the prophet Elisha was in the camp,
the three kings proceeded lo his tent. For the
sake of Jehoshaphat. and for his sake only, deliv-
«rance was promised; and it came during the
68
ensuing night, in the shape of an abundant supply
of water, which rolled down the exhausted wadies,
and filled the pools and hollow ground. After-
wards Jehoshaphat took his full part in the opera-
tions of the campaign, till the armies were induced
to withdraw in horror, by witnessing the dreadful
act of Mesha, king of Moab, in offering up his
eldest son in sacrifice upon the wall of the town
in which he was shut up.
(7) Renewed Wars. This war kindled an-
other much more dangerous to Jehoshaphat. The
Moabites, being highly exasperated at the part
he had taken against them, turned all their wrath
upon him. They induced their kindred, the Am-
monites, to join them, obtained auxiliaries from
the Syrians, and even drew over the Edomites ;
so that the strength of all the neighboring nations
may be said to have been united for this great
enterprise. The allied forces entered the land of
Judah and encamped at Engedi, near the western
border of the Dead Sea. In this extremity
Jehoshaphat felt that all his defense lay with
God. A solemn fast was held, and the people
repaired from the towns to Jerusalem to seek
help of the Lord. In the presence of the as-
sembled multitude the king, in the court of the
temple, offered up a fervent prayer to God, con-
cluding with — 'O our God. wilt thou not judge
them, for we have no might against this great
company that cometh against us, neither know
we what to do; but our eyes are upon thee.' He
ceased; and in the midst of the silence which
ensued, a voice was raised pronouncing deliver-
ance in the name of the Lord, and telling them
to go out on the morrow to the cliffs over-
looking the camp of the enemy, and see them
all overthrown without a blow from them. The
voice was that of Jahaziel, one of the Levites.
His words came to pass. The allies quarreled
among themselves and destroyed each other ; so
that when the Judahites came the next day they
found their dreaded enemies all dead, and noth-
ing was left for them but to take the rich spoils
of the slain. This done, they returned with
triumphal songs to Jerusalem. This great event
was recognized even by the neighboring nations
as the act of God : and so strong was the im-
pression which it made upon them, that the re-
mainder of the good king's reign was altogether
undisturbed.
(8) Death. His death, however, took place not
very long after this at the age of sixty, after hav-
ing reigned twenty-five years. (B. C. 896.) He
left the kingdom in a prosperous condition to his
eldest son Jehoram, whom he had in the last
years of his life associated with him in the gov-
ernment'.
(9) Character. 'Jehoshaphat, who sought the
Lord with all his heart,' was the character given
to this king by Jehu, when, on that account, he
gave to his grandson an honorable grave (2
Chron. xxii -.g). And this, in fact, was the sum
and substance of his character. The Hebrew an-
nals offer the example of no king who more care-
fully squared all his conduct by the principles of
the theocracy. He kept the Lord always before
his eyes, and was in all things obedient to his
will when made known to him by the prophets.
Few of the kings of Judah manifested so much
zeal for the real welfare of his people, or took
measures so judicious to promote it. His good
talents, the benevolence of his disposition, and
his generally sound judgment are shown not only
in the great measures of domestic policy which
distinguished his reign, but by the manner in
which they were executed. No trace can be found
JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF
914
JEHOVAH
in him of that pride which dishonored some and
ruined others of the kings who preceded and fol-
lowed him. Most of his errors arose from that
dangerous facihty of temper which sometimes led
him to act against the dictates of his naturally
sound judgment, or prevented that judgment from
being fairly exercised.
2. A priest in the time of David who was ap-
pointed to blow the trumpet before the ark when
brought up to Jerusalem (l Chron. xv:24). (B.
C. about 1043.)
3. Son of Ahilud, who was recorder or chron-
icler in the court of David and Solomon (2
Sam. viii:i6; xx:24; I Kings iv :3 ; I Chron.
xviii :i5). (B. C. 1014.)
4. Son of Paruah ; purveyor of the district of
Issachar under Solomon (i Kings iv:i7). (B.
C. about 995.)
5. Father of King Jehu (2 Kings ix:2, 14). (B.
C. 842.)
JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF (je-hosh'a-
phat. val'li «v), (Heb. '^%'^''^\,yeh-ho-shaw-fawt' ,
valley where Jehovah judges), the name now given
to the valley which bounds Jerusalem on the east,
and separates it from the Mount of Olives. (See
Jerusalem).
In Joel iii :2, 12, we read, 'the Lord will gather
all nations in the valley of Jehoshaphat, and plead
with them there.' Many interpreters, Jewish and
Christian, conclude from this that the last judg-
ment is to take place in the above-mentioned
valley. But there is no reason to suppose that
the valley then bore any such name ; and more
discreet interpreters understand the text to de-
note a valley in which some great victory was to
be won, most probably by Nebuchadnezzar, which
should utterly discomfit the ancient enemies of
Israel, and resemble the victory which Jehoshaphat
obtained over the Ammonites, Moabites, and
Edomites (2 Chron. xx:22-26). Others translate
the name Jehoshaphat into God's judgment, and
thus read, 'the valley of God's judgment',' which
is doubtless symbolical, like 'the valley of de-
cision,' i. e. of punishment, in the same chapter.
JEHOSHEBA (je-hosh'e-ba), (Heb. ^W'^^.yeh-
ho-sheh'bah, Jehovah her oath, that is, worshiper
of Jehovah), daughter of Jehoram. sister of Ahaziah,
and aunt of Joash, kings of Judah. The last of
these owed his life to her, and his crown to her
husband, the high-priest Jehoiada (2 Kings xi:l, 3;
2 Chron. xxii:ii). B. C. 842. (See Jehoiada.)
JEHOSHTTA (je-h5sh'u-a}, (Num. xiii:i6). See
Joshua.
JEHOSHTJAH (je-hosh'u-ah), (i Chron. vii:27).
See Joshua.
JEHOVAH (je-ho'vah), [yi.fthF^\yeh-ho-vaw'),
or rather perhaps Jahveh (Heb. '"0'?-, yah-veh' ,
the existing one), according to the reading sug-
gested by Ewald, Havernick, and others — the name
by which God was pleased to make himself known
under the covenant, to tlie ancient Hebrews (Exod.
vi:2, 3). Th ; LX.\ generally render it by 6 KiJpios,
ho koo'ree-os, the Vulgate by Domintis ; and in this
respect they have been followed by the A. V.,
where it is translated "The Lord."
(1) Pronunciation. The true pronunciation
of this name, by which God was known to the
Hebrews, has been entirely lost, the Jews them-
selves scrupulously avoiding every mention of it,
and substituting in its stead one or other of the
words with whose proper vowel points it may
happen to be written. This custom, which had
its origin in reverence, and has almost degen-
erated inio a superstition, was founded upon an
erroneous rendering of Lev. xxiv:i6, from which
it was inferred that the mere utterance of the
name constituted a capital ofifense. In the rab-
binical writings it is distinguished by various
euphemistic expressions; as simply "the name,"
or "the name of four letters" (the Greek tetra-
grammaton) ; "the great and terrible name;" "the
peculiar name," i. e. appropriated to God alone;
"the separate name," i. e. either the name which
is separated or removed from human knowledge,
or, as some render, "the name which has been
interpreted or revealed" (Heb. shcm ham'-mec-
plio-raivsh). The Samaritans followed the same
custom, and in reading the Pentateuch substi-
tuted for Jehovah (^?'?;', shey-maiu) "the name,"
at the same time perpetuating the practice in their
alphabetical poems and later writings.
(2) Meaning. When Moses received his com-
mission to be the deliverer of Israel, the Al-
mighty, who appeared in the burning bush, com-
municated to him the name which he should
give as the credentials of his mission: "And God
said unto Moses, I AM that I AM ('"'vS'? "^W: "■*'?'?,
eh-yeh' a$h-er' eh-yeh'), and he said, Thus
shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I am
hath sent me unto you." That this passage is
intended to indicate the etymology of Jehovah, as
understood by the Hebrews, no one has ventured
to doubt; it is in fact the key to the whole mystery.
(3) When Bevealed. It is distinctly stated in
Exod. vi 13, that to the patriarchs God was not
known by the name Jehovah. If, therefore, this pas-
sage has reference to the first revelation of Jehovah
simply as a name and title of God, there is clearly
a discrepancy which requires to be explained. In
renewing his promise of deliverance from Egypt,
"God spake unto Moses and said unto him, I am
Jehovah ; and I appeared unto Abraham, unto
Isaac, and unto Jacob, by (the name of) God Al-
mighty {El Shaddai, '^i? '^), but by my name
Jehovah was I not known to them." It follows
then that, if the reference were merely to the
name as a name, the passage in question would
prove equally that before this time Elohim was
unknown as an appellation of the Deity, and God
would appear uniformly as El Shaddai in the
patriarchal history. But although it was held by
Theodoret (Qucest. xv. on Ex.) and many of the
Fathers, who have been followed by a long Jist
of moderns, that the name was first made known
by God to Moses, and then introduced by him
among the Israelites, the contrary was main-
tained by Cajetan, Lyranus, Calvin, Rosenmiiller
Hengstenbcrg, and others, who deny that the pas-
sage in Exod. vi alliides to the introduction of
the name. That Jehovah was not a new name
Havernick concludes from Exod. iii;i4, where
"the name of God Jehovah is evidently presup-
posed as already in use, and is only explained,
interpreted, and applied. ... It is certainly
not a new name that' is introduced ; on the con-
trary, the 'I am that I am' would be unintelligi-
ble, if the name itself were not presupposed as
already known. The old name of antiquity, whose
precious significance had been forgotten and neg-
lected by the children of Israel, here as it were
rises again to life, and is again brought home to
the consciousness of the people." (Smith, Bib.
Diet.) (See Elohim; and article on (JoD.)
JEHOVAH J IkEH
915
JEHU
JEHOVAH-JIBEH (je-ho'vah-jf'reh), (Heb.
"ipl. '";""], yeh-ho-vaw' j';>-^/;', Jehovah will see,
L e., provide). Abraham tlius named the altar
on which he had been commanded to offer Isaac,
and wliicli offering he was so miraculously pre-
served from making (Gen. xxii;i4).
JEHOVAH-NISSI (je-ho'vah-nis'si), (Heb. "£5 .
'"'V''' :• yeh-ho-vaw' nees-see' , Jehovah my banner),
the name given by Moses to the altar erected upon
the hill where he sat with uplifted hands during
the successful battle against the Amalekites (Exod.
xvii:i5).
JEHOVAH-SHALOM (je - ho'vah - sha'Iom),
(Heb. 2"V '^■i~^:,yt:/t/to-vaw' sJtaw-lome' ,]e\io\a\\
is peace), the name Gideon gave to the altar
erected in Ophrah. It was called by this name in
memory of the words addressed to him by the Angel
of Jehovah, " I'eace be unto thee" (Judges vi:24).
JEHOVAH-SHAiytM:AH(je-ho'vah-sham'mah),
(Heb. ^.pl '^'?V. yeh-ho-vaiu' shawm' juaw' , Je-
hovah there, or lit. thither), the name of the city
Ezekiel described in his vision (Ezek. xlviii:35).
JEHOZABAD (je-h6z'a-b5d), (Heb. '^^X'^\yeh-
ho-zaw-bavjif , Jehovah endowed).
1. A Levite, son of Obed-edom, a porter of the
temple during the reign of David (i Chron. xxvi :
4, 15; comp. Neh. xii:2S). (B. C. 1014.)
2. A captain of the tribe of Benjamin, com-
manding 180,000 armed men during Jehoshaphat's
lime (2 Chron. xvii:i8). (B. C. about 910.)
3. Son of Shomer, the Moabilish woman who con-
spired against and slew King Joash in his bed
(2 Kings xii:2i; 2 Chron. xxiv:26). (B. C.
837.)
JEHOZADAK (je-h6z'a-dak), (Heb. P'3? ''T, J/f'/i-
^o-/j<7K'-rt(Z«/^', Jehovah makes just), son of Sera-
iah, a high-priest during the reign of Zedekiah (i
Chron. vi;i4, 15).
He succeeded his father in the office of high-
priest (l Chron. vi:i4, 15); but suffered captiv-
ity under Nebuchadnezzar. Elsewhere the name
is JozADAK. (B. C. 588.) He probably died in
exile, as his son Joshua (Jeshua) was the first
high-priest who officiated after the return from
captivity (Hag. i :i, 12, 14; ii:2, 4; Zech. vi:ll).
JEH1J(j5'hu), (Heb. >*'"^',ja)'-/i(Jo', God is).
/. The eleventh king of Israel, and founder of
its fourth dynasty, who began to reign B. C. 884,
and reigned twenty-eight years.
(1) Commander in the Army. Jehu held a
command in the Israelite army posted at Ramoth-
Gilead to hold in check the Syrians, who of late
years had made strenuous efforts to extend their
frontier to the Jordan, and had possessed thcni,-
selves of much of the territory of the Israelites
east of that river (2 Kings ix:s). The contest
was in fact still carried on which had begun many
years before in the reign of Ahab, the present
king's father, who had lost his life in battle be-
fore thi.s very Ramoth-Gilead. Ahaziah, king
of Judah, had taken part with Joram, king o?
Israel, in this war (2 Kings viii:28), and as
the latter had been severely wounded in a re-
cent action, and had gone to Jezreel to be healed
of his wounds, Ahaziah had also gone thither on
a visit of sympathy to him (ver. 29).
In this state of affairs a council of war was
held among the military commanders in camp,
when very unexpectedly one of the disciples of the
prophets, known for such by his garb, appeared
at the door of the tent, and called forth Jehu, de-
claring that he had a message to deliver to him
(2 Kings ix:i-s). He had been sent by Elisha
the prophet, in discharge of a duty which long
before had been confided by the Lord to Elijah
(i Kings xix:i6), and from him had devolved
on his successor.
(2) Anointed King. When itiey were alone
the young man drew forth a horn of oil and
poured it upon Jehu's head, with the words, 'Thus
saith the Lord God of Israel, I have anointed thee
king over the people of the Lord, even over Israel.
And thou shalt smite the house of Ahab thy mas-
ter, that I may avenge the blood of my servants
the prophets, and the blood of all the servants
of the Lord, at the hand of Jezebel' (2 Kings
ix.l-13). Jehu returned to the council, prob-
ably with an altered air, for he was asked what
had been the communication of the young prophet
to him. He told them plainly; and they were
obviously ripe for defection from the house of
Ahab, for they were all delighted at the news, and
taking him in triumph to 'the top of the stairs,"
they spread their mantles beneath his feet, and
proclaimed him king by sound of trumpet in
the presence of all the troops (2 Kings ix:
II, 12).
Jehu was not a man to lose any advantage
through remissness. He immediately entered his
chariot, in order that his presence at Jezreel
should be the first announcement which Joram
could receive of this revolution.
(3) Stays the Two Kings. As soon as the
advance of Jehu and his party was seen in the
distance by the watchmen upon the palace-tower
in Jezreel, two messengers were successively sent
forth to meet him, and were commanded by Jehu
to follow in his rear. But when the watchman
reported that he could now recognize the furious
driving of Jehu, Joram went forth himself to
m-cct him, and was accompanied by the king of
Judah. They met in the field of Naboth, so fatal
to the house of Ahab. The king saluted him with
'Is it peace, Jehu?' and received the answer, 'What
peace, so long as the whoredoms (idolatries) of
thy mother Jezebel and her witchcrafts are so
many?' This completely opened the eyes of Jo-
ram, who exclaimed to the king of Judah, 'There
is treachery, O Ahaziah !' and turned to flee.
But Jehu felt no infirmity of purpose, and knew
that the slightest wavering might be fatal to him.
He therefore drew a bow with his full strength
and sent forth an arrow which passed through
the king's heart. Jehu caused the body to be
thrown back into the field of Naboth, out of
which he had passed in his attempt at fligljt (2
Kings ix: 16-25).
(4) Death of Jezebel. The king of Judah
contrived to escape, but not without a wound, of
which he afterwards died at' Megiddo. (See
Ahaziah.) Jehu then entered the city, whither
the news of this transaction had already pre-
ceded him. As he passed under the walls of the
palace Jezebel herself, studiously arrayed for ef-
fect, appeared at one of the windows, and saluted
him with a question such as might have shaken
a man of weaker nerves, 'Had Zimri peace, who
slew his master?' But Jehu was unmoved, and
instead of answering her, called out, 'Who is on
my side, who?' when several eunuchs made their
appearance at the window, to whom he cried,
'Throw her down !' and immediately this proud
and guilty woman lay a blood-stained corpse in
the road, and was trodden under foot by the
horses. (See Jezebel.) Jehu then went in and
took possession of the palace (2 Kings ix:
30-37).
JEHU
916
JEHU
(5) Destroys House of Ahab. He was now
master of Jszreel, wliicli was, next to Samaria,
the chief town of the kingdom ; but he could not
feel secure while the capital itself was in the
hands of the royal family, and of those who might
be supposed to feel strong attachment to the
house of Ahab. The force of the blow which he
had struck was, however, felt even in Samaria.
When therefore he wrote to the persons in au-
thority there the somewhat ironical but designedly
intimidating counsel, to set up one of the young
princes in Samaria as king and fight out the mat-
ter which lay between them, they sent a very
submissive answer, giving in their adhesion, and
professing their readiness to obey in all things
his commands. A second letter from Jehu tested
this profession in a truly horrid and exceedingly
Oriental manner, requiring them to appear be-
fore him on the morrow, bringing with them the
heads of all the royal princes in Samaria (2
Kings x:i-8). A fallen house meets with little
pity in the East; and when the new king left
his palace the next morning, he found seventy
human heads piled up in two heaps at his gate.
There, in the sight of these heaps, Jehu took oc-
casion to explain his conduct, declaring that he
must be regarded as the appointed minister of
the divine decrees, pronounced long since against
the house of Ahab by the prophets, not one of
whose words should fall to the ground. He then
continued his proscriptions by extcminating in
Jezreel not only all in whose veins the blood of
the condemned race flowed, but also — by a con-
siderable stretch of his commission — those offi-
cers, ministers, and creatures of the late govern-
ment, who, if suffered to live, would most likely
be disturbers of his own reign. He then pro-
ceeded to Samaria. So rapid had been these pro-
ceedings that he met some of the nephews of the
king of Judah, who were going to join their uncle
at Jezreel, and had as yet heard nothing of the
revolution which had taken place. These also
perished under Jehu's now fully-awakened thirst
for blood, to I'he number of forty-two persons
(verse 14).
(6) Destroys Baalites. On the way he took
up into his chariot the pious Jehonadab the Rech-
abite, whose austere virtue and respected char-
acter would, as he felt, go far to hallow his pro-
ceedings in the eyes of the multitude. At Samaria
he continued the extirpation of the persons more
intimately connected with the late government.
This, far from being in any way singiilar, is a
common circumstance in eastern revolutions. But
the great object of Jehu was to exterminate the
ministers and more devoted adherents of Baal,
who had been much encouraged by Jezebel. There
was even a temple to this idol in Samaria ; and
Jehu, never scrupulous about the means of reach-
ing objects which he believed to be good, laid a
snare by which he hoped to cut off the main body
of Baal's ministers at one blow. He professed
to be a more zealous servant of Baal than Ahab
had been, and proclaimed a great festival in his
honor, at which none but his true servants were
to be present. The prophets, priests, and officers
of Baal assembled from all parts for this great
sacrifice, and sacerdotal vestments were given to
them, that none of Jehovah's worshipers might
be taken for them. When the temple was full,
soldiers were posted so that none might escape;
and so soon as the sacrifice had been offered, the
word was given by the king, the soldiers entered
the temple, and put all the worshipers to the
sword. The temple itself was then demolished.
the images overthrown, and the site turned into a
common jakes.
(7) Shortcomings and Death. Notwith-
standing this zeal of Jehu in exterminating the
grosser idolatries which had grown up under his
immediate predecessors, he was not prepared to
subvert the policy which had led Jeroboam and
his successors to maintain the schismatic estab-
lishment of the golden calves in Dan and Bethel.
Here Jehu fell short : and this very policy, ap-
parently so prudent and farsighted, by which he
hoped to secure the stability and independence of
his kingdom, was that on account of which the
term of rule granted to his dynasty was shortened.
For tliis, it was foretold that his dynasty should
extend only to four generations; and for this the
Divine aid was withheld from him in his wars
with the Syrians under Hazael on the eastern
frontier. Hence the war was disastrous to him,
and the Syrians were able to maintain themselves
in the possession of a great part of his territories
beyond the Jordan. He died in B. C. 856, and
was buried in Samaria, leaving the throne to his
son Jehoahaz.
(8) Testimony of the Monuments. "Shal-
maneser H's own record bears testimony to the
existence of Ahab, of Benhadad, and Hazael of
Damascus, and of Jehu the son of Omri." (Price,
The Monuments and the Old Testament, pp.
63, iss, 292.)
(9) Character. He must be regarded, like
many others in history, as an instrument for
accomplishing great purposes rather than as great
or good in himself. With all his remorseless
zeal there was no honest enthusiasm for the true
God (2 Kings x:3i). In the long period dur-
ing which his destiny though known to others
and perhaps to himself lay dormant ; in the sud-
denness of his rise to power; in the ruthlessness
with which he carried out his purposes; in the
union of profound silence and dissimulation with
a stern, fanatic, wayward zeal, — he has not been
without his likenesses in modern times. The
Scripture narrative, although it fixes our atten-
tion on the services which he rendered to the
cause of religion by the extermination of a worth-
less dynasty and a degrading worship, yet on the
whole leaves the sense that it was a reign bar-
ren in great results. His dynasty, indeed, was
firmly seated on the throne longer than any other
royal house of Israel (2 Kings x), and under
Jeroboam II it acquired a high name amongst
the oriental nations. But Elisha, who had raised
him to power, as far as we know, never saw
him. In other respects it was a failure ; the
original sin of Jeroboam's worship continued; and
in the Prophet Hosea there seems to be a retri-
bution exacted for the bloodshed by which he
had mounted the throne : "I will avenge the
blood of Jezreel upon the house of Jehu" (Hos.
i:4), as in the similar condemnation of Baasha
(l Kings xvi:3). (Smith. Bib. Diet.)
2. Son of Hanani, a prophet, who was sent to
pronounce upon Baasha, king of Israel, and his
house, the same awful doom which had been al-
ready executed upon the house of Jeroboam (l
Kings xvi:l-7). The same prophet was, many
years after, commissioned to reprove Jehoshaphat
for his dangerous connection with the house of
Ahab (2 Chron. xix:2). He seems to have been
in the office of chronicler during all of Jehosha-
phat's reign (2 Chron. xx:34). (B. C. 928-
886.)
3. \ man of Judah, son of Obed. and father
of Azariah (i Chron. ii:38). (B. C. after
1612.)
JEHUBBAH
ill-
JEPHTHAH
4. One of the Bcnjamite slingers who came
over to David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:3). (B.
C. 1055.)
5. Son of Josibiah, a Simeonite, who migrated
to the valley of Gedor, and was one of the chief
men of the tribe (i Chron. iv:3S). (B. C. about
711.)
JEHTJBBAH (je-hub'bah), (Heb. ^'^'^'^..yekA-ooi-
bavj' , he will be hidden).
Son of Shomer, or Shamer, of the I'ribe of
Asher in time of Beriah (i Chron. vii:34). (B.
C. about 1618.)
JEHXrCAIi (je'hu-kal), (Heb. '^5''"', yeh-hoo-
kat , spelled "Jucal" Jer. xxxviii:i), one of the
"princes of King Zedekiah" who was sent to Jere-
miah to ask advice and prayers on behalf of tlie
kingdom (Jer. xxxvii:3), but on his return he joined
those demanding the prophet's death (B.C. 589).
JEHTJD (je'hud), (Heb. "'I'^ych-hood ,]\x^ah).
A town between Baalath and Benc-bcrak, of
the tribe of Dan (Josh xi.\ :4s) ; perhaps the mod-
ern El-Jcliiidich, seven and a half miles south-
east of Jaffa. (Robinson, Researches. iii:45.)
JEnUDI (je-hu'dl), (Heb. HIT, yeh-hoo-dee' ,
Jew).
Son of Nethaniah, who invited Baruch to read
Jeremiah's roll to the princes, and who later read it
to the king himself (Jer. xxxvi:i4, 2i, 23). (B.
C. 605.)
JEHTJDIJAH (je'hu-dl'jah), (Heb. 'T-"''^?, yeh-
hoo-dee-ya-d)' , Jewess), according to the A. V. a
woman given as the second wife of Mered (l
Chron. iv:i8), B. C. about 1612. The marginal
reading, "the Jewess," is undoubtedly correct. She
is probably the same as Hodiah (verse 19). She
was called the Jewess to distinguish her from the
Egyptian.
JEHXrSH (je'hush), (Heb. '^'^T, yeh-oosh' , col-
lecting, bringing together), son of Eshek, and de-
scendant of Saur(i Chron. viii:39), B.C. about 588.
JEIEL (je-f'el), (Heb. •'^"7. yeh-ee-ale' , treas-
ure of God).
1. A Reubenite of the house of Joel, probably
at the time of the census of the trans-Jordanic
tribes, taken by Tiglath-pileser (i Chron. \■.^).
(B. C. 782.)
2. A Levite doorkeeper at the first establishing
of the ark in Jerusalem (i Chron. xvi:5) ; prob-
ably the same as the one mentioned later ( i Chron.
xv:i8, 21) as a musician. (B. C. 1043.)
3. A Levite, forefather of Jahaziel, who fore-
told Jehoshaphat of his victory over the Ammon-
ites and Moabites (2 Chron. xx:i4). (B. C. be-
fore 890.)
4. One of the scribes who kept the accounts of
Uzziah's warriors (2 Chron. xxvi;ii). (B. C.
803.)
5. One of those who assisted in restoring the
temple under Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix:i3).
6. One of those who assisted in the restoration
of the Passover by Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv:q).
(B. C. 623.)
7. One who came in the Caravan of Ezra from
Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezra viii:i3). (B. C.
459)
8. One of the Bene-Nebo, a layman who, after
the exile put aside a foreign wife (Ezra x:43).
(B. C. 450.)
JEKABZEEL (je-k.nb'ze-en, (Heb. '>?>*?|1';, j/^/t-
ab-tseh-ale' , God will gather), a city in the remote
southern part of Judah (Josh. xv:2i; Neh. xi:25),
called Kabzeel.
JEKAMEAM (jSk'a-rae'am), (Heb. ^"^^..yek-
aiii-awm', the people will rise), a Levite, the fourth
in rank of the "sons" of Hebron in the Levitical
arrangement established by David (1 Chron. xxiii:
19; xxiv:23), B. C. about 960.
JEKATVITAH (jSk'a-mi'ah), (Heb. •"''^R:, yek-
am-yaiv' , Jehovah will rise).
1- Son of Shallum, a descendant of Judah in
the time of King Ahaz (i Chron. ii:4i). (B. C.
about 588.)
2. Fifth named son of King Jeconiah (l Chron.
iii:i8), born during the Babylonian exile. (B. C.
after 598.)
JEKTTTHIEL (je-ku'thi-el), (Heb. ^S*nip!',j,^^.
ooih-ee'aU, reverence for God, piety), a son of
Ezra by a Jewish wife, Jehudijah or Hodiah, and
in his turn founder of the town of Zanoah(l Chron.
iv:i8), B. C. about 1618.
JEMIMA (je-mi'ma or jera'i-ma), (Heb. '"'?"'?'p
yem-ce-ma-ui' , dove), the eldest of the three daugh-
ters of job, born after he was restored to pros-
perity (Job xlii:i4), li. C. about 2200. The name
may be contained in the Arabic Jemama (Foster,
Histor. Geoj^. 0/ Arabia ii;67).
JEMUEL (je-mu'el), (Heb. ^^'^'^\ yem-oo-ale' ,
day of God), the first-named son of Simeon (Gen.
xlvi:io; Ex. vi:l5). Elsewhere Nemuel (Num.
xxvi;i2), apparently by error.
JEPHTHAE (jefh'tha-e), (Heb. xi;32). See
Jephthah.
JEPHTHAH (jef h'thah), (Heb."??-. yif-tawkh',
opener).
The ninth judge of Israel, of the tribe of Manas-
seh. He was the son of a person named Gilead by a
concubine. After the death of his father he was
expelled from his home by the envy of his broth-
ers, who refused him any share of the heritage,
and he withdrew to the land of Tob (Judg. xi :
1-3) beyond the frontier of the Hebrew terri-
tories.
(1) A Free Lance. It is clear that he had be-
fore this distinguished himself by his daring char-
acter and skill in arms; for no sooner was his
withdrawmcnt known than a great number of men
of desperate fortunes repaired to him, and he be-
came their chief. His position was now very sim-
ilar to that of David when he withdrew from the
court of Saul. To maintain the people who had
thus linked their fortunes with his, there was
no other resource than that sort of brigandage
which is accounted honorable in the East, so long
as it is exercised against public or private ene-
mies, and is not marked by needless cruelly or
outrage.
Jcphthah led this kind of life for some years,
during which his dashing exploits and successful
enterprises procured him a higher military reputa-
tion than any other man of his time enjoyed.
After the death of Jair the Israelites gradually
fell into their favorite idolatries, and were pun-
ished by subjection to the Philistines on the west
of the Jordan, and to the Ammonites on the east
of that river. The oppression which they sus-
tained for eighteen years became at length so
heavy that they recovered their senses and re-
turned to the (5od of their fathers with humilia-
tion and tears ; and he was appeased, and prom-
ised them deliverance from their affliction (B. C.
1 143)
(2) Leader of Israelites. The tribes beyond
the Jordan having resolved to oppose the Ammon-
ites, Jcphthah seems to occur to every one as the
JEPHTHAH
918
JEPHTHAH'S VOW
most fitting leader. A deputation was accordingly
sent to invite him to take the command. After
some demur, on account of the treatment he had
formerly received, he consented. The rude hero
commenced his operations with a degree of dip-
lomatic consideration and dignity for which we
are not prepared. The Ammonites being assem-
bled in force for one of those ravaging incursions
by which they had repeatedly desolated the land,
he sent to their camp a formal complaint of the
invasion, and a demand of the ground of their
proceeding. Their answer was, that the land of
the Israelites beyond the Jordan was theirs. It
had originally belonged to them, from whom it
had been taken by the Amorites, who had been
dispossessed by the Israelites: and on this ground
they claimed the restitution of these lands.
Jephthah's reply laid down the just principle which
has been followed out in the practice of civilized
nations, and is maintained by all the great writers
on the law of nations. The land belonged to the
Israelites by right of conquest from the actual
possessors ; and they could not be expected to rec-
ognize any antecedent claim of former possessors,
for whom they had not acted, who had rendered
them no assistance, and who had themselves dis-
played hostility against the Israelites. But the
Ammonites reasserted their former views, and on
this issue they took the field.
(3) Victorious Over Ammonites. When
Jephthah set forth against the Ammonites he sol-
emnly vowed to the Lord, 'If thou shalt without fail
deliver the children of Ammon into mine hands,
then it shall be, that whatsoever cometh forth of
the doors of my house to meet me, when I return
in peace from the children of Amnion, shall surely
be the Lord's, and I will offer it up for a burnt
offering' (Judg. xi :30, 31). He H'as victorious.
The Ammonites sustained a terrible overthrow
(Judg. xi:3-33). He did return in peace to his
house in Mizpeh. As he drew nigh his
house, the one that came forth to meet him was
his own daughter, his only child, in whom his
heart was bound up. She. with her fair com-
panions, came to greet the triumphant hero 'with
timbrels and with dances.' But he no sooner saw
her than he rent his robes, and cried, 'Alas, my
daughter ! thou hast brought me very low ; . . .
for I have opened my mouth unto the Lord, and can-
not go back.' Nor did she ask it. She replied, 'My
father, if thou hast opened thy mouth unto the
Lord, do to me according to that which has pro-
ceeded out of thy mouth : forasmuch as the Lord
hath taken vengeance for thee of thine enemies,
the children of Ammon.' But after a pause she
added, 'Let this thing be done for me: let me
alone two months, that I may go up and down
upon the mountains, and bewail my virginity, I
and my fellows.' Her father of course assented;
and when the time expired she returned, and,
we are told, 'he did with her according to his
vow.' It is then added that it became 'a custom
in Israel, that the daughters of Israel went yearly
to lament the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite
four days in the year. (See below.)
(4) Quarrel with Ephraimites. The victory
over the Ammonites was followed by a quarrel
with the proud and powerful Ephraimites on the
west of the Jordan. This tribe was displeased at
having had no share in the glory of the recent
victory, and a large body of men belonging to it,
who had crossed the river to share in the ac-
tion, used very high and threatening language
when they found their services were not required.
Jephthah, finding his remonstrances had no eflFect,
re-assembled some of his disbanded troops and
gave the Ephraimites battle, when they were de-
feated with much loss. The victors seized the
fords of the Jordan, and when any one came to
pass over, they made him pronounce the word
Shibboleth (an ear of corn), but if he could not
give the aspiration, and pronounced the word as
Sibboleth, they knew him for an Ephraimite, and
slew him on the spot (Judg. xii:l-6).
(5) Bule and Death. Jephthah judged Israel
six years (Judg. x:6; xii :7), during which we have
reason to conclude that the exercise of his au-
thority was almost if not altogether confined to
the country east of the Jordan (B. C. 1080-
1074).
(6) Character. Jephthah seems to have had
blended opposite characteristics in his nature. He
appears to have been ordinarily calm and delib-
erate notwithstanding his rash vow, as the history
of his life clearly shows.
JEPHTHAH'S VOW. Volumes have been
written on the subject of 'Jephthah's rash vow:'
the question being whether, in doing to his daugh-
ter 'according to his vow,' he really did ofifer her
in sacrifice or not. The negative has been stoutly
maintained by many able pens, from a natural
anxiety to clear the character of one of the he-
roes in Israel from so dark a stain. But the
more the plain rules of common sense have been
exercised in our view of biblical transactions,
and the belter we have succeeded in realizing a
distinct idea of the times in which Jephthah lived
and of the position which he occupied, the less
reluctance there has been to admit the interpreta-
tion which the first view of the passage suggests
to every reader, which is that he really did offer
her in sacrifice. The explanation which denies
this maintains that she was rather doomed to per-
petual celibacy.
(1) Reasons for Actual Sacrifice, (i) The
whole story is consistent and intelligible, while
the sacrifice is understood to have actually taken
place ; but becomes perverted and difficult as soon
as we begin to turn aside from this obvious mean-
ing in search of recondite explanations. (2)
Again Jephthah vows that whatsoever came forth
from the door of his house to meet him 'shall
surely be the Lord's, and I will offer it up for a
burnt-offering,' which, in fact, was the regular
way of making a thing wholly the Lord's. After-
wards we are told that 'he did with her according
to his vow,' that is, according to the plain mean-
ing of plain words, offered her for a burnt-offer-
ing- (3) Jephthah was a good deal of a heathen,
and human sacrifices were customary among the
heathen people. (4) The great grief of Jephthah
is only accounted for by her devoiement to death.
(5) People lament the dead not the living; hence
the lamentation of the daughters of Israel four
days every year. (6) To live unmarried was re-
quired by no law, custom, or devotement among
the Jews : no one had a right to impose so odious
a condition on another, nor is any such condi-
tion implied or expressed in the vow which Jeph-
thah uttered. (7) There is not the least evidence
to show that his conduct was sanctioned by God.
(8) The Jewish commentators themselves gener-
ally admit that Jephthah really sacrificed his
daughter; and even go so far as to allege that
the change in the pontifical dynasty from the
house of Eleazar to that of Ithamar was caused
by the high-priest of the time having suffered
this transaction to take place.
(2) Beasons Against Actual Sacrifice, (i)
Human sacrifices were most emphatically forbid-
den by the law (Deut. xviii:io; xii:3.o, 31;
Lev. xviii:2i; xx:2; Ps. cvi :37. 38; Jer. vii :
JEPHTHAH'S VOW
919
JEREMIAH
31; xxxii :35; Ezek. xvi :20, 21, etc.)- (2) By
translating the conjunction "and" by the word
"or" in Jiidg. xi :30. 31, which is justified by the
Hebrew idiom and thus given in the margin, all
difficulty will disappear. His words would then
read, "shall surely be the Lord's, or I will offer a
burnt offering;" and not unfrequently the sense
requires that the Hebrew should be thus rendered
(Lev. xxvii ;28) where there is a similar mean-
ing of the conjunctive VAU. The vow. would
then consist of two parts.
(a) That what fcrson soever met him should
be the Lord's or dedicated to his service.
(6) That what beast soever met him, if clean,
should be offered up for a burnt-offering unto
the Lord. This rendering, and this interpreta-
tion, is warranted by the Levitical law about vows.
The ncder, or voti.<, in general, included either per-
sons, beasts, or things, dedicated to the Lord for
pious uses; which, if it were a simple vow, was
redeemable at certain prices, if the person re-
pented of his vow, and wished to commute it
for money, according to the age and sex of the
person (Lev. xxvii: 1-8). This was a wise regu-
lation to remedy rash vows. But if the vow
was accompanied with chereni, devotement, it was
irredeemable, as in the following cases: — "Not-
withstanding, no devotement which a man shall
devote unto the Lord, (either) of man, or of
beast, or of land of his own property, shall be
sold or redeemed. Every thing devoted is most
holy unto the Lord" (Lev. xxvii :28). Here
the three vaus in the original should necessarily
be rendered disjunctively, or; as the last actually
is in our public translation, because there are three
distinct subjects of devotement, to be applied to
distinct uses ; the man, to be dedicated to the
service of the Lord, as Samuel by his mother,
Hannah (i Sam. i:ii) ; the cattle, if clean, such
as oxen, sheep, goats, turtledoves, or pigeons,
to be sacrificed; and if unclean, as camels, horses,
asses, to be employed for carrying burdens in the
service of the tabernacle or temple ; and the lands,
to be sacred property.
(f) This law, therefore, expressly applied, in
its first branch, to Jephthah's case, who had de-
voted his daughter to the Lord, or opened his
mouth unto the Lord, and therefore could not go
back; as he declared in his grief at seeing his
daughter, and his only child, coming to meet
him with timbrels and dances.
(rf) She was, therefore, necessarily devoted,
but with her own consent, to perpetual virginity,
in the service of the tabernacle (Judg. xi :36,
37). And such service was customary; for in the
division of the spoils taken in the first Midianite
war, of the whole number of captive virgins, 'the
Lord's tribute was thirty-two persons' (Num.
xxxi:3S-4o). This instance appears to be de-
cisive of the nature of her devotement.
(e) Her father's extreme grief on this occa-
sion, and her requisition of a respite of two
months to bewail her virginity, are both perfectly
natural ; having no other issue, he could look
forward only to the extinction of his name or
family; and a state of celibacy, which is reproach-
ful among women everywhere, was peculiarly
so among the Israelites ; and was therefore no
ordinary sacrifice on her part, who, though she
generously gave up, could not but regret the
loss of becoming "a mother in Israel." 'And he
did with her according to his vow which he had
vowed, and she knew no man,' or remained a
virgin all her life (Judg. xi:34-49).
if) There is no precedent of any such sacrifice
under the law, in the Old Testament. The case of
Isaac, before the law, is irrelevant; for Isaac was
not sacrificed ; and it was only proposed for a
trial of Abraham's faith. No father, merely
by his own authority, could put an offending,
much less an innocent, child to death, upon any
account, without the sentence of the magistrates
(Deut. xxi: 18-21), and the consent of the people,
as in Jonathan's case.
(g) The Mishna, or traditional law of the
Jews, is pointedly against it; — "If a Jew should
devote his son or daughter, his man or maid
servant, who are Hebrews, the devotement would
be void ; because no man can devote what is not
his own, or of whose life he has not the absolute
disposal."
(/i) That Jephthah could not even have de-
voted his daughter to celibacy against her will,
is evident from the history, and from the high
estimation in which she was always held by the
daughters of Israel, for her filial duty and her
hapless fate, which they celebrated by a regular
anniversary commemoration four days in the year
(Judg. xi:40).
JEPHTJNNEH (je-phun'neh), (Heb. ^W., ye/-
oon-neh' , nimble).
1- The companion of Joshua in his exploration
of Canaan; father of Caleb the spy (Num. xiii :
6; xiv:6, 30, 38; xxvi:65; xxxii:i2; xxxiv:i9;
Deut. i:36; Josh. xiv:6, 13, 14; I Chron. iv:is; vi:
S6). (B. C. 1698.)
2. Eldest son of Jether, or Ithran, a descendant
of Asher (i Chron. vii:38). (B. C. before 1017.)
JERAH (je'rah), (Heb. ^T..., yeh'rakh, month),
fourth son of Joktan (i Chron. 1:20; Gen. x:26), the
founder of an Arabian tribe who probably settled
near Hazamaveth and Hadoram. (See Joktan.)
JEBAHMEEL (je-rah'rae-el), (Heb. ^???'?I!:'
yer-akh-meh-ale' , God will compassionate).
1. Grandson of Pharez, and great grandson of
Judah. His descendants were called Jerahmeel-
ites ( I Chron. ii :9, 26, 27, iz, 42) . ( B. C. before
1658.)
2. A Merarite Levite of the family of Kish,
and representative of his tribe in the organiza-
tion of the service by David (i Chron. xxiv :
29). (B. C. 1014.)
3. Son of Hammelech, one of the two appointed
by Jehoiakim to arrest Jeremiah (Jer. xxxvi:26).
(B. C. 605.)
JEBAHMEELITE8 (je-rah'me-el-Ites), (Heb.
.'?*^~-*, yer-akh-meh-ay-Ue' , patronym, from the
above), a tribe descended from Jerahmeel, i
(i Sam. xxvii:lo; xxx:29).
JEBED (je'red), (Heb. T". yeh'red, descent,
going down), (i Chron. i:2). See Jared, i; (i
Chron. iv:i8). (See Jared, 2.)
JEBEMAI (jer'emai), (Heb. "S."}'. yer-ay-
mah'ee, dweller on heights), a son of Hashum,
who divorced his foreign wife after the exile in
Babykm (Ezra x:33), B. C. 459.
JEREMIAH OSr'e-rai'ah), (Heb. '"I^^"??, yir-
meh-yaiu' , Jah will rise).
/. A native of Libnah.the father of Hamutal,
Josiah's wife, who was mother of Jehoahaz ( 2 Kings
xxiii:3i) and Zedekiah (xxiv:i8; Jer. Iii:i).
(B. C. before 632.)
2. A Gadite warrior who joined David in the
wilderness (i Chron. xii:io). (B. C. 1061.)
3. Another man of Gad in David's army (l
Chron. xii:i3). (B. C. before 1000.)
4. \ Benjamite, who joined David at Ziklag
(i Chron. xii:4). (B. C. 1053.)
JEREMIAH
920
JEREMIAH
5. A chief of the trans-Jordanic half-tribe of
Manasseh (i Chron. v:24). (B. C. 782.)
6. Son of Habaziniah, and father of Jaazaniah,
the Rechabite, whom the prophet tested with the
proffer of wine (Jer. xxxv:3). (B. C. before
606.)
7. A priest, head of one of the courses of tem-
ple worship (Neh. xii:i, 34).
8. One of the trumpet players at the celebration
of the newly repaired walls of Jerusalem. Ap-
parently the same as the one who signed the cove-
nant with Jeremiah (Neh. x:2), and perhaps
identical with (7). ( B. C. 446-410.)
9. Jeremiah the Prophet. Son of Hilkiah, a
priest of Anathoth, in the land of Benjamin (Jer.
i:l). (See Anathoth.) Many have supposed
that his father was the high-priest of the same
name (2 Kings xxii:8), who found the book of
the law in the eighteenth year of Josiah. This,
however, seems improbable on several grounds —
first, there is nothing in the writings of Jeremiah
to lead us to think that his father was more than
an ordinary priest ('Hilkiah [one] of the priests,'
Jer. i:i); again, the name Hilkiah was common
amongst the Jews (see 2 Kings xviii:i8; I Chron.
vi:45; xxvi:ii; Neh. viii:4; Jer. xxix:3); and,
lastly, his residence at Anathoth is evidence that
he belonged to the line of Abiathar (i Kings ii :26-
35), who was deposed from the high-priest's office
by Solomon ; after which time the office appears
to have remained in the line of Zadok.
(1) Early Life. Jeremiah was very young
when the word of the Lord first came to him
(ch. i:6). This event took place in the thirteenth
year of Josiah (B. C. 629), whilst the youthful
prophet still lived at Anathoth. It would seem
that he remained in his native city several years,
but at length, in order to escape the persecution
of his fellow townsmen (ch. xi:2i), and even
of his own family (ch. xii:6), as well as to have
a wider field for his exertions, he left Anathoth
and took up his residence at Jerusalem.
(2) Ally of Josiah. The finding of the book
of the law, five years after the commencement of
his predictions, must have produced a powerful
influence on the mind of Jeremiah, and king
Josiah no doubt found him a powerful ally in
carrying into effect the reformation of religious
worship (2 Kings xxiii:i-25). During the reign
of this monarch, we may readily believe that Jere-
miah would be in no way molested in his work;
and that from the time of his quitting Anathoth
to the eighteenth year of his ministry, he prob-
ably uttered his warnings without interruption,
though with little success (see ch. xi). Indeed,
the reformation itself was nothing more than the
forcible repression of idolatrous and heathen
rites, and the re-establishment of the external
service of God, by the command of the king. No
sooner, therefore, was the influence of the court
on behalf of the true religion withdrawn, than
it was evident that no real improvement had
taken place in the minds of the people. Jeremiah,
who hitherto was at least protected by the influ-
ence of the pious king Josiah. soon became the
object of attack, as he must doubtless have long
been the object of dislike, to those whose inter-
ests were identified with the corruptions of re-
ligion.
(3) Belations to Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim.
We hear nothing of the prophet during the three
months which constituted the short reign of
Jehoahaz ; but 'in the beginning of the reign of
Jehoiakim' the prophet was interrupted in his
ministry by 'the priests and the prophets,' who
with the populace brought him before the civil au-
thorities, urging that capital punishment should
be inflicted on him for his threatenings of evil
on the city unless the people amended their ways
(ch. xxvi). The princes seem to have been in
some degree aware of the results which the gen-
eral corruption was bringing on the state, and if
they did not themselves yield to the exhortations
of the prophet, they acknowledged that he spoke
in the name of the Lord, and were quite averse
from so openly renouncing His authority as to
put His messenger to death. It appears, how-
ever, that it was rather owing to the personal in-
fluence of one or two, especially Ahikam, than
to any general feeling favorable to Jeremiah, that
his life was preserved; and it would seem that
he was then either placed under restraint, or else
was in so much danger from the animosity of his
adversaries as to make it prudent for him not to
appear in public. In the fourth year of Jehoia-
kim (B. C. 606) he was commanded to write the
predictions which had been given through him,
and to read them to the people. Because he was
'shut up,' and could not himself go into the house
of the Lord (ch. xxxvi:5) he therefore deputed
Baruch to write the predictions after him, and to
read them publicly on the fast-day. These threat-
enings being thus anew made public, Baruch was
summoned before the princes to give an account
of the manner in which the roll containing them
had come into his possession. The princes, who.
without strength of principle to oppose the wick-
edness of the king, had sufiicient respect for re-
ligion, as well as sagacity enough to discern the
importance of listening to the voice of God's
prophet, advised both Baruch and Jeremiah to
conceal themselves, whilst they endeavored to in-
fluence the mind of the king by reading the roll
to him. The result showed that their precautions
were not needless. The bold self-will and reck-
less daring of the monarch refused to listen to any
advice, even though coming with the professed
sanction of the Most High. Having read three
or four leaves 'he cut the roll with the penknife
and cast it into the fire that was on the hearth,
until all the roll was consumed.' and gave im-
mediate orders for the apprehension of Jeremiah
and Baruch, who, however, were both preserved
from the vindictive monarch. Of the history of
Jeremiah during the eight or nine remaining
years of the reign of Jehoiakim we have no cer-
tain account. At the command of God he pro-
cured another roll, in which hs wrote all that
was in the roll destroyed by the king, 'and added
besides unto them many like words' (ch.
xxxvi :32).
(4) Belations to Jehoiacbin. (B. C. 597.)
In the short reign of his successor Jehoiachin
or Jeconiah, we find him still uttering his voice
of warning (see ch. xiii:i8; cnmp. 2 Kings xxiv :
12, and ch. xxii:24-30). though without' effect.
(5) Belations to Zedekiah. It was probably
either during this reign, or at the commencement
of the reign of Zedekiah, that he was put in con-
finement by Pashur. the 'chief governor of the
house of the Lord.' Heseems, however, soon to have
been liberated, as we find that 'they had not put
him into prison' when the army of Nebuchadnez-
zar commenced the siege of Jerusalem. The
Chaldxans drew off their army for a lime, on the
report of help coming from Egypt to the besieged
city; and now feeling the danger to be immi-
nent, and yet a ray of hope brightening their pros-
pects, the king entreated Jeremiah to pray to I he
Lord for them. The hopes of the king were not
responded to in the message which Jeremiah re-
ceived from God. He was assured that the Egyp-
JEREMIAH
021
JEREMIAH. BOOK OF
tia*i army should return to their own land, iliat
the Chaldaeans should come again, and that they
should take the city and burn it with lire (ch.
xxxvii :7, 8). The princes, apparently irritated
by a message so contrary to their wishes, made
the departure of Jeremiah from the city, during
the short respite, the pretext for accusing him of
deserting to the Chaldaeans, and he was forthwith
cast into prison. The king seems to have been
throughout inclined to favor the prophet, and
sought to know from him the word of the Lord;
but he was wholly under the influence of the
princes, and dared not communicajte with him ex-
cept in secret (ch. xxxviii:i4. 28); much less
could he follow advice so obnoxious to their
views as that which the prophet gave. Jeremiah,
therefore, more from the hostility of the princes
than the inclination of the king, was still in con-
finement when the city was taken.
(6) Kelations to Nebuchadnezzar. Nebu-
chadnezzar formed a more just estimate of his
character and of the value of his counsels, and
gave a special charge to his captain Nebuzar-
adan, not only to provide for him but to follow
his advice (ch. xxxix:i2). He was accordingly
taken from the prison and allowed free choice
cither to go to Babylon, where doubtless he would
have been held in honor in the royal court, or
to remain with his own people. We need scarcely
be told that he who had devoted more than forty
years of unrequited service to the welfare of his
fallen country, should choose to remain with the
remnant of his people rather than seek the
precarious fame which might await him at the
court of the king of Babylon. Accordingly he
went to Mizpah with Gedaliah, whom the Baby-
lonian monarch had appointed governor of Judea;
and after his murder, sought to persuade Jo-
hanan, who was then the recognized leader of the
people, to remain in the land, assuring him and
the people, by a message from God in answer to
their inquiries, that if they did so the Lord would
build them up, but if they went to Egypt the evils
which they sought to escape should come upon
them there (ch. xlii). The people refused to at-
tend to the Divine message, and under the com-
mand of Johanan went into Egypt, taking Jere-
miah and Baruch along with them (ch. xliii:6).
In Egypt the prophet still sought to turn the peo-
ple to the Lord, from whom they had so long and
so deeply revolted (ch. xliv) ; but his writings
give us no subsequent information respecting his
personal history.
(7) Traditions. Ancient traditions assert that
he spent the remainder of his life in Egypt. Ac-
cording to the pseudo-Epiphanius he was stoned
by the people at Taphnse (the same as Tahpanhts ),
where the Jews were settled (Dc I'itis Prnfylict.
t. ii. p. 239, quoted by Fabricius. Codex Pscudrpig-
ra films I'. T. t. i. p. mo). It is said that his
bones were removed by Alexander the Great to
Alexandria (Carpzov, fiitiod. part iii, p. 1.38,
where other traditions respecting him will be
found).
(8) Character. Jeremiah was contemporary
with Zcphaniah, Habakkuk, Ezekiel. and Daniel.
None of these, however, are in any remarkable
way connected with him, except Ezekiel. The
writings and character of these two eminent
prophets furnish many very interesting points
both of comparison and contrast. Both, during a
long series of years, were laboring at the same
lime and for the same object. The representa-
tions of both, far separated as they were from
each other, are in substance singularly accordant;
yet there is at the same time a marked difference
in their modes of statement, and a still more strik-
ing diversity in the character and natural dis-
position of the two. No one who compares
them can fail to perceive that the mind of Jere-
miah was of a softer and more delicate texture
than that of his illustrious contemporary. His
whole history convinces us that he was by nature
mild and retiring (Ewald, Proplieten des Alt.
Bund. p. 2), highly susceptible and sensitive, es-
pecially to sorrowful emotions, and rather in-
clined, as we should imagine, to shrink from dan-
ger than to brave it. Yet, with this acute percep-
tion of injury, and natural repugnance from being
'a man of strife,' he never in the least degree
shrinks from publicity; nor is he at all intimi-
dated by reproach or insult, or even by actual pun-
ishment and threatened death, when he has the
message of God to deliver. He is, in truth, as re-
markable an instance, though in a different way,
of the overpowering influence of the Divine en-
ergy, as Ezekiel. The one presents the spectacle
of the power of Divine inspiration acting on a
mind naturally of the firmest texture, and at once
subduing to itself every element of the soul;
whilst the other furnishes an example, not less
memorable, of moral courage sustained by the
same Divine inspiration against the constantly
opposing influence of a love of retirement and
strong susceptibility to impressions of outward
evil. (See Henderson's Commentary, 1851 ;
Cowles, Notes. N. Y., 1869; Isaac Taylor, Spirit
of Hebrew Poetry, p. 272; Stanley, Jewish Ch.,
ii, pp. 570-622; Noyes, iXew Transl. of the Heh.
Poets, Boston, 1866; and others). (See Jeremiah,
Book of: L.^mentations.) F. W. G.
JEREMIAH, BOOK OF
/. Difficulties and Diversities. Much diffi-
culty has arisen in reference to the writings of
Jeremiah from the apparent disorder in which they
stand in our present conies, and from the many
disagreements between tne Hebrew text and that
found in the Septuagint version; and many con-
jectures have been hazarded respecting the oc-
casion of this disorder. Tlie following are the
principal diversities between the twotexts:
(1) The prophecies against foreign nations,
which in the Hebrew occupy chapters xlvi-li at the
close of the book, are in the Greek placed after ch.
xxv:i4, forming chapters xxvi-xxxi; the remainder
of ch. XXV of the Hebrew is ch. xxxii of the .Sep-
tuagint. The follinving chapters proceed in the
same order in both.chaiiters xliv and xlv of the
Hebrew forming ch. Ii of the .Septuagint; and the
historical appendix, ch. Hi, is placed at the close in
both.
(2) The prophecies against the heathen nations
stand in a different order in the two editions, as is
shown in the following table :
Hebrew. Sept.
Egypt. Elam.
Philistines. Egypt.
Moab. Babylon.
Ammon. Philistines.
Edom. Edom.
Damascus. Ammon.
Kedar. Kedar.
Elam. Damascus.
Babylon. Moab.
(3) Various passages which exist in the Hebrew
are not found in the Greek copies (e. g. ch. xxvii :
T9-22; xxxiii : 14-26; xxxix 14-14 ; xlviii :45-47).
Besides these discrepancies, there are nu-
merous omissions and frequent variations of sin-
gle words and phrases. To explain these diversities
recourse has been had to the hypothesis of a
JEREMIAH, BOOK OF
922
JEREMIAH, BOOK OF
double recension, an hypothesis which, with va-
rious modifications, is held by most modern
critics.
2. Genuineness of Writings. The genuine-
ness and canonicity of the writings of Jeremiah in
general are established both by the testimony of
ancient writers and by quotations and references
which occur in the New Testament (2 Mace. ii:i-8;
Philo. vol. i. p. 95; Josephus ^«/zy. lib. x;5,i; Matt.
ii;l7; Matt. xvi:i4; Heb. viii:8, I2).
(1) The text in Matt, xxvii ig has occasioned
considerable difficulty, because the passage there
quoted is not found in the e.xtant writings of the
prophet. Jerome affirms that he found the exact
passage in a Hebrew apocryphal book (Fabricius,
Cod. Pseudep. i. 1103) ; but there is no proof that
that book was in existence before the time of
Christ. It is probable that the passage intended
by Matthew is Zech. xi:i2, 13, which in part cor-
responds with the quotation he gives, and that
the name is a gloss which has found its way into
the text (see Olshausen, Comment upon New
Testament.)
(2) The genuineness of some portions of the
book has been of late disputed by the critics of the
so-called advance school. Movers, whose views
have been adopted by De Wette and Hitzig, at-
tributes ch. x:i-i6, and cc. xxx, xxxi, and
xxxiii to the author of the concluding portion of
the book of Isaiah. His fundamental argument
against the last-named portion is, that the prophet
Zechariah (ch. viii 7, 8) quotes from Jer. xxxi:
7, 8, 33, and in ver. 9 speaks of the author as
one who lived 'in the day that the foundation of
ilie house of the Lord of hosts was laid.' He
must, therefore, have been contemporary with
Zechariah himself. This view obliges him, of
course, to consider ch. xxx:i, with which he
joins the three following verses, as a later addi-
tion. By an elaborate comparison of the peculiari-
ties of style he endeavors to show that the author
of these chapters was the so-called pseudo-Isaiah.
He acknowledges, however, that there are many
expressions peculiar to Jeremiah, and supposes
that it was in consequence of these that the pre-
diction was placed among his writings. These
similarities he accounts for by assuming that the
later unknown prophet accommodated the writ-
ings of the earlier to his own use.
(3) Every one will see how slight is the external
ground on which Movers' argument rests ; for
there is nothing in verses 7, 8, of Zechariah to
prove that it is intended to be a quotation from
any written prophecy, much less from this portion
of Jeremiah. The quotation, if it be such, is
made up by joining together phrases of frequent
recurrence in the prophets picked out from
amongst many others. Then, again, the mention
of prophets is evidence that Zechariah was not
referring to the writings of one individual ; and,
lastly, the necessity of rejecting the exordium,
without any positive ground for suspecting its
integrity, is a strong argument against the posi-
tion of Movers. Hitzig (Jercmia, p. 230) is in-
duced, by the force of these considerations, to
give up the external evidence on which Movers
had relied. The internal evidence arising from
the examination of particular words and phrases
— a species of proof which, when standing alone,
is always to be received with great caution —
is rendered of still less weight by the evidence
of an opposite kind.
Ewald, who is by no means accustomed to
acquiesce in received opinions as such, agrees
that the chapters in question, as well as the other
passage mentioned ch. x:i-t6, are the work of
Jeremiah. The authenticity of this latter portion is
denied solely on internal grounds, and the re-
marks we have already made will, in substance,
apply also to these verses. It seems, however,
not improbable that the Chaldee of ver. 11 is a
gloss which has crept into the text — both because
it is (apparently without reason) in another lan-
guage, and because it seems to interrupt the
progress of thought. The predictions against
Babylon in chaps. 1 and li are objected to by
Movers, De Wette, and others, on the ground
that they contain many interpolations. Ewald
attributes them to some unknown prophet who
imitated the style of Jeremiah. Their authenticity
is maintained by many critics of acknowledged
weight of opinion. The last chapter is generally
regarded as an appendix added by some later
author. It is almost verbally the same as the ac-
count in 2 Kings xxiv:i8; xxv 130, and it car-
ries the history down to a later period probably
than that of the death of Jeremiah ; that it is not
his work seems to be indicated in the last verse
of ch. li.
3. "Disorder of Prophecies. (1) Blayney
and Eichhorn. It is impossible, within the limits
assigned to this article, even to notice all the at-
tempts which have been made to account for the
apparent disorder of Jeremiah's prophecies. Blay-
ney speaks of their present disposition as a 'pre-
posterous jumbling together of the prophecies of
the reigns of Jehoiakim and Zedekiah,' and con-
cludes that 'the original order has, most probably,
by some accident or other been disturbed' (Notes
p. 3). Eichhorn says that no other explanation
can be given than that the prophet wrote his
oracles on single rolls, larger or smaller as they
came to his hand, and that, as he was desirous to
give his countrymen a copy of them when they
went into captivity, he dictated them to an amanu-
ensis from the separate rolls, without attending
to the order of time, and then preserved the rolls
in the same order (Einl. iii, 134). Later critics
have attempted in different ways to trace some
plan in the present arrangement. Thus Movers
supposes the whole collection to have consisted of
six books — the longest being that written by
Baruch (Jer. xx.xvi :2, 32), which was taken by
the collector as his foundation, into which he in-
serted the other books in such places as seemed,
on a very slight glance at their contents, to be
suitable. All such theories, however, proceed on
the presumption that the present arrangement is
the work of a compiler, which, therefore, we are
at liberty to alter at pleasure; and though they
offer boundless scope for ingenuity in suggesting a
better arrangement, they serve us very little in
respect to the explanation of the book itself.
(2) Ewald. Ewald adopts another principle,
which, if it be found valid, cannot fail to throw
much light on the connection and meaning of the
predictions. He maintains that the book, in its
present form, is, from ch. i to ch. xlix, substan-
tially the same as it came from the hand of the
prophet, or his amanuensis, and seeks to discover
in the present arrangement some plan according
to which it is disposed. He finds that
various portions are prefaced by the same
formula, 'The word which came to Jere-
miah from the Lord' (vii:i; xi:i; xviii :
i; x.xi:i; xxv:i; xxx:i; x.xxii :i ; xxxiv :i, 8;
XXXV :i; xl:i; xliv:i); or by the very similar
expression, 'The word of the Lord which came
to Jeremiah' (xiv:i; xlvi:i; xlvii:i; xlix:34).
The notices of time distinctly mark some other
divisions which are more or less historical (xxvi:
I ; xxvii : i : xxxvi : i ; xxxvii :2) . Two other per-
JEKEMIAH, LAMENTATIONS OF
'iii
JEKICHO
tions are in themselves sufficiently distinct with-
out such indication {xxix:i; xlv:i), while the
general introduction to the book serves for the
section contained in ch. i. There are left two
sections (chaps, ii, iii), the former of which has
only the shorter introduction, wliicli generally
designates the commencement of a strophe ; while
the latter, as it now stands, seems to be imper-
fect, having as an introduction merely the word
'saying.' Thus the book is divided into twenty-
three separate and independent sections, which, in
the poetical parts, are again divided into strophes
of from seven to nine verses, frequently distin-
guished by such a phrase as 'The Lord said also
unto me.'
4. Divisions of the Soolt. These separate
sections are arranged by Ewald so as to form five
distinct books: I. The introduction, ch. i. IL
Reproofs of the sins of the Jews, cc. ii-xxiv,
consisting of seven sections, viz.: (i) ch. ii ; (2)
cc. iii:vi: (3) cc. vii-x; (4) cc. xi-xiii; (5) cc.
xiv-xvii:i8; (6) cc. xvii :i9-xx; (7) cc. xxi-xxiv.
in. A general review of all nations, the heathen
as well as the people of Israel, consisting of two
sections: (i) cc. xlvi-xlix (which he thinks have
been transposed) ; (2) ch. xxv. And an historical
appendix of three sections: (a) ch. xxvi; (b)
ch. xxvii ; and (c) cc. xxviii, xxix. IV. Two sec-
tions picturing the hopes of brighter times: (i)
cc. xxx, xxxi ; and (2) cc. x.xxii, xxxiii, to which,
as in the last book, is added an historical appendix
in three sections: (a) ch. xxxiv:i-7; (b) ch.
xxxiv:8-22; (c) ch. xxxv. V. The conclusion, in
two sections: (i) ch. xxxvi; (2) ch. xlv. All
this, he supposes, was arranged in Palestine, dur-
ing the short interval of rest between the taking
of the city and the departure of Jeremiah with the
remnant of the Jews, to Egypt. In Egypt, after
some interval, Jeremiah added three sections, viz. :
cc. xxxvii, xxxix, xl-xliii and xliv. At the same
time, probably, he added ch. xlvi 113-26 to the pre-
vious prophecy respecting Egypt, and, perhaps,
made some additions to other parts previously
written. VI. The principal predictions relating
to the Messiah are found in ch. xxiii:i-8; xxx;3i-
40; xxxiii:l4-26. This arrangement is probably
preferable, all things considered.
5. Style. The style of Jeremiah corresponds
with the view of the character of his mind ;
though not deficient in power it is peculiarly
marked by pathos. He delights in the expres-
sion of the tender emotions, and employs all
the resources of his imagination to excite cor-
responding feelings in his readers. He has an
irresistible sympathy with the miserable, which
finds utterance in the most touching descriptions
of their condition. He seizes with wonderful
tact those circumstances which point out the ob-
jects of his pity as the objects of sympathy, and
founds his expostulations on the miseries which
are thus exhibited. His book of Lamentations
is an astonishing exhibition of his power to ac-
cumulate images of sorrow. The whole series
of elegies has but one object — the expression of
sorrow for the forlorn condition of his country;
and yet he presents this to us in so many lights,
alludes to it by so many figures, that not only
are his mournful strains not felt to be tedious
reiterations, but tlie reader is captivated by the
plaintive melancholy which pervades the whole.
(See Lamentations.) F. W. G.
JEREMIAH, LAMENTATIONS OF (jer-e-
ml'ah lam-enta'shuns). See LAMENTATIONS.
JEBEMIAS (jere-rai'as), fGr. 'Upf^laiju-f-c-r-eh-
vtee'as), the Greek form of the name of Jeremiah
the prophet, used in the A. V. of Ecclus. xlix.6 ; 2
Mace. xv:i4 ; Matt. xvi;i4. (See Jeremiah; Jer-
emy.)
JEREMOTH (jer'e-moth), (Heb. ^'•'<^'^y:, yer-ay-
molitli' , heights).
!■• The last mentioned of the sons of Mushi
(i Chron. xxiii:23). The name is Jf.rimoth
(see JERIMOTH, 4). (I Chron. xxiv:30.) B. C.
after 1856.
2. A Levite who had charge of the fifteenth
division of the temple musicians as arranged by
David (i Chron. xxv:22); probably the same
as Jerimoth, 5. (B. C. 1014.)
3. A Benjamite, "son" of Beriah (i Chron.
viii:i4). (B. C. about 588.) Probably the same
as Jeroham, 2 (ver. 27).
4. One of the "sons" of Elam who divorced
his foreign wife after the captivity (Ezra x:26).
(B. C. 459)
5. A "son" of Zattu who also put away his
Gentile w^fe after the exile (Ezra x:27). (B. C.
459-)
6. (Ezra X 129). (See Ramoth.)
JEREMY (jer'e-my), (Matt. ii:i7; xxviiig), a
shortened form of the name of the prophet
Jeremiah (which see).
JERIAE (je-ri'ah) (Heb. "'", yer-ee-yaw' , Jah
will throw), a Kohathite Levite, the first in rank of
the sons of Hebron in the priestly arrangement
made by David (I Chron. xxiii:ig; xxiv:23); else-
where Jerijah (I Chron. xxvi:3i), B. C. 1014.
JERIBAI (jer'i-bai), (Heb. '?*"?, yer-eeb-ak' ee,
contentious), the second named of the sons of
Elnaam, and one of David's body-guard (l Chron.
xi:46), B. C. after 1000.
JERICHO (jSr'i-ko). (Heb. '"*T, yer-ee-kho' ,
fragrant).
A town in the plain of the same name, not far
from the river Jordan, at the point where it enters
the Dead Sea. It lay before the Israelites when
they crossed the river, on first entering the Prom-
ised Land ; and the account which the spies who
were sent by them into the city received from
their hostess Rahab, tended much to encourage
their subsequent operations, as it showed that
the inhabitants of the country were greatly
alarmed at their advance, and the signal miracles
which had marked their course from the Nile to
the Jordan. The strange manner in which Jericho
itself was taken must have strengthened this im-
pression in the country, and appears, indeed, to
have been designed for that effect.
(1) Destroyed. The town was utterly de-
stroyed by the Israelites, who pronounced an
awful curse upon whoever should rebuild it; and
all the inhabitants were put to the sword, except
Rahab and her family (Josh. vi:25).
In these accounts Jericho is repeatedly called
'the city of palm-trees' ; which shows that the
hot and dry plain, so similar to the land of
Egypt, was noted beyond other parts of Palestine
for the tree which abounds in that country, but
which was and is less common in the land of
Canaan than general readers and painters sup-
pose. It has now almost disappeared even from
the plain of Jericho, although specimens remain
in the plain of the Mediterranean coast.
(2) Rebuilt. Notwithstanding the curse, Jericho
was soon rebuilt (sec Hiel), and became a school
of the prophets (i Kings xvi:34: 2 Kings ii:4,
S). Its inhabitants returned after the exile, and it
was eventually fortified by the Syrian general
Bacchides (Ezra ii:34; Neh. iii:2; i Mace, ix:
50). Pompoy marched from Scythopolis, along
JERICHO
924
JERICHO
the valley of the Jordan, to Jericho, and thence
to Jerusalem; and Strabo speaks of the castles
Thrax and Taurus, in or near Jericho, as hav-
ing been destroyed by him (Joseph. Autiq. xiv :
4, l; Strabo, xvi :2, 40).
(3) Varied History. Herod the Great, in the
beginning of his career, captured and sacked
Jericho, but afterwards strengthened and adorned
it, when he had redeemed its revenues from Cleo-
patra, on whom the plain had been bestowed by
Antony (Joseph. Antiq. xv 14, I, 2).
He appears to have often resided here, probably
in winter; he built over the city a fortress called
Cypros, between which and the former palace
he erected other palaces, and called them by the
the word of the Lord which he spake by Joshua
the son of Nun" (i Kings xvi:34).
Previous to this, however, and almost immedi-
ately after the death of Joshua, reference is made
to the city of palm-trees, which was captured by
Eglon, king of Moab (Judg. iii:i3), and it was
nearly 100 years before the rebuilding by Hiel
that David's ambassadors, who had been so
grievously insulted by the king of Ammon, were
directed "to tarry at Jericho until their beards
were grown" (2 Sam. x:5).
We are to infer, from these several statements,
that Jericho was rebuilt soon after its destruction
by Joshua, but not upon its ancient foundations
— a change by which the penalty was avoided.
^^^S^^gasS?fe^^^^^fe::fc^
Jericho.
names of his friends (Joseph. Antiq. xvi :S, 2;
De Bell. Jud. i. 21. 4, 9). Here also was a hip-
podrome or circus, in which the same tyrant, when
lying at Jericho on his death-bed, caused the
nobles of the land to be shut up, for massacre
after his death. He died here ; but his bloody
intention was not executed (Joseph. Antiq. xvii :
6. s\ Dc Bell. Jud. i. a, 6-8). The palace at
this place was afterwards rebuilt more magnifi-
cently by Archelaus (.-liitiq. xviirji").
(4) Site Changed. In order to render the
several notices of Jericho contained in the Bible
consistent with each other, and with the descrip-
tion in Josephus, it seems necessary to suppose
more than one change of situation. Joshua "burned
the city with fire, and all that was therein." and
said, "Cursed be the man before the Lord that
riseth up and buildeth this ^ity Jericho; he shall
lay the foundation thereof in his firstborn, an<l
in his youngest son shall he set up the gates
thereof" (Josh. vi:26). It was about 520 j-ears
after this, in the impious reign of Aliab.'that Hiel
rebuilt the city, and sufTered the fearful penalty
that had been denounced against such an act of
daring impiety. "He laid tlie foundation thereof
in Abiram his firstborn, and set up the gates
thereof in his j'oungest son Segub, according to
The malediction had probably fallen into oblivion,
or. if remembered, was likely to be treated with
contempt in the infidel and idolatrous age when
Hiel restored the original city. It was, accord-
ing to the common chronology, about thirty years
subsequent to this restoration that Elisha healed
the fountain from which the city derived its
supply of water. It is probable that the accursed
site had been again abandoned, upon the catas-
trophe that followed the impious attempt of Hiel.
for the existing city seems to have been at some
distance from "the spring of the waters." which
produced sterility and disease (2 Kings ii:2l).
It may have occupied, at the era of Elisha's
miracle, the .same site as it did when visited by
our Savior, and described bv Josephus.
fS) In the Time of Christ. By this it will
be seen that the Jericho which existed in the
time of our Savior was a great and important
city — probably more so than it had ever been
since its foundation. It was once visited by him,
when he lodged with Zaccheus, and healed the
blind man (Luke xviii:35-43; xix:l, 7; Matt
xx:29-34; Mark x:46-S2).
(6) Subsequent History. Jericho was after-
wards made the head of one of the toparchies,
and was visited by Vespasian before lie left the
JERICHO
925
JERICHO
country, who stationed there the tenth legion in
garrison (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. iii. 3, S ; 'v:8, i;
v:2, 3). Eusebius and Jerome describe Jericho
as having been destroyed during the siege of Jeru-
salem, on account of the perfidy of the inhabitants,
but add that it was afterwards rebuilt. The town,
however, appears to have been overthrown during
the Mohammedan conquest ; for Adamnanus, at
the close of the seventh century, describes the site
as without human habitations, and covered with
corn and vines. The celebrated palm-groves still
existed. In the next century a church is men-
tioned ; and in the ninth century several monas-
teries appear. About the same time the plain of
Jericho is again noticed for its fertility and pecu-
liar products ; and it appears to have been brought
under cultivation by the Saracens, for the sake of
the sugar and other products for which the soil
and climate were more suitable than any other in
Palestine. Ruins of extensive aqueducts, with
pointed Saracenic arches, remain in evidence of
the elaborate irrigation and culture of this fine
plain — which is nothing without water, and every-
thing with it — at a period long subsequent to the
occupation of the country by the Jews. It is to
this age that we may probably refer the origin of
the castle and village, which have since been re-
garded as representing Jericho. The place has
been mentioned by travelers and pilgrims down
to the present time as a poor hamlet consist-
ing of a few houses. In the fifteenth century
the square castle or tower began to pass among
pilgrims as the house of Zaccheus, a title which it
bears to the present day.
(7) Modern Jericho. The village that now
represents the ancient Jericho bears the name of
Rihah, and is supposed to date from the ninth
century. It is situated about the middle of the
plain, six miles west from the Jordan, in N. lat.
31° 57', and E. long. 35° 33'. Dr. Olin de-
scribes the present village as 'the meanest and
foulest of Palestine.' It may perhaps contain
forty dwellings, formed of small loose stones.
The most important object is the castle or tower
already mentioned, which Dr. Robinson supposes
to have been constructed 10 protect the cultiva-
tion of the plain under the Saracens. It is thirty
or forty feet square, and about the same height,
and is now in a dilapidated condition.
Rihah may contain about two hundred in-
habitants, who have a sickly aspect, and are
reckoned vicious and indolent. They keep a few
cattle and sheep, and till a little land for grain
as well as for gardens. A small degree of in-
dustry and skill bestowed on this prolific soil,
favored as it is with abundant water for irri-
gation, would amply reward the labor. But this
is wanting ; and everything bears the inark of
abject, and, which is unusual in the East, of
squalid poverty. There are some fine fig-trees
near the village, and some vines in the gardens.
But the most distinguishing feature of the whole
plain is a noble grove of trees which borders the
village on the west, and stretches away north-
ward to the distance of two miles or more.
This grove owes its existence to the waters of
one of the fountains, the careful distribution of
which over the plain by canals and aqueducts
did once, and might still, cover it with abun-
dance. One of these fountains is called by the
natives Ain es-Sultan, but by pilgrims the Foun-
tain of Elias, being supposed to be the same
whose bitter waters were cured by that prophet.
Dr. Robinson thinks there is reason for this con-
clusion. It lies almost two miles N.W. from the
I'illage, and bursts forth at the foot of a high
double mound, situated a mile or more m tront
of the mountain Quarantana. It is a large and
beautiful fountain of sweet and pleasant water.
Beyond the fountain rises up the bold perpendicu-
lar face of the mountain Quarantana (Kuruntul),
from the foot of which a line of low hills runs
out N.N.E. in front of the mountains, and forms
the ascent to a narrow tract of table-land along
their base. On this tract, at the foot of the
mountains, about two and a half miles N. N.W.
from the Ain es-Sultan, is the still larger fountain
of Duk, the waters of which are brought along
the base of Quarantana in a canal to the top
of the declivity at the back of Ain es-Sultan,
whence they were formerly distributed to several
mills, and scattered over the upper part of the
plain (Robinson's Bib. Researches, ii. 284, 285).
Bishop S. M. Merrill writes of a ride from the
ford of the Jordan westward thus : "The fruit-
ful plain that so long ago flourished as the
garden of the Lord was a desert. Dry, sandy,
and scorched, it is worn out and blighted; and
yet it looks as if, with irrigation, it might be
easily redeemed to productiveness. The village of
Jericho is a cluster of mud houses, with every
appearance of poverty and discomfort. The re-
mains of old aqueducts and ruins of buildings in-
dicate that a city of some proportions was once
here. It stood close to the mountain range, in
fact touched the foot of the mountain. High
above the other summits, some three miles away,
is the place where Jesus was tempted, and is
called the Mount of Temptation, where he fasted
forty days and forty nights, tempted of the devil.
We left Jericho early in the morning to go up to
Jerusalem, probably by the way that was traveled
two thousand years ago. We passed the brook
Cherith, where Elijah was fed by the ravens when
hiding from the wrath of Ahab. On the high
ground, above the plain, we struck the old Roman
road, with the broad, tlat paving stones still
covering its bed for quite a distance. Further
up, we came to the ruins of an old khan, or
caravansary, which is said to be the only spot
where an 'inn' ever stood between Jerusalem and
Jericho, and therefore, it is the reputed site of the
inn to which the good Samaritan took the
wounded man who had fallen among thieves in
this neigliborhood, as related in the Lord's para-
ble. This region has always been famous for
robbers.
"After passing the place where Shimei cursed
and threw stones at David, when the king was
fleeing from the rebellion of Absalom, we arrived
at one of the most inviting spots for a rest in all
the journey. It is called the Fountain of the
Disciples, or Apostles' Fountain. Tradition says
it was a favorite stopping place with Christ and
his disciples, and it is not difiicult to accept the
statement ; for one can scarcely imagine that a
company of weary travelers could come to such
a fountain as is here and not be delighted and
refreshed. We tarried at this fountain for an
hour or two, and after lunch took up our march
to Bethany. The hill to ascend after leaving the
fountain was a very high one. It was fatiguing to
our horses, and we could but feel that to foot-
men making this journey it would be exhausting
indeed. Along these side hills were numerous
flocks of sheep and goats, with persons following
or watching them quite after the style of the
ancients. Almost everything in sight appeared to
illustrate some Scriptural allusion or incident."
The feet of Jesus must have often been weary as
he trod these rugged paths on his missions of
mercy to mankind.
JERIEL
JEBIEIi (je'ri-el), (Heb. '^'11, yer-ee-ale' ,
founded by God), son of Tola; one of the six
heads of the tribe of Issachar during David's time
(I Chron. vii:2), B. C. after 1856.
JEBIJAH (je-ri'jah). (Heb. 'T', yer-ee-yaw' ,
founded by Jehovah), (l Chron. xxvi:3l). See
Jeriah,
JERIMOTH (jer'i-moth), (Heb. f^''^''''."':, yer-ee-
?>tohth', heights).
1. A son of Bela, and a vaHant chief of the
Benjamites (i Chron. vii:/). (.B. C. after
3. One of the Benjamite archers and shngers
with David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:5). (B. C.
3. Son of Becher, head of a Benjamite house
(i Chron. vii:8). (B. C. 1017.)
4. Head of Merarites during census taken by
David (i Chron. xxiv:3o). (See Jeremoth, i.)
5. One of the sons of Heman and head of the
fifteenth course among the musicians in David's
reign (i Chron. xxv :4, 22). (See Jeremoth, 2.)
6. Son of Azriel, and captain of the tribe of
Naphtah under David and Solomon (i Cliron.
xxviiag). (B. C. 1014.)
7. Son of King David, whose daughter Ma-
halath was the first wife of Rehoboam, her cousin
Abihail being the other (2 Chron. xi:i8.) (B. C.
before 974.) He is not named in the list of David]s
children (l Chron. ch. iii, or xiv:4-7), and it is
probable that he was the son of a concubine, and
such is the Jewish tradition. The passage, 2
Chron. xi:i8, is not quite clear, since the word
"daughter" is a correction of the Keri; the orig-
inal text had bane, p , i. e., "son." (Smith, Bib.
Diet.)
8. A Levite, one of the overseers of the temple
under Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi:i3).
JEMOTH (je'ri-oth), (Heb. !^"^'''', yer-ee-ohth' ,
curtains or timidity), according to the A. V. the
second wife of Caleb, son of Hezron (i Chron.
ii:i8). B. C. after 1856. This seems to be con-
trary to the Hebrew text, and Jeriothwas probably
Caleb's daughter.
JEROBOAM (jer'o-bo'am), (Heb. °??"t. yaw-
rob-awm' , people will contend).
1, The first king of Israel. He was of the
tribe of Ephraim, the son of Nebat, an Eph-
raimite, by a woman named Zeruiah (i Kings
xi:26).
(1) Noticed by Solomon. He was noticed by
Solomon as a very highly gifted and active
young man, and was appointed one of the superin-
tendents of the works which that magnificent
king was carrying on at Jerusalem (i Kings xi:
28). (B, C. 960.) This appointment, the re-
ward of his merits, might have satisfied his am-
bition had not the declaration of the prophet Ahi-
jah given him higher hopes.
(2) Future Kingship Foretold. When in-
formed that, by the divine appointment, he was
to become king over the ten tribes about to be
rent from the house of David, he was not content
to wait patiently for the death of Solomon.
(3) Flight Into Egypt. He began to form
plots and conspiracies, the discovery of which
constrained him to flee to Egypt to escape condign
punishment. King Shishak was but too ready to
encourage one whose success must necessarily
weaken the kingdom which had become great and
formidable under David and Solomon, and which
926 JEROBOAM
had already pushed its frontier to the Red Sea (l
Kings xi 140) .
(4) Revolt of the Ten Tribes. When Solo-
mon died (ver. 40) B. C. 934, the ten tribes sent
to call Jeroboam from Egypt; and he appears
to have headed the deputation which came be-
fore the son of Solomon with a demand of new
securities for the rights which the measures of
the late king had compromised. It may some-
what excuse the harsh answer of Rehoboam, that
the demand was urged by a body of men headed
by one whose pretensions were so well known
and so odious to the house of David.
(5) King of Israel. The imprudent answer of
Rehoboam rendered a revolution inevitable, and
Jeroboam was then called to reign over the ten
tribes, by the style of 'King of Israel' (i Kings
xii;i-2o). The general course of his conduct
on the throne has already been indicated in the
article Israel, and need not be repeated in this
place. The leading object of his policy was to
widen the breach between the two kingdoms, and
to rend asunder those common interests among all
the descendants of Jacob which it was one great
object of the Law to combine and interlace.
(6) Golden Calves. To this end he scrupled
not to sacrifice the most sacred and inviolable
interests and obligations of the covenant people,
by forbidding his subjects to resort to the one
temple and altar of Jehovah at Jerusalem, and
by establishing shrines at Dan and Bethel — the
extremities of his kingdom — where 'golden calves'
were set up as the symbols of Jehovah (l Kings
xii:26,-28), to which the people were enjoined
to resort and bring their offerings.
(7) Acting as Priest. The pontificate of the
new establishment he united to his crown, in
imitation of the Egyptian kings. He was officiat-
ing in that capacity at Bethel, offering incense,
when a prophet appeared, and in the name of the
Lord announced a coming time, as yet far off,
in which a king of the house of David, Josiah by
name, should burn upon that unholy altar the
bones of its ministers.
(8) Smitten with Palsy. He was then pre-
paring to verify, by a commissioned prodigy, tlie
truth of the oracle he had delivered, when the
king attempted to arrest him, but was smitten
with palsy in the arm he stretched forth. Later, in
answer to prayer, it was healed (i Kings xiii:
l-io). At the same moment the threatened prod-
igy took place, the altar was rent asunder, and
the ashes strewed far around. This measure had,
however, no abiding effect. The policy on which
he acted lay too deep in what he deemed the vital
interests of his separate kingdom, to be even thus
abandoned; and the force of the considerations
which determined his conduct may in part be ap-
preciated from the fact that no subsequent king of
Israel, however well disposed in other respects,
ever ventured to lay a finger on this schismatical
establishment. Hence 'the sin of Jeroboam the
son of Nebat, wherewith he sinned and made
Israel, to sin,' became a standing phrase in de-
scribing that iniquity from which no king of
Israel departed (i Kings xii:25-33; xiii).
(9) Extinction of the Dynasty. The con-
tumacy of Jeroboam eventually brought upon him
the doom which he probably dreaded beyond all
others — the speedy extinction of the dynasty which
he had taken so much pains and incurred so
much guilt to establish on firm foundations.
(10) His Wife Disguised. His son Abijah be-
ing sick, he sent his wife disguised to consult
JEROHAM
927
JERUSALEM
the prophet Ahijah, who had predicted that he
should be king of Israel. The prophet, although
he had become blind with age, knew the queen,
and saluted her with — 'Come in, thou wife of
Jeroboam, for I am sent to thee with heavy tid-
ings.' These were not merely that the son should
die — for that was intended in mercy to one who
alone, of all the house of Jeroboam, had remained
faithful to his God, and was the only one who
should obtain an honored grave — but that his race
should be violently and utterly extinguished; 'I
will take away the remnant of the house of Jero-
boam as a man taketh away dung, till it be all
gone' (i Kings xiv:i-i8).
(11) Death of the Son and Father. The son
died so soon as the mother crossed the threshold
on her return ; and as the death of Jeroboam him-
self is the next event recorded, it would seem
that he did not long survive his son. He died
about 913 B. C. (i Kings xiv:2o).
(12) Character. Jeroboam was perhaps a less
remarkable man in character and ability than the
circumstance of his being the founder of a new
kingdom might lead us to expect. The tribes
would have revolted without him ; and he was
chosen king merely because he had been pointed
out by previous circumstances. His government
exhibits but one idea — that of raising a barrier
against the reunion of the tribes. Of this idea
he was the slave and victim ; and although the
barrier which he raised was effectual for its pur-
pose, it only served to show the weakness of the
man who could deem needful the protection for
his separate interests which such a barrier of-
fered.
2. Fourteenth king of Israel, son of Joash,
whom (B. C. 783) he succeeded on the throne,
and reigned forty-one years. He followed the
example of the first Jeroboam in keeping up the
idolatry of the golden calves. Nevertheless the
Lord had pity upon Israel ; the time of its ruin was
not yet come, and this reign was long and flour-
ishing. Jeroboam brought to a successful result
the wars which his father had undertaken, and
was always victorious over the powerful Syr-
ians. He even took their chief cities of Da-
mascus (2 Kings xiv:28: Amos i:3-S) and Ha-
math, which had formg-ly been subject to the
scepter of David, and restored to the realm of
Israel the ancient eastern limits from Lebanon
to the Dead Sea. He died B. C. 742 (2 Kings
xiv:i6, 23-29).
The Scriptural account of tliis reign is too short
to enable us to judge of the character of a prince
under whom the kingdom of Israel seems to have
reached a degree of prosperity which it had never
before enjoyed, and was not able long to
preserve. Jonah (2 Kings xiv:25) and Amos
prophesied in the reign of Jeroboam II (Amos
i:i). Amos draws a melancholy picture of
the moral and religious state of Israel at
the time (ii:6; v:27; viii :4-6, etc.), for which
he predicts judgment from God (viiri-g; viii:7-
10). For these prophecies a complaint was made
against him to Jeroboam by Amaziah the priest at
Bethel, but it does not seem to have brought any
penalty on the prophet (vii:io-i7). Hosea also
began his prophetic work in the northern king-
dom during the lifetime of Jeroboam. The first
three chapters pertain to that period. On the
death of Jeroboam, his son Zechariah ascended
the throne (2 Kings xiv:29).
JEBOHAM (jer'o-hara), (Hcb. Cr.--_ j,^^.,,.
khawtn' , compassionate).
1. Son of Elihu (Eliab. Eliel), and grandfather
of Samuel (i Sam. i:i; i Chron. vi 127, 34). (B.
C. before 1142.)
2. One of the leaders of the tribe of Benjamin
(i Chron. viii:27). (B. C. probably before 588.)
.Apparently the same as 3.
3. Father of Ibneiah, which latter was a Benja-
mite chief in Jerusalem (i Chron. ix:8). (B. C.
apparently before 536.)
4. Son of Pashur, a descendant of Aaron, of
the house of Immer (1 Chron. ix:i2). (B. C. be-
fore 536.)
5. Son of Pelaliah, and father of the priest
Adaiah, who resided in Jerusalem after the exile
(Neh. xi:i2). ( B. C. before 440.) Perhaps he
is identical with 4.
6. A resident of Gedor, father of two Benja-
mite archers who came to David at Ziklag (l
Chron. xii:7). (B. C. before 1055.)
'''• The father of Azareel who was head of the
tribe of Dan in the time of David and Solomon
(1 Chron. xxvii:22). (B. C. before 1017.)
8. Azariah's father ; the latter was oneof thetwo
of that name who planned with Jehoiada to re-
store Joash to the throne (2 Chron. xxiii:i).
(B. C. before 76)
JERUBBAAL (je-rub'ba-ai), (Heb. ^^^TT, yer-
oob-bah'al, Baal will contend), Gideon's surname,
after he had destroyed Baal's grove, and his father
had said it was Baal's business to avenge it (Judg.
vi:3l, 32; vii:l; viii:29, 35; ix;l, 2, 5, 16, 19, 24, 28,
57; I Sam. xii:ii). (See Gideon.)
JEBTJBBESHETH (je-rub'be-sheth), (Heb.
'^??^*, yer-oob-beh' sheth, contender with shame,
i. e., idol).
A name of Gideon (2 Sam. xi:2i), given, doubt-
less, in later times to avoid the necessity of
pronouncing the name of a false god (Exod.
x.xiii:i3). Gideon had acquired the name Jerub-
baal, "Baal will contend," through his abomina-
tion of the worship of Baal.
JERTJEL (je-ru'el), (Heb. ^^"'T. yer-oo-ale',
founded of God).
A wilderness west of the Dead Sea, and south
of Judah, where Jehoshaphat obtained a great
victory over the Ammonites, Moabites, etc. It
was called the valley of Berachah, or blessing;
and lay between Engedi and Tekoah (2 Chron.
.\x:i6; compare ver. 26). It corresponds in situa-
tion to cl Hasasah, a tract sloping from Tekoa
to Ain-Jidy (Robinson, Researches, ii. 212).
JERUSALEM (je-ru'salgm), (Heb. °H''"'"l,J'<f»'-
oo-shanv-lame' , founded peaceful).
Jerusalem has been the theme for song and
story from the earliest ages. "Beautiful for situ-
ation, the joy of the whole earth, is Mount Zion,
on the sides of the north, the city of the great
king" (Ps. x!viii:2). "Jerusalem is builded as a
city that is compact together" (Ps. cxxii:3).
I. Jiatnes. In the time of Abraham it was
called Salem (Gen. xiv:i8), but when it fell into
the hands of the Jebusites, they called it Jebus;
then the two words were united into one, Jerusa-
lem, or "habitation of peace." It is first men-
tioned as such in Joshua x:i. The Psalmist says
(Ixxvi:2) : "In Salem also is his tabernacle, and
his dwelling-place in Zion." After the death of
Joshua the tribes of Judah and of Simeon fought
against the Canaanites. and captured and burned
the city of Jerusalem (Judg. i:i-8). Again, we
learn that the "children of Benjamin did not drive
out the Jebusites that inhabited Jerusalem" (Judg
JERUSALEM
928
JERUSALEM
i:2i). This statement has reference, doubtless,
to the l«wer city, and not to what was afterwards
called Mount Zion. The latter was conquered
by David when he led his forces from Hebron to
the conquest, and after this brilliant assault it was
called the "City of David." This latter naine,
during the reign of the Maccabees, was sometimes
applied to the whole city, but gradually shifted
back to the spot still known as Mount Zion, and
mentioned so many times in Scripture. In Ezekiel
xvi:3; it is written: "Thus saith the Lord God
unto Jerusalem; thy birth and thy nativity is of the
land of Canaan ; thy father was an Amorite, and
thy mother a Hittite" — and, indeed, we find a
remnant of the Hittite population in the city so
late as the time of David. The Latins called it
Hierosolyma, and once Ariel ; the Greeks had a
similar name. In 2 Chron. xxv :28, it is called
"the City of Judah." Pharaoh-necho took
the "City of Cadytis," which historians believe to
be Jerusalem. The "City of God," the "Holy
City," "Solima," "Colonia ALVm Capitolina,"
"Curumobarech," "Leucost," "the Perfection of
Beauty," "Princess among the Provinces," are
some of the names, while the Arabs speak of it as
"El-Khuds"— "the Holy."
2. Situation and Topography. Jerusalem
lies near the summit of a broad mountain-ridge,
about thirty-five miles east from Joppa on the
Mediterranean Sea. eighteen miles west of the
north end of the Dead Sea, twenty-two from the
Jordan, and with a general elevation of two
thousand five hundred feet above the level of the
ocean, and three thousand eight hundred and
fifty-two higher than the surface of the Dead
Sea, the latter being one thousand three hundred
and twelve feet below the Mediterranean Sea, and
the lowest point on the surface of the globe. "In
several respects," says Stanley, "its situation is
singular among the cities of Palestine. Its ele-
vation is remarkable ; occasioned not from its be-
ing on the summit of one of the numerous hills
of Judaea, like most of the towns and villages, but
because it is on the edge of one of the highest
table-lands of the country. Hebron indeed is
higher still by some hundred feet, and from the
south, accordingly (even from Bethlehem), the
approach to Jerusalem is by a slight descent. But
from any other side the ascent is perpetual; and
to the traveler approaching the city from the east
or west it must always have presented the ap-
pearance beyond any other capital of the then
known world — we may say beyond any important
city that has ever existed on the earth — of a
mountain city; breathing, as compared with the
sultry plains of Jordan, a mountain air; en-
throned, as compared with Jericho, or Damascus,
Gaza or Tyre, on a mountain fastness" (S. & P.
p. 170, 171).
The ridge, or mountainous tract, on which Je-
rusalem stands, extends, without interruption,
from the plain of Esdraelon to a line drawn be-
tween the south end of the Dead Sea and the
southeast corner of the Mediterranean ; or, more
properly, perhaps, it may be regarded as extend-
ing as far south as to Jebel Araif in the Desert,
where it sinks down at once to the level of the
great western plateau. This tract, which is every-
where not less than from twenty to twenty-five
geographical miles in breadth, is, in fact, high, un-
even table-land. It everywhere forms the pre-
cipitous western wall of the great valley of the
Jordan and the Dead Sea, and is everywhere
rocky, uneven, and mountainous; and is, more-
over, cut up by deep valleys which run cast or
west on either side towards the Jordan or the
Mediterranean. The line of division, or water-
shed, between the waters of these valleys — a term
which here applies almost exclusively to the
waters of the rainy season — follows for the most
part the height of land along the ridge; yet not
so but that the heads of the valleys, which run
oiif in different directions, often interlap for a
considerable distance. Thus, for example, a val-
ley which descends to the Jordan often has its
head a mile or two westward of the commence-
ment of other valleys which run to the western
sea.
From the great plain of Esdraelon onwards
towards the south, the mountainous country rises
gradually, forming the tract anciently known as
the mountains of Ephraim and Judah; until, in
the vicinity of Hebron, it attains an elevation of
nearly three thousand Paris feet above the level
of the Mediterranean Sea. Further north, on a
line drawn from the north end of the Dead Sea
towards the true west, the ridge has an eleva-
tionof only about twothousand five hundred Paris
feet ; and here, close upon the water-shed, lies the
city of Jerusalem. Its mean geographical posi-
tion is in latitude 31° 46' 43" north, and longi-
tude 35° 13' east from Greenwich.
The surface of the elevated promontory itself,
on which the city stands, slopes somewhat steeply
towards the east, terminating on the brink of the
valley of Jehoshaphat. From the northern part,
near the present Damascus gate, a depression or
shallow wady runs in a southern direction, hav-
ing on the west the ancient hills of Akra and
Zion, and on the east the lower ones of Bezetha
and Moriah. Between the hills of Akra and
Zion another depression or shallow wady (still
easy to be traced) comes down from near the Jaffa
gate, and joins the former. It then continues
obliquely down the slope, but with a deeper bed,
in a southern direction, quite to the pool of Siloam
and the valley of Jehoshaphat. This is the an-
cient Tyropoeon. West of its lower part Zion
rises loftily, lying mostly without the modern city;
while on the east of the Tyropoeon and the valley
first mentioned lie Bezetha, Moriah, and Ophel,
the last a long and comparatively narrow ridge,
also outside of the modern city, and terminating
in a rocky point over the pool of Siloam. These
last three hills may strictly be taken as only parts
of one and the same ridge. The breadth of the
whole site of Jerusalem, from the brow of the
valley of Hinnom, near the Jaffa gate, to the
brink of the valley of Jehoshaphat, is about one
thousand and twenty yards, or nearly half a geo-
graphical mile.
The country around Jerusalem is all of lime-
stone formation, and not particularly fertile. The
rocks everywhere come out above the surface,
which in many parts is also thickly strewed with
loose stones ; and the aspect of the whole region
is barren and dreary; yet the olive thrives here
abundantly, and fields of grain are seen in the
valleys and level places, but they are less pro-
ductive than in the region of Hebron and Nabu-
lus. Neither vineyards nor fig-trees flourish on
the high ground around the ciiy, though the latter
are found in the gardens below Siloam, and very
frequently in the vicinity of Bethlehem.
3. Historp. No city on the globe has suf-
fered more from war and sieges than Jerusalem.
No wonder historians claim that not a stone or
wall remains of the city of David. And yet, as
will be seen from the review of the recent dis-
coveries on the Temple Hill, which accompanies
this article, the visitor to Jerusalem can now. if
so disposed, see the very stones placed in position
s
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O
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JERUSALEM
929
JERUSALEM
by the masons of Solomon. From walls hanging
over shelving cliffs, and valleys tilled with more
than a hundred feet of debris, the present city
stands above the foundations of former cities
long since buried in ruin. Storming legions, bat-
tering-rams, and catapults have razed it again and
again. And yet, the general outline of the city
has always been preserved. Zion and Mount Mo-
riah remain in full view from Olivet, and there,
on those hills, stretching away toward the west,
city after city has come and gone in the passing
ages.
(1) Joshua. Joshua took a part of the city
about 1.444 years before Christ. After the deatli
of Joshua, when there remained for the children
of Israel much to conquer in Canaan, the Lord
directed Judah to fight against the Canaanites ;
and they took Jerusalem, smote it with the edge
of the sword, and set it on fire (Judg. i:i-8).
After that, the Judahites and the Benjamites
dwelt with the Jebusites at Jerusalem; for it is
recorded (Josh. xv:63) that the children of Ju-
dah could not drive out the Jebusites inhabiting
Jerusalem; and we are further informed (Judg.
i:2i) that the children of Benjamin did not expel
them from Jerusalem. Probably the Jebusites
were removed by Judah only from the lower city,
but kept possession of the mountain of Zion, which
David conquered at a later period.
(2) David. Jerusalem is not again mentioned
till the time of Saul, when it is stated ( i Sam.
xvii :54) that David took the head of Goliath and
brought it to Jerusalem. After David, who had
previously reigned over Judah alone in Hebron,
was called to rule over all Israel, he led his forces
against the Jebusites. and conquered the castle
of Zion, which Joab first scaled (2 Sam. v:s-9;
I Chron. xi:4-8). (B. C. 1046.)
(3) City of David. He then fixed his abode
on this mountain, and called it 'the city of David.'
Thither he carried the ark of the covenant ; and
there he built unto the Lord an altar in the thresh-
ing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite, on the place
where the angel stood who threatened Jerusalem
with pestilence (2 Sam. x.xiv :l5-25). The rea-
sons which led David to fix upon Jerusalem as
the metropolis of his kingdom have been alluded
to elsewhere (see Israel; Judah) ; being, chiefly,
that it was in his own tribe of Judah. in which his
influence was the strongest, while it was the near-
est to the other tribes of any site he could have
chosen in Judah. The peculiar strength also of
the situation, enclosed on three sides by a natural
trench of valleys, could not be without weight.
Its great strength, according to the military no-
tions of that age. is shown by the length of time
the Jebusites were able to keep possession of it
against the force of all Israel. (See David.)
(4) Solomon. After the death of David (B.
C. loio) .Solomon built his temple upon Mount
Moriah. By him and his father Jerusalem had
been made the imperial residence of the king of
all Israel: and the temple, often called 'the house
of Jehovah,' constituted it' at the Game time the
residence of the King of Kings, the supreme
head of the theocratical state, whose vicegerents
the human kings were taught to regard them-
selves. It now belonged, even less than a town
of the Levites, to a particular tribe: it was the
center of all civil and religious affairs, the very
place of which Moses spoke (Deut. xii:5) : 'The
place which the Lord your God shall choose out
of all your tribes to put his name there, even unto
his habitation shall ye seek, and thither thou
shalt come' (comp. ix:6; xiv :23 ; xvi:ii-i6; Ps.
cxxii). (See Soi.OMON.)
59
(5) Rehoboam. The importance and splend»r
of Jerusalem were considerably lessened after the
death of Solomon ; under who.se son, Rehoboam,
ten of the tribes rebelled, Judah and Benjannn
only remaining in their allegiance. Jerusalem
was then only the capital of the very small state
of Judah. And when Jeroboam instituted the
worship of golden calves in Bethel and Dan, the
ten tribes went no longer up to Jerusalem to wor-
ship and sacrifice in the house of the Lord (l
Kings xii :26-30).
After this time the history of Jerusalem is con-
tinued in the history of Judah. for which the
second books of the Kings and of the Chronicles
are the principal sources of information.
(6) The Rule of Different Kings. After the
time of Solomon, the kingdom of Judah was al-
most alternately ruled by good kings, 'who did
that which was right in the sight of the Lord.'
and by such as were idolatrous and evil-disposed ;
and the reign of the same king often varied, and
was by turns good or evil. The condition of the
kingdom, and of Jerusalem in particular as its
metropolis, was very much affected by these muta-
tions. Under good kings the city flourished, and
under bad kings it suffered greatly.
(7) Destroyed by Shishak, and Restored.
Under Rehoboam (B. C. 970) it was conquered by
Shishak, king of Egypt, who pillaged the treasures
of the temple (2 Chron. xii:9). Under Amaziah
it was taken by Joash. king of Israel, who broke
down four hundred cubits of the wall of the city,
and took all the gold and silver, and all the vessels
that were found in the temple (2 Kings xiv: 13.
14). Uzziah, son of Amaziah, who at first reigned
well, built towers in Jerusalem at the corner-gate,
at the valley-gate, and at the turning of the wall,
and fortified them (2 Chron. xxvi:9). His son.
Jotham, built the high gate of the temple, and
reared up many other structures (2 Chron. xxvii :
3, 4)- (B. C. about 755.)
(8) Hezekiah. Hezekiah (B. C. 728) added
to the other honors of his reign that of an im-
prover of Jerusalem. His most eminent work in
that character was the stopping of the upper
course of Gihon. and bringing its waters by a
subterraneous aqueduct to the west side of the
city (2 Chron. xxxii:3o). This work is inferred,
from 2 Kings xx, to have been of great impor-
tance to Jerusalem, as it cut off a supply of water
from any besieging enemy and bestowed it upon
the inhabitants of the city. (See King, Recml
Discoveries on the Temple Hill.) Hezekiah's
son, Manasseh, in his later and best years, built
a strong and very high wall on the west side of
Jerusalem (2 Chron. xxxiii:i4). The works in
the city connected with the names of the suc-
ceeding kings of Judah were, so far as recorded,
confined to the defilement of the house of the
Lord by bad kings, and its purgation by good
kings, till about one hundred years after Manas-
seh, when, for the abounding iniquities of the na-
tion, the city and temple were abandoned to de-
struction.
(9) Nebuchadnezzar. After a siege of three
years, Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar,
who razed its walls, and destroyed its temple and
palaces with fire (2 Kings xxv ; 2 Chron. xxxvi ;
Jer. xxxix). (B. C. 588.) Thus was Jerusalem
smitten with the calamity which Moses had proph-
esied would befall it if the people would not
keep the commandments of the Lord, but broke
his covenant (Lev. xxvi:i4; Deut. xxviii).
(10) Exile of IsraeL The ten tribes forming
the kingdom of Israel had been already upwards
of one hundred and thirtv vears before trans-
JERUSALEM
930
JERUSALEM
ported to Assyria, when Judah also was exiled to
Babylon. The castle of David, the temple of Solo-
mon, and the entire city, lay in ruins, and to all
appearance there was an end of the people as well
as of the holy city, which the Lord had chosen to
himself. But God, before whom a thousand years
are as one day, gave to the afflicted people a
glimpse beyond the present calamity^ and retribu-
tive judgment, into a distant futurity. The same
prophets who foretold the destruction of Jeru-
salem also announced the consolidations of a com-
ing time.
Moses had long before predicted that if in the
land of their captivity they repented of their evil,
they should be brought back again to the land out
of which they had been cast (Deut. xxx:i-5;
comp. I Kings viii 146-53; Neh. i :8, g). The Lord
also, through Isaiah, condescended to point
out the agency through which the restoration of
the holy city was to be accomplished, and even
named long before his birth the very person, Cy-
rus, under whose orders this was to be effected
(Is. xliv:28; comp. Jer. iii :2, 7, 8; xxiii:3; xxxi :
10; xxxii :36, 37). Among the remarkably pre-
cise indications should be mentioned that in which
Jeremiah (xxv 19-12) limits the duration of Ju-
dah's captivity to seventy years. (See Captiv-
ity.)
(11) Daniel and Cyrus. These encourage-
ments were continued through the prophets, who
themselves shared the captivity. Of this number
was Daniel (Dan. ix:i6, 19), who lived to see
the reign of Cyrus, king of Persia (Dan. x:i),
and the fulfilment of his prayer. It was in the
year B. C. 536, 'in the first year of Cyrus,' that in
accomplishment of the prophecy of Jeremiah, the
Lord stirred up the spirit of this prince, who made
a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, ex-
pressed in these remarkable words : 'The Lord
God of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms
of the earth, and he has charged me to build him
a house at Jerusalem, ivhich is in Judah. Who
is there among you of all his people? his God be
with him, and let him go up to Jerusalem, and
build the house of the Lord God of Israel' (Ezra
i:2, 3). This important call was answered by
a considerable number of persons, particularly
priests and Levites ; and the many who declined
to quit their houses and possessions in Babylonia,
committed valuable gifts to the hands of their
more zealous brethren. Cyrus also caused the
sacred vessels of gold and silver which Nebuchad-
nezzar had taken from the temple to be restored
to Sheshbazzar, the prince of Judah, who took
them to Jerusalem followed by 42,360 people, be-
side their servants, of whom there were 7,337,
(Ezra i:s-ii).
(12) Rebuilding of the Temple. On their
arrival at Jerusalem they contributed according
to their ability to rebuild the temple; Jcshua, the
priest, and Zerubbabel, reared up an altar to offer
burnt-offerings thereon ; and when in the follow-
ing year the foundation was laid of the new house
of (jod, 'the people shouted for joy, but many of
the Levites who had seen the first temple, wept
with a loud voice' (Ezra iii :2, 12). When the
Samaritans expressed a wish to share in the pious
labor, Zerubbabel declined the offer ; and in re-
venge the Samaritans sent a deputation to king
Artaxerxes of Persia, carrying a presentment in
which Jerusalem was described as a rebellious city
of old time, which, if rebuilt, and its walls set up
again, would not pay toll, tribute, and custom,
and would thus endanger the public revenue. The
deputation succeeded, and Artaxerxes ordered
that the building of the temple should cease. The
interruption thus caused lasted to the second year
of the reign of Darius (Ezra iv:24), when Zerub-
babel and Jeshua, supported by the prophets Hag-
gai and Zechariah, again resumed the work, and
would not cease though cautioned by the Persian
governor of Judaea. (B. C. 520.) On the matter
coming before Darius Hystaspis, and the Jews re-
minding him of the permission given by Cyrus,
he decided in their favor, and also ordered that
the expenses of the work should be defrayed out
of the public revenue (Ezra vi:8). In the sixth
year of the reign of Darius the temple was fin-
ished, when they kept the Feast of Dedication with
great joy, and next celebrated the Passover (Ezra
vi;is, 16, 19). (B. C. 516.)
(13) Artaxerxes II. Afterwards, in the sev-
enth year of the second Artaxerxes, Ezra, a de-
scendant of Aaron, came up to Jerusalem, accom-
panied by a large number of Jews who had re-
mamed in Babylon. He was highly patronized by
the king, who not only made him a large present
in gold and silver, but published a decree enjoin-
ing all treasurers of Judaea speedily to do what-
ever Ezra should require of them ; allowing him
to collect money throughout the whole province
of Babylon for the wants of the temple at Jerusa-
lem; and also giving him full power to appoint
magistrates in his country to judge the people
(Ezra vii-viii). At a later period, in the twen-
tieth year of King Artaxerxes, Nehemiah, who was
his cupbearer, obtained permission to proceed to
Jerusalem, and to complete the rebuilding of the
city and its wall, which he happily accomplished,
despite all the opposition which he received
from the enemies of Israel (Neh. i, ii, iv, vi). (B.
C. 446.) The city was then capacious and large,
but the people in it were few, and many houses
lay still in ruins (Neh. vii:4). At Jerusalem
dwelt the rulers of the people and 'certain of the
children of Judah and of the children of Benja-
min' ; but it was now determined that the rest of
the people should cast lots to bring one of ten
to the capital (Neh. xi:i-4X. (B. C. about 440.)
All strangers, Samaritans, Ammonites, Moabites,
etc., were removed, to keep the chosen people from
pollution ; ministers were appointed to the tem-
ple, and the service was performed according to
the law of Moses (Ezra x; Neh. viii, x, xii, xiii).
Of the Jerusalem thus by such great and long-
continued exertions restored, very splendid
prophecies were uttered by those prophets who
flourished after the exile ; the general purport of
which was to describe the temple and city as
destined to be glorified far beyond the former, by
the advent of the long and eagerly expected Mes-
siah, 'the desire of all nations' (Zech. ix:9; xii:
10; Hag. ii :6, 7). (See Ezra; Nehemiah.)
(14) Josephus and Alexander the Great. It
is said by Josephus (Antiq. xi :8) that when the
dominion of this part of the world passed from
the Persians to the Greeks, Alexander the Great
advanced against Jerusalem to punish it for the
fidelity to the Persians which it had manifested
while he was engaged in the siege of Tyre. His
hostile purposes, however, were averted by the ap-
pearance of the high-priest Jaddua at the head of
a train of priests in their sacred vestments. Alex-
ander recognized in him the figure which in a
dream had encouraged him to undertake the con-
quest of Asia. He therefore treated him with
respect and reverence, spared the city against
which his wrath had been kindled, and granted
to the Jews high and important privileges. The
historian adds that the high-priest failed not to
apprise the conqueror of those prophecies in Dan-
iel by which his successes had been predicted.
JERUSALEM
931
JERUSALEM
The whole of this story is, however, liable to sus-
picion, from the absence of any notice of the cir-
cumstance in the histories of this campaign which
we possess.
(15) Ptolemy. After the death of Alexander
at Babylon (B. C. 324). F'tok-niy suri)rised Jeru-
salem on the Sabbaih day. when the Jews would
not fight, plundered the city, and carried away a
great number of the inhabitants to Egypt, where,
however, from the estimation in which the Jews
of this period were held as citizens, important
privileges were bestowed upon them (Joseph.
Aniiq. xii:i). In the contests which afterwards
followed for the possession of Syria (including
Palestine). Jerusalem does not appear to have
been directly injured, and was even spared when
Ptolemy gave up Samaria, Acco, Joppa, and Gaza
to pillage. The contest was ended by the treaty
in B. C. 302, which annexed the whole of Pales-
tine, together with Arabia Petrjea and Coele-
Syria, to Egypt.
(16) Ptolemy Euergetes and Ptolemy Phi-
lopator. Under easy subjection to the Ptolemies
the Jews remained in much tranquillity for more
than a hundred years, in which the principal inci-
dent, as regards Jerusalem itself, was the visit
which was paid to it. in B. C. 245, by Ptolemy
Euergetes, on his return from his victories in the
East. He offered many sacrifices, and made mag-
nificent presents to the temple. In the wars be-
tween Aniiochus the Great and the kings of
Egypt, from B. C. 221 to 197, Judsea could not fail
to suffer severely; but we are not acquainted with
any incident in which Jerusalem was principally
concerned, till the alleged visit of Ptolemy
Philopator in B. C. 211. He offered sacrifices,
and gave rich gifts to the temple, but venturing
to enter the sanctuary, in spite of the remon-
strances of the high-priest, he was seized with a
supernatural dread, and fled in terror from the
place. It is said that on his return to Egypt he
vented his rage on the Jews of Alexandria in a
very barbarous manner. (See Alexandria.) But
the whole story of his visit and its results rests
upon the sole authority of the third book of Mac-
cabees (chapters i and ii), and is therefore not
entitled to implicit credit.
(17) Antiochus. Towards the end of this
war the Jews seemed to favor the cause of An-
tiochus; and after he had subdued the neighbor-
ing country, they voluntarily tendered their sub-
mission, and rendered their assistance in expelling
the Egyptian garrison from Mount Zion. For
this conduct they were rewarded with many im-
portant privileges by Antiochus.
(18) Seleucus Philopator. Under their new
masters the Jews enjoyed for a time nearly as
much tranquillity as under the generally benign
and liberal government of the Ptolemies. But
in B. C. 176, Seleucus Philopator, hearing that
great treasures were hoarded up in the temple,
and being distressed for money to carry on his
wars, sent his treasurer, Heliodorus, to bring
away these treasures. But this personage is re-
ported to have been so frightened and stricken by
an apparition that he relinquished the attempt;
and Seleucus left the Jews in the undisturbed en-
joyment of their rights (3 Mace. iii:4-4o; Joseph.
Anliq. xii :3, 3).
(19) Antiochus Epiphanes. His brother and
successor, Antiochus Epiphanes, however, was of
another mind. He took up the design of reducing
them to a conformity of manners and religion
with other nations ; or, in other words, of abol-
ishingf those distinctive features which made the
Jews a peculiar people, socially separated from
all others. This design was odious to the great
body of the people, although there were many
among the higher classes who regarded it with
favor. Of this way of thinking was Menelaus,
whom Antiochus had made high-priest, and who
was expelled by the orthodox Jews with ignominy,
in B. C. 169, when they heard the joyful news
that Antiochus had been slain in Egypt. The
rumor proved untrue and Antiochus on his
return punished them by plundering and
profaning the temple. Worse evils befell
them two years after: for Antiochus, out
of humor at being compelled by the Romans
to abandon his designs upon Egypt, sent his chief
collector of tribute, ApoUonius, with a detachment
of 22,000 men, to vent his rage on Jerusalem.
This person plundered the city, and razed its
walls, with the stones of which he built a citadel
that commanded the temple mount. A statue of
Jupiter was set up in the temple; the peculiar ob-
servances of the Jewish law were abolished ; and
a persecution was commenced against all who ad-
hered to these observances, and refused to sacri-
fice to idols. Jerusalem was deserted by priests
and people, and the daily sacrifice at the altar was
entirely discontinued (i Mace. 1:29-40; 2 Mace.
v:24-26; Joseph. Aiitiq. xii :s, 4). (See Anti-
ochus, 4.)
(20) Maccabees. This led to the celebrated
revolt of the Maccabees, who, after an arduous
and sanguinary struggle, obtained possession of
Jerusalem (B, C. 163), and repaired and purified
the temple, which was then dilapidated and de-
serted. The sacrifices were then recommenced,
exactly three years after the temple had been dedi-
cated to Jupiter Olympius. The castle, however,
remained in the hands of the Syrians, and long
proved a sore annoyance to the Jews, but at
length, in B. C. 142, the garrison was forced to
surrender by Simon, who demolished it altogether,
that it might not again be used against the Jews
by their enemies. Simon then strengthened the
fortifications of the mountain on .which the tem-
ple stood and built there a palace for himself
( I Mace. xiii:43, 52; Joseph. Antiq. xiii :6, 6),
which was strengthened and enlarged by Herod
the Great, who called it the castle of Antonia, un-
der which name it makes a conspicuous figure in
the Jewish wars with the Romans.
(21) Pompey. Of Jerusalem itself we find
nothing of consequence, till it was taken by Pom-
pey in the summer of B. C. 63, and on the very
day observed by the Jews as one of lamentation
and fasting, in commemoration of the conquest
of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. Twelve thou-
sand Jews were massacred in the temple courts,
including many priests, who died at the very
allar rather than suspend the sacred rites (Joseph.
Antiq. xiv:t-4). On this occasion Pompey, at-
tended by his generals, went into the temple and
viewed the .sanctuary ; but he left untouched all
its treasures and sacred things, while the walls
of the city itself were demolished. From this
time the Jews are to be considered as under the
dominion of the Romans (Joseph. Antiq. xiv:
4. S)-
(22) Crassus. The treasures which Pompey
had spared were seized a few years after (B. C.
51) by Crassus. In the year B. C. 43, the walls
of the city, which Pompey had demolished, were
rebuilt by .^ntipater. the father of that Herod the
Great under whom Jerusalem was destined to as-
sume the new and more magnificent aspect which
it bore in the time of Christ, and which consti-
tuted the Jerusalem which Josephus describes.
JERUSALEM
932
JERUSALEM
(23) Herod the Great. The temple itself was
taken down and rebuilt by Herod the Great, with
a magnificence exceeding that of Solomon's
(Mark xiiia; John :i:20). (See Temple.) It
was in the courts of the temple as thus rebuilt,
and in the streets of the city as thus improved,
that the Savior of men walked up and down.
Here he taught, here he wrought mtracles, here
he s'affered; and this was the temple whose
'goodly stones' the Apostle admired (Mark xiii:i),
and of which Jesus foretold that ere tlie existing
generation had passed away not one stone should
be left upon another.
(24) Destruction of the City by Titus. Je-
rusalem seems to have been raised to this great-
ness as if to enhance the misery of its overthrow.
So soon as the Jews had set the seal to their for-
mal rejection of Christ, by putting him to death,
and invoking the responsibility of his blood upon
the heads of themselves and of their children
(Matt. .xxvii:2s), the city's doom went forth.
Titus, a young, brave and competent Roman gen-
eral, with an army of sixty thousand trained, vic-
torious warriors, appeared before the city in April,
70 A. D., and the most disastrous siege of all
history began. It was Passover week, crowds
from the whole land had come to the great annual
gathering, and were hopelessly surrounded by the
immense army, and driven into the city, swelling
the total population to at least a million and a
quarter of souls. The assault was commenced on the
north and west walls, where, after fifteen days
of battering and fighting, a breach was made in
the wall of the new city. The Roman army en-
tered and laid siege to the second wall, which was
far heavier and stronger than the outer one al-
ready passed. Here a most stubborn resistance
was made, and the assaulting forces were for a
time defeated.
Titus called to his aid the most dreadful of all
enemies, that of famine. He encompassed the
entire city with a wall five miles in length,
v/hich was built within three days. This, with the
strictest watch-care, utterly prohibited any food
from reaching the doomed city. The distress was
so severe that many were crazed by the gnawings
of hunger. Mary, daughter of Eleazar, from
Perea, a lady of rank, killed her infant child and
cooked it for food. The prophecy of Moses, ut-
tered more than fifteen hundred years before, was
fulfilled to the letter. "Her children which she
shall bear. . . . she shall eat them for want
of all things. ... in the siege and in the
straitness, wherewith thine enemies shall dis-
tress thee in thy gates" (Deut. x.\viii:57, etc.).
Bezetha, Akra, Zion, the castle of Antonia, and
finally the temple, one by one, all fell before the
strong legions of Titus. For three years and a
half this most memorable siege continued. Around
the great altar of sacrifice lay dead bodies heaped
one upon another, and blood flowed inio the con-
duits where before that of the sacrifices ran. Man
was the victim now, and the temple, sanctified
by the blood of innocence, was defiled by the blood
of the guilty. Titus entered the "Holy of Holies,"
but the Shekinah was gone. He carried away the
golden candlestick, and some of the rich furni-
ture; the temple was burned, and thus ended the
greatest of sanctuaries.
On the same day of the month, August 15, six
hundred and sixty-one years before, Nebuchad-
nezzar destroyed the holy house, but now the very
foundations were razed, after standing eleven
hundred and thirty-seven years. The search for
gold and silver whicli had melted in the fire caused
the soldiers to dig away the very foundations,
until "not one stone was left upon another that
was not thrown down." The stronghold of Zion,
the city of David, was the last to fall. Then came
the order to utterly demolish the walls, leaving
three towers, Phasaelus, Hippicus, and Mariamne,
as monuments to show the strength with which
Titus contended. Micah (iii:i2) said: "There-
fore shall Zion for your sake be plowed as a field,
and Jerusalem shall become heaps."
Thirty-eight years after the Jews haa led Christ
away to crucify him an avenging army led away
as captives all who had cried against the Son of
God. Their house was a desolate, a charred ruin,
the scepter had departed, the daily sacrifices
ceased, the day of vengeance came, and not one
tittle of the prophecy of the Divine Master had
failed. Over a million persons had perished;
ninety-seven thousand were led away as captives,
multitudes were sent to the Egyptian mines, thou-
sands were reserved for the triumph of Titus -it
Rome, and the records on the triumphal arch
show us the golden table, the seven-branch golden
candlestick, silver trumpets, and other spoils from
the temple. Since then the Holy City has lain at
the mercy of the Gentiles, and will so remain 'un-
til the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled.'
4. Ancient Jerusalem. Every reader of
Scripture feels a natural anxiety to form some
notion of the appearance and condition of Je-
rusalem, as it existed in the time of Jesus, or
rather as it stood before its destruction by the
Romans. There are unusual difiiculties in the
way of satisfying this desire, although it need not
be left altogether ungratified. The principal
sources of these difficulties have been indicated
by diflfer^nt travelers. It is a tantalizing circum-
stance, however, for the traveler who wishes 10
recognize in his walks the site of particular build-
ings, or the scenes of memorable events, that the
greater part of the objects mentioned in the de-
scription, both of the inspired and of the Jewish
historian, are entirely razed from their founda-
tion, without leaving a single trace or name be-
hind to point out where they stood.
To the obscurity originating in these causes may
be added that which arises from the many am-
biguities in the description left by Josephus, the
only one which we possess, and which must form
the groundwork of most of our notices respect-
ing the ancient city. There are indeed some mani-
fest errors in his account, which the critical reader
is able to detect without having the means to
rectify.
In describing Jerusalem as it stood just before
its destruction by the Romans, Josephus states
that the city was built upon two hills, between
which lay the valley Tyropceon (Cheesemonger's
Valley), to which the buildings on both hills came
down. This valley extended to the fountain of
Siloam. The hill on which the upper town stood
was much higher than the other, and straighter in
its extent'. (Dn account of its fortifications, David
called it the Fortress or Castle: but in the time of
Josephus it was known by the name of the Upper
Market. The other hill, on which was situated
the lower town, was called Akra. It was in the
form of a horseshoe or crescent. Opposite to Akra
was a third, and naturally lower hill (Moriah),
on which the temple was built ; and between this
and Akra was originally a broad valley, which the
inhabitants of Jerusalem filled up in the time of
Simon Maccabaeus for the purpose of connecting the
town with theteniple. At thesametime they lowered
the hill Akra, so as to make the temple rise above
it. Both the hills on which the upper and lower
towns stood were externally surrounded by deep
JERUSALEM
933
JERUSALEM
valleys, and here there was no approach because
of the precipices on every side.
(1) The Walls. The first, or most ancient
wall, appears to have enclosed the whole of Mount
Zion. i he greater part of it, therefore, must have
formed the exterior and sole wall on the south,
overlooking the deep valleys below Mount Zion ;
and the northern part evidently passed from the
tower of Hippicus on the west side, along the
northern brow of Zion, and across the valley, to
the western side of the temple area. It probably
nearly coincided with the ancient wall which ex-
isted before the time of David, and which en-
abled the Jebusites to maintain themselves in pos-
session of the upper ciiy, long after the lower city
had been in the hands of the Israelites. Mount
Zion is now unwalled, and is excluded from the
modern city. The account given by Josephus, of
the second wall, is very short and unsatisfactory.
Bui it would seem that it enclosed the whole of
the lower city, or Akra, excepting that part of the
eastern side of it which fronted the temple area
on Mount Moriah, and the southern side, towards
the valley which separated the lower from the up-
per city. In short, ii was a continuation of the
external wall, so far as necessary, on the west and
north, and on so much of the east as was not al-
ready protected by the strong wall of the temple
area.
Although these were the only walls that ex-
isted in the time of our Savior, we are not to
infer that the habitable city was confined within
their limits. On the contrary, it was because the
city had extended northward far beyond the sec-
ond wall that a third was built to cover the de-
fenseless suburb ; and there is no reason to doubt
that this unprotected suburb, called Bezetha, ex-
isted in the time of Christ. This wall is described
is having also begun at the tower of Hippicus:
it ran northward as far as to the tower Psephinos,
then passed down opposite the scpulcher of Helena
(queen of Adiabene), and being carried along
through the royal sepulchers, turned at the corner
tower by the Fuller's monument, and ended by
making a junction with the ancient wall at the
valley of the Kidron. It was begun ten or twelve
years after our Lord's crucifixion by the elder
Herod Agrippa, who desisted from completing it
for fear of offending the Emperor Claudius. But
the design was afterwards taken up and com-
pleted by the Jews themselves, although on a scale
of less strength and magnificence. Dr. Robinson
thinks that he discovered some traces of this wall,
which are described in his great work (Bibl. Re-
searches, i. 466).
The same writer thinks that the wall of the
new city, the /Elia of Adrian, nearly coincided
with that of the present Jerusalem.
W'c know from Joscpluis thai ilic circumference
of the ancient city was thirly-lhrec stadia, equiv-
alent to nearly three and a half geographical miles.
The circumference of the present walls docs not
exceed two and a half geographical miles; but
the extent of Mount Zion, now without the walls,
and the tract on the north formerly enclosed, or
partly so, by the third wall, sufficiently account
for the difference.
The history of the modern walls has already
been given in the sketch of the modern history of
the city. The present walls have a solid and
formidable appearance, especially when cursorily
observed from without : and they are strength-
ened or rather ornamented, with towers and bat-
tlements after the Saracenic style. They are
built of limestone, the stones being not commonly
more than a foot or fifteen inches square. The
height varies with the various elevations of the
ground. The lower pans are probably about
twenty-five feet high, while in more exposed lo-
calities, where the ravines contribute less to the
security of the city, they have an elevation of
sixty or seventy feet,
(2) Gates. Much uncertainty exists respect-
ing the ancient gates of Jerusalem, Many gates
are named in Scripture; and it has been objected
that they are more in number than a town of the
size of Jerusalem could require — especially as
they all occur within the extent embraced by the
first and second walls, the third not then exist-
ing. It has, therefore, been suggested as more
than probable that some of these gates were
within the city, in the walls which separated the
town from the temple, and the upper town from
the lower, in which gates certainly existed. On
the other hand, considering the circumstances un-
der which the wall was rebuilt in the time of
Nehemiah, it is difficult to suppose that more than
the outer wall was then constructed, and cer-
tainly it was in the wall then built that the ten
or twelve gates mentioned by Nehemiah occur.
But these may be considerably reduced by suppos-
ing that two or more of the names mentioned were
applied to the same gate. If this view of the mat-
ter be taken, no better distribution of these gates
can be given than that suggested by Raumer.
(a) On the north side.
(i) The Old Gate, probably at the northeast
corner (Neh. iii :6 ; xii:,?9).
(2) The Gale of Ephraim or Benjamin (Jer.
xxxviii7; xxxvii:i3; Neh. viii:i6; 2 Chron.
XXV :23). This gate doubtless derived its names
from its leading to the territory of Ephraim and
Benjamin ; and Dr. Robinson supposes it may pos-
sibly be represented by some traces of ruins which
he found on the site of the present gate of Da-
mascus.
(3) The Corner-gate, 300 cubits from the for-
mer, and apparently at the northwest corner (2
Chron. .XXV :23; 2 Kings xiv:i3; Zech. xivrio).
Probably the Gate of the Furnaces is the same
(Neh. iii :ii ; xii :},%).
(b) On the west side.
(4) The I 'alley-gate, over against the drapon-
fountam of Gihon (Neh. ii:i3; iii:l3; 2 (. hron.
xxvi:9). It was probably about the northwest
corner of Zion, where there appears to have been
always a gate, and Dr. Robinson supposes it to
be the same with the Gennath of Josephus.
(c) On the south side.
(5) The Dung-gate, perhaps the same as Jo-
sephus' Gate of the Essenes (Neh. iii:i3; xii:3i).
It was 1,000 cubits from the vallcy-gate (Neh.
iii;i3), and the dragon-well was between Ihcm
(Nell. ii:i3). This gale is probably also identical
with 'the gale between two walls' (2 Kings xxv:
4 ; Jer. xxxix :4).
(6) The Gate of the Fountain nearest to the
soulheastern corner; the gate of the fountain
near the king's pool (Neh. ii:l4); the gate of
the fountain near 'the pool of Siloah by the king's
garden' (Neh. iii:is). The same gate is probably
denoted in all these instances, and the pools .seem
to have been also the same. It is also possible
thai this fountain-gate was the same oiherwi.se
distinguished as the brick-gate (or potter's gate),
leading to the valley of Hinnom (Jer. xix:2,
where the .Xuth. Ver. has 'east-gate').
(d) On the east side.
(7) The H'ater-gate (Neh. iii :26).
(8) The Prison-gate, otherwise the Horse-gate,
near the temple (Neh. iii:28; xii :39, 40).
JERUSALEM
934
JERUSALEM
(g) The Sheep-gate, probably near the sheep-
pool (Neh. iii:i, 32; xii:39).
( 10) The Fish-gate was quite at the northeast
(Neh. iii:3; xii:39; Zeph. i:io; 2 Chron.
xxxiii :I4).
In the middle ages there appear to have been
two gates on each side of the city, making eight
in all ; and this number, being only two short of
those assigned in the above estimate to the ancient
Jerusalem, seems to vindicate that estimate from
the objections which have been urged against it.
On the west side were two gates, of which the
principal was the Porta David, gate of David,
often mentioned by the writers on the Crusades.
It was called by the Arabs Bab el-Mihrab, and
corresponds to the present Jaffa gate, or Bab el-
Khulil. The other was the gate of the Fuller's
Field, Porta Villce Fullonis, so called from Is.
vii :3. This seems to be the same which others
call Porta Judiciaria, and which is described as
being in the wall over against the church of the
holy sepulcher, leading to Silo (Neby Samwil)
and Gibeon. This seems to be that which the
Arabian writers call Serb.
On the north there were also two gates; and
all the middle age writers speak of the principal
of them as the gate of St. Stephen, from the no-
tion that the death of the protomartyr took place
near it. This was also called the gate of Ephraim,
in reference to its probable ancient name. Arabic
writers called it Bab 'Amiid el-Ghurab, of which
the present name, Bab et-'Amud, is only a con-
traction. The present gate of St. Stephen is on
the east of the city, and the scene of the martyr-
dom is now placed near it ; but there is no ac-
count of the change. Further east was the gate
of Benjamin {Porta Benjaminis), corresponding
apparently to what is now called the gate of
Herod.
On the east there seem to have been at least
two gates. The northernmost is described by
Adamnanus as a small portal leading down to the
valley of Jehoshaphat'. It was called the gate
of Jehoshaphat, from the valley to which it led.
It seems to be represented by the present gate
of St. Stephen. The present' gate of St. Stephen
has four lions sculptured over it on the outside,
which, as well as the architecture, show that it
existed before the present walls.
On the south side were also two gates. The
easternmost is now called by the Franks the
Dung-gate, and by the natives Bab el-Mugharibeh.
The earliest mention of this gate is by Brocard,
about A. D. 1283, who regards it as the ancient
Water-gate. Further west, between the eastern
brow of Zion and the gate of David, the Cru-
saders found a gate which they call the gate of
Zion, corresponding to one which now bears the
same name.
Of the seven gates mentioned as still existing,
three, the Dung-gate, the Golden Gate, and He-
rod's Gate, are closed. Thus there are only four
gates now in use. one on each side of the town, all
of which have been enumerated. St. Stephen's,
on the east, leads to the Mount of Olives, Bethany,
and Jericho. Zion Gate, on the south side of
the city, connects the populous quarter around
the Armenian convent with that part of Mount
Zion which is outside the walls, and which is
much resorted to as being the great field of Chris-
tian burial, as well as for its traditionary sanctity
as the site of David's tomb, the house of Caiaphas.
house of Mary, etc. The Jaffa Gate, on the west.
is thi> termination of the important routes from
Jaffa, Bethlehem, and Hebron. The Damascus
Gate, on the north, is also planted in a vale, which
in every age of Jerusalem must have been a great
public way, and the easiest approach from Samaria
and Galilee.
(3) Towers. The towers of Jerusalem are
often mentioned in Scripture and in Josephus.
Most of the towers mentioned by Josephus were
erected by Herod the Great, and were, conse-
quently, standing in the time of Christ. It was
on these, therefore, that his eyes often rested when
he approached Jerusalem, or viewed its walls and
towers from the Mount of Olives. Of all these tow-
ers, the most important is that of Hippicus, which
Josephus, as we have already seen, assumed as
the starting-point in his description of all the
walls of the city. Herod gave to it the name of a
friend who was slain in battle. It was a quad-
rangular structure, twenty-five cubits on each side,
and built up entirely solid to the height of thirty
cubits. Above iliis solid part was a cistern twenty
cubits ; and then, for twenty-five cubits more, were
chambers of various kinds, with a breastwork of
two cubits, and battlements of three cubits upon
the top. The altitude of the whole tower was
consequently eighty cubits.
The above is the only tower which the his-
torian particularly mentions. But in describing
the outer or third wall of Agrippa, he slates that
it had battlements of two cubits, and turrets of
three cubits more ; and as the wall was twenty
cubits high, this would make the turrets of the
height of twenty-five cubits or nearly thirty-eight
feet. Many loftier and more substantial towers
than these were erected on each of the walls at
regulated distances, and furnished with every req-
uisite for convenience or defense. Of those on
the third or outer wall are enumerated ninety; on
the middle or second wall, forty; and on the inner
or ancient wall, sixty.
(4) Public Buildings. The temple was in all
ages the great glory and principal public building
of Jerusalem, as the heathen temple, church, or
mosque, successively occupying the same site, has
been ever since the Jewish temple was destroyed.
That temple is reserved for a separate article
(see Temple), and there are few other public
edifices which require a particular description.
Those most connected with Scripture history are
the palace of Herod and the tower of Antonia.
The former has already been noticed. In the
time of Christ it was the residence of the Roman
procurators while in Jerusalem; and as such
provincial residences were called by the Romans
Pretoria, this was the praetorium or judgment-
hall of Pilate (Matt, xxvii :27 ; Mark xv:i6; John
xviii :28). In front of the palace was the tribunal
or 'judgment-seat,' where the procurator sat to
hear and determine the causes; and where Pilate
was seated when our Lord was brought before
him. It was a raised pavement of mosaic work
(XiWff-TpioToi'), called in the Hebrew gabbatha,
or 'an elevated place.' (See Judgment Hall.)
The tower or castle of Antonia stood on a
steep rock adjoining the northwest corner of the
temple. It has already been mentioned that it
originated under the Maccabees, who resided in
it. The name of Baris which it obtained was
originally the Persian name of a royal palace;
but which, according to Jerome {Epist. ad Prin-
cip. ii. 639), was afterwards adopted in Palestine,
and applied to all the large quadrangular dwell-
ings built with turrets and walls. As irnproved
by Herod, who gave it the name of Antonia, after
his patron Mark Antony, this fortress had all
the extent and appearance of a palace, being
divided into apartments of every kind, with gal-
leries and baths, and also broad halls or barracks
JERUSALEM
935
JERUSALEM
for soldiers; so that, as having everything neces-
sary within itself, it seemed a city, while in its
magnificence it was a palace. At each of the
four corners was a tower, one of which was
seventy cubits high, and overlooked the whole
temple with its courts. The fortress communi-
cated with the cloisters of the temple by secret
passages, through which the soldiers could enter
and quell any tumults, which were always ap-
prehended at the time of the great festivals. It
was to a guard of these soldiers that Pilate re-
ferred the Jews, as a 'watch' for the sepulcher
of Christ. This tower was also 'the castle' into
which St. Paul was carried when the Jews rose
against him in the temple, and were about to
kill him; and where he gave his able and manly
account of his conversion and conduct (Acts xxi :
27-40; x.xii). This tower was, in fact, the citadel
of Jerusalem.
5. Modern Histary. The destruction of
Jerusalem by the Romans did not cause the site
to be utterly forsaken, although for a long period
little is heard of it.
(1) Adrian. For fifty years the city lay in ut-
ter ruin ; then it was rebuilt in part by Adrian and
again filled with Jews, who were permitted to re-
turn from many lands. The idolatrous monarch
placed a marble statue of a hog over the gate fac-
ing Bethlehem, and erected alsoa temple tojupiter.
Later the Jews regained command of the city, and
unable to endure the idea of their holy city being
occupied by foreigners, and that strange gods
should be set up within it, broke out into open
rebellion under the notorious Barchochebas, who
claimed to be the Messiah. His success was at
first very great ; but he was crushed before the
tremendous power of the Romans, so soon as it
could be brought to bear upon him ; and a war
scarcely inferior in horror to that under Vespasian
and Titus was, like it, brought to a close by the
capture of Jerusalem, of which the Jews had
obtained possession. This was in A. D. 135, from
which period the final dispersion of the Jews
has been often dated.
(2) A Eoman Colony. The Romans then
finished the city according to their first intention.
It was made a Roman colony, inhabited wholly
by foreigners, the Jews being forbidden to ap-
proach it on pain of death ; a temple to Jupiter
Capitolinus was erected on Mount Moriah, and
the old name of Jerusalem was sought to be sup-
planted by that of ^lia Capitolina, conferred upon
it in honor of the emperor, vElius Adrianus. and
Jupiter Capitolinus. This name was applied till
the time of Constantine, and passed to the Mo-
hammedans, by whom it was long retained; and
it was not till after they recovered the city from
the Crusaders that it became generally known
among them by the name of El-Khuds — the holy
— which it still bears.
(3) Constantine. From the rebuilding by
Adrian the history of Jerusalem is almost a
blank till the time of Constantine, when its his-
tory, as a place of extreme solicitude and
interest to the Christian church, properly begins.
Pilgrimages to the Holy City now became com-
mon and popular. Such a pilgrimage was under-
taken in A. D. 326 by the emperor's mother
Helena, then in the eightieth year of her age. who
built churches on the alleged site of the nativity
at Bethlehem, and of the rcs\irrection on the
Mount of Olives. This example may probably
have excited her son to the discovery of the
site of the h.oly sepulcher, and to the erection
of a church thereon. He removed the temple of
Venus, with which, in studied insult, the site had
been encumbered. The holy sepulcher was then
purified, and a magnificent church was, by his
order, built over and around the sacred spot. This
temple was completed and dedicated with great
solemnity in A. D. 335. There is no doubt that
the spot thus singled out is the same which
has ever since been regarded as the place in
which Christ was entombed; but the correctness
of the identification then made has been of late
years much disputed. By Constantine the edict
excluding the Jews from the city of their fathers'
sepulchers was so far repealed that they were
allowed to enter it once a year to wail over the
desolation of 'the holy and beautiful house,' in
which their fathers worshiped God.
(4) Julian the Apostate. When the nephew
of Constantine. the Emperor Julian, abandoned
Christianity for the old Paganism, he endeavored,
as a matter of policy, to conciliate the Jews. He
allowed them free access to the city, and permitted
them to rebuild their temple. They accordingly
began to lay the foundations in A. D. 362 ; but
the speedy death of the emperor probably oc-
casioned that abandonment of the attempt, which
contemporary writers ascribe to supernatural
hindrances. The edicts seem then to have been
renewed which excluded the Jews from the city,
except on the day of annual wailing.
(5) Pilgrimages. In the following centuries
the roads to Zion were thronged with pilgrims
from all parts of Christendom. After much strug-
gle of conflicting dignities Jerusalem was, in A.
D. 451, declared a patriarchate by the council of
Chalcedon. In the ne.xt century it found a second
Constantine in Justinian, who ascended the throne
A. D. 527. He repaired and enriched the former
structures, and built upon Mount Moriah a mag-
nificent church to the Virgin, as a memorial of
the persecution of Jesus in the temple.
(6) Persians. But these prosperous days were
soon to end. The Persians, who had long har-
assed the empire of the East, penetrated into
Syria in A. D. 614, and after defeating the forces
of the Emperor Heraclius, took Jerusalem by
storm. Many thousands of the inhabitants were
slain, and much of the city destroyed. The
damage occasioned by the Persians was speedily
repaired.
(7) Caliph Omar. But Arabia soon furnished
a more formidable enemy in the Caliph Omar,
whose troops appeared before the city in A. D.
636. By his orders the magnificent mosque which
still bears his name was built upon Mount Moriah,
upon the site of the Jewish temple. Jerusalem
remained in possession of the Arabians, and was
occasionally visited by Christian pilgrims from
Europe till towards the year 1000, w^hen a gen-
eral belief that the second coming of the Savior
was near at hand drew pilgrims in unwonted
crowds to the Holy Land.
(8) The Crusades. The sight, by such large
numbers, of the holy place in the hands of in-
fidels, the exaction of tribute, and the insults to
which the pilgrims, often of the highest rank,
were exposed from the Moslem rabble, excited
an extraordinary ferment in Europe, and led to
those remarkable expeditions for recovering the
Holy Sepulcner from the Mohammedans which,
under the name of the Crusades, will always
fill a most important and curious chapter in the
history of the world. But by the time the Cru-
saders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, appeared be-
fore Jerusalem, on the 17th of June, 1099, the
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936
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Egyptian rulers had recovered possession of
Palestine and driven the Saracens beyond the
Euphrates. After a siege of forty days, the holy
city was taken by storm on the 15th day of July:
and a dreadful massacre of the Moslem inhabitants
followed, without distinction of age or sex. As
soon as order was restored, and the city cleared
of the dead, a regular government was established
by the election of Godfrey as king of Jerusalem.
The Christians kept possession of Jerusalem
eighty-eight years. During this long period they
appear to have erected several churches and
many convents. Of the latter few, if any. traces
remain; and of the former, save one or two
ruins, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which
they rebuilt, is the only memorial which attests
the existence of the Christian kingdom of Jeru-
salem.
(9) Saladin. In A. D. 1187 the holy city was
wrested from the hands of the Christians by the
Sultan Saladin. From that time to the present
day the holy city has remained, with slight inter-
ruption, in the hands of the Moslems. On the
threatened siege by Richard of England in 1 192,
Saladin took great pains in strengthening iis
defenses. But in A. D. 1219, the Sultan Melek el
Moaddin of Damascus, who then had possession
of Jerusalem, ordered all the walls and towers
to be demolished, except the citadel and the en-
closure of the mosque, lest the Franks should
again become masters of the city and find it a
place of strength. In this defenseless state Je-
rusalem continued till it was delivered over to the
Christians in consequence of a treaty with the
Emperor Frederick II, in A. D. 1229, with the
understanding that the walls should not be re-
built. Yet ten years later (A. D. 1239) the barons
and knights of Jerusalem began to build the walls
anew, and to erect a strong fortress on the west
of the city.
(10) David of Kerek. But the works were
interrupted by the emir, David of Kerek, who
seized the city, strangled the Christian inhabitants,
and cast down the newly erected walls and for-
tress. Four years after, however. (A. D. 1243),
Jerusalem was again made over to the Christians
without any restriction, and the works appear to
have been restored and completed; for they are
mentioned as existing when the city was
stormed by the wild Kharismian hordes in the
following year ; shortly after which the city re-
verted for the last time into the hands of its
Mohammedan masters, who have kept it to the
present day.
6. The Early Church. Jerusalem witnessed
many scenes connected with the early church.
Among them were the day of Pentecost (Acts
ii) ; thefirst proclamation of thegospel (Acts i :4) ;
the rapid increase of Christian believers (Acts
v) ; and the stoning of Stephen (Acts vii). The
first ecclesiastical council was held in the city
(.•\cts xv) under James the Less, bishop of Jeru-
salem (A. D. 47). Here James was beheaded by
Herod (Acts xii). Eleven councils were held in
the city at different periods from the year A. D.
47-1632.
7. Modern Jerusalem. (1) Streets and
Apartments. The streets are narrow, crooked,
and generally paved with cobble stones. David
street is the Broadway of Jerusalem, and leads
from thejoppa Gate, descending eastward, through
the center of the city, across llie Tyropnenn Val-
ley to the west wall of the tcmjile area, having on
either side extensive bazaars where all kinds of
traffic is carried on. As one enters the city the
Tower of David appears on the right, the founda-
tion of which was doubtless that of Phasaelus. It
presents the best specimens of masonry. For
twenty feet the foundations slope inwardly at an
angle of forty-five degrees, and it was quite unas-
sailable by the battering-rams of the early ages.
It was the last place to yield when Jerusalem was
captured by the Crusaders, and when the walls
of the city were destroyed in the thirteenth cen-
tury by the Moslems, it withstood the fury of a
wasting desolation. Within it are several spa-
cious rooms, and a cistern for water. In one
of the apartments, the Mohammedans say, David
wrote the Psalms. Near by this tower is the
American consulate, while on the left stands the
Grand Hotel and the Turkish postofiice. About
a block eastward is Christian street, running
northward to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
A little further east is Damascus street, the east-
ern boundary of the Christian quarter of the city.
The Mohammedans' quarters are in the northeast
section of the city, the Jewish in the southeast,
and the Armenian on the site of Mount Zion,
south and west, while the Harem inclosure is on
Mount Moriah, further east.
(2) Absalom's Pillar. Near by is Absalom's
pillar. The memory of .'\bsalom is so hateful
to the Jew that he throws a stone at the monu-
ment whenever he passes by it. Near by Absa-
lom's pillar is the burying place of the Jews, and
north of this is the garden of Gethsemane, the
tomb of the Virgin, and the valley of Jehosha-
phat.
(3) Mount Moriah. Directly beyond the val-
ley is Mount Moriah, including the temple area,
which -the Moslems call Hara es-Sherif. The
Mosque of Omar, or "the noble sanctuary," occu-
pies the site of the famous temple of Solomon.
Near it, on the north, is the enclosure of An-
tonia. The quadrangle measures one thousand
and forty-two feet on the north, one thousand five
hundred and thirty on the east (the front view),
nine hundred and twenty-two on the south, and
one thousand six hundred and one on the west,
embracing about thirty-five acres. Bezetha is on
the right, reaching to the extremity of the wall
The Mohammedan cemetery, in the foreground,
is near the wall, extending its entire length north
and south. Beyond the wall, on the right, is
Jeremiah's grotto, where tradition says he wrote
the book of Lamentations. It is doubtless one
of the openings of the vast system of quarries
under this hill, and from which much of the stone
used in the construction of the city has been
taken. Olive groves and private residences are
seen on the northern suburbs of the city. Many
fine buildings have lately been erected in this
quarter, among which are the Arab Protestant
church, the large Russian buildings, the Coptic
church, and other modern structures. On the
west side of the city is the citadel, and on the
southwest the tomb of David.
(4) Church ot the Holy Sepulcher. The
Church of the Holy Sepulcher. having two domes,
is a little to the right of the citadel. It was built,
as before stated, by the Empress Helena, mother
of Constantine, in 326 A. D.. and stands over the
traditional place of the Savior's tomb. It was
dedicated with great pomp in 335 A. D.. Encelius
taking part in the gorgeous ceremonies. This
building was burnt by the Persians in 614 A. D.,
but was shortly after rebuilt by Modcstus. Muez,
.if the race of the Fatimitcs. removed the seat of
power from Jerusalem to Cairo, and this church
was again destroyed. A third time it fell at the
command of a caliph, who razed it to the ground.
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937
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A successor of his rebuilt it, completing the build-
ing, 1048 A. D.
During the period of the Crusaders the pres-
ent walls were erected. Fire demolished a part
of the structure in 1808 A. D., but the Greek
Christians so completely restored it that no
traces of the fire remain. The true site of Cal-
vary is now believed to be on the skull-like
mound outside the Damascus Gate on the north.
The Church of the Holy Sepulcher has iwo large
domes covering several chapels. The sepulcher
proper is of marble in the great rotunda under
the western dome. The space occupied by the
immense pile is three hundred and fifty by two
hundred and eighty feet.
(5) Mosque of Omar. Just beyond the Golden
Gate, near the western wall, stands the famous
Mosque of Omar, Kubbct cs Saklira. or "dome of
the rock," a great octagonal building, each side
being sixty-seven feet long, with a diameter of
one hundred and forty-eight feet, surmounted by
a great dome with a total height of one hun-
dred and seventy feet. It covers the sacred rock
on which the old temple stood where Abraham of-
fered Isaac to God; where Araunah, the Jebusite,
had his threshing floor, and the spot which David
purchased of him on which to build an altar of
sacrifice. The building is a poor representative
of the temples erected either by Solomon, Nehe-
miah, or Herod, and yet it has a pleasing effect.
Once its dome was plated wiih gold, and in the
morning, reflecting the sunlight from its mar-
ble walls and gilded dome, must have been a
beautiful picture of oriental magnificence. In
the year 680 Caliph Omar found this spot covered
with ruins and rubbish, all traces of the former
grandeur having been obliterated for ages, and,
with naked hands, helped clear the historic site,
and proceeded to erect a temporary structure.
The work begun was completed by Abdalmelik
the tenth caliph, 691 A. D., by immense rev-
enues collected as taxes upon Egypt for seven
years. During the rule of ihe Crusaders it was
used as a Christian church, and some marks of
violence are shown within. Around the whole
interior is a corridor thirteen feet wide, while
sixteen marble columns of the Corinthian order
lend grace and beauty to the scene. On another
inner circle stand twelve larger columns of the
same order, with four great intervening piers.
The dome is sixty feet in diameter. Within the last
circle, and protected by a high iron railing, is the
sacred "rock," four feet nine inches higher than
the pavement, and forty by sixiy feet in dimen-
sion. It is certainly a veritable relic. The sur-
face of the rock is rough, bearing marks of the
chisel, steps cut, and holes drilled here and there.
From this rock, tradition says, Mohammed as-
cended to heaven, leaving his footprints upon
the stone. Underneath this is a small cave, which,
undoubtedly, Araunah used as a grain bii;i. The
mosriue platform is five hundred and fifty by
four hundred and fifty feet, and about ten feet
higher than the general area, with beautiful stone
ascents made through eight elegant Saracenic
gates.
(6) Mosque el Aksa. South of the dome of
the rock stands a large and beautiful old Basilica,
called mosque el Aksa. It was built 798 A. D.,
is two hundred and seventy-two feet long and one
hundred and eighty-four wide, having a ground
area of fifty thousand square feet ; has seven
aisles and forty-five columns. It is declared to
be in the exact center of the earth.
(7) Other Features of Interest. Close by
are Solomon's stables and the Tower of David.
On the northwest of the city may be seen the ex-
tensive Russian buildings. Here is a large Greek
church, a hospice for males, and another for fe-
males, where pilgrims are entertained who come
to visit the sacred places. There is also a good
school building here, and a number of dwelling
houses are being built in ihis quarter outside the
city walls. "Talitha Cumi" is a large mission
school for girls, on the Joppa road, a little west
of the city. Jeremiah's grotto is under the beau-
tiful liitle hill, covered with Mohammedan graves,
outside the northern wall. It is claimed that the
prophet lived here for many years, and wrote the
book of Lamentations in the small cavern. This
hill is now believed to be the true Calvary, and
the facts seem to prove the same, both from Bib-
lical and historic authority. Other principal
features of the city are elsewhere mentioned.
(8) The Zionist Movement. The so-called
Zionist movement which is the colonization of
Jews in Jerusalem and Palestine is meeting with
considerable success. A steady, although at pres-
ent not a very large, stream of Jewish immigra-
tion is setting in that direction. There is now
a railroad from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and other
roads are under construction.
The visit of the emperor of Germany to Jerusa-
lem in 1898 created great interest in religious cir-
cles, and gave an added impetus to the resettle-
ment by the Hebrew people in the land of their
fathers.
(9) Present Population, etc. The present
population of Jerusalem is variously estimated at
from 40,000 to 60,000, of wlioni about five tenths
are Jews, three tenths Mohammedans and
two tenths Christians. "There is no warm
nor bright color here ; all is grim and gray except
the blue tiles in the Mosque of Omar. The
shadow of the Crucifixion rests on the place for-
ever; a strange stillness reigns, and laughter
would seem like laughter beside an open grave.
Women, veiled in white, glide through the dark,
crooked alleys like tenants of a city of specters,
and even the children, subdued by the overwhelm-
ing gloom, are silent beyond the wont of Ori-
entals. Ruins, ruins at every hand ! Well has
the prophecy been fulfilled: 'Jerusalem shall be-
come heaps.' The very stones of the streets are
dismal, worn away with burdens borne since they
rang with the tramp of legions and glittered
with the brassy armor of the masters of the earth.
Outside the walls— saddest sight where all is sad-
ness— are ancient Jews come merely to die in the
land of their love. A few in whom there is much
guile offer for sale talismans, gems of magic,
rings of occult power. The greater number sit
in the sun. motionless as statues, without the
dignity that should accompany age, in poverty past
telling, dreaming away the day and night — ap-
parently without hope, except to have a little holy
dust laid nn their eyelids when they shall have
closed Ihcni to sleep with patriarchs and seers in
the Valley of Jehoshaphat."
S. Recent Discoveries. Within the last
twenty-nine years excavations have been made on
Temple Hill by the engineers of the Palestine
Exploration Fund, who have overcome almost
insuperable obstacles by their skill, daring, and
energy. A brief outline of the great work which
they have acconinlished is hereby presented.
Cl) Temple Hill. The massive walls and
towers that formed the defense of the Temple
Hill have been found intact in many places, the
stones resting just as they were pjaced by the
workmen of Solomon and Hiram. Throughout
its course the wall rests on a solid foundation of
JERUSALEM
living rock and rises sometimes to a height of
more than one hundred and fifty feet. These
"sure foundations" of the massive walls of the
Holy City often form the theme of Hebrew
poetry and ethics. The Psalmist's words, 'her
foundations are upon the holy hills,' are literally
true, and Isaiah speaks of the 'sure foundations'
of Zion.
At the southeast angle of the wall, the height
of the masonry has been found to be one hun-
dred and fifty-si.x feet and nine inches. In an-
cient days the wall of the Royal Cloister sur-
mounted this, adding not less than fifty feet to
the height, so that at this point in the days of
Christ the wall of the temple, from foundation
to summit, would be considerably over two hun-
dred feet in height. The valley at this point is
now filled with rubbish, covering the wall to a
considerable height and raising the bed of the
Kedron about forty feet above its true level.
From these interesting discoveries, made by the
Rev. James King, of England, it appears that a
person in ancient times standing on the Cloister
wall would look down into the bed of the Kedron
three hundred feet below. Thus recent excava-
tions have proved that the account by Josephus
of the astounding height of the southeast wall
is not so much exaggerated as it was once thought
to be. Doubtless on the top of this wall, at the
southeast corner, stood the pinnacle of the tem-
ple mentioned in Christ's temptation (Matt, iv:
5.6).
(2) The East Wall. At the northeast angle
of the Harem area stands the so-called Tower of
Antonia, which, though having nothing to do
with the Tower of Antonia, still retains that
name. The part now seen above ground is only
a small portion of a once colossal structure,
which shows what immense deposits of rubbish
must have been made to cover this ancient forti-
fication.
The main east wall crosses a ravine, on the
slope of which the Tower of Antonia stands. A
hundred and twenty yards from the tower is the
938 JERUSALEM
dition, too, fixes this as the location of the 'Beau-
tiful Gate,' and, strange to say. the Greek word
apata, beautiful, was incorrectly translated by
the Latin aurea, golden, perhaps from the re-
semblance of the two classical words; and usage
has perpetuated the error. The Arabs now call
the whole gateway Bab ed Daheriyeh, the Eternal
Gate, the northern arch being called Gate of
Repentance, the southern. Gate of Mercy.
From the Golden Gate to the southeast corner
the length of the wall is a little more than a
thousand feet. Here is that part of the Kedron
called the Valley of Jehoshaphat, in which both
Moslems and Jews believe the Last Judgment
will be held. On this account it has been from
ancient times a Jewish burial-ground (Joel iii:
2, 12-14).
(4) The Red Heifer Bridge. A hundred feet
north of the southeast corner is a break in the
continuity of the wall, at a place where a bridge
Interior of Golden Gate.
famous Golden Gate {Porta aurea) in the eastern
ivall of the temple area.
(3) The Golden Gate. This occupies a con-
spicuous place in the east wall. The present
structure is no older than the time of Constan-
tine, but the site is doubtless the same as that of
the 'Beautiful Gate of the temple' mentioned in
Acts, for in the spacious porch may yet be seen
two huge monolithic jambs, now used as pillars,
which are vestiges of an ancient gateway. Tra-
Semains of Arch of Bridge.
spanned the Kedron Valley. As the Red Heifer
Bridge connected the temple precincts with the
Mount of Olives in ancient times, and along this
the heifer destined for sacrifice was led by the
high-priest, to the summit of Olivet, it is justifi-
able to conjecture that this was the site of the
ancient bridge.
(5) Corner Stone. At the southeast corner of
the wall is the interesting corner stone of the
temple. To the ancient Jews this stone was the
emblem of many moral and spiritual truths (Ps.
cxviii :22. 23; Is. xxviii:i6; Matt. xxi;42; Acts
iv:ii; Ephes. ii :20, 21; i Pet. ii:6). It stands
in the same place in which it was set three thou-
sand years ago in the presence of Solomon and
his court. It is squared and polished, and meas-
ures three feet eight inches high by fourteen feet
in length. Three feet east of the angle of the
corner stone the excavators found a hole cut out
of the native rock, and in this an earthen jar.
From its form and evident age it has been con-
jectured that it was deposited at the laying of
the corner stone and contained the holy oil for
the consecration of the foundations. The discov-
eries about this southeast corner have been con-
firmatory of the account of the building of the
temple in i Kings v:i7, 18. The engineers
found "great stones, costly and hewed," and
Phcenician fragments of pottery. Phoenician
marks painted on the massive blocks proclaim that
the stones were prepared in the quarry by the
cunning workmen of Hiram, king of Tyre.
(6) The Wall of Ophel. While excavating
near the southeast angle of the wall the engineers
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939
JERUSALEM
of the Palestine Exploration Fund found a wall
of ancient date, which has been identified with
the wall of Ophel, so frequently mentioned in con-
nection with the Roman siege. The stones are
small compared with the mishty masses of the
wall before mentioned ; the foundations rest on
clay, and the work bears the marks of haste.
Ophel is the name of the ridge south of the Tem-
ple Hill. Jotham built much on this wall of
Ophel and Manasseh compassed about Ophel (2
Chron. xxxiii:i4). This wall seems to have been
rebuilt under Nehemiah after the return from
captivity. There can be little doubt that this dis-
covery is the wall hastily built up by Nehemiah.
(7) The South Wall of the Harem. The
south wall of the Harem must at one time have
presented a magnificent mass of masonry. It is
over nine hundred feet long and had two en-
trances, known as the Triple Gate, and Double, or
Huldah Gate, both now built up. The Double
Gate is a very prominent feature in the south
wall. It is a hundred yards from the southwest
angle and consists of two entrances, each eighteen
feet wide. This Double, or Huldah, Gate was
the chief entrance to the temple area from the
south, and doubtless the Savior passed through
it many times during the celebration of the great
festival. Modern discoveries show that this wall
does not belong to one period of construction, but
the portion east of the Double Gate possesses a
high antiquity, extending back to the Jewish mon-
archy, and is, probably, the work of King Solo-
mon ; while that to the west, which is a hundred
yards in length, belongs to the time of Herod.
A hundred feet west of the southeast angle is
a gateway with pointed arch, which, though now
closed, seems to have been an entrance in former
days to "Solomon's stables." This is called the
Single Gate.
(8) Solomon's Stables. The vast subterra-
nean vaults, probably known as "Solomon's Sta-
bles," extend over an acre of ground. They are
forty feet below the Harem area, and more than
a hundred feet above the foundation stone of the
wall. One hundred square piers arranged in fif-
teen rows support the ceiling. The Moslems call
the place 'The Old Mosque,' but the Frank Kings
used it as a stable. It was doubtless originally
designed as a support for the temple area, and
it is very probable that there are other systems
of vaults below these.
(9) West Wall of the Temple Area. The
west wall of the temple area is over one thousand
five hundred feet long. Here are the remains of
the Jews' Wailing Place, and Robinson's and
\\ ilson's arches.
(10) The Jews' Walling Place. This is
where the Israelites assemble every Friday after-
noon. The temple wall visible above ground at
this spot is about sixty feet high. The lower
courses of stone are magnificent blocks, venerable
for their antiquity and for the fact that they are
veritable remains of the old Jewish temple. For
many generations the Jews have been permitted,
at least once a w.eek, to approach the precincts
of their temple and kiss the venerable stones of
the wall and bathe them with their tears, fulfilling
the words in Psalm cii:i4. The congregation that
gathers here is one of the most solemn gather-
ings left to the Jewish church. How long this
ceremony has been kept up cannot be determined
with certainty, although there is historical evi-
dence to prove that they have assembled to mourn
over their lost glory and desolate temple since the
time of the apostles.
(11) Robinson's Arch. A little north of the
southwest corner three courses of stone project
which have received the name of Robinson's
Arch. In ancient limes Mount Moriah was sepa-
rated from Zion by a rugged ravine. On one side
of this ravine rose the massive walls of the tem-
ple, on the other the palace of the kings of Ju-
dah. This valley is now so filled with rubbish
from the city that it presents the appearance of
a level plain. In the olden times, however, it
was spanned by bridges, the most noted being
Zion Bridge, which seemed to form a communica-
tion between the palace and the temple. Exca-
vating at a point where the next pier of the arch
should be, not only the pier itself was found, but
arch stones of the fallen arch. How old this
viaduct is cannot be stated, but certainly it ante-
dates the Christian era and the Temple of Herod.
(12) Wilson's Arch, six hundred feet north of
the southwest angle, is also the remains of an an-
cient bridge, which extended across the valley to
the opposite height. Adjoining the arch were
discovered a series of arched vaults running west-
ward and evidently connected with the viaduct or
bridge which anciently crossed the valley at this
place. Probably by this secret way troops were
hurried down into the temple area from the bar-
racks on Mount Zion.
(13) Gate of the Chain. North of Wilson's
Arch is the Gate of the Chain, the principal en-
trance to the Harem area. It received its name
from the tradition that Solomon once stretched a
chain across this entrance. A little farther north
is the Gate of the Bath, and the Gate of the Cot-
ton Merchants, vrhich a very old tradition identi-
fies with the "Beautiful Gate of the "Temple."
From this gate to the southwest angle the distance
is two hundred yards. The masonry is very an-
cient and probably dates from the Jewish kings.
(14) The North Wall of the Harem Area.
Within the northwest angle of the wall stands a
pile of buildings used as a barrack. It is situated
on a rock twenty feet above the temple area.
Here is generally supposed to have been located
the ancient Jewish fort of Baris. East of the
barracks is a small entrance, called the Gate of
the Secretary, and a little farther on the gate
called Bab el-Hitta. Just east of this entrance
there begins a fosse, which runs along the wall
for three hundred and sixty feet, with an average
breadth of a hundred and thirty feet. It is called
the Pool of Israel, and according to Roman Cath-
olic tradition is the Pool of Bethesda. Near the
eastern end of the north wall is the Gate of the
Tribes, whose portals adjoin the Castle of An-
tonia, at the northeast angle.
(15) The Royal Quarries. Under Bezetha,
the northern hill on which Jerusalem is built,
extend vast caverns, reaching far into the bowels
of the earth. These are the "Royal Quarries,"
and their vastness not only throws light upon
the stonework of the temple, but impresses the
mind with the gigantic character of the sacred
edifices that once crowned the summit of Moriah.
From its mouth the cave increases rapidly in size;
the rock rises perpendicularly from the floor to
the ceiling; large fragments of quarried stones
lie about, and massive blocks, half cut, still ad-
here to the wall. All this indicates that the cav-
ern is largely the work .if man's hand. The stone
was removed by cutting a nick from three to
six inches wide on both sides the desired block,
also at the bottom and behind. This slow, but
simple, process must have been performed by a
pick or other instrument with a long handle. By
the side of each cutting may be seen a little cup-
JERUSALEM
940
JERUSALEM
shaped hollow, evidently designed to hold oil and
wick to give the workmen liglit. The stone is a
hard limestone, which when polished is almost
as pure and white as marble. No doubt the
Psalmist had this in mind when he expressed the
wish that 'our daughters may be as corner stones,
polishedafter the similitude of a palace' (Ps.cxliv:
12). From the fact that all the stonework of Jeru-
salem, generally speaking, is of a formation corre-
sponding tothe hard, limestone rock of these Royal
Quarries, and from their immense size, we are
led to the belief that all the stonework of the
Holy City, the Temples of Solomon, Zerubbabel,
and Herod, the massive walls of Harem, and the
encompassing walls of the city, has been ex-
cavated from these caverns underneath the north-
ern part of the ancient city. The prevailing, but
mistaken notion, that Hiram sent the stone for
Solomon's temple from Lebanon or Tyre arose
from Solomon's request for cedar and fir trees
which Hiram promised to provide (l Kings v:8).
(16) 'Waters of Jerusalem. Beneath the
Temple Hill are vast cisterns for holding the water
that flowed from the hill country of Judaea. Six
miles from Jerusalem are the Pools of Solomon,
at the head of the Wady Urtas valley. These
pools cover about seven acres, and are capable of
holding three million gallons of water. These
wonderful architectural remains of the old Jew-
ish monarchy were partly excavated out of the
bed of limestone rock, and partly constructed of
massive blocks of masonry, by building dams
across the valley. They are three in number, con-
nected by conduits, the lower one being the largest
and finest of the three. The pools are fed by four
natural springs, of which the Sealed Fountain is
the largest. According to tradition Solomon
shut up this spring and kept the door of it sealed
with his signet, so that he might preserve the
water for his own drinking in its natural fresh-
ness and purity. The Sealed Fountain formed a
part of the water system of Solomon and is prob-
ably referred to in Canticles (iv:i2). These
pools and their fountains have an altitude of
about two hundred feet above the area of the
temple, so that they could have carried water to
the highest part of the Sacred City.
From the Sealed Fountain there runs a pas-
sage to a vault situated at the northwest corner
of the upper pool. At this vault the stream from
the Sealed Fountain has recently been found to
have been joined by another stream flowing from
the south and collecting its supply from the val-
ley of the Arriib. six miles from Solomon's Pools.
It was conducted through a rock-bored tunnel
four miles long, passing in its course under an-
other valley called Wady Byar, and thence on
to its junction with the Sealed Fountain. With
the increased volume from the Sealed Fountain
the aqueduct known as the High Level passes
along the slope of Wady Urtas, descending into
the valley, west of Bethlehem ; it ascends the
northern side of the valley again, through an in-
verted stone syphon, constructed of perforated
stone blocks firmly united by cement'. This syphon
is not only a work of skill in masonry, but shows a
knowledge of hydrostatics not possessed by the
Romans when they built the great arched struc-
tures in the neighborhood of Rome, for conduct-
ing water across valleys. The High Level aque-
duct has been traced far enough to make it rea-
sonably sure that in olden time it supplied the
pool of llpper Gihon. now Birket Mamilla ; thence
flowing through the channel, still existing at this
part, it entered Jerusalem at the Jaffa Gate. It
would then supply the Cit.idel, the Pool of Heze-
kiah, and all points along the TyropcEon valley
until it joined the Pool of Siloam. This aqueduct
is of high antiquity, and according to the opinion
of the engineers of the Palestine Exploration
Fund, dates from the earliest ages of ihe Jewish
occupation. It is without doubt a part of the
water system of King Solomon. While it never
received any supply from Solomon's Pools, they
were a part of the great water system. The skill
with which they were constructed would do credit
to the nineteenth century, and their massiveness
suggests the reign of some energetic king. Expert
opinion favors the theory that they were built by
Solomon himself and are referred to in Eccl.
ii :6. The water of these pools found its way
to Jerusalem through the Low Level aqueduct,
furnishing Bethlehem on the way. The aqueduct
crosses the valley of Gihon on a causeway and
enters the city near Burj Al Kibryt. Following
along the western slope of the Tyropoeon valley
it turns eastward and communicates with the
great cisterns under the Temple Hill. A few
years ago this aqueduct was repaired and for a
time the water flowed direct from Solomon's
Pools to the cisterns of the Harem as in days of
old, but the flow was shortly impeded and at pres-
ent the water does not get much beyond Beth-
lehem. This was the main supply of Jerusalem in
olden times, and while the aqueduct was repaired
by Pontius Pilate its construction was of the
period of Solomon and ranks among the most
interesting of Biblical antiquities.
The vast cisterns under the Temple Hill are
among the most important of modern discoveries.
Some are of modern construction, and others, from
their form, are very ancient. No less than thirty-
five of these cisterns have been explored and e.x-
amined. Many are of great depth, and their com-
bined capacity is about ten million gallons. They
are connected by passages, tunnels and ducts, so
that the Temple Hill beneath the surface is honey-
combed by a network of vaults and cisterns. The
largest and best known is the Great Sea, capable
of holding three million gallons. It is mentioned in
the book of Ecclesiasticus (i:3). While it is dif-
ficult to fix the exact age of these cisterns of the
Temple Hill there is abundant evidence to prove
that Solomon constructed the reservoirs south of
Bethlehem known as Solomon's Pool, the ori-
ginal aqueducts that conveyed their water to the
Sacred City, and we may confidently believe that
the reservoirs under the Temple area were contem-
poraneous with these other remains of the water
system built by Solomon. (See cut, page 1419.)
(17) The 'Virgin's Fountain. A spring,
called the Virgin's Fountain, in the valley of the
Kedron, opposite the village Siloam, flows by a
channel cut out of the rock through the Hill of
Ophel and issues at the pool of Siloam, the most
celebrated of those mentioned in the Scriptures
(Neh. iii:i5: Luke xiii :4 ; John ix:7, etc.). This
pool is a little lower than the Virgin's Fountain
and the excavations about the pool and the tun-
nel leading to the fountain are likely the work
of King Hezekiah. During the reign of that
monarch Shalmaneser. of Assyria, threatened
Jerusalem. Hezekiah rebuilt the broken-down
walls of the city, raised towers, and 'took counsel
to stop the waters of the fountains without the
city' (2 Chron. xxxii;4). This language applies
completely to the diverting of the water from the
Virgin's Fountain by the tunnel to Siloam; for
before this was done this spring would empty into
the valley of the Kedron and could be used by sol-
diers outside the walls. So that there exists good
reason for referring this work to the reign of
JERUSALEM, NEW
941
JESHUA
Hezekiah. (King, Recent Discoveries on Temple
Hill.)
JERUSALEM, NEW. The gospel church is
called A'lif Jerusalem (Rev. xxi:2). In her are
found the peculiar presence and ordinances of
God; in her the tribes of redeemed men meet,
and serve him. How beautiful and compact her
form ! How firm her foundation ! How strongly
fortified and protected, by the laws, perfections,
and providences of God ! How rich, wealthy, and
free her true members ! How readily they wel-
come oihers to reside with them! (.Gal. iv:26;
eonip. Ezck. .xl). Perhaps the heavenly state of
glory is called Jerusalem, or the A'eiv Jerusalem,
lor similar reason (Rev. iii :i2). Brown.
JEBUSHA (je-ru'sha), (Heb. ^pT, yer-oo-
shaw' , possessed), the daughter of Zadok, and
queen of Uzziah. She was the mother of Jothara,
king of J udah (2 Kings XV :33), B. C. 738. Called
<^\'io Jerttshak.
JESAIAH (je-sa'ya),(Heb. '^''M\yesh-ah-yavj' .
Jehovah saves or is opulent).
1. Son of Hananiah, the son of Jerubbabel (l
Chron. iii:2l), B. C after 536.
2. Father of Ithiel, a Benjamite, some of whose
descendants were among those chosen by lot to
reside in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh. xi:7),
B. C. 445-
JESHATAH (je-sha'iah, or ya), (Heb. '"V?^.
yeshah-yavj' , Jehovah saves).
1. Chief of the eighth division of singers under
the tutorship of his father Jeduthun (l Chron.
XXV .'3, 15), B. C. 1014.
2. A Levite during David's time; the son of
Rehabiah, a descendant of Amram through Moses
(l Chron. xxvi:25), B. C. before 1014.
3. Son of Athaliah, a chief of the house of
Bene Elam, who returned with a company of
seventy from Babylon (Ezra viii:-), B. C. 459.
4. A Levite of the family of Merari, who
returned with Ezra (Ezra viii:i9), B. C. 459.
JESHANAH (jesh'a-nah), (Heb. ^\T:, yesh-aw-
naiv' , old).
A town with its suburbs which was taken from
Jeroboam by Abijah; it is mentioned as near
Bethel and Ephraim (2 Chron. xiiirig). Schwarz
locates it at atSanin, two miles west of Bethel.
(Palestine, p. 158.)
JESHAK.ELAH (je-shir'e-lah), (Heb. '^^^l^.
yesh-ar ale'aw, upright toward God).
Head of the seventh of the twenty-four wards
into which the musicians of the l.evites were
divided (i Chron. xxv:i4); elsewhere (verse 2)
called As.^RELAH. (B. C. 1014.)
JESHEBEAB (je-shSb'e-5b), (Heb. 2X?'f;:, ygk.
shcl<-a-i,ib' , father's seat), head of the fourteenth
course uf priests (I Chron. xxiv:i3), B. C. 1014.
JESHER (je'sher), (Heb. '^'ii^yay'sher, upright-
ness), the first named of the sons of Caleb, by his
wife Azubuh (i Chron. ii:i8), B. C. before 1658.
JESHIMON (jesh'i-mon), (Heb. V^'"^'?, yesh-ee-
vione' , a desolation).
A name used in describing the position geo-
graphically of Pisgah and Peor. It refers to that
portion which lies north of the Dead Sea ( Num.
xxi:2o; xxiii:28; I Sam. xxiiirig, etc.). "In the
Old Testament the wilderness of Judea is called
the Jeshimon, a word meaning devastation, and
no term can better suit its haggard and crumbling
appearance. It covers some thirty-five miles by
fifteen. . . . Short bushes, thorns, and suc-
culent creepers were all that relieved the brown
and yellow bareness of the sand, the crumbling
limestone, and scattered shingle. Such is Jeshi-
mon, the wilderness of Judea. It carries the
violence and desolation of the Dead Sea Valley
right up to the heart of the country, to the roots
of the Mount of Olives, to within two hours of
the gates of Hebron, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem"
(Smith, llisi. Gcog.). (See Tristram, Land of
Israel, p. 540, 2d ed.).
JESHISHAI (je-shish'a-i), (Heb. "K'r";, yesA-
ees/ia/i'e-e, aged), the son of Jahdo and father of
Michael, and ancestor of certain of the tribe who
lived in Cilead and whose genealogies were made
out in the time of Jotham (i Chron. v;l4), U. C.
before 782.
JESHOHAIAH (jSsh'o-ha'iah), (Heb. 'T";'-"
yesh-o-khaw-yaw' , Jehovah doth trouble), a chief
Simeonite, descendant of Shemei (i Chron. iv:36),
who, was engaged in the raid, during Hezekiah's
time, upon the Hamites (B. C. about 711).
JESHTJA (jesh'u-a), (Heb. T^., yay-s/wo'a/i.
Jehovah helps).
1. One of the towns in which the people of
Judah lived after their return from captivity
(Neh. xi:26). According to Schwarz it is Yesue,
five miles east of Ekron (Palest, p. 116) ; prob-
ably the Yeshua of Robinson (Research, iii, 145,
sq.).
2. A priest during David's reign and head of
the ninth sacerdotal order (i Chron. xxiv: 11);
the A. V. has Jeshuah. (B. C. 1014.)
3. Son of Jozedech, and high-priest of the
Jews when they returned, under Zerubhabcl.
from the Babylonian exile (B. C. 536). He was,
doubtless, born during the exile. His presence
and exhortations greatly promoted the rebuilding
of the city and temple. The altar of the latter
being first erected, enabled him to sanctify their
labor by the religious ceremonies and offerings
which the law required. Jcshua joined with
Zerubbabel in opposing the machinations of the
Samaritans (Ezra iv:3); and he was not found
wanting in zeal when the works, after having been
interrupted, were resumed in the second year of
Darius Hystaspis (Ezra v:2; Hag. i:i2). Sev-
eral of the prophet Haggai's utterances are ad-
dressed to Jeshua (Hag. 1:1; ii:2), and his name
occurs in two of the symbolical prophecies of
Zechariah (iii:i-io; vi:il-l5). In the first of
these passages Jeshua, as pontiff, represents the
Jewish people covered at first with the garb of
slaves, and afterwards with the new and glori-
ous vestures of deliverance. In the second he
wears for a moment crowns of silver and gold,
as symbols of the sacerdotal and regal crowns of
Israel, which were to be united on the head of the
Messiah. He was also called Joshua.
4. (Neh. viii:i7). (See Joshua.)
5. A Levite who had charge of distributing the
sacred offerings in the sacerdotal cities under
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxiris), B. C. 726.
6. A descendant of the place or person called
Pahath-moab, whose people to the number of
2,812 returned from captivity (Ezra ii:6; Neh.
vii:ll), B. C. before 536.
"J". A Levitt whose posterity to the number of
74 returned from Babylon (Ezra ii:40; Neh. vii:
43), B. C. before 536.
8. Father of the Levite Jozabad, whom Ezra
appointed to look after the offerings for the
sacred services (Ezra viii:33), B. C. before 459.
9. Father of Ezer ; the latter repaired a part
of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:i9), B. C.
before 446.
JESHUAH
942
JESUS CHRIST
10. A Levite, head of a house, and an active
co-operator with Nehemiah in the reformations
he instituted (Neh. viii:;; ix :4, S; xig; xii:8).
In Neh. (xii:24) "son of Kadmiel" should mani-
festly read "Jeshua and Kadmiel."
JESHUAH (jesh'u-ah), (Heb. ^^'^"^..yay-shoo'ah,
Jah is help). (See JeshUA, 2.)
JESHUBXJN (jesh'u-run or jesh-u'run), (Heb.
P"'f":. yesk-00-roon' , upright), a name practically
applied to Israel in Deut. xxxii:l5; xxxiii;5, 26;
Is. xliv:2. It has been variously understood,
but it is generally agreed to be a poetical diminu-
tive expressive of affection.
JESIAH (je-si'ah), (Heb. "^V^^., yish-shee-yaw' ,
lent by Jehovah).
1. One of the Korites who was a mighty helper
in battle at Ziklag during David's battle with
Saul (i Chron. xii:6), B. C. 1050.
2. Son of Uzziel, and father of Zechariah (i
Chron. xxiii:20; xxiv:2S), B. C. about 1618. *
JESIMIEL (je-slm'i-el), (Heb. ^^^'^^ yes-eem-
aw-ale' , God will place), one of the thirteen
Simeonite princes who, in the time of Hezekiah,
migrated to the valley of Gedor for purposes of
conquest (I Chron. iv:36), B. C. about 711.
JESSE (jes'se), (Heb. ''t\ yee-shak'ee, firm), a
descendant of Obed, the son of Boaz and Ruth
(Ruth iv:i7, 22; Matt. i:5, 6; Luke iii;32; I Chron.
ii:l2).
He was the father of eight sons (i Sam. xvii :
12) ; from the youngest of whom, David, is re-
flected all the distinction which belongs to the
name. He seems to have been a person of some
note and substance at Bethlehem, his property be-
ing chiefly in sheep. It would seem from I
Sam. xvi :io, that he must have been aware of the
high destinies which awaited his son ; but it is
doubtful if he ever lived to see them realized.
The last historical mention of Jesse is in relation
to the asylum which David procured for him
with the king of Moab (i Sam. xxii:3), B. C.
before 1000.
JESTING (jest-ing), (Ct. €iTpaTMa,yoo-trap-el-
ee'ah, pleasantry, humor, facetiousness), is used in
a bad sense in Eph.v:4, as ribaldry, low jesting,
scurrility.
JESTT (je'su), a modern poetical name for Jesus.
JESUI (jes'u-r), (Heb. "V^"!, yish-vee' , level),
(Num. xxvi:44). Same as ISHUI (which see).
JESUITES (jes'u-ites), the family of Jesui or
ISHUI.
JESURUN" (jes'u-run), (Heb. T^r^ yesh-00-
roon'), an erroneous form of Jeshurun.
JESUS (je'zus), (Gr. 'Iijo-oCs, ee-ay-soos' , Jesu,
Jesus, Josue), the Greek form of Joshua or Jeshua,
a contraction of Jehoshua (Heb. ^I™'^^, yeh-ho-
shoo'ali), that is, "help of Jehovah" or "Savior"
(Num. xiii;l6).
1. Joshua, son of Nun, the military leader in
the wars of Canaan (Acts vii:55; Heb. iv:8). (See
Joshua.)
2. An ancestor of Christ, who lived about four
hundred years after David (Luke iii:29). The
A. V. follows a different Greek text and calls
him Jose.
3. In the Septuagint the name occurs several
times in the Apocrypha. The author of Ecclesias-
ticus was called by this name and twelve persons
with the same name are mentioned by Josephus
outside of his references to Joshua and to Christ.
It was a common name among the Jews of the
Greek-speaking period.
4. A Jewish (Christian, also termed Justus, as-
sociated with Paul (Col. iv:ii). (See Justus.)
5. The name of dur Lord. (See Jesus
Christ.)
JESUS CHRIST (je-zus krist), (Gr. 'Itjo-oCj
Xp<crT6$ ,'l7)(j-oC! 6 Xpio-Tis), the ordinary designation
of the incarnate Son of God, and Savior of man-
kind.
This double designation is not, like Simon
Peter, John Mark, Joses Barnabas, composed
of a name and a surname, but, like John the Bap-
tist, Simon Magus, Bar-jesus Elymas, of a proper
name, and an official title. Jesus was our Lord'5
proper name, just as Peter, James, and John
were the proper names of three of his disciples.
The name seems not to have been an uncommon
one among the Jews. The apocryphal book Ec-
clesiasticus is attributed to Jesus the son of
Sirach ; and, in the New Testament, we read of
Jesus, the father of Elymas the sorcerer (Acts
xiii:6), and of "Jesus, which is called Justus of the
circumcision' (Col. iv:ii), one of Paul's 'fellow-
workers unto the kingdom of God which had
been a comfort to him.' To distinguish our Lord
from others bearing the name, he was termed
Jesus of Nazareth (John xviii 17, etc.), 'IijffoOs 6
Nafwparos, and Jesus the son of Joseph (John
vi :42, etc.)
(1) Personal Name. There can be no doubt
that Jesus is the Greek form of a Hebrew name,
which had been borne by two illustrious ^individ-
uals in former periods of the Jewish history —
the successor of Moses and introducer of Israel
into the Promised Land (Exod. xxiv:i3), and the
high-priest who, along with Zerubbabel (Zech.
iii:l), took so active a part in the re-establishment
of the civil and religious polity of the Jews on
their return from the Babylonish captivity. Its
original and full form is Jehoshua (Num. xiii :
16). By contraction it became Joshua, or Jeshua;
and when transferred into Greek, by taking the
termination characteristic of that language, it as-
sumed the form Jesus. It is thus the names of the
illustrious individuals referred to are uniformly
written in the Sept. ; and the first of them is
twice mentioned in the New Testament by this
name (Acts vii :45 ; Heb. iv:8).
The conferring of this name on our Lord was
not the result of accident, nor of the ordinary
course of things, there being 'none of his kin-
dred,' as the 'neighbors and cousins' of his mother
said, 'called by that name' (Luke i:6i). It was
the consequence of a twofold miraculous inter-
position. The angel who announced to his virgin
mother that she was to be 'the most honored of
women,' in giving birth to the Son of God and
the Savior of men, intimated also fo her the
name by which the holy child was to be called :
'Thou shall call his name Jesus' (Luke i:3l).
And it was probably the same heavenly messenger
who appeared to Joseph, and, to remove his sus-
picions and quiet his fears, said to him: 'That
which is conceived in thy wife Mary is of the
Holy Ghost, and she shall bring forth a son, and
thou shall call his name Jesus' (Matt, i :20, 21).
The pious pair were 'not disobedient to the
heavenly vision.' 'When eight days were ac-
complished for the circumcising of the child, his
name was called Jesus, which was so named of the
angel before he was conceived in the womb'
(Luke ii :2i).
The name Jesus, like most of Jewish proper
names, was significant ; and, as might well be
expected, when we consider who imposed it, its
JESUS CHRIST
943
JESUS CHRIST
meaning is at once important and appropriate.
The precise import of the word has been a sub-
ject of doubt and debate among interpreters. As
to its general meaning there is all but an unani-
mous concurrence. It was intended to denote that
he who bore it was to be a Deliverer or Savior.
This, whatever more, is indicated in the original
word ; and the reason given by the angel for the
imposition of this name on the Virgin's son was
'because he shall save his people from their sins'
(Matt. i:2i). But while some interpreters hold
that it is just a part of the verb signifying to save
in the form Hiphil, slightly modified, and that it
signifies 'he shall save,' others hold that it is a
compound word formed by the addition of two
letters of the incommunicable name of the Divin-
ity, mv, to that verb, and that it is equivalent
to 'The Salvation of the Lord,' or 'The Lord
the Savior.' It is not a matter of vital impor-
tance. The following circumstances seem to give
probability to the latter opinion. It does not
appear likely that Moses would have changed the
name of his destined successor from Oshea, which
signifies 'savior.' into Jehoshua (Num. xiii:i6),
if the latter signified merely he shall save;
whereas, if the word be a compound term, em-
bodying in it the name Jehovah, we see an ade-
quate reason for the change. In the first chapter
of the Gospel by Matthew (Matt, i :22, 23), the
most natural interpretation of the words (though
they admit of another exegesis) seems to imply
that the prediction of Isaiah, that the Virgin's
son should be called Immanuel, was fulfilled in
the imposition of the name Jesus on the Son of
Mary. This would be the case only on the sup-
position that Immanuel and Jesus are equivalent
terms, a supposition which cannot be sustained
urtless Jesus can be fairly rendered 'Jehovah will
save,' or 'Jehovah the Savior.' In that case,
Jesus and Immanuel — God zvitli us, i. e., on our
side — express the same ideas.
It is right, however, to remark that the merely
bearing such a name as either Immanuel or Jesus,
even by Divine appointment, is not of itself evi-
dence of the divinity of him who bears it. The
Hebrews were in the habit of giving names, both
to persons and places, which were intended not to
describe their distinctive properties, but to ex-
press some important general truth. Jacob called
an altar built by him El-Elohe-Israel (Gen.
xxxiii:2o), 'God the God of Israel,' «'. c, God is
the God of Israel. Moses called an altar he
built Jehovah-nissi (Exod. xvii:is), 'Jdiovah my
banner,' 1. e., Jehovah is my banner. The name
Jehoshua, as borne by hiin who brought the
people of the Lord into the heritage of the Gen-
tiles, means no more than that by him Jehovah
would deliver his people. In many of the proper
names in the Old Testament, the name El, or
Jehovah, forms a part. Yet when, as in the
case beTore us. he who bears such a name, by
express divine appointment, is shown 'by many
infallible proofs' to be indeed an incarnation of
Divinity, we cannot but perceive a peculiar pro-
priety in this divine appointment, and find in it,
if not a new argument, a corroboration of the
host of arguments which lead us to the conclu-
sion that He who 'according to the flesh' was the
Son of David, 'according to the Spirit of Holi-
ness' was 'the Son of God.' 'God over all, blessed
forever' (Rom. i :3, 4; ix:5).
The 'name of Jesus' (Phil. ii:io) is not the
name Jesus, but 'the name above every name'
tvofm t4 inrip irSi' 61101m, ver. q\ 1. e., the supreme
dignity and authority with which the Father has
invested Jesus Christ, as the reward of his disin-
terested exertions in the cause of the divine -glory
and human happiness; and the bowing If rif
ji'6/iari 'IijtroC in or at the name of Jesus, is obvi-
ously not an external mark of homage when the
name Jesus is pronounced, but the inward sense
of awe and submission to him who is raised to a
station so exalted.
(2) Official Name. Christ (Gr. TipuxTbt,
the Anointed One; Heb. ^"t'^, Messiah, the
Anointed). Christ is not, strictly speaking, a
proper name, but an official title. Jesus Christ,
or rather, as it generally ought to be rendered,
Jesus the Christ, is a mode of expression of the
same kind as John the Baptist, or Baptizer. In
consequence of not adverting to this, the force,
and even the meaning, of many passages of
Scripture are misapprehended. When it is stated
that Paul asserted, 'This Jesus whom I preach
unto you is Christ' (Acts xvii:3>, ^tl oDtAs i<jTi.v i
Xpuxrbi 'iTiffovs, etc., that he 'testified to the'jews
that Jesus was Christ' (Acts xviii:s), the mean-
ing is that he proclaimed and proved that Jesus
was the Christ, rip Xpio-rA^ 'IijaoC*', or Messiah — the
rightful owner of a title descriptive of a high offi-
cial station which had been the subject of ancient
prediction. When Jesus himself says that 'it is
life eternal to know the only true God, and Jesus
Christ whom he has sent' (John xvii:3), he repre-
sents the knowledge of himself as the Christ, the
Messiah, as at once necessary and sufficient to
make men truly and {permanently happy.
When he says, 'What think ye of Christ?"
irepl ToC XpuTToO: 'whose son is he?" (Matt, xxii:
42), he does not mean. What think ye of Me, or
of my descent? but. What think ye of the
Christ — the Messiah — and especially of his pa-
ternity. There can be no doubt that the word,
though originally an appellative and intended to
bring before the mind a particular official char-
acter possessed by him to whom it is applied,
came at last, like many other terms of the same
kind, to be often used very much as a proper
name, to distinguish our Lord from other persons
bearing the name Jesus. This is a sense, how-
ever, of comparatively rare occurrence in the New
Testament.
Proceeding, then, on the principle that Christ
is an appellative, let us inquire into its origin
and signification as applied to our Lord. Christ
is the English form of a Greek word, Xpiarii,
corresponding in meaning to the Hebrew word
Messiah and the English word Anointed. The
Christ is just equivalent to the Anointed One.
The important question, however, remains be-
hind. What is meant when the Savior is repre-
sented as the Anointed One? To reply to this
question satisfactorily it will be necessary to go
somewhat into detail.
Unction, from a very early age, seems to have
been the emblem of consecration, or setting apart
to a particular, and especially to a religious, pur-
pose. Thus, Jacob is said to have anointed the
pillar of stone, which he erected and set apart as
a monument of his supernatural dream at Bethel
(Gen. xxviii:i8; xxxi:l3; xxxv:l4). Under the
Old Testament economy high-priests and kings
were regularly set apart to their offices, both of
which were, strictly speaking, sacred ones, by
the ceremony of anointing, and the prophets were
occasionally designated by the same rite. This
rite seems to have been intended as a public
intimation of a Divine appointment to office. Thus
Saul is termed 'the Lord's anointed' (i Sam.
xxiv :6) ; David, 'the anointed of the God of
Israel' (2 Sam. xxiii:l); and Zedekiah. 'the
anointed of the Lord' (Lam. iv:2o). The high-
priest is called 'the anointed priest' (Lev. iv:3).
JESUS CHRIST
944
JESUS CHRIST
From the origin and design of the rite, it is not
wonderful that the term should have, in a secon-
dary and analogical sense, been applied to persons
set apart by God for important purposes, though
not actually anointed. Thus Cyrus, the King of
Persia, is termed 'the Lord's anointed' (Is. xlv :
l) ; the Hebrew patriarchs, when sojourning in
Canaan, are termed 'God's anointed ones' Ps. cv :
IS) ; and the Israelitish people receive the same
appellation from the prophet Habbaktik (Hab.
iii:i3). It is probably with reference to this use
of the expression that Moses is said by the writer
of the Epistle to the Hebrews, to have 'counted the
reproach of Christ' (Heb. xi;26), xoO XpMToi
(XaoC), the same class who in the parallel clause
are termed the 'people of God,' 'greater riches than
the treasures of Egypt.'
In the prophetic Scriptures we find .this appel-
lation given to an illustrious personage, who, un-
der various designations, is so often spoken of as
destined to appear in a distant age as a great de-
liverer. The royal prophet David seems to have
been the first who spoke of the great deliverer
under this appellation. He represents the heathen
(the Gentile nations) raging, and the people (the
Jewish people) imagining a vain thing, 'against
Jehovah, and against his anointed' (Ps. ii:2).
He says, 'Now know I that the Lord saveth his
anointed' (Ps. xx:6). 'Thou hast loved right-
eousness and hated iniquity,' says he, addressing
himself to 'Him who was to come,' 'therefore
God, even thy God, hath anointed thee with the
oil of gladness above thy fellows' (Ps. xlv:7).
In all the passages in which the great deliverer is
spoken of as 'the anointed one,' by David, he is
plainly viewed as sustaining the character of a
king.
The prophet Isaiah also uses the appellation,
'the anointed one,' with reference to the promised
deliverer, but, when he does so, he speaks of him
as a prophet or great teacher. He introduces him
as saying, 'The Spirit of the Lord God is upon
me, because the Lord God hath anointed me to
preach good tidings unto the meek ; he hath sent
me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim
liberty to the captives, and the opening of the
prison to them that are bound, to proclaim the
acceptable year of the Lord, and the day of
vengeance of our God; to comfort all that mourn,'
etc. (Is. Ixi :i, etc.).
Daniel is the only other of the prophets who
uses the appellation, 'the anointed one.' in refer-
ence to the Great Deliverer, and he plainly repre-
sents him as not only a prince, but also a high-
priest, an expiator of guilt. 'Seventy weeks are
determined upon thy people and upon thy holy
city, to finish the transgression, and to make an
end of sins, and to make reconciliation for in-
iquity, and to bring an everlasting righteousness,
and to seal up the vision and the prophecy, and to
anoint the Most Holy. Know therefore and im-
derstand that from the going forth of the com-
mandment to restore Jerusalem unto Messiah the
Prince shall be seven weeks, and threescore ano
two weeks; the city shall be built again, and the
wall, even in troublous times; and after three-
score and two weeks shall Messiah be cut off,
hut not for himself (Dan. ix 124-26).
During the period which elapsed from the close
of the prophetic canon until the birth of Jesus, no
appellation of the expected deliverer seems to
have been so common as the Messiah or .'\nointed
One. and this is still the name which the unbe-
lieving Jews ordinarily employ when speaking of
him whom they still look for to avenge their
wrongs and restore them to more than their for-
mer honors.
Messiah, Christ, Anointed, is, then, a term
equivalent to consecrated, sacred, set apart ; and
as the record of divine revelation is called, by
way of eminence, TJie Bible, or book, so is the
Great Deliverer called The Messiah, or Anointed
One, much in the same way as he is termed. The
Man, The Son of Man.
The import of this designation as given to
Jesus of Nazareth may now readily be appre-
hended ; When he is termed the Christ it is
plainly indicated that He is the great deliverer
promised under that appellation, and many others
in the Old Testament Scriptures, and that all
that is said of this deliverer under this or any
other appellation is true of Him. No attentive
reader of the Old Testament can help noticing
that in every part of the prophecies there is ever
and anon presented to our view an illustrious per-
sonage destined to appear at some future distant
period, and, however varied may be the figura-
tive representations given of him, no reasonable
doubt can be entertained as to the identity of the
individual. It is quite obvious that the Messiah
is the same person as 'the seed of the woman'
who was to 'bruise the head of the. serpent' (Gen.
iii:i5) ; 'the seed of Abraham, in whom all the na-
tions of the earth were to be blessed' (Gen. xxii :
18) ; the great 'prophet to be raised up like unto
Moses,' whom all were to be required to hear and
obey (Deut. xviii:i5) ; the 'priest after the order
of Melchizedek ;' 'the rod out of the stem of Jesse,
which should stand for an ensign of the people
to which the Gentiles should seek' (Is. xi:l, to) ;
the virgin's son whose name was to be Immanuel
(•Is. vii:l4) ; 'the branch of Jehovah' (Is. iv:2) ;
'the Angel of the Covenant' (Mai. iii:i); 'the
Lord of the Temple.' etc.. in the same place. When
we say. then, .that Jesus is the Christ, we in effect
say, 'This is He of whom Moses in the law, and
ihe Prophets did write' (John i:45) ; and all that
they say of Him is true of Jesus.
Now what is the sum of the prophetic testi-
mony respecting him? It is this — that he should
belong to the very highest order of being, the in-
communicable name Jehovah being represented
as rightfully belonging to him; that 'his goings
forth have been from old, from everlasting' (Mic.
v:2); that his appropriate appellations should be
'Wonderful,' 'Counsellor,' 'the Mighty God' (Is.
ix :6) ; that he should assume human nature, and
become 'a child born' of the Israelitish nation of
the tribe of Judah (Gen. xlix:io), of the family
of David (Is. xi:i); that the object of his ap-
pearance should be the salvation of mankind,
both Jews and Gentiles (Is. xlix :6) ; that he
should be 'despised and rejected' of his country-
men; that he should be 'cut off, but not for him-
self; that he should be 'wounded for men's trans-
gressions, bruised for their iniquities, and under-
" go the chastisement o.f their peace;' that 'by his
stripes men should be healed ;' that 'the Lord
should lay on him the iniquity' of men; that 'ex-
action should be made and he should answer it ;'
that he should 'make his soul an offering for sin:'
that after these sufferings he should be 'exalted
and extolled and made very high ;' that he should
'.see of the travail of his soul and be satisfied,
and by his knowledge justify many' (Is. liii.
throughout) ; that Jehovah should say to him, 'Sit
at my right hand until I make thine enemies thy
footstool' (Ps. cx:i) ; that he should be brought
near to the Anciei'it of Days, and that to him
should be given 'dominion, and glory, and a
kingdom, that all people, and nations, and lan-
guages should serve him — an everlasting domin-
ion which shall not pass away — a kingdom th-it
shall not be destroyed' (Dan. vii:i3, 14). All
jESUS CHKIST
M6
JESUS CHRIST
this is implied ir saying Jesus is the Christ. In
the plainer language of the New Testament 'Jesus
is the Christ' is equivalent to Jesus is "God niaiu-
fest in flesh' (l Tim. iii:i6) — the Son of (jod,
who, in human nature, by his obedience, and suf-
ferings, ind death in the room of the guilty, has
obtained "alvation for them, and all power in
heaven and earth for himself, that he may give
eternal life to all coming to the Father through
him.
While the statement, 'Jesus is the Christ", is
thus materially equivalent to the statement, 'all
that is said of the Great Deliverer in the Old
Testament Scriptures is true of Him,' it brings
more directly before our mind those truths re-
specting him which the appellation, 'the Anointed
One' naturally suggests. He is a prophet, a
priest, and a king. He is the great revealer of
Divine truth, the only expiator of human guilt,
sole legitimate ruler over the understandmgs,
consciences and affections of men. In his per-
son, and work, and word, by his spirit and provi-
dence, he unfolds the truth with respect to the
Divine character and will, and so conveys it into
the mind as to make it the effectual means of
conforming man's will to God's will, man's
character to God's character. He has, by his
spotless, all-perfect obedience, amid the severest
sufferings, 'obedience unto death, even the death
of the cross,' so illustrated the excellence of the
Divine law and the wickedness and danger of
violating it, as to make it a righteous thing in
'the just God' to 'justify the ungodly,' thus- pro-
pitiating the offended majesty of heaven; while
the manifestation of the Divine love in appoint-
iner and accepting this atonement, when appre-
hended by the mind under the influence of the
Holy Spirit, becomes the effectual means of
reconciling man to God and to his law, 'trans-
forming him by the renewing of his mind.' And
now, possessed of 'all power in heaven and earth,'
'all power over all flesh,' 'He is Lord of AH.' All
external events and all spiritual influences are
equally under his control, and as a king he exerts
his authority in carrying into full effect the great
purposes which his revelations as a prophet, and
his great atoning sacrifice as a high-priest, were
intended to accomplish.
But the full import of the appellation the
Christ is not yet brought Out. It indicates that
He to whom it belongs is the anointed prophet;
priest, and king — not that he was anointed by
material oil, but that he was divinely appointed,
qualified, commissioned, and accredited to be the
Savior of men. These are the ideas which the
term anointed seems specially intended to con-
vey. Jesus was divinely appointed to the offices
lie filled. He assumed tliein involuntarily, "he
was called of God as was Aaron' (Heb. v:4).
'Behold mine Elect, in whom my soul delight-
eth.' He was divinely qualified: 'God gave to hini
the Spirit not by measure.' 'The Spirit of the
Lord was upon him, the spirit of wisdom and
understanding, the spirit of counsel and niigln.
the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the
Lord, and they made him of quick understand-
ing in the fear of the Lord, so that he does not
judge after the sight of his eyes, nor reprove
after the hearing .rif his ears, but he smites the
earth with the rod of his mouth, and with the
breath of his lips he slays the wicked ; and right-
eousness is the girdle of his loins, and faithful-
ness the girdle of his reins' (Is. xi :2, 4). He
was divinely commissioned ; 'The Father sent
him.' Jehovah said to him. 'Thou art my serv-
ant, in thee will I be glorified.' 'It is a light thine;
that thou shouldst be my servant, to raise up the
60
tribes of Jacob, and to restore the preserved of
Israel ; 1 will also give thee for a light to the
Gentiles, that thou niayst be my salvation to llic
ends of the earth' (Is. xlix:t)J. 'Behold,' says
Jehovah, 'I have given Him for a witness to ilie
people — a leader and commander to the people.'
He is divinely accredited; 'Jesus of Nazareth,'
says the Apostle Peter, was 'a man approved of
God among you by miracles, and wonders, and
signs which God did by him in the midst of you'
(Acts ii:22). 'The Father who hath sent me,'
says Jesus himself, 'hath borne witness of me'
(.John v-37). This he did again and again by a
voice from heaven, as well as by the miracles
which he performed by that divine power which
was equally his as his Father's. Such is the
import of the appellation Christ.
If these observations are clearly apprehended
there will be little difficulty in giving a satisfac-
tory answer to the question which has sometimes
been proposed — when did Jesus become Christ.'
when was he anointed of God? We have seen
that the expression is a figurative or analogical
one, and therefore we need not wonder that its
references are various. The appointment of the
Savior, like all the other Divine purposes, was
of course from eternity. 'He was set up from
everlasting' ( Prov. viii:23) ; he 'was foreor-
dained before the foundation of the world' (,1
Pet. i:20). His qualifications, such of them as
were conferred, were bestowed in or during his
incarnation, when 'God anointed him with the
Holy Ghost and with power' (Acts x:38). His
commission may be considered as given him when
called to enter on the functions of his office.
He himself, after quoting, in the synagogue of
Nazareth, in the commencement of his ministry,
the passage from the prophecies of Isaiah in
which his unction to the prophetical office is pre-
dicted, declared, 'This day is this Scripture ful-
filled in your ears.' And in his resurrection and
ascension, God, as the reward of his loving
righteousness, and haling iniquity, 'anointed liim
with the oil of gladness above his fellows' (,Ps.
xlv:7), i. e., conferred on him a regal power,
fruitful in blessings to himself and others, far
superior to that which any king had ever pos-
sessed, making him, as the Apostle Peter ex-
presses it, 'both Lord and Christ' (Acts ii:36).
As to his being accredited, every miraculous event
performed in reference to him or by him may be
viewed as included in this species of anointing —
especially the visible descent of the Spirit on him
in his baptism.
These statements, with regard to the import of
the appellation, 'the Christ,' show us how we
are to understand the statement of the Apostle
John, 'Whosoever believeth that Jesus is the
Christ, is born of God' (l John v:i), i. e.. is 'a
child of God,' 'born again,' 'a new creature;' and
the similar declaration of the Apostle Paul, 'No
man can say that Jesus is the Lord.' i. e.. the
Christ, the Messiah, 'but by the Holy Ghost'
(l Cor. xii:3). It is plain that the proposition,
'Jesus is the Chri.st,' when understood in the lati-
tude of meaning which we have shown belongs to
it. contains a complete summary of the truth re-
specting the divine method of salvation. To
lielieve that principle riglilly understood is to be-
lieve the Gospel — llie saving truth, by the faith of
which a man is, and by the faith of which only a
man can be, brought into the relation or formed
to the character of a child of God; and though a
man may. without divine influence, be brought
to acknowledge that 'Jesus is the Lord.' 'Messiah
the Prince.' and even firmly to believe that these
words embody a truth yet no man can be brought
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
946
really to believe and cordially to acknowledge the
truth contained in these words, as we have at-
tempted to unfold it, without a peculiar divine
influence. That Jesus is 6 iXBiiv, 6 Xpi(TT6s, is the
testimony of God, the faith of which constitutes
a Christian, rb iv, the one thing to which the
Spirit, the water and the blood, unite in bearing
witness (. i John v :6, 8, g) .
(3) Offices of Jesus Christ. The offices are
generally considered as threefold: (a) A pro-
phet to enlighten, warn, and instruct (John vi:
14; iii:2). (b) A priest to sympathize, intercede,
and make atonement for his people (Is. liii; Heb.
vii). (c) A king to reign in, rule over, protect,
deliver, and bless them (Zech. xivig; Ps. ii:6).
(See articles Intercession; Mediator.) J. B.
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF.
(1) Becords and Chronology. Palestine was
a small country on the far eastern edge of the
great Roman Empire. The Jewish people were
despised and ignored because they were a small
Oriental nation, bigoted and exclusive in spirit,
austere in morals, and fanatical in religion. The
career of Jesus, brief, uneventful and obscure to
the general observer of his day, attracted almost
no attention outside of his own land. It was
nearly thirty-five years after Jesus' death before
the Empire came to regard his followers as any-
thing more than a particular Jewish sect. We
need not, therefore, expect, nor do we in fact find,
much reference to Jesus in the Roman history of
this period. The only clear statement about him
is contained in Tacitus' "Annals," xv:44: "They
called them Christians. Christ, from whom the
name was given, had been put to death in the
reign of Tiberius, by the procurator Pontius Pi-
late." There are also some corroborating allu-
sions to Jesus and his followers in other Roman
writings. The great Jewish writers of the centu-
ry, Philo and Josephus, give us practically noth-
ing. Philo nowhere mentions Jesus, perhaps from
ignorance of him, although Philo lived until after
40 A. D. Josephus barely mentions "the Christ"
in Antiquities xx, ix, I (unless some portion of
the famous passage xviii, iii, 3 can be called genu-
ine). His silence is intentional, due to Jewish
hatred of Jesus. Small, therefore, but very valu-
able, is the extra-biblical record of Jesus' life.
Within the New Testament, the earliest record
is contained in certain epistles of Paul, written
not later than the years A. D. 53-63, and whose
authorship and historicity is unquestioned. From
these letters we learn of his Davidic descent, his
unique personality, his exalted character, his
preaching of the Kingdom of God, his appoint-
ment of apostles, his Messiahship, his betrayal,
crucifixion and resurrection. From James, Peter
and Hebrews also can be gathered facts about
Jesus' life.
But the Gospels have explicitly recorded for us
Jesus' life. They contain memorabilia of Jesus.
Fragmentary accounts of what Jesus did and said
have been brought together for use and preserva-
tion. From a time even before his death, the im-
portant events, the significant acts, and the
weighty teachings of Jesus, were reported among
his followers, taught to the new converts (Acts
ii:42), and circulated wherever the Gospel was
carried. The words and acts of Jesus were the
substance of (Thristianity throughout the apostolic
age. For many years this historical material was
transmitted Orally, according to the Jewish cus-
tom of the time. Gradually the records passed
from Aramaic, their original language, into Greek,
that they might be given also to the Gentiles and
to the Jews of the Dispersion. After a time some
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
of the material was committed to writing, and
oral and written tradition went along hand in
hand. The first attempt to gather up these frag-
mentary records was probably made by the apostle
Matthew, who collected many of Jesus' sayings
in their Aramaic dress, perhaps as early as A. D.
50. This collection is known as the "Logia."
Some years later, Mark supplemented Matthew's
work by making a collection of the records of
the events and deeds of Jesus' public ministry.
And as the generation of eye and ear witnesses
of what Jesus had done and said was now pass-
ing away, many attempts were made (Luke i:
1-4) to collect the floating material into a more
complete and durable form. Our four canonical
gospels are such final collections. They came into
existence at four different centers of Christian
teaching and activity in the apostolic age, and
grew out of the cycle of tradition which each cen-
ter had in its possession. The Gospel of Mark
(about 66 A. D.) is the earliest of the four. The
Gospel of Matthew is not the "Logia" of the
apostle, but an original work in Greek (about
A. D. 70-80) by an unnamed author, who used
a Greek form of the earlier "Logia" as a source
of his material, and drew also from the Gospel
of Mark, and from various other sources of oral
and written tradition. The Gospel of Luke
was also compiled (about A. D. 70-80) from a
Greek edition of the "Logia," from Mark's Gospel,
and from other sources of oral and written tra-
dition. The fourth Gospel comes frorp the Apostle
John, and contains a cycle of tradition not often
parallel to that of the synoptic gospels, but of a
peculiar type which John seems to have cherished.
This gospel is either directly from the apostle
(about A. D. 80-96), or indirectly, through some
discip^e of his who, after his master's death,
collected certain characteristic material from the
apostle's teaching and put it forth under John's
name (about A. D. 100-130).
Our gospels are therefore compilations. The
events, the deeds and the sayings of Jesus which
they contain are those which circulated among
the Christians from the first. They survived, a
few out of a great number, because they most
clearly revealed and perpetuated the life, work and
teaching of Jesus. The material has passed
through a process of wise selection by the dis-
ciples, and of practical sifting by time, tintil we
have the -choicest and most useful portion, the
essence of the history. It must, however, be
remembered that the incicleijts and sayings have,
by this process of transmission, lost for the most
part their historical setting and their chronologi-
cal position. This material, when brought to-
gether in our gospels, is often- grouped topically
or illustratively. The arrangement cannot be
depended upon in detail. For example, in Mat-
thew the Sermon on the Mount, the Charge to
the Twelve, the Parables by the Sea, the De-
nunciation of the Pharisees, the Eschatological
Discourse, and in Luke the long section (chap-
ters x-xix) are all collections of material spoken
on various occasions, whose detailed historical
setting has been lost, and which are brought to-
gether in a topical or literary unity. The same
thing can often be seen in the grouping of the
incidents as transmitted to us. This feature of
the gospels is becoming increasingly clear to all
thoughtful scholars, and the recognition of it is
essential to a true use of the Gospel histories.
The chronology of Jesus' life is in general cer-_
tain, but in detail very uncertain. We know that
Jesus' death fell in the reign of Tiberiuji and
the procuratorship of Pilate, t. e., somewhere
between A. D. 26 and 36. This can probalily be
jESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
947
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
narrowed down to A. D. 28-33, but within this
range we cannot tell what year. The year A. D.
30 is the date to which it is now commonly as-
sigped, but of this we cannot be at all sure. The
beginning of Jesus' public ministry was, pre-
sumably, not until after the fifteenth year of
Tiberius (Luke iii:l-3). '• f-. late in A. D. 28
or 29. Jesus being then "about thirty years of
age" (Luke iii:23), his birth goes back a few
years into the B. C. period. About the year
B. C. 6 is the date toward which we seem now
to be trending. Even supposing these data given
by Luke to be accurate, there remains an un-
certainty of years. We would seem to have a pub-
lic ministry of Jesus but one full year in length,
if he began early in 29 and was crucified in the
spring of A. D. 30. Current chronological
schemes of the public ministry give it something
over three years, on the basis of John ii:i3; v:
i; vi:4; xiii:l. But v:i is not a passover, and
vi :4 as a passover is somewhat doubtful (see
Westcott and Hort, "New Testament in Greek,"
vol. ii :Appx. 77-81 ; and Turner, art. Chronology
of the New Testament in "Neiv Bible Dictionary,"
vol. i, pp. 403-415, the best single article on the
whole problem) ; while the passover in connection
with the cleansing of the temple may be the last
one, as the synoptic gospels indicate. John's
supposed chronological framework is therefore
quite questionable. The synoptists mention but
one passover, that in connection with Jesus'
death. It is sometimes held that they indicate,
though they do not name, two others (Mark ii .2$
suggests a time of year soon after a passover, and
Mark vi :39 is supposed from its reference to
"green grass" to indicate a time not long before a
passover). But from what we know of the way .
in which the material of the gospels is put to-
gether, we cannot build chronology on such sug-
gestions. Professor Sanday ("Expositor," iv, v :
16) says: "The simple fact is that the synoptic
gospels are only a series of incidents loosely
strung together, with no chronology at all worthy
of the name." The exact dates of Jesus' life can-
not at present be l-nown, neither can we know
the duration of his public ministry; it was prob-
ably either one or two full years, with some
portion of a second or third. After all. this
matters little; exact chronology is a modern pas-
sion, but it is comparatively unimportant. The
ethical and religious teaching of Jesus' life is
quite independent of precise years, months and
days.
(2) Preparation of Jesus for His Work. The
Hebrew nation had a genius for morals and relig-
ion, as Greece had a genius for science and litera-
ture, and Rome a genius for law and administra-
tion. Each nation made its essential contribution
to the progress of mankind. Naturally, there-
fore, the greatest religious teacher of the world
arose from the Hebrew race, and perfected his
people's contribution, to human history. Jesus
was born of Jewish parents in Palestine. But not
at Jerusalem nor in Judea did the Jewish Messiah
arise — that honor fell to Galilee. For in Judea,
Pharisaism was at its worst. Emphasis upon the
letter had crushed out the spirit of religion,
righteousness had become a superficial and punc-
tilious observance of formal rules of conduct ?nd
empty ceremonies instead of the outworking of
a pure heart and a right purpose. The rabbinical
schools at Jerusalem were dreary storehouses of
Jewish legal lore and factories of casuistical dis-
putations upon the minutiae of legal obligation.
Out of this no good thing could come, least of all
the Messiah.
So, in (jod's providence, Jesus' home was at
Nazareth. Galilee breathed a freer, purer relig-
ious atmosphere. In fact, was there so favorable
a place as Galilee elsewhere in all the earth for the
development of the world's greatest teacher? For
there he escaped the hollow and hypocritical
Pharisaism, and at the same time the gross im-
morality and barren speculations of the Gentile
nations. Jesus' parents were devoted adherents
of Judaism in the best prophetic type, genuinely
religious. They were simple, quiet, hard-working
people of one of the larger Galilean villages. The
education which Jesus received was an excellent
one for the times. It began in the home, where
the greatest (Tare was taken by the best Jewish
families to train their children religiously. Then
came the assistance also of the synagogue school,
where the fundamentals of education were taught.
The Old Testament history was thoroughly
taught, and then the Old Testament law with its
later elaborations, until the child became familiar
with the whole canon of Jewish Scriptures. How
completely Jesus entered into the spirit of all
this appears on his first visit to Jerusalem, at the
age of his legal majority, when he eagerly seized
the opportunity to ask the rabbis the many great
questions of religion and life to which he had
found no answers. Jesus probably learned to
read the Old Testament Scriptures in Hebrew,
and the Aramaic he was of course familiar with,
for it was the Jewish vernacular of his day. In
addition he knew more or less Greek, for this
was the language of commerce with the Gentile
world, which had entered largely into Galilee.
Jesus seems never to have gone beyond
Syria out into the great Roman Empire, nor to
have become familiar with the Gentile type of life,
nor to have read the history or literature of any
nation besides his own. In morals and religion
Judaism was to be the teacher, not the taught.
Out of Hebrew history and teaching Jesus drew
the truth of God, and it was upon the Old Testa-
ment foundation as laid by the greatest of the
prophets that he built the everlasting Gospel.
That which was good in the religious thought and
practice of his day he recognized and cherished,
that which was false and harmful he rejected with
true spiritual vision. Discrimination of essentials
from non-essentials, the fixing of a scale of real
values, was characteristic of Jesus. And in addi-
tion to all, he loved the world of nature about
him. finding everywhere God's workmanship and
God's love. No one has seen so much in nature
that is beautiful and helpful as Jesus saw. God's
own spirit of wisdom, truth and love grew in
him to perfect him for his mission. Jesus must
have come early to a consciousness of special
nearness to God. It was this constraining power
which led him safely through the maze of human
experience to a complete control over his acts
and choices, and to the ultimate approval of God
for the Messianic work. He was the normal man ;
others were abnormal. And yet so unostentatious
was Tesus' life during the thirty years at Nazareth,
that his townsmen would not believe him extraor-
dinary (Mark iii:20, 21; vi:i-6; Luke iv:i6-30).
But however close Jesus felt himself to God,
he probably was not yet conscious that he was
to be the Messiah. The thirty years was a period
of probation for him. When John the Baptist ap-
peared in the district of the Jordan heralding the
approach of the Kingdom of God. and calling
upon men to prepare therefor, Jesus eagerly re-
sponded to the summons. Now was to appear
he who should restore pure religion to Israel, and
lead men to the glorious realization of their ideal
hopes. Jesus would, with the others, receive the
symbol of conformity to God's will and of prepar-
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
948
ation for the kingdom at hand. But with the ad-
ministering of water baptism to Jesus came Goas
approval of his Son, and a unique impartation of
God's spirit, which was to him at once the an-
nouncement of his Messiahship and the endow-
ment for his Messianic work.
The experience which followed upon this, the
so-called temptation, was Jesus' self-adjustment
to his new office and life. The gospel accounts
of this experience came from Jesus himself. In
this parabolic language he endeavored to show
to his disciples what was the true conception of
the Kingdom of God and of the Messiah, as he
had determined these at the outset of his ministry.
The problem as to what sort of a Messiah he
should be, and what methods he should use in the
performance of his Messianic mission, was a vital
one to Jesus, and the mental anguish of decision
was real. God was with him in the choice. He
determined to sacrifice himself wholly to the
cause, to forego the comforts of life and sub-
ject himself to the privations and labors of a
traveli 'g ministry. He determined that he would
not employ spectacular methods, but quietly and
simply would do the work of a preacher of
righteousness. And that, however great might be
the pressure upon him to become the temporal
Messiah of current Jewish expectation, he would
insist only and always upon a spiritual kingdom,
founded on spiritual truth, composed of spiritual
members, and seeking spiritual ends. Then Jesus
was ready to begin his public work as Messiah.
(3) Plan and Method of Jesus' Ministry.
The decision as to what needed to be done, and
how it was to be accomplished, was reached by
Jesus before he entered upon his public work.
The Kingdom of God, a spiritual and moral king-
dom, was to be established upon the earth. It
was the nature of this kingdom, first, to trans-
form the individual, second, to dominate and
purify the world. Such a kingdom could not be
founded from without. All true and effective
means must be of an invisible and spiritual kind.
There could be no alliance with the political par-
ties and forces already established in Judea, for
the Kingdom of God was to take no external,
temporal, or local form. It was not to be set up
or maintained by any of those instrumentalities
upon which human kingdoms depended. "My
kingdom is not of this world," said Jesus (John
xviii:36). It was to have no officers, no head-
quarters, no political features, no wordly associa-
tions. It was not to be established nor defended
by physical force, neither was it to exist in the
interest of selfish ends. Nor was it possible for
Jesus to carry out the current Messianic pro-
gramme. The Messiah of the popular hope must
establish a temporal kingdom, visible to men,
which should give the Jewish nation political
.supremacy of the world, and so glorify and
avenge the down-trodden Israel. This was not the
character of the Kingdom of God, as God gave
Jesus to see it. "The kingdom of God cometh
not with observation," said he, "the kingdom of
God is within you" (Luke xvii :20, 21). It was
impossible, therefore, for Jesus to cooperate with
any of the religious parties which governed the
lives and thoughts of his nation. The only means
of establishing such a kingdom as he had been
commissioned to found was to win to its support
individuals who felt its truth and power, waiting
patiently until those adherents should attain such
numbers and strength as would leaven humanity
entire, and transform the whole into the ideal
tnriety of perfected individuals.
This plan of Jesus is the most remarkable ever
JESUS THE CHRIST. LIFE OF
conceived. Rome had united the Mediterranean
world by an all-conquering idea of universal polit-
ical dominion, and men had marveled at the
accomplishment of the impossible. Yet how much
greater was Jesus' idea of uniting the whole
world by the ties of religion into a universal
spiritual brotherhood, a union not external, polit-
ical and selfish, but internal, religious, humanita-
rian. An invisible kingdom which, planted in a
small and obscure country, should expand till it
embraced all countries, all men, all time. Such
was Jesus' idea of the Kingdom of God. So
original was this plan, so independent of all exist-
ing thought, that it could' have come only from
God himself. No other than Jesus could have
conceived it, no other than Jesus would have at-
tempted it. Yet Jesus determined upon this plan
with full confidence that it was God's will, and
with full assurance of its ultimate success. The
accomplishment of it he set about with a resolu-
tion which carried him through hardships, isola-
tion, reproach, opposition, martyrdom.
The evidence does not seem to justify the view
that the plan of Jesus underwent modification dur-
ing his ministry. His methods, of course, changed
with the changing circumstances, his presentation
of his message progressed with the developing
capacity of his hearers, and his attitude toward
the various classes adjusted itself to the attitude
which they assumed toward him. It is true that
Jesus did not publicly proclaim his Messiahship
until the very close of his ministry, and that even
to his most intimate disciples he did not make
that claim until the latter portion of his work.
But this was not because he was not himself cer-
tain of his Messiahship. It was due to the fact
that if he had at the outset asserted himself as the
Messiah, the perverse popular expectation would
have demanded its perverse realization, and Jesus
would have received no hearing at all for his
purely spiritual conception of the kingdom. In
every possible way Jesus avoided raising false
hopes. He preached the kingdom so that it might
appeal to the hearts of men and transform their
expectations to accord with the reality. Even
this method of superlative wisdom did not suc-
ceed with the Jews as a whole, for when they
found Jesus would not fulfill their demands, all
but a handful of followers deserted him (John vi :
14, 15, 66). But Jesus' failure to win the nation
to an acceptance of the real kingdom could not
have been a surprise to himself. It did not need
a superhuman knowledge to foresee, at the outset
of Jesus' public ministry, that a kingdom and a
Messiah such as he contemplated would ultimately
fail of acceptance by the Jews. It must have
seemed quite clear to Jesus at the start that the
preaching of such a message would end in its re-
jection and his own death. The Jewish people
liad conspicuously stained their history with the
blood of their great prophets (Matt, xxiii :29-37),
and could their greatest prophet fail to meet a like
fate? But even with this probability before him,
Jesus went calmly and earnestly about his work
of delivering the message and founding the king-
dom which God had given into his hands.
His method of procedure was to go about in
Galilee, proclaiming the presence of the Kingdom
of God, and teaching what were its characteristics,
its demands, and its future. In the synagogues
he taught upon the Sabbath, but still more every
day in the homes, upon the streets, in the fields,
by the seaside, wherever and whenever receptive
listeners might be found. He gathered about him-
self disciples whom he trained to carry his Tries-
sage. By his own efforts, which they supplemented,
Palestine was made to ring with the Gospel.
JESUS THE CRRIST, LIFE OF
949
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OK
And Jesus' teaching was commended to the at-
tention of men, and impressed upon their minds,
by the mighty works which God gave him to do.
Extraordinary operations in the physical world
were made to illustrate the powers and blessings
of the spiritual world. The divine power mani-
fest in Jesus could heal physical disease, much
more could it remove moral disease ; it could re-
store physical sight and hearing, how much more
could . it open the spirit of man to the eternal
truths and beauties of God and his universe ; it
could supply the physical necessities to man, how
much more could it give that spiritual sustenance,
that righteousness, which the hungering soul
craves ; it could remove the physical effects of sin,
how much more could it purify the soul; it could
quiet the raging waves of the sea, how much
more could it soothe the troubled heart ; it could
restore the dead to life, how much more could it
renew the moral and spiritual being. These great
works were signs to the people that God was with
Jesus, that he was the accredited messenger of the
Most High. They were the token of God's pres-
ence among them, and the outflowing of his
beneficence to humanity.
Then, too, Jesus' own life was the embodiment
of his conception of the kingdom, an ideal realiza-
tion of God's perfect will for men, and so a con-
crete and living illustration of his teaching. Here,
as in all Jesus' teaching, it is the internal, not
the external, which has permanent significance.
Jesus became for us an example in the spirit of his
life. His perfect trust in God, his ab.solute per-
formance of duty, his unswerving adherence to
truth, his serious view of life, his indifference to
petty things, his vision into the depths of exist-
ence, his complete devotion to a great cause, his
willing sacrifice of himself to serve his fellowmen,
his patience in privation, adversity and suffering,
his purity of character and motive — in all these
and niany other respects, Jesus was the personi-
fication of his own teaching, the pattern of the
ideal man, the living example for every sincere
soul.
(4) Jesus the Great Beligious Teacher. The
whole life of a real teacher teaches. The teach-
ing of Jesus is not alone the words which he
spoke; it is also the deeds which he did, and the
cyample of his own life. Indeed, one attestation
of the truth of his utterances is the beauty of the
life which shows that truth in concrete realiza-
tion. Jesus was recognized by the most receptive
minds of his own day to be the great religious
teacher (Matt. vii:29: Mark i :27 ; Luke xxiv :
19) whose coming was to fulfill the ideal hopes
of centuries (Luke xxivrzi; John vi:i4. 15). It
was not his words only that gave them this belief ;
it was their embodiment in his acts and their
illustration in his character. Jesus was sent
by God to deliver a divine message to man.
a riiessage of life. He. revealed religious truth
which was. to be not only accepted, but lived.
The living of truth means the expression of
it in one's words, in one's deeds, in one's per-
sonality. Jesus not only told tnen what this
divine truth was, but he showed in his own life
what it was to live divine truth. Jesus therefore
became and continues to :be the source of re-
ligious belief and practice. He has made known
to men that which they practically need to know
about God, man, duty, existence ; and has shown
them how to realize thesethings in themselves.
Teaching is not an end in itself; it is a means
to an end. Jesus' teaching was a means for
getting God's will done in men individually and
collectively. God has a great purpose for the
world ; we exist as a part of that purpose ; we
can assist in the realization of that purpose; such
assistance consists in living as God would have
n.- live. Jesus came to tell us, and by example t"
show us, hosv God would have us live; to make
known to us God's love which forgives our fail-
ure and patiently awaits our complete success
in doing his will ; and to proclaim the freely
given divine power which is available and suffi-
cient for those whose supreme purpose is set
toward realizing God's will in themselves. This
was Jesus' mission; all that he did, all that he
said, all that he was, belonged to this message.
His words announiced these truths, his acts
embodied them, his character illustrated them.
The events of his public ministry were determined
by the attitude of the Jews toward him. He was
rejected and crucified because the message which
he brought, and which he unwaveringly taught,
was distasteful to the religious leaders of his
nation. He sacrificed himself that men might
have the truth of religion.
If, therefore, we wish to know what the re-
ligious teaching of Jesus is, we must get the
knowledge from him. The essence of Christianity
is what Jesus taught, freed from the applications
and elaborations of subsequent centuries. He
came to make life intelligible and duty clear.
His presentation of religious truths was divinely
wise. He could omit nothing that was of primary
importance. The relation of these truths to each
other he perfectly arranged. And thus we
have in his Galilean teaching, which was given
to untrammeled and receptive minds, the universal
presentation of the Gospel. Then can we know'
what this Galilean teaching was? Yes. God's
providence has preserved it in our gospels. Can
we trust these records to give us a true account
of his teaching? Yes. The reasons for this
trust are given above. We can confidently main-
tain, on historical grounds, that the gospels report
to us with substantial accuracy what Jesus did
and said ?nd was. In them we get clear back to
Jesus, and learn immediately from and of him.
The gospel records have been transmitted to us
by the first generation of Christians, and con-
tain the apostolic accounts of Jesus' deeds and
words. We see him through their eyes, to a
certain degree; but there is every reason to think
that in the main they saw him clearly and cor-
rectly. While the gospels give only excerpts
of what he said and did, those sayings and acts
have come down to us which most fully and
perfectly show his teaching and his life. We of
course recognize that the details of the incidents
and the ipsissima verba of the sayings have been
imperfectly preserved. Jesus spoke in Aramaic,
and our records of his utterances are only in
Greek, so that in every case allowance must
be made for translation. Minor variation is
everywhere present in the parallel accounts of
originally identical incidents or sayings. But
these things are unimportant. What we do need
is assurance that the facts of Jesus' life and the
ideas of Jesus' teaching are contained in our
gospel records. And this assurance we have, not
on a (>riori, but on strictly historical grounds.
When we endeavor to ascertain from the gos-
pels what the teaching of Jesus was, we find that
he centers it all about what he terms the Kingdom
of God. This term he derives from his contem-
poraries, but the content of it he has to modifv
greatly. The Jews were right in believing in
(jod's kingdom, but his kingdom was different
from that which they had conceived it to be. In
both views the Kingdom of God meant the realiza-
tion of God's will in man individually and col-
lectively. The difference lay in the conception of
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
950
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
what God's will for man is. To the Jews it
meant visible glorification of Israel, temporal
power, material blessings ; to Jesus it meant the
reign of reverence, truth, righteousness, altruism.
He set forth clearly and fully what human duty
is toward God and toward man. It is to trust
and revere God as a Father who loves and cares
for his children, to live in dependence upon and
communion with him, to lead righteous lives, to
be and do good, to love and serve one's fellow
men. That is, each must himself do perfectly
God's will, and must as far as possible, secure
that it be done by others. The outcome of this
individual living according to the highest prin-
ciples of being will be a transformed humanity, a
perfected Kingdom of God. Jesus proclaimed this
message to men, and exhorted them to accept it
and live it. He asserted this to be the divine
truth which God had given him to teach to
men, in his office as Messiah. This, he taught,
was God's answer to the question: What is life,
and how shall I live it? It was a very simple
and practical religion as Jesus gave it. He ex-
pressed it in language unequaled for clearness,
beauty and strength, he embodied it in deeds of
kindness and sympathy, he illustrated it in his
own matchless character and life. Jesus' teach-
ing is the heart of the Bible, the essence of
Christianity, the norm of that which is true and
useful in religion.
(5) The Jews' Rejection of Their Ulessiah.
The Jewish people in Jesus' day were under the
religious domination of the Pharisees. This po-
litico-religious party had arisen some two hun-
dred years earlier to resist the threatening in-
roads of Hellenism. The aim of the Pharisees
was to defend and perpetuate the intensely re-
ligious, peculiar and exclusive character of Juda-
ism. They were the political opponents of the
Sadducees, that party which was disposed to co-
operate with the Roman officials who were their
masters, and to take up with the freer life of
the Gentiles who surrounded tliem. In their
zeal to maintain the separateness of the Jews
from the Gentiles, the Pharisees placed great
emphasis upon the law. They extended their
legislation by the addition of innumerable cere-
monial distinctions and observances, until a
hedge was grown about the Jew to prevent
his absorption into the great empire of which
they unwillingly formed a political part. They
looked upon the Romans with unrelenting hatred,
and lived in the hope that their long-antici-
pated Messiah would come to bring them free-
dom from the odious Gentile yoke. It fol-
lowed, therefore, that the Pharisees found nothing
to their liking in Jesus, for he in no manner
responded to their intense, exclusive national
pride and expectation. He showed no disposition
to undertake the accomplishment of Jewish po-
litical independence ; on the contrary, he in-
sisted that the obligations to their Roman masters
be fulfilled. All the temporal power, national
glory, and material prosperity which characterized
their Messianic hope, were ignored by Jesus.
Generations of misinterpretation of the Old Testa-
ment prophecies, and persistent disregard of the
spiritual realities of life, had led them astray, un-
til their hearts were set, not upon things which
were above, but upon things which were upon the
earth. They seem even to have stumbled at the
fact that Jesus came from Galilee, and therefore
could not be the Messiah of promise (Matt, ii :
5. fi; John i :45. 46; viit^i, 42, 52).
Another important reason for the Pharisaic op-
position to Jesus was his open transgression and
criticism of their legal regulations. They had en-
grossed the religious life of the Jews with rules,
forms and ceremonies. The general prohibitions
of the Old Testament law were expanded by
specific application to all phases of daily life until
the individual was enmeshed with external per-
formances. This mass of casuistical legislation
was known as "the traditions of the elders"
(Mark vii:i-i3), and it took precedence over all
else. It robbed life of all its freedom, spon-
taneity and joy. In Galilee little attention was
paid to this type of Judaism. Jesus had not been'
brought up in bondage to it, and he had no sym-
pathy with it. He publicly disregarded this
Pharisaic code, and on many occasions emphatic-
ally condemned it. The outstanding conflict be-
tween Jesus and the Pharisees in this matter
was over the observance of the Sabbath. Jesus
refused to keep it or to countenance it in the way
they demanded. They were enraged by his in-
dependence and opposition, and entered upon a
course of violent hostility to him (Matt. xii:i-i4;
Luke xiii:io-l7; xiv:i-6; John v.l-18).
But most of all the Pharisees hated Jesus be-
cause he tore off their masks, and exposed their
despicable characters to the people. Many of the
leading Pharisees were hypocrites. Ostentatiously
pious, scrupulously observant of religious cere-
monies, loud in their professions of goodness, they
were in fact guilty of the worst sins. Jesus did
not spare them in his denunciations (Matt, v:
20; xxiii:i-33). And there could result nothing
but the bitterest enmity and conflict. The Phari-
sees only awaited the opportunity to get their
hands upon him, and they would avenge them-
selves by assassination (Matt. xii:i4; Mark iii:6;
John viii:S9; x:3i, 39; xi 153, 57).
The -attitude of the Jewish common people to-
ward Jesus was of quite another sort. They
were faithful to their national religion, but did
not live under the bondage of Pharisaism. The
influence of the Pharisees was strong in Judea,
but reached only weakly into Galilee. It was
from this environment that Jesus himself arose.
He was one of the Galilean common people. He
appreciated them and sympathized with them
(Matt. ix:io-i3; Luke vii:i6-i8; John i:9-i4).
His work was mainly among them, for the Phari-
see-ridden Judeans would not hear him. The
Galileans regarded him as a great prophet and
an authoritative teacher (Matt, vii :28, 29; Mark
i:27; Luke vii:i6). It was from this class of the
Jewish nation that Jesus drew his twelve apostles
(Judas perhaps excepted). He was eagerly wel-
comed by the common people when he began
his public mini:>try. Multitudes came to hear him,
and he taught and healed them (Matt. v:i; xiii :
I, 2; Mark iii :7, 8; vi :32-44, 53-56). For a con-
siderable time he worked among them, and gained
many adherents. But all the time they were hop-
ing that Jesus would proclaim himself the Mes-
siah of their mistaken expectations. They looked
anxiously from day to day for the indications that
he was about to set up his temporal, visible king-
dom, to the freedom and glory of his people.
When they had waited until their patience failed,
they undertook to force him into this action. This
precipitated a crisis, for Jesus could only refuse
them (John vi:i4, 15). Overw'helming disap-
pointment fell upon his enthusiastic followers, and
most of them withdrew (John vi:66-68).
The doors of public teaching were closed against
him. There remained the possibility of a last
appeal to the nation. This he determined to make
in the most impressive manner available to him.
Up to this time he had not claimed to be the
Messiah, except to his closest disciples, and then
with strict charges of sesrecy. The proclamation
JESUS THE CHRIST, LIFE OF
951
JESUS THE CHRIST. LIFE OF
of it would have put a stop to his work by the
excitement of false hopes and futile efforts. But
now that he could accomplish no more by his
public ministry, it only remained to go to Jeru-
salem, announce himself as Messiah to the pass-
over multitude, claim the allegiance which they
would not give (Matt. xxiii:37), and receive the
martyrdom which he clearly saw lay at the end
of such a course (Mark x:32-34).
The triumphal entry was arranged. The
throngs of Galilean celebrants of the passover
feast gathered about him and hailed him as Mes-
siah, for it looked now as though their ardent
hopes would at last be realized. Jesus accepted
their homage, and entered Jerusalem in their
company with the demonstrations of a king re-
turning to his city in peace and victory. The
enthusiasm and confidence of the multitude was
at the highest pitch. The strength of the popular
following was so great that both Pharisees and
Sadducees became alarmed (Luke xx :6, 19; John
xii:l9). The Sadducees had paid little atten-
tion to Jesus up to this time, for they took small
interest in anything but the politics and amenities
of life. But now that Jesus seemed to threaten
a popular religious uprising, they were aroused
to strenuous opposition. The Sadducees were
the Jewish office-holders, responsible to the Ro-
mans for civic peace in Judea; and if an anti-
Roman insurrection took place, as this threatened
to do, the Sadducees were liable to be deposed
for negligence or inability to preserve the peace
(John xi:47-5o). The Sanhedrin was, therefore,
united in its purpose to put Jesus to death (Matt.
xxvi:.V5; John xi:53).
But in the face of the popular support, how
could this be accomplished? Only by treachery.
A traitor was not lacking. When once Jesus
was in the hands of his enemies the people could
be turned against him. In fact, the reaction had
set in among his followers. For again Jesus was
failing them, their Messianic programme was be-
ing forgotten. The old disappointment was settling
down upon them with fatal force. It was still only
a spiritual kingdom that Jesus meant. The Jewish
leaders knew how to turn this disappointment
into flaming indignation. And when this was
done (Matt, xxvii :20-26), the multitude joined
hotly in the cry, "Let him be crucified !" Phari-
sees, Sadducees. common people, all were lost. The
rejection was final, and, with the exception of a
few hundred faithful souls, complete.
(6) The Crucified But Living Christ. Fear,
hatred and vengeance drove the Jewish leaders to
swift action against Jesus. Once in their power,
by the betrayal of Judas as they supposed, but in
fact by his own voluntary surrender of himself to
his enemies, the form of a trial before the Sanhe-
drin was hastily gone through. Prejudged and
precondemned. the sentence of death for blas-
phemy was soon pronounced. The career of this
violator of sacred things, this traitor to Judaism,
this pretender to Divine honors, this turbulent
revolutionist, would now be closed. But the San-
hedrin could only pass, not execute, the death
sentence. Jesus, therefore, was hurried before the
Roman procurator, Pilate, who alone had the
power of capital punishment. Now the charge
against Jesus was changed. What cared Pilate
for the wrangling of the Jews over their religious
superstitions? But if Jesus were an insurrection-
ist against the Roman government, Pilate would
be concerned. This the Jewish leaders tried, but the
procurator was not convinced. Indeed, the man
was innocent — Pilate would not order his execu-
tion. But the Sanhedrists were insistent. If he
refused them, they could secure his recall (as a
few years later they did) by reporting his mis-
deeds to the Emperor. Why should Pilate sacri-
fice himself for this hunted Jew? Throwing the
responsibility of the whole affair upon Jesus' Jew-
ish accusers, he gave permission that their demand
be carried out. Crucifixion was the common
Roman method of executing rebels, and Jesus
was put to death as such. With a cry of deep
sigrnificance he expired upon the cross. It was,
indeed, finished; he had been obedient even unto
death ; he had fulfilled his God-given mission to
mankind.
Jesus had seen clearly the necessary outcome of
this journey to Jerusalem. Even from the en-
trance upon his public ministry it must have
seemed to him probable that he would ultimately
be rejected and put to death (Matt, xxiii 129-37;
Luke xiii:3i-34). The Pharisees opposed him
from the first, but when the Galileans gave up
their hope and withdrew from him, Jesus saw his
work nearing its end. He set about preparing his
-disciples for his departure. He determined upon
a martyrdom for his cause at Jerusalem. He
told them that he was going to be put to death
by' his enemies (Mark x : 32-34 ; Luke xiii:3i-34j.
Deliberately he planned the Jerusalem visit, and
calmly he placed himself into the hands of those
who sought his life. His teaching would thus be
consummated and glorified. But on the other
hand, it was an acknowledgment of defeat with his
own nation. It was their final rejection of their
Messiah (Matt, xxiii 137, 38). The heritage of the
Jews was repudiated by them; it must, theref(»re,
be taken from them and given to others (Matt.
xxi:28-3i, 33-41; Mark xi:i2-i4). God's chosen
people to bear to the world his true and pure re-
ligion thus refused to perform their mission. Na-
tional pride and self-seeking had unfitted them
for a universal brotherhood and self-abnegating
service, This was the agony of his self-sacri-
fice.
And yet Jesus realized that his own death at the
hands of the Jews did not mean the destruction of
his work nor the failure of his cause. Truth,
right and goodness cannot fail because men are
recreant to their opportunities and trusts. The
Kingdom of God would live and triumph, not-
withstanding his death — indeed, in a measure be-
cause of his death. Jesus' death became the most
effective attestation of the truth of his message,
and the cross which symbolized his martyrdom be-
came the emblem of his followers. That which
was written later (Tertullian, about A. D. 200) of
the Christians who died for their faith was prim
arily and peculiarly true of Jesus himself, "the
blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church."
Nor would he by that experience which men call
death lay down the work of his life. He knew
that shortly, in God's own good time, he would re-
sume it (Matt, xvi :2i, 25 ; comp. Hos. vi :2). The
soul which draws its life from God forever lives.
"There is no death : what seems so is transition."
The crucifixion was an incident in the life of an
immortal being. What we term death is but the
point at which the relation of the living soul to
the physical body changes from that to which
we are accustomed. Jesus lived and Jesus lives.
He did not die. Shall we deny immortality to him,
when we hold to it for ourselves? The Christian
does not die: he rises to a larger, better life.
Jesus "brought life and immortality to light." He
taught us that there is no death, but only transi-
tion to a higher sphere of existence. And so
Jesus entered through his crucifixion into the
life beyond.
The gospels transmit to us the «ccount of his
disciples that for a brief time again after the
JESUS THE CHRIST, TESTIMONY TO
crucifixion Jesus was seen by them as of old. The
empty sepulcher supports their statements, while
the many evidences of this miracle of the ages are
beyond any reasonable dispute and stand incon-
trovertible. God in his providence gave them to
see in familiar outline the risen Christ. This may
have been necessary on account of their imperfect
apprehension of spiritual truth. Not yet have we
reached the stage where we at all fully realize that
the surest and best realities are the spiritual re-
alities. How much more did the first disciples need
an objective vision of their risen Master, to give
them confidence and courage to carry on his work.
It was a living cause ; their leader still led on ;
they found, when thev could see again through
tear-dimmed eyes, Jesus' presence and power were ^
still with them. Physical vision of him passed
into spiritual vision. Invisibly now, but no less
really, they felt him near. And in this assurance
his disciples set about the spread and upbuildmg
of the kingdom which he had established, and of
which they were now the visible representatives.
And Jesus had given them at his departure a
memorial of himself, to comfort them, to strength-
en them, and to bind them together in love and
service. The simple repast of bread and wine,
which he had often and now for the last time
shared with his disciples, was to call to their re-
membrance, as often as they ate it together, his
own life and death (so called) that men might
have religious truth, and truth expressed not only
in words, btlt also in acts and in character. And
so the Christ is ever with us, the inspiration and
the guide of all who are continuing his work on
earth, who are endeavoring to realize in themselves
and in this great world the Kingdom of r,od
which he came to make known and to establish
among men, which he proclaimed to men in his
utterances, and in his deeds, and in his life and
death. One is our teacher, leader and example —
the Jesus of history, and the living, exalted Christ
of faith. C. W. V.
(7) Literature. Robinson, Harmony of the
Gospels; Salmon. Historical Introduction to the
New Testament. 1891 ; Harman, Introduction to
theScrif>turcs:Wc^tcott,Iiitroduction to the Study
of the Gospels; Gregory, ll-'hy Four GospelsT
Keim.C. T., The History of Jesus of Nacara.iSSi;
Schiirer, E.. The Jczvish People in the Time of
Jesus Christ, i8gi ; Strauss, D. P., The Life of
Jesus, 1892; Weiss, B.. The Life of Christ. 1883;
Watkins. Modern Criticism of the Four Gospels,
1890; Barrows, The Gospels are True Histories;
Geikie, Life and IVords of Christ. 1878; Neander,
Life of Christ: Farrar, Life of Christ; Andrew,
Life of Christ; Pressense, Jesus Christ, His Life
and Times; Edersheim, Prophecy and History of
the Messiah, vol. i. 1885: Edersheim. Jesus the
Messiah, vol. i.. 1884: Edersheim. Life and Times
of Jesus the Messiah. 2 vols., 1884; Cairn, Christ
the Central Evidence of Christianity; Bruce,
Training of the Twelve: The Place of Christ in
Mod. Theol. Fairbairn. 1897; The Christology of
Jesus, Stalker, 1899 ; Dale. Living Christ and the
Four Gospels. 1890; Gcming, Fourfold Story;
Thompson, Four [evangelists.
JESUS THE CHRIST, TESTIMONY OF
SCRIPTURE TO.
(i) Concerning Jesus Christ, we are informed
that he is, from eternity, begotten by the Father in
a manner no creature is (Ps. ii 7 ; John i:i4;
Rom. viii :3, 32) ; that he is equal to him as a
Person (Zcch. xiii:7; Phil, ii :6, 7), and one with
him in essence (John x:3o; i John v:7).
(2) We find names and titles proper only to
God ascribed to him, as Jehovah (Jer. xxiii :6,
952 JETHRO
andxxxiii:i6; Is. xlv:23-2S, with Rom. xiv:io-l2;
Is. xl:3. with Luke i:76; Is. vi:i, 9, 10, with John
xii:40, 41) ; and in hundreds of other places where
mention is made of the Lord speaking to prophets
or others under the Old Testament.
(3) He is called God (Matt. i:23; John i:i, 2,
and xx:28; i Tim. iii:.i6; 2 Pet. i:i); the true
God (1 John v:20, 21) ;'the great and mighty God
(Tit. ii:i3; Is. ix:6); the only wise God (Jude
24, 25; Rom. xvi:27; i Tim. i:i6, 17); the God
of glory (Acts vii:2) ; the only God (Is. xlv:i5-
23, with Rom. xiv:ii); God blessed forever
(Rom. ix:5); the God of Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob (Exod. iii :6. with Acts vii:30-32; Hos. xii :
3-5) ; the Lord of hosts (Is. viii :i3, 14, with i Pet.
ii :6-8 ; Ps. cxviii :22, with Matt, xxi :42, and 2
Sam. vi:2, and Is. liv :5, with 2 Cor. xi :2) ; Lord
of Lords, and King of Kings (Rev. xvii:i4, and
xix:i3-i6, with i Tim.vi:i4, 15) ; the first and the
last (Rev. i:i7, 18, and ii :8, with Is. xli:4, and
xliv:6).
(4) Divine attributes are ascribed to him; as
omniscience (Col. ii :3 ; Rev. ii:23; John xxi:i7,
and ii :24. 25; John xvi:3o) : omnipresence (Matt.
xviii :20. and xxviii:20; Col. i;i7; Heb. i:3; John
i:i8, and iii:i3); almighty power (Phil. iii:2i;
Rev. i :8, with chap. i:il, 17, 18; and xxii:l2, 13,
20) ; eternity (Rev. i:li, 17. 18; Isa. xli:4; Prov.
viii:23; Mic. %:2; John i:l, and viii ;56) ; un-
changeablcness (Heb. i:i2. and xiii:8).
(5) Divine works of creatiori, providence, and
redemption are ascribed unto him (John i:i, 2;
Col. i:i6. 17; I Cor. viii:6; Eph. iii:9; Heb. 1:3;
Acts xx:28).
(6) He is represented as the object of religious
worship, without any limitation; as in baptism, by
faith, prayer, praise, vows (Matt. xxviii:i9; John
V 123 ; xiv:i, and xx:28; Acts vii :5, 9; Heb. i:6;
Phil, ii :9-ii).
JETHER (je'ther), (Heb. T", yeh'ther. sur-
plus).
1. The father-in-law of Moses. In Exod. iv:i8
called Jethro;' margin Jether.
2. The oldest of the sons of Gideon (Judg. viii:
20), who made his age an excuse when his father
asked him to kill the Midianite kings, Zebah and
Zalmunna (B. C. 1326). He was slain by Abime-
lech (Judg. ix :24).
3. Father of Amasa, David's captain (1 Kings
ii :S, 32; I Chron. ii:i7); elsewhere the name is
Ithra.
4. Son of Jada, of the tribe of Judah (i Chron.
ii:32), B. C. after 1856.
5. A son of Ezra, of Judah (i Chron. iv:i7),
B. C. about 1618.
6. A chief warrior of the tribe of Asher. and
father of Jcphunneh (i Chron. vii .-38). Possibly
the same as Ithran.
JETHETH (je'theth), (Heb. f^P", yeh-thayth',
derivation uncertain).
An Edomitish "duke" in Mount Seir who came
to Esau (Gen. xxxvi:40; i Chron. i:Si).
JETHXiAH (jeth'lah), (Heb. ^+-7*, yith-law\ sus-
pended, i. e., lofty).
A city of the tribe of Dan given between Ajalon
and Elon (Josh, xix 142) , therefore probably in the
eastern part of the tribe; not identified.
JETHRO (je'thro), (Heb. 'T', yith-ro' , excel-
lence; superiority), a priest or prince of Midian,
both offices probably being combined in one per-
son.
Moses spent the forty years of his exile from
Egypt with him, and married his daughter Zip- .
porah (Exod. iii:i; iv:i8), B. C. 1250.
JETUR
953 JEWISH SYNAGOGUE, THE MODERN
It is said in Exod. ii :i8, that llic priest nf Mid-
ian. whose dauglitcr Moses married, was Rcucl ;
afterward, in chapter iii:i, he is called Jethro. as
also in chapter xviii ; hut in Num. x :29, "Hobab,
the son of Ragucl the Midianite," seems to be
called Moses' father-in-law (comp. Judg. iv:ii).
The probability is that Jethro and Reuel or Raguel
were but different names of Moses' father-in-
law (the former being either a title or a surname
.showing the rank of Rngucl in his tribe), and that
the son. Hobab. was his brother-in-law, who may
have borne one of the father's names. (See Ho-
B.\B. )
JETUR (je'tur), (Heb. "'"''J?, >'^^(?(>r', encircled),
one of the twelve sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxv:i5; i
Chron. i:3i),
His name stands also for his descendants, the
Iturxns (i Chron. \:\g). living east of the north-
ern Jordan (Luke iii:i).
JETTEL (je'u-el),(Heb. '^'^^'^.ye^-oo-a/e'.protecl-
ed by God), a descendant of Zerath, who, with six
hundred and ninety of his kindred, dwelt in Jeru-
salem after the captivity (I Chron. ix:6), (B. C. 536).
JETTSH (je'ush), (Heb. ''^'^'^'^..ye/i-oosA', collect-
ing; strong; hasty).
1- Oldest son of Esau, by Aholibamah (Gen.
xxxvi :5, 14. 18; I Chron. i:35), born in Canaan,
but later he became a "duke" of the Edomites
B. C. after 1964).
2. The hrst mentioned of the sons of Bilhan ;
he was head of a Benjamite house during Da-
vid's reign (i Chron. vii:io, 11), B. C. before
looo.'
3. A Levite, one of the four sons of Shimei. of
the Gershonites. He, with his brother Beriah,
not having many sons, were counted as the third
branch of the family (l Chron. xxiii:iO, II),
B. C. about 1014.
4. The first named of the three sons of Reho-
boam, apparently by Abihail. his second wife (2
(Thron. xiiig), B. C. after 973.
JEUZ (je'uz), (Heb. V^", yeh-oots' , counselor),
head of a Benjamite house, apparently the son of
Shaharaim and Hodesh or Baara (I Chron. viii;lo).
B. C. about 1618.
JE'W (ju. or ju), (Heb. "T'^', yeh-oo-dce', a
Jehudite, i. e., descendant of Judah; Gr. 'louSaios,
ee-oo-dah'yos).
A name formed from that of the patriarch
Judah, and applied in its first use to one belong-
ing to the tribe or country of Judah. or rather
perhaps to a subject of the separate kingdom of
Judah (2 Kings xvi:6; xxv:25; Jer. xx.\ii:i2;
xxxviii:i9; xl:ii; xli 13 ; lii:28). During the
Captivity the term seems to have been extended
to all the people of the Hebrew language and
country, without distinction (Esth. iii :6, 9; Dan.
iii :8. 12) ; and this loose application of the name
was preserved after the restoration to Palestine,
when it came to denote not only every descend-
ant of Abraham in the largest possible sense, but
even proselytes who had no blood relation to the
Hebrews (Acts ii :s ; comp. verse 10).
Rabbi D. Philipson explains the meaning of the
three names applied to the Jews, as follows:
Broadly speaking. I define the three terms
thus: "Hebrew" is the linguistic. "Israelite" the
national, "Jew" the religious designation. If we
still used the Hebrew as our language in daily
life, it would be correct to call us Hebrews ; if
we were still a nation, the proper appellation
would be Israelites, which was the distinguishing
term applied to the people when they inhabited
Palestine as a nation, in contrast with the sur-
rounding peoples, Philistines, Moabites, Syrians,
Edomites and the like. Since Hebrew is no longer
our spoken language, since further we are not a
nation, our national existence having ceased with
the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, it is
technically incorrect to apply either of these
names to present day Jews. There remains, then,
the third, "Jew"; this is primarily the religious
term, the name of the professor of Judaism. The
distinguishing mark of the Jewish people is their
religion ; they are a religious community, hence
the proper name is "Jew." Our faith is called
not Hebraism, nor yet Israelitism. but Judaism,
and the corresponding term to Judaism is Jew.
(See Hebrew Language; Israel; Jvuah.)
JE'WEL (ju'el), (Heb. '^'i'v, khel-yaw' , an orna-
ment or trinket, Hos. ii:i3), very general in char-
acter. (See A.\iethyst; Ruby; Sapphire, etc.)
JE'WESS (ju'ess), (Gr. louSafa, ce-oo-dah' yah,\
a woman of Hebrew birth (Acts xvi:i; x.\iv:24).
In the first passage it refers to Eunice, Timothy's
mother; in the second to Drusilla, daughter of
Herod and wife of Eelix.
JEWISH (ju'ish), (Gr. 'louJoixis, ee-00-dah-ee-
kos' , belonging to the Jews). Paul warns his
younger brulher against the Rabbinical legends
that are designated by this epithet (Tit. i;l4).
JEWISH ST^IAGOGXJE, THE MODERN.
The history of Judaism in America is a record
of growth and development, of successive changes
in custom and ritual, of large advance in educa-
tional and benevolent activity, as the Jewish set-
tlers, chiefly of Spanish origin, coming in scattered
numbers previous to the War of Independence,
were strengthened by immigration from Ger-
many, Poland. Roumania, and Russia, until at tl e
end of 1896 the Jewish population of the United
States reached fully a million.
(1) Doctrine. The customs and doctrines of
Judaism which have never been reduced to iron-
clad dogmas for all Israel, despite occasional cod-
ification, have always admitted of greater or less
variation in different lands, according to clime
and circumstance. The same conditions were to
be experienced in America with similar results.
The earlier immigrants of Sephardic stock who
settled in the North .American colonies, after
harsh treatment in South .•N.mcrica and varying
fortunes in the West Indies, were conservative
after the fashion of their fathers, all the mem-
ory of martyrdom giving halo and beauty to olden
traditions. Many of their descendants two centu-
ries later are no less strict observants of the
Spanish and Portuguese ritual and practice. The
English and earlier Polish settlers of a subse-
quent generation have hardly as yet lost their
British and Polish con.servative associations. The
German immigrants of the decade of 184S who
were reared in the school of German liberation
were incliH»d to be less scrupulous of old fash-
ions, and adapted forms and customs to the new-
er-day environment. Their children have nat-
urally developed along the same progressive lines.
The still more recent Jewish landslide from En-
rope is Russian and Galician in its conception of
Jewish doctrine and rite, including a contingent
of pronounced radical views.
While, therefore. American Judaism suffers
from this stratification, due to successive immi-
grations of different nationalities, it has never
had its authoritative council or synod to promul-
gate opinion, to ratify or to abolish. There have
been associations among rabbis and laymen, but
these have not been ecclesiastical in character.
JEWISH SYNAGOGUE, THE MODERN 954
JEWS, HISTORY OF THE
Their views have been simply individual, o£ in-
terest, of course, as evidencing the trend of
thought, but of no binding force. While Jewish
congregations may unite and cooperate for educa-
tion and charity, the autonomy of each is strictly
maintained, and every pulpit is purely its own
spokesman. Hence there are all shades of senti-
ment in American Israel, all varieties of inter-
pretations, the two forces of stability and move-
ment being steadily at work and developing
phases of conservatism and progress. Consider-
ing, however, the essential principles of repre-
sentative Jewish leaders in pulpit and press,
which are practically the same, even if they differ
as to observances and the authority of the rab-
binical ceremonial code, these may broadly be
stated as embracing the unity of God and the
unity of mankind. The religious ceremonials in
home and synagogue, held more or less strictly,
the righteous life impelling to breadth of view,
brotherly love to aU, and the realization of the
highest ideals of American citizenship_ — such are
the corollaries of American Jewish principles.
(2) The Future. The heterogeneous nature of
the American Jew and the lack as yet of a dis-
tinctly homogeneous class, due to his composite
character, in which trait he resembles the Amer-
ican in general, makes it difficult to realize Jew-
ish ideals. The great mass are still foreign, with
the atmosphere of Europe and Ghetto conditions ;
and their Americanization is a slow process, for
the parents perhaps impossible. On the other
hand, there is a large body of American-born Is-
raelites, apathetic and without sympathy for the
synagogue. Yet there are hopeful signs, partic-
ularly in educational movements, a more conserv-
ative tendency among our representative men,
and the awakening of the American Jewess to her
duty and opportunity. With co-operation, unself-
ish effort, and intelligent direction. American
Judaism can expect to attain a high degree of
usefulness and to realize under providence some
of its ideals that will bless and elevate humanity.
(3) Kelation to Christianity. As to the
question of federal union with other churches,
that is impossible so long as church remains
church and synagogue, synagogue. The Jew is
no propagandist and has no desire to Judaize.
He rejoices that the best elements in the church
aim to translate into life the ideals of the Jewish
prophet. While religious federation is wholly im-
practicable, church and synagogue do unite for
civic purposes, for general educational and char-
itable progress. In many cities Jew and non-
Jew unite on Thanksgiving Day. The Jewish
pulpit is freely open to the non-Jewish preacher.
Young Men's Hebrew Associations have often
called Christian clergymen to their platform.
Synagogues have been freely placed at the dis-
posal of Christian congregations whose churches
were destroyed by fire, and the courtesy has been
reciprocated. These indications of mutual esteem
and good will cannot but spread more and more,
particularly as national movements for education,
charity, civic reform, and congresses of religion
increase and rally the broad and thoughtful of
all creeds on the same platform. But the most
advanced and liberal Jew will not consent to fed-
eration, if it means extinction and absorption,
and surely the more conservative will be least
inclined for such a step. The mission and mes-
sage of Judaism are not superfluous even in our
era. So long as swords are not turned to plough-
shares, and idolatries are still practiced, while
the nations and creeds are competitors, not part-
ners, the Jew must still be sentinel on the wstch-
tower, however lonely the post, and wait for the
dawn. He has survived two thousand years of
crucifixion. The Arch of Titus preserves the
story of what is termed his nation's fall. But
Judaism awoke when the temple vanished; and
the Jew, in losing Palestine, has secured the
world for the law and the prophet. A. S. I.
JE-WBY (jurj), (Heb. "l^'T, yeh-hood; Gr.
'Ioi;6oio, Luke xxiii:5; John vii;i), the Jewish na-
tion, i. e., the kingdom of Judah, later Judea,
rendered elsewhere as Judah and Judaea (Dan.
v:i3).
JEWS, HISTORY OF THE, AND THEIR
RELIGION.
(1) From the Fall of Jerusalem to the Slid-
dle Ages. 1 he destruction of the temple at Jeru-
salem meant a crisis for Judaism of even deeper
signiticance than the failure of the Reichstag of
Worms to silence the Protestant movement. The
belief in the prophecies which had predicted ever-
lasting glory for Jerusalem was shaken; but, as
is the case with Adventists, when a prophecy
fails to be fulfilled, practical necessity found a
way out of the theoretical difficulty. The national
calamity began to be considered a transitory con-
dition, after which God's grace would restore the
lost glory.
This view was taught by the Pharisaic school.
The Phariseej of the tirst century, A. D., theoret-
ically held the doctrine that the law would be ab-
rogated in the Messianic era ; but until then they
were just as unwilling to carry this view into
practice as the average Christian would be to dis-
card the apostolic creed on the strength of the
parable of the Good Samaritan.
The leader of this party was Johanan bon Zakaj.
His biography is overgrown with legends. Still
so much seems certain that he was a great teacher
and a member of the Sanhedrin; that he left
Jerusalem before the destruction and established
a school in Jabneh, which came to be considered
as a substitute for the Sanhedrin. He taught sal-
vation for righteous Gentiles and advocated sub-
mission to Rome's political authority. His litur-
gical institutions meant to preserve as much as
possible of the temple worship.
Under the Roman empire the political condi-
tion of the Jews was peculiarly sad. The trib-
ute of the half-shekel, the annual sacred gift to
the temple, had been confiscated under the name
of Fiscus Judaicus — afterwards, however, remit-
ted by Nerva (96-98). During the war of the
desolation of Palestine many had been killed,
many sold as slaves ; great numbers of the
survivors were fugitives in the remotest parts
of the empire and in Babylonia, then subject to
the Parthians : while under Domitian the perse-
cution, especially of proselytes, was most severe ;
a relative even of the emperor. Flavins Clemens,
having been put to death and his wife exiled for
this cause. Hadrian (117-138) put an end to the
revolution by conciliatory measures, but his des-
potic syncretism was the cause of another futile
rebellion; that of Bar Kokba (132-135), which
was the last attempt of the Jews to regain polit-
ical independence by force of arms.
Their religious life during this period was a
consolidation on the basis of changed conditions.
Rabban Gamaliel, the Hillelite, under the title of
Nassi, or Patriarch, was the recognized successor
of the President of the Sanhedrin. His only tan-
gible prerogative was the calendation. He at-
tempted to compile a fixed ritual, but was opposed
in his hierarchical tendencies by Eliezer ben Hyr-
kanos, who had leanings towards Christianity,
and by Joshuah ben Hananiah, a strict Congre-
gationalist. Gamaliel and Joshua were united in
JEWS, HISTORY OF THE
955
JEWS, HISTOKY OF THE
their opposition to political aspirations, while
Rabbi Akiba preached political resurrection and
proclaimed Bar Kokba as the Messiah. He su-
pervised the Greek version of the Pentateuch
written by the proselyte Akylas.
The defeat of Bar Kokba's uprising was fol-
lowed by severe measures against the rebels. The
name of Jerusalem was changed to Aelia Capito-
lina, and no Jew was allowed to enter the city.
On the site of Jahve's sanctuary a temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus was to be erected; over the
gate of ihe city the image of a swine was placed.
Circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, and
the study of the law were prohibited.
Under Antoninus (138-161) a complete change
took place, and Hadrian's restrictive laws were
abolished. From now on until the reign of Con-
stantine we hear nothing of religious persecu-
tion. Still, the growing power of Christianity
and the devastation of Palestine caused the Jews
to emigrate in large numbers to southern Meso-
potamia and to western Europe.
The religious development during the period
from the Bar-Kokba Revolution up to the Chris-
tianization of the Roman empire shows a grow-
ing tendency towards legalism. Jehuda Hanassi
(i. e., prince, patriarch) (135-216) won an impor-
tant place in Jewish history by the compilation of
the rabbinical law, called Mishna, which, origi-
nally intended as a compendium of the rabbinical
interpretation of the biblical law, and of other
traditional customs, by and by began to be con-
sidered part of the Sinaitic revelation.
R. Jehuda met with no serious opposition in his
attempt to establish a religious authority, but
soon after his death conditions changed. His son,
Gamaliel III (A. C. 216-230), was a mere figure-
head; and so the position of the patriarch which
the son inherited from the father became a shad-
ow, until Theodosius H (A. C. 425) abolished it
altogether.
Economic and political adversities drove a
great number of Jews to Babylonia, where al-
ready during the third century the schools of
Sura and Pumbeditha became strong rivals of
their sister institutions in Tiberias and Seppho-
ris. About the middle of the fourfh century the
last Palestinian authorities died out. Their suc-
cessors gave all their attention to the edifying
explanation of Scripture, called Aggada. At the
same time the talmudical law was further devel-
oped in Babylonia, where the Rabbis Ashe (died
427) and Abina (died 499) compiled the Talmud
of Babylonia. The Talmud consisted of two
parts, the Mishna and the Gemara ; the former
being the law and the latter a discursive com-
mentary on it. Both together form the Talmud.
The lectures on the Mishna, compiled in the Pales-
tinian school, formed the Talmud of Jerusalem;
those compiled by R. Ashe and R. Abina. form
the Babylonian Talmud. The latter always has
been the more popular book and was considered
a higher authority.
In the Roman empire the Jews from the time
of Constantino (312) were subjected to legal dis-
criminations. A very short interval was the reign
of Julian (361-363), who, according to ecclesi-
astical writers, intended to rebuild the temple at
Jerusalem. The edict of Ravenna (Feb. 28, .380),
promulgated by Theodosius I, which made Rome
a Christian empire, aflfected the condition of the
Jews very unfavorably, although the emperor pro-
tected them against occasional outbreaks of mobs,
stimulated by fanatical ecclesiastics. Because of
the dispersion of the Jews the last prerogative of
the patriarch, the announcement of the festivals,
was surrendered; Hillel II (A. C. 325) being the
last to use it.
In Babylonia the Jews were politically organ-
ized under an exilarch, Resh Galutha, who was
their representative at the court of the Persian
king, and, later on, of the Calif. Their spiritual
head was the president of one of the great
schools. The religious and national revival fol-
lowing upon the return to power of the Parsees
(22OJ brought great suffering upon the Jews, but
their situation was more favorable than that of
their brethren under the Christian rule of Rome.
The situation in the Byzantine empire was no-
wise better than in the western part of the old
Roman empire and in the various Germanic states
which had formed on its ruins. The greatest suf-
ferings were experienced under the Visigoths in
Spain, where church councils decreed the laws
which became typical for medieval legislation on
the Jews, and it was only the invasion of the
Arabs which changed their condition for the better.
The literary activity had from the beginning
of the eighth century its seat in the schools of
Sura and Pumbeditha. Our rabbinical works,
especially the homiletical literature, called the
Midrash, date in their present shape from this pe-
riod, which extends from 750 to 1040. and is
called the period of the Geonim, from Gaon, ex-
cellency, which was the title of the college-presi-
dent. At the same time a number of practical
guide-books, for civil, liturgical, and dietary laws
were written, and the first manual for public
worship was compiled by the Gaon Amram (A.
C. 850). We also meet at that time the first
traces of a theosophical literature (Kabala), of
which probably the oldest specimen is a book of
creation (Sephar Jccirah.)
The strict adherence to traditional authority
which is characteristic of the Babylonian schools
of this period aroused a fierce opposition, led by
Anan (A. C. 760), who found a great following.
The sect, originated by him, called itself Sons of
the Bible, Karaites. They rejected all authority
outside of the Bible. They still exist in very
small numbers, chiefly in southern Russia. Their
last literary authority was Abraham Firkowitsch
(1786-1874). who has made for himself an unen-
viable reputation by extensive forgeries of tomb-
stones and manuscripts in the interest of Kara-
itic glory. At the same time when this schism
occurred Judaism made an important conquest
by the conversion of the Chazars. a Tartaric na-
tion whose Khan Bulan, with his court and a
great majority of his people, embraced the Jew-
ish religion.
The controversy with the Karaites stimulated
the neglected study of the Bible amongst the
rabbinitic Jews. The ablest apologete of their
views was the Gaon Saadjah (892-942). who
wrote the first systematic work on philosophy of
religion, called "Science and Religion." From
that time on the Babylonian schools declined.
In 1040 the last Gaon was put to death and no
successor appointed.
Babylonian Jews settled in great numbers in
northern .'\frica. Isaac Alfasi. of Fez (1013-
1103), emigrated to Spain and founded a school
in Lucena. However, previous to his time there
was in Cordova a famous seat of learning.
Hasdai ibn Shaprut, who occupied a high posi-
tion at the court of Abderrahman III (912-961),
was a patron of Jewish literature. Amongst those
whom he supported are the first Jewish gramma-
rians, Dunash ben Labrat and Menahem ben Sa-
ruk. A position similar to that of Hasdai was
occupied by Samuel ibn Nagrela at the court of
JEWS, HISTORY OF THE
956
JEWS, HISTORY OF THE
the Moorish Calif Habus in Granada. . Samuel
was not only a patron of Jewish literature, but
also a scholar of considerable attainments. He
supported one of the best of all New-Hebrew
poets, Salonio ibn Gebirol, who also is the author
of the philosophical work, "Fountain of Life,"
which exercised a great influence on the philoso-
phy of Thomas Aquinas. As author of a popular
work on religious ethics, "The Duties of the
Heart, ' we have to mention Bahja ibn Pakuda.
In France and Germany the Jewish population
increased under Charlemagne (768-814) and his
successors. The embassy which Charlemagne
sent to Harun Al-Rashid numbered a Jew aniong
its members. With the progress of the German
arms the Jews moved eastward to Austria, Bo-
hemia, and Poland.
The literary activity of the Jews in Germany
and France is limited to liturgical poetry and to
talmudical codes and commentaries. In regard
to the latter we mention R. Gershom, called "The
Light of the Diaspora," who lived in Mayence
(A. C. 960-1020) and who is famous for making
monogamy, which up to his time was only a
practice, a binding law.
The twelfth century shows the highest devel-
opment of spiritual life in Judaism. In Spain we
have the greatest of all medieval Jewish poets,
Jehuda Halevi (1080-1141), who is also famous
for his Kusari, an apology for Judaism in the
form of a dialogue between the Khan of the
Chazars and the rabbi who had converted him.
Abraham ibn Esra, also a native of Spain (1092-
I167), had in the school of the Karaites, acquired
a critical spirit, which he used not only in dissect-
ing and very frequently ridiculing rabbinical in-
terpretations of the Bible, but in criticising
the Bible itself. The brightest star in the Jew:-
ish literature of the age is Moses Maimoni-
des ( 1 135-1204). Of his numerous works we
shall quote only two: Mishnch Thorah, a code of
the Jewish law, comprising dogma, ritual, civil,
criminal and political law, and March Ncbuchim,
The Guide of the Perplexed, a philosophical apol-
ogy for Judaism based on Aristotle. His argu-
ments were partly made use of by Thomas of
Aquino and Albertus Magnus.
From the thirteenth century on we notice a
decline in the intellectual life of Judaism. This
decline is typified by a fierce opposition to Mai-
monides' philosophy. The liberals were repre-
sented by David Kimchi (1170-1235), the best
known exegete and grammarian of the Middle
Ages, while the orthodo.x party was represented
by Solomon ibn Adret (1230-1310), rabbi of Bar-
celona. He, like the German rabbis, stood for the
infallibility of the Talmud. Amongst the Ger-
man rabbis the highest authority was Meir of
Rolhcnburg (1220-1293), who died in prison be-
cause on his advice the Germans refused to pay
the high ransom for the extortion of which King
Rudolph had imprisoned him.
More spiritual freedom existed in Italy, where
we find the poet Imnianuel of Rome (1270-1340),
who wrote a Hebrew sequel to Dante's Dhnne
Cnmmedia. A very great influence was exercised
by the Jews as translators from Arabic into
Latin. Persecutions on religious grounds, stimu-
lated by Jewish converts to Christianity such as
Nicholas Donin (A. C. 1240). Pablo Christian!
(1260), Alfonso of Valladolid (1300), Geronimo
da Santa Fe. and Paulus of Burgos (1300-1440),
aroused Messianic hopes, based on Kabalistic
prophecies. Abraham Abiilafia (1280) played the
rols of a Messiah in Sicily and Moses ben Nah-
man (1200-1270) gave a considerable space to
Kabala in his commentary on the Pentateuch.
Like all theosophists, Kabalists claimied to have
a very ancient literature. Their fundamental
werk was the Zohar, Kabalistic homilies on the
Pentateuch, written by Moses of Leon (1290),
and ascribed to Simeon ben Johaj (2d cent.)
(2) rrom the Middle Ages to the Present
Time. The political condition of the Jews during
the latter part of the Middle Ages was very
sad, although occasionally some individuals rose
to a higher rank as tax-farmers, financiers, phy-
sicians, astronomers, astrologists, and authors.
The masses were frequently mobbed, not rarely
expelled and always outrageously taxed. The
German Jews suffered terribly from the crusaders
in 1096 and 1 147. Many were thrown into burn-
ing houses or hacked to pieces, and thousands
were killed under the most cruel tortures. A
great number were dragged to churches and
baptized, but returned to Judaism in spite of
the protest of ecclesiastic dignitaries. Most of
the latter, especially St. Bernard, although not
favorable to the Jews, condemned these perse-
cutions, but their voices did not prevail with
the mob. Similar persecutions of a local char-
acter we find all through the Middle Ages, but
it would be impossible to enumerate them. Some-
times it is the accusation that they murdered a
child to use his blood for their Passover cakes ;
another time that they perforated a consecrated
host whick subsequently performed some miracles
that lent a semblance of justice to these acts
of mob violence. Legislation sanctioned these
outbreaks by establishing such discriminations
against the Jews as incited passion against them.
The council of the Lateran (1215), which repre-
sents the highwater mark of papal power under
Innocent HI, decreed the Jew badge and con-
firmed all laws tending to degrade the Jews. Un-
der such conditions which, as the pope declared,
were part of the divine economy to show by the
■humiliation of the Jews the glory of Christ, it
was of no avail, when Innocent IV (1247) in a
bull admonished the rulers to protect the life
and property of the Jews, and even protested
against the accusation that the Jews committed
murder for the sake of their religion. It was
also of little avail, when some princes, like
Frederick II of Austria (1244), promulgated
statutes by which the rights of the Jews, who
through the exorbitant taxes imposed upon them
were a considerable support of the treasury, were
established. Other rulers wantonly disregarded
these dearly bought privileges, and the mobs ex-
cited by a Good-Friday sermon on Jesus' suffer-
ings, never respected them. Of the innumerable
persecutions during the twelfth century, I shall
only mention the riots at the time of the corona-
tion of King Richard Coeur de Lion (1190) and
the martyrdom of the Jews of Blois I(ii7i) and of
Bray (1191). Hundreds died at the slake, sing-
ing hymns; hundreds killed themselves with their
children to escape the tortures of infuriated mobs.
The great plague (1348-1350) added a new pre-
text for the slaughter of helpless people, who
were accused of poisoning the wells. All over
western Europe they were persecuted. In Stras-
burg alone 1.800 Jews were burned on one pyre.
In the fifteenth century the growth of the mu-
nicipalities had the effect that the Jews, formerly
a welcome object for taxation, began to be con-
sidered as inconvenient 'competitors. At the
same time the economic crisis, produced by the
sudden change of economic conditions due to so
many discoveries and inventions, produced the
spirit of discontent and restlessness in the masses
which always is the primp cause of revolutions
and naturally makes the weak suffer first. Legis-
JEWS. HISTORY OF THE
957
JEWS. HISTORY OF THE
lation and historical conditions having reduced the
Jews to the business of money lending, it was
only too natural that popular hatred, fomented by
religious motives, saw in the Jew the usurer
only, and in the usurer the sole cause of the
serious economic crisis. They were expelled
from almost all the larger cities in Germany,
while France, where ihcy had been expelled and
called back numerous times before, expelled them
peremptorily in 1394, England having done so
in 1290. At the same time the mcreasing per-
turbation within the church aroused occasional
outbreaks against the Jews. In Spain Ferdinand
Martinez (1391) had caused a great uprising
agamst the Jews, and a great number, in order
to save their lives, professed conversion to
Christianity, but Secretly practiced Judaism. They
formed the large class of the MarannoS, whom
the church considered as apostates and against
whom the inquisition was created which, power-
less in its attempt to make the Marannos real
Christians, brought about the expulsion of the
Jews from Spain (1492) and from Portugal
(1495). The council of Basle (1431-43) renewed
all the ecclesiastic laws against the Jews. John
Capistrano, who failed in his mission to bring
the Hussites back into the fold of the Catholic
church, triumphed over the Jews. In Brcslau he
consigned over forty to the stake under the usual
allegation of piercing a consecrated host (l4';4),
and from a number of cities they were expelled
through his influence. Bernhardin of Fcltre, a
man of the type which we would call Christian
socialists in our days, proved by torture and
manipulated testimony that a little boy who was
drowned in the Adige had been murdered by the
Jews of Trent (1475). A great number were put
to death and the rest expelled. As late as 1510
the profaned host caused the death of twenty-nine
Jews in Berlin.
The most important event of this epoch was
the expulsion of the Jews, about 300.000 in num-
ber, from Spain (1492) and Portugal (1496).
The refugees settled mostly in Turkey, in north-
ern Africa, in Egypt and in Palestine. The many
refugees from Germany turned towards Poland,
so that from about 1500 the majority of the Jews
lived in eastern countries, debarred from the cen-
ters of civilization. The Reformation had only
a slight influence on the Jews. Their general
condition was not changed. Luther, who, in the
beginning of his career, had been favorably in-
clined to them, spoke in his later days very se-
verely against them, recommending the confisca-
tion of their property and their expulsion. The
Renaissance, however, had its influence on the
Jews, as it derived some of its impulses from
their literature. Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522),
one of the foremost representatives of the Renais-
sance movement (1510), defended the rabbinical
literature against the accusations of John Pfefif-
erkorn, a converted Jew, and his allies, the Do-
minicans of Cologne, who, by the confiscation of
the Talmud, expected to obtain the same power
as inquisitors in Germany which their order pos-
sessed in Spain. Like many other scholars of
that age, Reuchlin had studied Hebrew from
Jews. Elijah Levita (1472- 1549), a Hebrew
teacher of Christians in Italy, came out with the
important discovery that the vowel points were
a later invention, and that consequently the text
of the Hebrew Bible, as we possess it, is of a
comparatively late origin. Azariah dei Rossi of
Mantua (1511-1578') followed with a series of
learned essays in which he proved that the rab-
binical writings possessed no authority in scien-
tific matters, a statement which was quite bold in
those days and elicited no small amount of op-
position. Meantime in Poland and in the Orient,
which had become the seats of rabbinical learn-
ing, traditionalism became stronger and stronger.
Joseph Karo (,I4S8-1577> ibn. Sailed wrote a com-
liendium of Jewish law, Hhulhan Anikh, which
with the annotations of Moses Isserls in Cracow
(1520-1573;, was considered an authoritative
guide-book, and thus became instrumental in per-
petuating scholasticism and traditionalism. A
rather Utopian scheme of the Maranno Salomo
Molcho and his friend, David Reubeni, who
posed as a prince of the lost tribes, to establish
the Messianic kingdom failed ignominiously.
Molcho was burned at the stake (1533), and
Reubeni died in prison. A more practical scheme
of Don Joseph of Naxos, a Maranno, who had
obtained a high position at the court of Constanti-
nople, to establish a Jewish state in the island
of Cyprus also failed (1571). The first place
where Jews enjoyed full religious freedom was
Holland, where after the Netherlands had gained
their freedom, Spaiii.->h Jews began to settle in
considerable numbers. Amsterdam became a
mother city for other colonies, which in the course
of the seventeenth century settled in England,
Sweden. Denmark and America, and were swelled
by fugitive Marannos who were fortunate enough
to escape from the dungeons of the Inquisition
and also by German Jews. At the same time the
Jews of Poland were terrible sufferers from the
revolution of the Cossacks against their Polish
masters (164S). Under their captain Chmelnicki
the Cossacks attacked the Jewish settlements, be-
cause the Jews as tax-farmers had been instru-
mental in driving the Cossacks to desperation.
Hundreds of thousands were killed, and fugitives
flocked into all parts of Europe where they could
find co-religionists.
The misery which Jews still endured, even in
places where their lives and property were not in
constant danger, fomented the Messianic hope, and
in 1666 Sabbathai Zcbi, a native of Smyrna, an-
nounced himself as the Messiah, and succeeded in
securing followers all over Europe until, when the
Sultan interfered and asked him to prove his Mes-
sianic mission by a miracle, he was converted
to Islam. This ridiculous result of the Messianic
movement showed its effect in a growing aver-
sion to Kabala. At the same time we see
some descendants of those who suffered the most
cruel martyrdom for llicir failh break away from
Judaism and all positive religions. Both Baruch
Spinozas (1632-1677) and Uriel Acosta (1594-
1640) were members of the Portuguese Congrega-
tion of Amsterdam.
The persecutions, although not as fierce as those
of the fifteenth century, continued. In 1670 the
Emperor. Leopold I, expelled the Jews from Vien-
na for no other reason than because his wife, a
Spanish princess, desired it for the glory of God.
The Marannos in Spain and Portugal were still
the victims of the Inquisition. In 1680 Charles
II. in order to duly celebrate his, nuptials with a
French princess, ordered a great auto da fc to be
held, at which eighteen Jews were burned to death,
while a great many others were sentenced to im-
prisonment and to disgracing arts of penitence.
In consequence of the Messianic movement un-
der Sabbathai Zebi a mystic sect arose which had
its followers in the East, who called them-
selves Hassidim. The Maranno Michael Cardoso
(1622-1706) ; the Italian Mose Hajim Luzzatto
(1707-1747). one of the best poets of the New-
Hebrew literature, and finally Israel Besht (i6g6-
1760), an ignorant Polish coachman, developed
this doctrine. While they ne*er severed their
JEWS, HISTORY OF THE
958
JEZEBEL
connection with the whole body of Judaism, their
doctrinal recognition of theosophy and their belief
in miracle workers formed a decided difference
between them and the orthodox followers of rab-
binical Judaism. The crisis was reached when, in
a bitter and protracted controversy between the
Rabbi of Altona, Jonathan Eibeschitz (1690-1764)
and the celebrated author, Jacob Emden (1696-
1776), all belief in Kabala was branded as crypto-
Sabbathaism. During this controversy Eniden
had the boldness to declare the Zohar, the canon-
ical book of the Kabalists, a partial forgery.
This critical view had further consequences. It
produced a spiritual independence, which found
its most successful exponent in Moses Menaels-
sohn (1729-1786), who, a consistent deist himself,
advocated an amalgamation of the Jews with their
surroundings by a general education, but he care-
fully refrained from advocating any innovations
in the religious life. He translated parts of the
Bible into pure German (1783), edited the first
Hebrew magazine (1784) and was instrumental in
the foundation of a Jewish free school. He also
advocated the full right of citizenship for the
Jews. This became an accomplished fact during
the French revolution (1791), and was imitated by
other states which, during the revolutionary pe-
riod, were under French influence, but after the
Vienna Congress (1815) a general reaction set in.
Meantime the Jews began to consider the neces-
sity for changing their ritual and revising their
dogma. In regard to the latter, the most impor-
tant move was the declaration against the belief
in a personal Messiah. In their ritual the substi-
tution of the vernacular for the Hebrew in some
parts of their Prayer Book was the decisive step
taken. These reforms were first introduced in
the "Tempel" of Hamburg (1817). At the same
time rabbinical literature became the object of
scientific treatment, and the exclusive dominion
of scholasticism was broken. In this respect the
merit of the initiation belongs to Leopold Zunz
(1794-1886). With him we shall mention: S. L.
Rappoport (1791-1867), S. D. Luzzatto (1800-
1865), Zacharias Frankel (1801-1875), the repre-
sentatives of modern conservatism, while Abra-
ham Geiger (1810-1874) represents the liberal the-
ology, within which Samuel Holdheim (1806-
1860) and David Einhorn (1809-1879) represent
the radical wing. The strictest orthodoxy is rep-
resented by Samson R. Hirsch (1808-1888). Of
other leading scholars we mention Hirsch Graetz
(1817-1891), Leopold Loew (1811-1875) and M.
Steinschneider (born 1816).
The present religious condition of the Jews
may be described thus: In Asia, northern Af-
rica and Turkey we find strict medievalism, serv-
ile practice of ritual laws, superstitious fears of
the rabbis, and uncritical acceptance of every-
thing ever taught by anybody in the name of the
Jewish religion. In Russia, Roumania and Galicia,
strict talmudical orthodoxy is steadily losing
ground, to make room for those religious views
which are the rule amongst the Jews of western
Europe, viz., a liberal attitude to the teachings
and the practice of religion very much like that
prevailing among the body of German Protest-
ants of the type represented by Harnack and
other leading theologians. Their allegiance to
Judaism, however, is strengthened by conscious-
ness of the fact that they will remain Jews no
matter what their religious position and practice
may become.
The revolution of 1848 brought political equal-
ity to the Jews all over western Europe, although
it was not until 1858 that the first Tew. Lionel de
Rothschild, was allowed to take his seat in the
English Parliament. The medieval system, which
leaves the Jew to the mercy of the mob in occa-
sional outbreaks of violence, reigns still in Mo-
rocco and Persia. In Russia and Roumania the
Jews are subjected to oppressive laws, such as
existed in western Europe up to the eighteenth
century. A similar state of affairs exists in Port-
ugal, while in Spain the law granting them lib-
erty of worship has never been carried into ef-
fect. In Germany, Austria, and France the anti-
Semitic movement for the last twenty years is
trying to obtain a repeal of the laws granting the
Jews political equality. This renewed hostility,
together with the unbearable conditions of Rus-
sia, has of late produced the Zionistic movement,
which aims to establish a Jewish state in Palestine
HS an asylum for the persecuted Jews all over the
world.
Another notable feature of Jewish history in
the nineteenth century is the participation of the
Jews in all branches of art, science, literature and
public life. France and Italy have had Jewish
ministers, Cremieux, Fould. Raynal and Luzatti.
All other civilized countries have had influential
Jewish politicians. In music we may mention
Meyerbeer, Halevy and Goldmark ; in literature,
Heine, Boerne, Auerbach, Grace Aguilar, Gold-
smid (Denmark), Millaud (France), etc. Of
great scientists the number is too great for this
article tcr do justice to them.
These facts certainly prove that the admission
of the Jews to participation in public life has
proven a benefit not only to them, but in no small
degree a benefit to the highest interests of hu-
manity. G. D.
JEWS' liANGtTAGE. This phrase is literally
"Jewishly," for the Hebrew must be read as an
adverb (2 Kings xviii;28; 2 Chron. xxxii:l8; Is.
xxxvi:ll, 13; Neh. xiii:24).
JEZANIAH (jez'a-ni'ah), (Heb. ^'^pi":, yez-an-
yaw'hoo), whom Jehovah hears.
A Maachathite, who co-operated with Johanan
in the pursuit of Ishmael (Jer. xl:8). They
consulted with Jeremiah as to what the people
should do in the disturbed tirnes after the de-
parture of the Babylonians (2 Kings xxv :23 ; Jer.
xl;8; xlii:i), and probably advocated immigra-
tion into Egypt (Jer. xliii:4, 5). He is doubtless
the same as Azariah (Jer. xliii:2). In 2 Kings
.XXV :23, the name is written }aa~aniah (B. C. 580).
JEZEBEL (jez'e-bel), (Heb. ^}T'^., ee-zeh'bel,
chaste), daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre, and
consort of Ahab, king of Israel (B. C. 918).
(1) Induces Idolatry. This unsuitable alli-
ance proved disastrous to the kingdom of Israel;
for Jezebel induced her weak husband not only to
connive at her introducing the worship of her na-
tive idols, but eventually to become himself a wor-
shiper, and to use all the means in his power to
establish them in the room of the God of Israel.
This was a great enormity. The worship of the
golden calves which previously existed was, how-
ever mistakenly, intended in honor of Jehovah ;
but this was an open alienation from him, and a
turning aside to foreign and strange gods, which,
indeed, were no gods. Most of the particulars
of this bad but apparently highly-gifted woman's
conduct have been related in the notices of Ahab
and Elijah. From the course of her proceedings
it would appear that she grew to hate the Jewish
system of law and religion, on account of what
must have seemed to her its intolerance and its
anti-social tendencies. She hence sought to put
it down hv all the means she could command ; and
JEZELUS
OSS
JEZREEL
the imbecility of her husband seems to have made
all the powers of the state subservient to her de-
signs.
(2) Success of Her Policy. Slic Iiad the re-
ward of her unscrupulous decisiveness of charac-
ter in the triumph of her policy in Israel, where,
at last, there were but 7,000 people who had not
bowed the knee to Baal, nor kissed their hand to
his image. Nor was her success confined to
Israel, for through Athaliah — a daughter after her
own heart — who was married to the son and suc-
cessor of Jehoshaphat, the same policy prevailed
for a time in Judah, after Jezebel herself had
perished and the house of Ahab had met its doom.
It seems that after the death of her husband,
Jezebel maintained considerable ascendancy over
her son Joram ; and her measures and misconduct
formed the principal charge which Jehu cast in
the teeth of that unhappy monarch before he sent
forth the arrow which slew him.
(3) Death. The last effort of Jezebel was to
jntimidate Jehu as he passed the palace, by warn-
ing him of the eventual rewards of even successful
treason. It is eminently characteristic of the
woman that, even in this terrible moment, when
she knew that her son was slain, and must have
felt that her power had departed, she displayed
herself not with rent veil and dishevelled hair,
'but tired her head and painted her eyes' before
she looked out at the window, and called to Jehu
as he approached : "Had Zimri peace, who slew
his master?" Jehu looked up at the window and
said: "Who is on my side? who?" Two or three
eunuchs looked out. "Throw her down," he cried,
and they urihesitatingly obeyed. She fell in front
of his chariot, which he intentionally drove over
her, and her blood bespattered the horses and the
wall. (See Jehu.) Afterward, when the new
monarch bethought him that, as 'a king's daugh-
ter,' her corpse should not be treated with disre-
spect, nothing was found of her but the palms of
her hands and the soles of her feet. The dogs had
eaten all the rest (i Kings xvi :3i ; xviii 14, 13, 19;
x.\i:s-25; 2 Kings ix 7, 22, 30-37), B. C. 884.
(4) Character. "Jezebel was a woman in
whom, with the reckless and licentious habits of
an oriental queen, were united the sternest and
fiercest qualities inherent in the Phoenician people.
The wild license of her life, the magical fascina-
tion of her arts or of her character, became a
proverb in the nation (2 Kings ix 122). Long after-
ward her name lived as the byword for all that
was execrable, and in the Apocalypse it is given
to a church or an individual in Asia Minor, com-
bining in like manner fanaticism and profligacy
(Rev. ii:20)." (Smith, Bib. Diet.)
JEZELTJS (je-ze'lus), (Gr. 'Itf^Xos, ee-ee-zay'/os).
!• The same as Jahaziel (i Esdr. viii:32).
2. Jehiel, the father of Obadiah (i Esdr. viij:
35)-
JEZEB, (je'zer), (Heb. 1?:, yay'tser, formation),
third named of the four sons of Naphtali (Gen.
xlvi;24; Num. xxvi:49; ' Chron. viiin), B.C. about
1656.
JEZERITES, THE (je'zer-ites).
A family of the tribe of Naphtali descendants
of Jezer (Num. xxvi:49).
JEZIAH (je-zlah). (Heb. ■'^'i'. yis-zee-yaw' ,
whom Jehovah sprinkles).
One of the "sons" of Parosh, a layman, of the
Israelites who put away his foreign wife after the
return from Babylon (Ezra x:20, B. C. 458.
JEZIEL (je'zi-el), (Heb. ^^T,, yeh-zee-ale\
assembly of God^ - "son" of Azmaveth, and one
of the skilled Benjamite archers who joined
David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii;3), B. C. before 1000.
JEZLIAH (j6z-li'ah). (Heb. "«<*'rp, yis-Ue-a-w' ,
drawn out, preserved), one of the "sons" (or de-
scendants) of Elpaal, and apparently a chief Ben-
jamite resident at Jerusalem (I Chron. viii:i8)
B. C. probably about 590.
JEZOAB Oe-zo'ar), (Heb. lO'^", yits-khar\ he
will sliine), the son of Helah, a wife of Ashur, the
father (founder) of Tekoa (I Chron. iv7). See /oAR.
JEZKAHIAH (j6z-ra-hi'ah), (Heb. ^'H^P, yiz-
rakh-yaiu', Jah will shine).
A Levite, superintendent of the choristers at
the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem during
Nehemiah's time; properly 1/:kaiiiah (Neh. xii:
42), B. C. about 1014.
JEZREEL (jez're-el), (Heb. ^*<3?T. yiz-reh-
ale' , sown by God).
/. A descendant of Judah, one of the family of
the father, or founder, of Etam (i Chron. iv:3).
It is probable, from the association of names in
this passage that he was the founder of the town
in Judah by his name (Josh. xv:56), B. C. about
1612.
2. The eldest son of the prophet Hosea (Hos.
i:4), so named in token of the great slaughter
predicted by the prophet. He is also, with his
brother Lo-ammi, and sister Lo-ruhania, the sym-
bol of the Israelites, restored after their approach-
ing exile (Hos. i :6, 9; ii :22, 23), B. C. about
782.
3. A town in the tribe of Issachar (Josh, xix:
18), where the kings of Israel had a palace, and
where the court often resided, although Samaria
was the metropolis of the kingdom. It is most
frequently mentioned in the history of the house
of Ahab. Here was the vineyard of Naboth,
which Ahab coveted to enlarge the palace-grounds
(i Kings xviii:45, 46; xxi), and here Jehu exe-
cuted his dreadful commission against the house
of Ahab, when Jezebel, Joram, and all who were
connected with that wretched dynasty perished
(2 Kings ix:i4-37; x:i-ii).
These horrible scenes appear to have given the
kings of Israel a distaste to this residence, as it is
not again mentioned in their history. It is, how-
ever, named by Hosea (i -.4, comp. i :ii ; ii :22) ; and
in Judith (i:8; iv:3; vii:3) it occurs under the
name of Esdraelon.
In the days of Eusebius and Jerome it was still
a large village, called Esdraela, and in the same
age it again occurs as Stradela (Itiii. Micros, p.
586). Nothing more is heard of it till the time of
the Crusades, when it was called by the Franks
Parvum Gerinum, and by the .\rabs Zerin. It
ceased to be mentioned by travelers till Turner,
Buckingham, and others after them again brought
it into notice; and it is still more lately that the
identification of Zerin and Jezreel has been re-
stored (Raumer, Palast. p. 155; Schubert, iii:l64;
Elliot, ii:379; Robinson, iii:i64).
Zerin is seated on the brow of a rocky and very
steep descent into the great and fertile valley of
Jezreel, which runs down between the mountains
of Gilboa and Hermon. Lying comparatively high
it commands a wide and noble view, extending
down the broad valley on the east to Beisan (Beth-
shean), and on the west quite across the great
plain to the mountains of Carmel. It is described
by Dr. Robinson (Researches, iii:i63) as a most
magnificent site for a city, which, being itself a
conspicuous object in every part, would naturally
give its name to the whole region.
JEZREELITES
960
JOAB
Zerin has at present a small number of hum-
ble dwellings, mostly in ruins, and with few in-
habitants.
(1) Jezreel, Blood of ("I will avenge the blood
of Jezreel upon the house of Jehu," Hos. 1:4).
This probably refers to the murders and outrages
committed by Ahab and Jehu at this place. In
2 Kings x:30 God approved of the acts of Jehu
in his extermination of the house of Ahab. But
very clearly, according to 2 Kings x :29, 31, Jehu
did it not for the glory of God, but for his own
sdvancement and interests. He was, therefore, a
cruel, relentless murderer, although an instru-
ment of the Divine vengeance.
(2) Jezreel, Ditch of. An entrenchment for
the protection of the city, outside of which Naboth
was put to death (i Kings xxi;23).
(3) Jezreel, Fountain of. The waters by which
Saul encamped before the battle of Gilboa ( i
Sam. xxixri). There is still a fine spring of water
a little east of Zerin (Robinson, iii:i^), which
is probably the one mentioned in the above pas-
sage.
(4) Jezreel, Portion of. The field or country
adjoining the city, where the crime of Ahab had
been committed, and its retribution was to be ex-
acted (2 Kings ix:io, 21, 36, etc.).
(5) Jezreel, Tower of. One of the fortifica-
tions of the city (2 Kings ix:i7).
(6) Jezreel, Valley of (Josh. xvii:i6; Judg.
vi:33: Hos. i:5), situated between the ridges of
Gilboa and Moreh, now called Jebel ed-Duhy. It
was the scene of one of the most glorious victories
as well as one of the most bitter defeats by the
Israelites. In the time of the Judges it was oc-
cupied by the Amalekites and Midianites (Judg.
vi;33 sq.), who were driven out by Gideon (Judg.
vii:i). Two hundred years later Saul was here
defeated by the Philistines (i Sam. xxix:i-ii;
xxxi :i-6).
4. A city in the mountains of Judah (Josh-
xv:56). It was probably from this place that
David took his first wife, Ahinoam (i Sam.
xxvii:3; xxx:5). Perhaps identical with the mod-
ern Zurttit (Robinson, Researches, ii:20i).
JEZREELITES (jez're-el-ftes), inhabitants of
Jezreel, of Issachar. (i Kings xxi:i, 4, 6, 7, 15, 16;
2 Kings ix:2l, 25).
JEZBEELITESS (jez-re-el-T tess), (Heb.
fl'i^.l"";!?, yiz-reh-ay-leetli'), a woman of Jez-
reel in Judah, one of David's wives (l Sam. xxvii:3,
xxx:5; 2 Sam. ii:2, iii:2; i Chron. iii:l).
JIBSAM (jib'sam), (Heb. =???, yib-sawm', fra-
grant, pleasant), one of the "sons" (posterity) of
Tola, the son of Issachar. in David's army (i
Chron. vii;2), B. C, about 1000. He may possibly
liave been a son of Tola, with descendants in the
army of David.
JIDLAPH fjTd'laph), (Heb. HvT, yid-lawf ,
tearful, weeping), the seventh named of the eight
sons of Nahor (Abraham's brother) by Milcah
(Gen. xxii:22), B. C. perhaps about 2300.
JIMNA (jim'na), (Heb. '^?p*, yhn-naiv' , good
fortune, luck), firstborn of Asher, and founder of
a family by his name (Num. xxvi:44). B. C. 1874.
In Gen. xlvi;i7 his name is Jimnah.
JIMNAH (jlm'nah), (Heb. ^tT-, yi»t-naw' ,
prosperity). See Jimna.
JIMNITES, THE (jrm'nites), (Num. xxvi:44),
descendants of Jimna (which see).
JIPHTAH (jrph'tah), (Heb. "?t', yif-takh' ,
he will open), a city in the low country of Judah
(Josh. xv:43). Robinson identifies it with/mrm
(Researches, ii:342, note).
JIPHTHAH-EL (jiph'thah-el), (Heb. ^><"^n?^
yif-takh-alc' , opening of God).
A valley mentioned as one of the boundaries
of Zebulun (Josh. xix:i4, 27), separating it from
Asher and Naphtali. It was probably identical
with Jotapata, the city that resisted Vespasian
so successfully, and the modern Jefat, in the
hills of Galilee (Robinson, iii:l07).
JOAB (jo'ab), (Heb. 2?", yo-awb' , Jehovah his
father).
/. One of the three sons of Zeruiah, the sister
of David, and 'captain of the host' ; generalissimo
of the army during nearly the whole of David's
reign.
(1) First Appearance. He first appears asso-
ciated with his two brothers, Abishai and
Asahel, in the command of David's troops
against Abner, who had set up the claims of
a son of Saul in opposition to those of D.avid,
who then reigned in Hebron. The armies hav-
ing met at the pool of Gibeon, a general action
was brought on, in which Abner was worsted.
In his flight he had the misfortune to kill Joab's
brother, the swift-footed Asahel, by whom he
was pursued (2 Sam. 11:13-32). The consequences
of this deed have been explained elsewhere. (See
Abner; Asahel.)
(2) Avenges Asahel. Joab smothered for a
time his resentment against the shedder of his
brother's blood ; but it being whetted by the natural
rivalry of position between him and Abner, he
afterwards made it the instrument of bis policy
by treacherously, in the act of friendly communi-
cation, slaying Abner at the very time when the
services of the latter to David, to whom he had
then turned, had rendered him a most dangerous
rival to Joab in power and influence (2 Sam. iii:
22-27). That Abner had at first suspected that
Joab would take the position of blood-avenger
(see Blood-Revenge) is clear, from the apprehen-
sion which he expressed (2 Sam. ii 122) ; but that
he thought that Joab had, under all the circum-
stances, abandoned this position, is shown by the
unsuspecting readiness with which he went aside
with him (2 Sam. iii :26, 27) ; and that Joab
placed his murderous act on the footing of ven-
geance for his brother's blood, is plainly stated in
2 Sam. iii:30; by which it also appears that the
other brother, Abishai, shared in some way in
the deed and its responsibilities. hX the same
time, as Abner was perfectly justified in slaying
Asahel to save his own life, it is very doubtful
if Joab would ever have asserted his right of
blood-revenge, if Abner had not appeared likely
to endanger his influence with David. The king,
much as he reprobated the act, knew that it had
a sort of excuse in the old customs of blood-re-
venge, and he stood habitually too much in awe
of his impetuous and able nephew to bring him
to punishment, or even to displace him from his
command. 'I am this day weak,' he said, 'though
anointed king, and these men, the sons of Zeruiah,
be too hard for me' (2 Sam. iii:39).
(3) Appointed to Chief Command. Desirous
probably of making some atonement before David
and the public for this atrocity, in away which
at the same time was most likely to prove effect-
ual— namely, by some daring exploit, he was the
first to mount to the assault at the storming of
the fortress on Mount Zion, which had remained
so long in the hands of the Jebusites, By this
service he acquired the chief command of the
army of all Israel, of which David was by this
lime king (2 Sam. v. •6-10).
JOAB
961
JOAH
(4) Serves David Faithfully. It is not neces-
sary to trace the subsequent acts of Joab, seeing
that they arc in fact the public acts of the king he
served. And he served him faithfully.
Although he knew his power over David, and
often treated him with little ceremony, there can
be no doubt that he was most truly devoted to
his interests, and sometimes rendered him good
service even against his own will, as in the affair
at Mahanaim (2 Sam. xix:5-8).
As Joab was on good terms with Absalom,
and had taken pains to bring about a reconcilia-
tion between him and his father, we may set the
higher value upon his firm adhesion to David
when Absalom revolted, and upon his stern sense
of duty to the king — from whom he expected no
thanks — displayed in putting an end to the war
by the slaughter of this favorite son, when all
others shrank from the responsibility of doing
the king a service against his own will (2 Sam.
xviii:i-l4). In like manner, when David un-
happily resolved to number the people, Joab dis-
cerned the evil and remonstrated against it, and
although he did not venture to disobey, he per-
formed the duty tardily and reluctantly, to afford
the king an opportunity of reconsidering the mat-
ter, and took no pains to conceal how odious the
measure was to him (2 Sam. .xxiv:i-4).
(5) Military Exploits. His great war was
that against Amnion, which he conducted in
person. It was divided into three campaigns : (a)
The first was against the allied forces of Syria and
Ammon. He attacked and defeated the Syrians,
whilst his brother Abishai did the same for the
Ammonites. The Syrians rallied with their kin-
dred tribes from beyond the Euphrates, and were
finally routed by David himself. (See Hada-
REZER.) (b) The second was against Edom. The
decisive victory was gained by David himself in
the "valley of salt." and celebrated by a triumphal
monument (2 Sam. viii:i3). But Joab had the
charge of carrying out the victory, and remained
for si.x months, extirpating the male population,
whom he then buried in the tombs of Petra (l
Kings xi:i5, 16). So long was the terror of his
name preserved that only when the fugitive prince
of Edom, in the Egj'ptian court, heard that "David
slept with his fathers, and that Joab the captain
of the hast Zi.'as dead," did he venture to return
to his own country (ch. xi:2i, 22). (c) The
third was against the Ammonites. They were
again left to Joab (2 Sam. x:7-i9). He went
against them at the beginning of the next year "at
the time when kings go out to battle" — to the siege
of Rabbah. The ark was sent with him, and the
whole army was encamped in booths or huts round
the beleaguered city (2 Sam. xi:i, 11). After
a sortie of the inhabitants, which caused some
loss to the Jewish army, Joab took the lower city
on the river, and then with true loyalty sent
to urge David to come and take the citadel. Rab-
bah, lest the glory of the capture should pass
from the king to his general (2 Sam. xii:26-28).
(Smith, Bib. Diet.)
(6) Ingratitude of David. David was cer-
tainly ungrateful for the service of Joab, when,
in order to conciliate the powerful party which
had supported Absalom, he ofTered the command
of the host to Amasa. who had commanded the
army of Absalom (2 Sam. xix:i3).
(7) Murder of Amasa. But the inefficiency of
the new commander, in the emergency which the
revolt of Bichri's son produced, arising perhaps
from the reluctance of the troops to follow their
new leader, gave Joab an opportunity of display-
ing his superior resources , and also of removing
his rival by a murder very similar to, and in some
respects less excusable and more foul than, that of
Abner (see Amasa). Besides Amasa was his own
cousin, being the son of his mother's sister (2
Sam. XX :i-i3).
(8) Joins Adonijah. When David lay on his
deathbed, and a demonstration was made in favor
of the succession of the eldest surviving son,
Adonijah, whose interests had been compromised
by the preferment of the young Solomon, Joab
joined the party of the natural heir. When the
prompt measures taken under the direction of the
king rendered this demonstration abortive (l
Kings i:7), Joab withdrew into private life till
some time after the death of David, when the fate
of Adonijah. and of Abiathar — whose life was
only spared in consequence of his sacerdotal char-
acter— warned Joab that he had little mercy to
expect from the new king.
(9) Death.. He Hed for refuge to the altar ; but
when Solomon heard this, he sent Benaiah to put
him to death ; and, as he refused to come forth,
gave orders that he should be slain even at the
altar. His corpse was removed to his domain in
the wilderness of Judah, and buried there (i Kings
ii:5, 28-34), B- C. about 960.
(10) Character. Joab was one of the most ac-
complished warriors and unscrupulous men that
Israel ever produced. But he had no principles
apart from what he deemed his duty to the king
and the people, and was quite as ready to serve his
master's vices as his virtues, so long as they did
not interfere with his own interests, or tended to
promote them by enabling him to make himself
useful to the king. His ready apprehension of the
king's meaning in the matter of Uriah, and the
facility with which he made himself the instru-
ment of the murder, and of the hypocrisy by which
it was covered, are proofs of this, and form as
deep a stain upon his character as his own mur-
ders (2 Sam. xi:i4-25).
2. Son of Seraiah, and a descendant of Kenar
(i Giron. iv:i4). Jerome says that the architects
of the temple were selected from among his sons,
and for this reason he was called father, or prince,
of the valley of Charashim. or smiths.
3. The head of one of the most numerous
families which returned from Babylon with Zerub-
babel (Ezra ii :6 ; viii 19; Neh. vii :ll), B. C. 445.
JOAH (jo'ah), (Heb. '^?""', j'O-awM', Jehovah his
brother, friend).
1. Son of Asaph and keeper of the records un-
der Hezekiah. He was one of the embassy sent
to the Assyrian general at the conduit of the up-
per pool (2 Kings xviii:i8, 26; Is. xxxvi :3, 11,
22), B. C. 719-
2. Son or descendant of Zimmah (i Chron.
vi:2i). The same as Ethan (ver. 42), unless
some of the names of one list are omitted in the
other (B. C. 719).
3. Son of Obed-edom (i Chron. xxvi:4). He
was a Korhite and one of those appointed by
David to keep the southern gate of the Temple,
and the house of Asuppim, a storehouse, or court-
house in the outer court (ver. 15). B. C. 1014,
4. A Gershonite, son of Zimmah (2 Chron.
xxix:l2). As a Levite he took a leading part in
the purification of the Temple under Hezekiah (B.
C. 726).
5. Son of Joahaz and keeper of the records
under Josiah. He, with Shaphan and Maaseiah,
superintended the repair of the Temple (2 Chron.
xxxiv:8), B. C. 623.
61
JOAHAZ
962
JOAHAZ (jo'a-haz), (Heb. ''^^'^ , yo-aw^Aawz' ,
Jehovah holds), the father of Joah, who kept the
records under Josiah (2 Chron. xxxiv:8), B. C. be-
fore 623.
JOANNA (jo-an'na).
1. (Gr. luai'i'as, ee-o-an-nas' , Joannas), the son
of Rhesa and grandson of Zorobabel, in the line-
age of Christ (Luke iii:27). , , • •
2. (Gr. 'ludrva, ee-o-an'nah, probably feminine
of 'ludi'i'iis, John), wife of Chuza, the steward of
Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee. She was
one of those women who followed Christ and
ministered to his wants and those of his disciples
out of their abundance. They had all been cured
of grievous diseases by the Savior, or had re-
ceived material benefits from him ; and the cus-
toms of the country allowed them to testify in this
way their gratitude and devotedness without re-
proach. It is usually supposed that Joanna was
at this time a widow (Luke viii:3; xxiv:io).
JOASH (jo'ash), (Heb. "^^'^ , yo-awsh' , given by
Jehovah), a contraction of Jehoash.
I. Son of Ahaziah and eighth king of Judah,
who began to reign in B. C. 878, at the age of
seven, and reigned forty-one years.
(1) Saved as an Infant. Joash. when an in-
fant, was secretly saved by his aunt Jehosheba,
who was married to the high-priest Jehoiada, from
the general massacre of the family by Athaliah,
who had usurped the throne (see Athaliah;
Jehoiada). By the high-priest and his wife the
child was privily brought up in the chambers con-
nected with the temple till he had attained his
eighth year, when Jehoiada deemed that the slate
of affairs required him to produce the youthful
heir of the throne to the people, and claim for him
the crown which his grandmother had so unright-
eously usurped.
(2) Proclaimed King. Finding the influential
persons whom he consulted favorable to the de-
sign, everything was secretly, but admirably, ar-
ranged for producing Joash, and investing him
with the regalia, in such a manner that Athaliah
could have no suspicion of the event till it actually
occurred. On the day appointed, the sole surviv-
ing scion of David's illustrious house appeared in
the place of the kings, by a particular pillar in the
temple-court, and was crowned and anointed with
the usual ceremonies. The high-wrought enthu-
siasm of the spectators then found vent in clapping
of hands and exulting shouts of 'Long live the
king!' The joyful uproar was heard even in the
palace, and brought Athaliah to the temple, from
which, at a word from Jehoiada, she was led to
her death.
(3) Behavior. Joash behaved well during his
youth, and so long after as he remained under the
influence of the high-priest. But when he died the
king seems to have felt himself relieved from a
yoke ; and to manifest his freedom, began to take
the contrary course to that which he had followed
while under pupilage. Gradually the persons who
had possessed influence formerly, when the house
of David was contaminated by its alliance with the
iouse of Ahab. insinuated themselves into his
councils, and ere long the worship of Jehovah and
the observances of the law were neglected, and the
land was defiled with idolatries and idolatrous
usages.
(4) Slays Zechariah. The prophets then ut-
tered their warnings, but were not heard; and the
infatuated king had the atrocious ingratitude to
put to death Zechariah, the son and successor of
his benefactor Jehoiada
(5) Divine Judgments and Death. For these
JOASH
deeds Joash was made an example of the Divine
Judgments. He saw his realm devastated by the
Syrians under Hazael ; his armies were cut in
pieces by an enemy of inferior numbers ; and he
was even besieged in Jerusalem, and only pre-
served his capital and his crown by giving up the
treasures of the temple. Joash was buried in the
city of David ; but a place in the sepiilcher of the
kings was denied to his remains (2 Kings xi ; xii;
2 Chron. xxiv.)
2, Son and successor of Jehoahaz on the throne
of Israel, of which he was the twelfth king.
(1) Beign. He began to reign (B. C. 799).
and reigned sixteen incomplete years. He fol-
lowed the example of his predecessors in the
policy of keeping up the worship of the golden
calves ; but, apart from this, he bears a fair char-
acter, and had intervals, at least, of sincere piety
and true devotion to the God of his fathers. In-
deed, custom and long habit had so established the
views of political expediency on which the schis-
matical establishments at Dan and Bethel were
founded, that at length the reprehension which
regularly recurs in the record of each king's reign,
seems rather to apply to it as a mark of the con-
tinuance of a public crime, than as indicative of
the character or disposition of the reigning prince,
which is to be sought in the more detailed ac-
counts of his own conduct. These accounts are
favorable with respect to Joash.
(2) Relations to Elisha. He held the prophet
Elisha in high honor, looking up to him as a
father. When he heard of his last illness he re-
paired to the bedside of the dying prophet, and
was favored with promises of victories over the
Syrians, by whom his dominions were then har-
assed. These promises were accomplished after
the prophet's death. In three signal and succes-
sive victories Joash overcame the Syrians, and re-
took from them the towns which Hazael had rent
from Israel.
(3) War and Death. These advantages ren-
dered the kingdom of Israel more potent than that
of Judah. He, however, sought no quarrel with
that kingdom ; but when he received a defiance
from Amaziah, king of Judah, he answered with
becoming spirit in a parable, which by its images
calls to mind that of Jotham (see Parable);
the cool disdain of the answer must have been,
and in fact was, exceedingly galling to Amaziah.
In the war, or rather action, which followed,
Joash was victorious. Having defeated Amaziah .
at Beth-shemesh, in Judah, he advanced to Jeru-
salem, broke down the wall to the extent of 400
cubits, and carried away the treasures both of the
temple and the palace, together with hostages for
the future good behavior of the crestfallen Ama-
ziah. Joash himself did not long survive this vic-
tory ; he died in peace, and was buried in Samaria
(2 Kings xiii :9-25 ; xiv:i-i7).
3. Father of Gideon, and a man of influence
among the Abi-czrites. During the Midianitish
occupation he seems to have yielded to popular
opinion, and the exigencies of the time, so far
as to have an altar dedicated to Baal (Judg. vi:il,
29, 30, 31; vii:l4; viii:i3, 29, 32).
4. A younger son of Ahab. who either held a
subordinate jurisdiction or was appointed gov-
ernor while his father was making an attack on
Ramoth-Gilead (i Kings xxii:26; 2 Chron. xviii :
25).
5. A descendant of Shelah, son of Judah (i
Chron. iv :22).
6. Son of Shemaah of Gibeah. He was a
Benjamite and one of the "helpers" who came to
David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:3), and with him
probably pursued the Amalekites.
JOATHAM
963
JOB
7. An officer of David, wlio had charge of the
storehouses of oil and the products of David's
possessions in the lowlands (i Chron. xxvii:28).
S. One of the sons of Becher, and head of a
Benjamitc house in the time of David (i Chron.
vii:8).
JOATHAM (jo'a-tbam), (Gr. ' ludSoM, ee-o-ah'-
tham). JoTHAM, son of Uzziah (Matt. iiij).
JOB (job).
I. (Heb. y^tyobe, returning), the third named of
the suns of Issachar (Gen. xlvi:i3), called Jashub
(Num. xxvi:24; i Chron. vii:i).
II. (Heb. 3i"l<, ee-yobe' , persecuted), an Ara-
bian patriarch and the hero of the book which
bears his name, mentioned elsewhere only in Ezek.
xiv:l4, 20; Jas. v:u. The various questions relat-
ing to his history are met in the consideration of
the poem itself.
1. Contents of the BooAr. In the land of Uz,
belonging to the northern part of Arabia Deserta
lived an honest, pious man, called Job.
(1) Job's Affliction. For his sincere and per-
fect devotedness, God had amply blessed him with
worldly property and children ; but on Satan ob-
taining leave to tempt him, he suddenly lost the
good fortune of his life. Ultimately he is smitten
with a severe and painful disease ; but though his
wife ))iores him to forsake God. he still continues
true and stanch to the Lord. Three friends, Eli-
phaz, Bildad and Zophar, hear of his calamities, and
come to console him. His distressed state excites
their heartfelt compassion ; but the view which
they take of its origin prevents them from at once
assisting him, and they remain silent, though they
are sensible that by so doing they further wound
his feelings. Seven days thus pass, until Job,
suspecting the cause of their conduct, becomes
discomposed and breaks silence. His first observa-
tions are based on the assertion — not, indeed,
broadly expressed — that God acts harshly and ar-
bitrarily in inflicting calamity on men.
(2) Discussion. This causes a discussion be-
tween him and his friends, which is divided into
three main parts, each with subdivisions, and em-
braces the speeches of the three friends of Job,
and his answers; the last part, however, consists
of only two subdivisions, the third friend, Zophar,
having nothing to rejoin. By this silence the
author of the book generally designates the defeat
of Job's friends, who are defending a common
cause. Taking a general view of the argument
which they urge against him, they may be con-
sidered as asserting the following positions:
(a) No man being free from sin, we need not
wonder that we are liable to calamities, for which
we must account by a reference, not to God, but
to ourselves. From the misery of the distressed,
others are enabled to infer their guilt ; and they
must take this view in order to vindicate Divine
justice.
(b) The distress of a man proves not only that
he has sinned, but shows also the degree and
measure of his sin ; an< thus, from the extent of
calamity sustained, may be inferred the extent of
sins committed : and from this the measure of
impending misfortune.
(c) A distressed man may recover his former
happiness, and even attain to greater fortune than
he ever enjoyed before, if he takes a warning
from his afflictions, repents of his sins, reforms
his life, and raises himself to a higher degree
of moral rectitude. Impatience and irreverent
expostulation with God serve but to prolong and
increase punishment, for, by accusing God of in-
justice, a fresh sin is added to former transgres-
sions.
(d) Though the wicked man is capable of pros-
perity, still it is never lasting. The most awful
retribution soon overtakes hini; and his transient
felicity must itself be considered as punishment,
since it renders him heedless, and makes him feel
misfortune more keenly.
(3) Job's Answer. In opposition to them, Job
maintains :
(ft) The most upright man may be highly unfor-
tunate— more so than the inevitable faults and
shortcomings of human nature would seem to
imply. There is a savage cruelty, deserving the
severities of the Divine resentment, in inferring the
guilt of a man from his distresses. In distributing
good and evil. God regards neither merit nor guilt,
but acts according to his sovereign pleasure. His
omnipotence is apparent in every part of the cre-
ation; but his justice cannot be seen in the gov-
ernment of the world; the afflictions of the right-
eous, as well as the prosperity of the wicked, are
evidence against it. There are innumerable cases,
and Job considers his own to be one of them, in
which a sufferer has a right to justify hi'mself
before God, and to repine at his decrees. Of this
supposed right Job freely avails himself, and
maintains it against his friends.
(b) In a state of composure and calmer reflec-
tion. Job retracts, chiefly in his concluding speech,
all his former rather extravagant assertions, and
says that, although God generally afflicts the
wicked and blesses the righteous, still there are
exceptions to this rule, single cases in which the
pious undergo severe trials; the inference, there-
fore, of a man's guilt from his misfortunes is by
no means warranted. For the exceptions estab-
lished by experience prove that God does not al-
ways distribute prosperity and adversity after this
rule ; but that he sometimes acts on a different
principle, or as an absolute lord, according to his
mere will and pleasure.
(c) Humbly to adore God is our duty, even
when we are subject to calamities not at all de-
served; but we should abstain from harshly judg-
ing of those who. when distressed, send forth
complaints against God.
(4) Elihu Appears. The interest of the narra-
tive is kept up with considerable skill, by progres-
sively rising and highly passionate language. At
first. Job's friends charge him. and he defends him-
self, in mild terms, but gradually they are all be-
trayed into warmth of temper, which goes on in-
creasing until the friends have nothing more to ob-
ject, and Job remains in possession of the field.
The discussion then seems to be at an end. when
a fresh disputant. Elihu. appears. Trusting in
his just cause. Job had proudly opposed God,
with whom he expostulated, and whom he
charged with injustice, when the sense of his
calamities should have led him to acknowl-
edge the sinfulness of human nature, and humbly
to submit to the Divine dispensations. Making
every allowance for his painful situation, and put-
ting the mildest construction on his expressions,
he is still substantially wrong, and could not
therefore be suffered to remain the vanquisher in
this high argument. He had silenced his friends,
but the general issue remained to be settled. Elihu
had wailed till Job and his friends had spoken.
because they were older than he ; but when he saw
that the three visitors ceased to answer, he offers
himself to reason with Job, and shows that God is
just in his ways.
He makes this plain, (a) From the nature of af-
Aietions. He begins by urging that Job was very
wrong in boasting of his integrity, and making il
appear that rewards were due to him from God.
However righteous he was. he still had no claim
JOB
964
JOB
to reward ; on the contrary, all men are sinners in
God's eyes ; and nobody can complain that he suf-
fers unjustly, for the very greatest sufferings equal
not his immense guilt. Then Elihu explains a
leading point on which he differs from the friends
of Job : he asserts that from greater sufferings
inflicted on a person it was not to be inferred that
he had sinned more than others afflicted with a
less amount of calamity. Calamines were, indeed,
under all circumstances, punishments for sins com-
mitted, but at the same time they were correctives
also ; and therefore they might be inflicted on the
comparatively most righteous in preference to
others. For he who was most loved by God, was
also most in danger of forgetting the sinfulness
inherent in all men, and, consequently, also in
himself; the rather because sin would in him less
strongly manifest itself. If the object of afflic-
tions was attained, and the distressed acknowl-
edged his sinfulness, he would humble himself be-
fore God, who would bless him with greater hap-
piness than he ever before enjoyed. But he who
took not this view, and did not amend his ways,
would be ruined, and the blame would rest wholly
with himself. Consequently, if Job made the best
of his misfortune, God would render him most
happy; but if he continued refractory, punishment
would follow his offenses.
(b) From a clear conception of the nature of
God. 'How darest thou,' says Elihu, 'instead of
humbling thyself before God, defy him, and offer
to reason with him? The whole creation shows
forth his majesty, and evinces his justice. For a
man to stand up against him, and to assert that
he suffers innocently, is the greatest anthropomor-
phism, because it goes to deny the Divine majesty,
evident in all the facts of the created world, and
including God's justice. His nature being one and
indivisible, it cannot on one side exhibit infinite
perfection, and on the other imperfection ; each
example, then, of God's grandeur in the creation
of the world is evidence against the rash accusers
of God's justice. Thus it appears that, from the
outset, there must have been a mistake in thy cal-
culation, and thou must the rather acknowledge
the correctness of my solution of the question.'
(5) God Decides. Job had, in a stirring manner,
several times challenged God to decide the contest.
Elihu suspects the approach of the Lord, when,
towards the end of his speech, a violent thunder-
storm arises and God answers Job out of the whirl-
wind, showing how foolishly the latter had acted
in offering to reason with him, when his works
proved his infinite majesty, and, consequently, his
absolute justice. Job now submits to God, and
humbly repents of his offense. Hereupon God ad-
dresses Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar. declaring
unto them his displeasure at their unmerciful deal-
ing with their friend, the consequences of which
could only be avoided by Job offering a propitia-
tory sacrifice. This is done, and the Lord grants
unto Job ample compensation for his sufferings.
2. Design of the Boolt. AH agree that
the object of the book is the solution of the ques-
tion how the afflictions of the righteous and the
prosperity of the wicked can be consistent with
God's justice. Some assume that the problem
could be satisfactorily solved only when the doc-
trines of immortality and retribution had been
first established, which had not been done by the
author of the book of Job; a perfect solution of the
question was therefore not to be expected from him.
On nearer examination, however, it appears
that the doctrine of retribution after death is not
of itself alone calculated to lead to a solution of
'J-.e problem. In contemplating the lives of the
nghteous, who were perfectly imbued with this
doctrine, it will appear that they also struggled
with doubts ; that a satisfactory solution of the
question is to be derived only from the funda-
mental doctrine on which the faith in retribution
rests ; and that this faith is shaken where it has
not the necessary basis. The belief in a final judg-
ment is firm and rational only when it rests on the
belief in God's continued providential government
of the world, and in his acting as sovereign Lord
in all the events of human life. If God is holy and
just, he must also have the will to manifest these
qualities in our present life by his bearing toward
those who represent his image on earth, as well
as toward those who renounce it. If he is om-
nipotent, nothing can in this life prevent him
from exhibiting his justice; but if this is not man-
ifested, and if no reason can be given for which
he at times defers his judgments, the belief in
retribution after death would be flimsy and shal-
low. The New Testament holds out to the
righteous promises of a future life, as well as
of the present, and our Savior himself, in set-
ting forth the rewards of those who, for his sake,
forsook everything, begins with this life (Matt.
xix:29). A nearer examination of the benedic-
tions contained in the Sermon on the Mount
(Matt, v), shows that none of them exclusively
refer to future blessings, the judgment of the
wicked is in his view proceeding without inter-
ruption, and therefore his examples of the dis-
tribution of Divine justice in this world, are min-
gled with those of requital in a future order of
things. The Galileans, whose blood Pilate had
mingled with their own sacrifices (Luke xiii:i),
were in Christ's opinion not accidentally killed;
and he threatens those who would not repent
that they should in like manner perish. That
sickness is to be considered as a punishment for
sin we are clearly taught (John v:i4; Luke v:
20, 24) ; in the former passage it is threatened
as punishment for sins committed; in the latter
it is healed in consequence of punishment re-
mitted. Nay, every patient restored by Christ,
who acted not as a superior kind of Hippocrates,
but as the Savior of men, is by that very act
declared to be a sinner. The passage in John ix:
2, 3, which is often appealed to, in proof that our
Lord did not consider sickness as a punishment
for sin, does not prove this, but only opposes the
Jewish position — founded on the mistaken doc-
trine of retribution — that all severe sicknesses and
infirmities were consequences of crimes. But
what is, from this point of view, the solution of
the problem regarding the sufferings of the
righteous? It rests on two positions:
(a) Calamity is the only way that leads to the
kingdom of God.
(b) Calamity, as the veiled grace of God, is
with the pious never alone, but manifest proofs of
Divine favor accompany or follow it. Though
sunk in misery, they still are happier than the
wicked, and when it has attained its object, it is
terminated by the Lord.
It is this exclusively correct solution of the
problem which occurs in the book of Job. All
interpreters allow that it is set forth in Elihu's
speeches, and, from the following observations, it
will appear that they contain the opinion of the
author. The leading principle in Elihu's statement
is, that calamity in the shape of trial was inflicted
even on the comparatively best men, but that God
allowed a favorable turn to take place as soon as
it had attained its object. Now this is the key to
the events of Job's life. Though a righteous man.
he is tried by severe afflictions. He knows not
for what purpose he is smitten, and his calamity
continues, but when he learns it from the addresses
JOB
965
JOB
of Elihii and God, and humbles himself, he is
relieved from the biij-den which oppresses him,
and ample prosperity atones for the afflictions
he has sustained. Add to this, that the rcmainmg
portion of Llihu's speeches, in which he points to
God's infinite majesty as includmg his justice, is
continued in the addresses of God ; that Elihu
foretells God's appearance; that he is not pun-
ished by God as are the friends of Job; in fine,
that Job by his very silence acknowledges the
problem to have been solved by Elihu ; and his
silence is the more significant because Elihu had
urged him to defend himself (xxxiii:32), and
because Job had repeatedly declared he would
'hold his peace,' if it was shown to him wherein
he had erred (vi:24, 25; xix:4). This view of
the book of Job has among modern authors been
supported chielly by Staudlin Beitrnge zur Re-
ligioHc und Sittcidchre, vol. ii, p. 133) and Stickel
(Das Buch Iliob, Leipzig, 1842), though in both
it is mixed up with much erroneous matter ; and
it is further confirmed by the whole Old Testa-
ment giving the same answer to the quest.ion
mooted, which the speeches of Elihu offer; in its
concentrated form it is presented in Ps. xxxvii,
xlix, Ixxiii.
The object of the book is rather to explain
generally the nature and tendency of afflictions,
and thereby to contribute towards the attainment
of their design, to console the mind, and to cheer
the drooping spirits. It is difficult for men to
understand that their sufferings, however great,
are still under that degree which they deserve. To
consider afflictions as proofs of Divine favor, we
must first learn to bring them into unison with
Divine justice. Upon the doctrine of retribution
after death our author does not enter, but that he
knew it, may be inferred from several passages
with great probability ; as, for instance, ch. xiv :
14, 'if a man die shall he live again? All the day»
of my appointed time will I wait, till my change
come.' The if here shows that the writer had
been before engaged in considering the subject
of life after death ; and when such is the case
a pious mind will necessarily indulge the hope,
or will, at least, have an obscure presentiment
of immortality. The truth, also, of God's un-
bounded grace, on which the doctrine of immor-
tality is based, will be found clearly laid down in
ch. xix. Still the author does not recur to this
hope for the purpose of solving his problem ; he
would not ground it on something in itself want-
ing support and a foundation, namely, that which
is presented in this book. The doctrine of future
retribution, if not sustained by the belief in retri-
bution during this life, is truly a castle in the air.
The authop did not intend in his discussion to ex-
ceed the limits of what God had clearly revealed,
and this was in his time confined to the vague
notion of life continued after death, but not con-
nected with rewards and punishments.
3. Character 0/ Composition. On this sub-
ject there are different opinions.
Some contend that the book contains an
entirely true history; others assert that it is
founded on a true history, which has been recast;
while others hold that the book contains a narra-
tive entirely imaginary, and constructed by the
author to teach a great moral truth.
The firs', view, taken by numerous ancient in-
terpreters, is now abandoned by nearly all inter-
preters. It ^eems. however, to have been adopted
by Josephus, for he places Job in the list of the
historical books; and it was prevalent with all the
fathers of the church. In its support four reasons
are adduced, of which the third and fourth are
quite untenable; the first and second are out-
weighed by other considerations, which render it
impossible to consider the book of Job as an en-
tircJy true history, but which may be used in de-
fence of the second view alluded to. It is said:
(a) That Job is (Ezck. xiv:i4-20) mentioned
as a public character, together with Noah and
Daniel, and represented as an example of piety.
(b) In the Epistle of James (v:ii), patience in
sufferings is recommended by a reference to Job.
(c) In the Greek translation of the Septuaginl a
notice is appended to Gen. xxxvi:33, which states
that Job was the King Jobab of Edom. This
statement is too late to be relied on, and originates
in an etymological combination ; and that it must
be erroneous is to a certain extent evident from
the contents of the book, in which Job is not rep-
resented as a king.
(d) Job's tomb continues to be shown to Orien-
tal tourists. Now the fact of a Job having lived
somewhere would not of itself prove that the hero
of our narrative was that person, and that this
book contained a purely historical account. More-
over, his tomb is shown not in one place, but in
six, and, along with it, the dunghill on which Job
is reported to have sat!
Against this view it must be remarked gen-
erally, that the whole work is arranged on a well-
considered plan, proving the author's power of
independent invention. The transactions between
God and Satan in the prologue absolutely require
that we should distinguish between the subject
matter forming the foundation of the work, and
its enlargement ; which can be only done when a
poetical principle is acknowledged in its compo-
sition. This argument, which might be further
extended without much difficulty, proves the first
view above stated of the book of Job to be erro-
neous, and is meant to support the second ; but it
does not bear on the third, which contends that
the narrative is an entire fiction, without any ad-
mixture of real facts; but which is contrary to
the practice which anciently prevailed, when writ-
ers rarely invented the subject of a narrative and
rather took the materials furnished by tradition,
digesting, enlarging, and modifying them, so as to
make them harmonize with the leading theme.
Taking the second view, we must still abstain
from undertaking to determine what the poet de-
rived from tradition and what he added himself,
since we know how far tradition had already em-
bellished the original fact.
4. Descent, Country and Age of Author.
Opinions differed in ancient times as to the nation
to which the author belonged ; some considering
him to have been an Arab, others an Israelite; but
the latter supposition is undoubtedly preferable.
For, first, we find in our book many ideas of genu-
ine Israelite growth ; the creation of the world is
described, in accordance with the prevailing no-
tions of the Israelites, as the immediate effect of
Divine omnipotence; man is formed of clay: the
spirit of man is God's breath ; God employs the
angels for the performance of his orders; Satan,
the enemy of the chosen children of God, is his
instnmicnt for tempting them; men are weak and
sinful ; nobody is pure in the sight of God ; moral
corruption is propagated. There is promulgated
to men the law of God. which they must not in-
fringe, and the transgressions of which are visited
on offenders with punishments. Moreover, the
nether world, or Sheol, is depicted in hues entirely
Hebrew.
Proceeding to the inquiry as to th-e age of the
author of this book, we meet with three opinions :
(a) That he lived before Moses, or was, at
least, his contemporary.
JOB
JOB
(b) That he lived in the time of Solomon, or
in the centuries next following.
(c) That he lived shortly before, or during, or
even after, the Babylonian exile. The view of
those who assert the book to have been written
long after the Babylonian exile, can be supported,
as Hirzel justly observes, neither by the nature of
its language nor by reasons derived from its his-
torical groundwork, and is therefore now gener-
ally rejected.
Against those who refer the composition of
the book to the time of the Babylonian exile,
militate, first, the references to it in the Old
Testament, which prove that it was before this
period a generally known writing. Thus, in
Ezek. xiv:i4-20 are mentioned 'three men, Noah,
Daniel, and Job,' as examples of righteousness.
Mr. Bernstein, indeed, in defending his hypothesis,
rejects this passage as spurious, but it bears every
mark of genuineness. Further, in Jer. xx:l4, we
find evidently imitated Job's cursing of the day of
his birth (Job iii). Not only the sentiments
but the words are often the same ; and that this
coincidence is not accidental, or that the author
did not imitate Jeremiah, appears from the liter-
ary character of each. Jeremiah shows himself
throughout dependent on ancient writings, whereas
our author is quite original and independent, as
proved by Kiiper (see Jeremias librorum sacro-
rum iiitcrfrcs afaque vindex, p. 164. sq.). There
are also in the Lamentations of Jeremiah, many
passages clearly alluding to our book, which must
have eminently suited his taste and interested him
(comp. Job xvi :9, 10, with Lam. ii:i6; and Job
xix :8, with Lam. iii 7, 9). In Isaiah the peculiar
use of X3a(xl:2) refers us to^^^-, kek'fel, double,
in Job i (conip. x:l7; xiv:l4); and the double
received from God's hand alludes to the end of the
history of Job, who is there considered as typify-
ing the future fate of the church. Is. Ixi 7, Tn
their land they shall have the double,' alludes to
the same point; Isaiah li :9 depends on Job xxvi:
13; and Isaiah xix :5 almost literally agrees with
Job xiv:ii (see Kiiper, p. 166). Another ex-
ample of words borrowed from Job occurs in
Ps. cvii 142, where the second part of the verse
agrees literally with Job v:i6.
A most decisive reason against assigning the
composition of Job to the period of the exile is
derived from the language, since it is free from
those Chaldaisms which occur in the books writ-
ten about that time.
To the view which places the age of the book of
Job in the time of the Babylonian e.xile, is most
opposed that which assigns the composition of it
tn a period prior to Moses. In support of this
latter view, only two arguments having a sem-
blance of force can be adduced, and they will not
bear the test of strict inquiry. They are: (l)
'There is in the book of Job no direct reference to
the Mosaic legislation ; and its descriptions and
other statements are suited to the period of the
patriarchs; as, for instance, the great authority
held by old men, the high age of Job. and fathers
offering sacrifices for their families — which leads
to the supposition that when our book was written
no sacerdotal order yet existed.' These points.
however, are quite intelligible, if the design of the
book, as stated above, is kept in view. The au-
thor intended not to rest the decision of the ques-
tion at issue on particular passages of Scripture,
but_ on religious consciousness and experience.
This at once explains why he places the scene
without Palestine, why he places it in the pa-
triarchal age, and why he avoids the use of the
name Jehovah ; of these three items the first suffi-
ciently accounts for no reference being made to
the Mosaic legislation. (2) 'The language of the
book of Job seems strongly to support the opinion
of its having been written before Moses.' It has
been often said, that no writing of the Old Testa-
ment may be more frequently illustrated from the
Arabic than this book. Jerome observes (Prafnt.
ill Dan.), 'Jobuin cum Arabica lingua plurimam
habere societatem ;' and Schultens proved this so
incontrovertibly that Gesenius was rather too late
in denying the fact (see his Geschichte der He-
braischen Sprache, p. 3^). Now, from this char-
acter of its language we might be induced to in-
fer that the work was written in the remotest
times, when the separation of the dialects had only
begun, but had not yet been completed. This in-
ference would, however, be safe only if the book
were written in prose. It is solely from works of
this class that the general usage of the language
prevailing at the time of the author can be seen.
On the contrary, the selection of obsolete and
rare words and forms, with the Hebrews, was a
peculiar feature of the poetical style, and served
to distinguish it from the usual, habitual way of
writing. This peculiarity belongs to our book
more than to any other.
The most complete statement of the reasons in
support of the opinion that the book of Job was
written after the age of Moses may be found in
Richter's essay, De ^tate Jobi definienda, re-
printed in Rosenmiiller's edition of Lowth's Pra-
lectiones De Poesi Sacra Hebrceorum; in which
he maintains that it was written in the age of
Sol«mon. Most of these reasons, indeed, are
either not conclusive at all, or not quite cogent.
Thus it is an arbitrary assumption, proved by
modern- researches to be erroneous, that the art
of writing was unknown previous to the age of
Moses. The assertion, too, that the marks of
cultivation and refinement observable in our book
belonged to a later age, rests on no historical
ground. Further, it cannot be said that for such
an early time the language is too smooth and
neat, since in no Semitic dialect is it possible to
trace a progressive improvement. The evident cor-
respondence also between our book and the Prov-
erbs and Psalms is not a point proRfing with re-
sistless force that they were all written at the
same time. It is, indeed, sometimes of such a
kind, that the authors of the Proverbs and Psalms
cannot be exactly said to have copied our book ;
but it may be accounted for by their all belonging
to the same class of writings, by the very great
^miformity and accordance of religious conceptions
and sentiments expressed in the Old Testament,
and by the stability of its religious character.
Summing up the whole of our investigations.
we take it to be a settled point that the book of
Job does not belong to the time of the Baby-
lonian e.xile ; and it is nearly equally certain
that it was not composed prior to the time of
Moses. Could it then have been written in some
age preceding Samuel and David? It is only
with them that a new period of sacred literature
began ; and our book is related to products of that
period, or enlarges on them. But it cannot have
been composed later than Isaiah, who alludes to
it. Thus we come to this general determination
of the age of our book, that it was written, not
before Sarnuel and David, but not later than the
era of Isaiah. With this result we must rest sat-
isfied, unless we would go beyond the indications
presented. The intermediate period offers no
ground on which we can safely fix the composi-
tion of the book of Job. There remains then un-
certainty, but_ it does not concern an important
point of religion.
JOB'S DISEASE
987
JOEL
5. Literature, E. W. H. Fry's New Transla-
tion and Exposition, 1827; Lange, Das Buck Hiob,
183 1 ; Knobel, De Carminis J obi, 1835; Ewald,
Das Buck Hiob er/k/iir/, 1836 ; Fackens, Comment,
dc Jobeide, 1836; Lee's Book of Job, 1837;
Wemyss, Job and his Times, 1839. Jennings' Epic
of the Inner Life is one of the latest and best ex-
positions of this ancient poem; Vaihinger, Erkiu-
ter., 1842 ; Noyes, Notes, Boston, 1852, 1854 ;
Hengstenberg, fiiob, 1856, 1870; Cheyne, Job
and Solomon, 1887; Bradley, Lectures on Job.
1887; R. A. Watson in Expositor's Bible, 1892;
also Rawlinson in Public Commentary, 1891. The
section on the book of Job found in each of the
chief Introductions to the O. T. should, of course.
be consulted. The following may be mentioned as
representative: Bleek (6th ed. by Wellhausen,
1893), Riehm (ed. Brandt, 1889), Driver (6th ed.
1897), and Cornill (3d and 4th ed. 1896) ; VVag-
ner. Sermons; Davidson, Commentary, vol. i; The
Drama of Job, Rev. Chas. H. Dickinson, Bib. Sac,
Jan., 1900, p. 68, sg.
There is, perhaps, no book of Scripture of which
so many versions and commentaries have been
published as Job, or respecting which a greater
number of treatises and dissertations have been
written. The above are only notable examples.
E. W. H.
JOB'S DISEASE (job's diz-5z').
In this, as in most other Biblical diseases, there
is too little distinct description of symptoms to
enable us to determine the precise malady in-
tended. But the general character of the com-
plaint under which Job suffered bears a greater
resemblance to elephantiasis than to any other
disease. (See Leprosy.) The passages which are
considered to indicate this disease are found in
the description of his skin burning from head to
foot, so that he took a potsherd to scrape himself
(ii:7, 8); in its being covered with putrefaction
and crusts of earth, and being at one time stiff
and hard, while at another it cracked and dis-
charged fluid (vii:s); in the offensive breath
which drove away the kindness of attendants
(xix:l7) ; in the restless nights, which were either
sleepless or scared with frightful dreams (vii:i3,
14; XXX :i7) ; in general emaciation (xvi:8) ; and
in so intense a loathing of the burden of life that
strangling and death were preferable to it (vii :
IS). , W. A. N.
JOBAB (jo'bSb), (Heb. 22*"', yo-bawb' , howling,
shouting, trumpet call, a desert).
1. The last of the sons of Joktan (Gen. x:29;
I Chron. i:23). He has not left his name among
the places of Southern Arabia, along with the
other sons of Joktan, as far as has been discov-
ered.
2. One of the kings of Edom (Gen. xxxvi :33,
34; I Chron. i :44, 45). He was the son of Zerah
of Bozrah, and second king on the list.
3. One of the northern chiefs who was routed
by Joshua at Meron (Josh. xi:i), B. C. probably
before 1210.
4. A Benjamite, and head of a house, the first-
named of the sons of Shaharim by his wife Ho-
desh (i Chron. viiiig).
5. A "son" of Elpaal, a chief of Benjamin at
Jerusalem (i Chron. viii:i8), B. C. about 588.
JOCHEBED (j6k'e-bgd), (Heb. "'??^'', yo-keh'bed,
God-glorified).
Wife of Amram and mother of Miriam, Moses
and Aaron. In Exod. vi :20. Jochebed is expressly
declared to have been the sister of Amram's
father, and consequently the aunt of her husband.
As marriage between persons thus related was
afterwards forbidden by the law (Lev. xviii:l2),
various attempts have been made to show that the
relationship was more distant than the text in its
literal meaning indicates. We see no necessity
for this. The example of Abraham (Gen. xx:l2)
shows the usage of the earlier age. Further it is
stated (Exod. ii:i; Num. xx\'i 159) that Jochebed
was the daughter of Levi, and therefore sister of
Kohath, Amram's father.
JOED (jo'ed), (Heb. ■'?",>'<7-a(/^', Jehovah his
witness), a Benjamite, son of Pedaiah (Neh. xi;7)
and grandson of Sallu, which last was a Benjamite
living at Jerusalem after the captivity (B. C. be-
fore 536).
JOEL (jo'el), (Heb. ^^'^, yo-ale' , Jehovah his
God).
1. The Son of PethueL a person otherwise
unknown to us, prophesied in Judah, probably in
Jerusalem (see Joel, Hebrew Version, i:i4; ii:i,
15; English Version, ii:32; iiia, 2, 6, 7, 16, 17,
20, 21 — to some of which texts Bleek, p. 525, adds
i :9, 13, 16; ii:9, 17). "Nothing is known of the
circumstances of his life. There is a controversy
even as to the age in which he lived. But in any
case he belonged to the most ancient of the minor
prophets, not to the later portion of them. Now,
as Amos not only opens his prophecy with an
utterance of Joel's (comp. Amos i :2 with Joel iii :
16), but also concludes with promises similar to
those in Joel (comp. Amos ix 113 with Joel iii :i8),
Joel must have prophesied before Amos ; that is,
before the twenty-seven years during which Uz-
ziah and Jeroboam II reigned contemporaneously
(apparently a slip of the pen, for the "the twenty-
seventh year of Jeroboam, in which Azariah or
Uzziah began to reign," 2 Kings xv:i). We are
led to assign a still higher antiquity to the proph-
ecies of Joel by the political relations which
come into view in them ; since neither the Syrians
nor the Assyrians had shown themselves hostile
to the theocracy, but only the Phccnicians and
the Philistines (iii:4), the Egyptians and the
Edomites (iii:i9). On the one hand, again, there
is no mention of the attack upon Jerusalem by the
Syrians under Hazael of Damascus, which cost
Joash not only the treasures of the palace and of
the temple, but also his life (2 Kings xii:i8, sq.;
2 Chron. xxiv:23, sq.; yet for this Amos (i:3-5)
prophesies the ruin of the Syrian kingdom, and
the carrying away of the people to Assyria. On
the other hand, there are the two circumstances,
that the Edomites were already punished and
brought anew into subjection by Amaziah (2
Kings xiv:7), on account of their revolt from
Joram, and that the Philistines had to endure
the same at the hands of Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi :
6, /), on account of what they had done in the
sa.ne reign, plundering Jerusalem and carrying
away the captive Jews (2 Chron. xxi:i6, 17;
comp. with Joel iii:4-6). For these two reasons
we are justified in concluding that Joel prophesied
between Joram's reign and the last years of
King Joash. Credner and Winer place him in
the time of Joash ; Bertholdt, in that of Heze-
kiah ; Cramer and Eckevniaun. in Josiah's reign;
Jahn, in Manasseh's, and Schroder still later.
2. The Boolt 0/ Joel. (1) Occasion. The
occasion of the prophecy of Joel was an entire
desolaition of Judah by an unheard-of plague of
locusts, accompanied by a burning drought, which
lasted for several years (ii:25). A calamity of
this kind was not uncommon in Palestine, and, in
ordinary circumstances, would not be made a
subject of prophetic discourse. But the visitation
described by Joel was exceptionally severe. Sue-
JOEL
968
JOEL
cessive swarms of locusts swept over the country
(1:4), and their devastations went on for years
(ii:25). The produce of the fields, vineyards
and orchards was destroyed (i:io-i2). Food
failed for man and beast (i:io-l2, 16, 17, 18-20).
The daily offering to Jehovah was suspended from
lack of the necessary materials (i:9, 13; ii:i4).
This was equivalent to an interruption of the
covenant relation between Jehovah and his peo-
ple. A calamity which led to such a result was
a very serious one. No prophet would have been
faithful to his mission as watchman of Israel if he
had failed to warn the people of the danger with
which such a visitation threatened them. Joel
saw in the locust invasion a special judgment
from Jehovah, and used it as a text for one of
the most interesting and instructive discourses
contained in the prophetical books of the Old
Testament.
(2) Contents. The book consists' of three
chapters. (The Hebrew text has four chapters,
the last five verses of ch. ii in A. V. forming
ch. iii in the Massoretic Text. It divides itself
easily into two parts, in the first of which the
prophet, and in the second Jehovah, is the
speaker. The Jirst half of it (i:2-ii:i8) con-
tains a call to repentance, urged by the prophet
with ever-increasing urgency in the midst of the
fearful plague on the land, which had been already
threatened in the Law (Deut. xxiii 138, 30) against
the transgressors as a punishment from God. The
second half (ii :i9-iv :2i) contains the Divine
promise, not only of the removal of this judgment,
and of the judgment upon all nations hostile to
the theocracy, but also of the glorification of the
theocracy, through the bestowal of the richest
natural blessings, and through the outpouring of
the Spirit of God upon all flesh. The two halves
are closely bound together into one whole by the
historical remark which stands between them (ii:
ig), "And Jehovah answered, and said unto his
people." Accordingly, the prediction of the future
does not begin till ii:ig (though the translation in
the English version seems quite defensible.
(3) Interpretation. The interpretation of the
prophecy depends on the view taken of the locusts.
Many of the early Fathers explained the locusts
figuratively, following the Qialdee, Ephrem Syrus,
Jerome and others. (Bleek, p. 526-7, names also
Cyril of Alexandria, Abarbanel, Luther, Grotius
and Bertholdt.)
In recent times this view has been supported
in his usual fearless fashion by Hengstenberg
(Christ, of O. T., Eng. tr., i :2g6, sq.). According
to this view, the prophecy refers to future events,
and the locusts, in cc. i and ii, represent the
world-powers opposed to the Church — such as
Jehovah judges on his great day (iii:l, 2; comp.
Heb. iv:i2).
^ So Dr. Hengstenberg, while strongly averse
W to the literal sense, is not disposed to limit the
metaphorical meaning to any one event or class
of invaders. 'The enemy,' he remarks, 'are desig-
nated only as north countries. From the north,
however, from Syria, all the principal invasions of
Palestine proceeded. We have therefore no rea-
son to think exclusively of any one of them. Nor
ought we to limit the prophecy to the people of
the old covenant. Throughout all centuries there
is but one church of God existing in unbroken
connection. That this church, during the first
period of its existence, was concentrated in a land
into which hostile irruptions were made from the
north, was purely accidental. To make this cir-
cumstance the boundary-stone of the fulfillment
of erofiliecy were just as absurd as if one were
to assert that the threatening of Amos, "by the
sword shall all sinners of my people die," has not
been fulfilled in those who perished after another
manner.
What may be regarded as a modification of
the ancient opinion of its purely figurative charac-
ter has been recently proposed. According to this
view the locusts are Apocalyptic — creatures of a
supernatural kind, such as may fitly find a place
in a vision of the last things, with which the
book of Joel closes (comp. the locusts in N. T.
Apocalypse).
The third and, in recent times, the most gener-
ally accepted opinion is that the locusts are real.
The prophet describes an actual locust invasion
and makes it the occasion of his prophecy.
Keil, Intr. to O. T., voicing this opinion, says:
"The prophet does not foretell some future mis-
fortune and some judgment still impending over
the theocracy at the hands of armies of hostile
nations, under the allegorical veil of a swarm
of locusts laying the land waste; but he depicts
a present judgment already come, the abiding
frightful plague of locusts laying everything wast6",
in which he beholds the forerunners of the day
of Jehovah which is near (i:iS; ii:i, 2), though
it may still be averted by thoroughgoing repent-
ance (i:i3, 14; ii:l, 12, 13, 15, sq.)"
(4) Doctrine. The prophet, after describing
the approaching judgments, calls on his country-
men to repent, assuring them of the Divine placa-
bility and readiness to forgive (ii:i2-i7). He
foretells the restoration of the land to its former
fertility, and declares that Jehovah would still be
their God (ii .18-26). He then announces the
spiritual blessings which would be poured forth in
the Messianic age (iii:i-S, Heb. text; ii :28-32,
Auth. Vers.). This remarkable prediction is ap-
plied by the Apostle Peter to the events that tran-
spired on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii:i6-2i).
In the last chapter (iv Heb. text; iii Auth. Vers.),
the Divine vengeance is denounced against the
enemies and oppressors of the chosen people, of
whom the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Edomites
are especially named. A minute examination of
these predictions would exceed our limits; we
must refer the reader for further information to
the works named at the close of this article.
(5) Style and Canonlcity. The style of Joel,
it has been remarked, unites the strength of Micah
with the tenderness of Jeremiah. In vividness of
description he rivals Nahum, and in sublimity and
majesty is scarcely inferior to Isaiah and Habak-
kuk. 'Imprimis est clegans. clarus, ftisus. fliiciis-
que ; valdc ctiam sublimis, accr, fervidus' (Lowth,
Dc Sacra Pocsi Hcbr. Pr^l. xxi).
The canonicity of this book has never been
called in question (Keil, Int. to O. T.; C. G.
Cameron in Hastings' Bib. Diet.).
(6) Literature. A Paraphrase and Critical
Commentary on the Prophecy of Joel, by Sanuicl
Chandler, London, 1745; Die IVeissagung des
Propheten Joel, ilbersetzt tind erklart, von F. A.
Holzhausen, Gottingen. 1829; Characteristik dcr
Bibel, von Dr. A. H. Niemeyer, Halle, 1831. vol. v,
pp. 295-302 ; Dr. Hengstenberg's Christology of
the Old Testament, etc., transl. by Dr. R. Keith,
Washington, 1839, vol. iii. pp. 100- 141 ; Pusey,
Minor Prophets, i860; W. R. Smith, art. Joel in
9th ed. of Enc. Brit.; Farrar, Minor Prophets,
113 ^17.; Ewald. Propliets, Eng. tr. i, 107 sq.; Reuss
At. ii, 47 sq.; Nowack, Kl.'Proph., 1897; G. A.
Smith, Twelve Prophets, vol. ii, 1898; Cheyne,
Pounders of O. T. Crit., 312; A. B. Davidson in
Expositor, March, 1888; Gray, Expositor, Sept.,
1893-
JOELAH
969
JOHN
3. Joel, the Son of the Prophet Samael
(I Sam. viii:2; l Chron. vi:33; xvii;). With his
brother Abiah he was made judge of Bcersheba,
when old age prevented their father from longer
making his circuit ; but they were corrupt and
their judgments disgraced both them and their
father. It was this conduct that brought about
the change of the constitution of Israel to a mon-
archy. In I Chron. vi 128 Vashni. mentioned with
Abiah, has been substituted for Joel ( B. C. 1030).
4. Joel, son of Azariah or Uzziah (i Chron.
vi:36). The name, however, is supposed to be a
corruption of Shaul (ver. 24).
5. The head of one of the Simeonite families,
who joined the expedition against the Hamites in
the time of Hezekiah (i Chron. iv:35), B. C.
715.
6. A descendant of Reuben, but whether through
Hanoch or Carmi is a disputed point (Burrington,
Gencal. i :53 ; i Chron. v :4. 8).
7. A Gadite chief of Bashan (i Chron. v:i2),
B. C. about 1000.
8. Son of Izrahiah of the tribe of Issachar, and
one of David's military officers (i Chron. vii:3),
B. C. about 1000.
9. Brother of Nathan and a member of David's
guard (i Chron. xi:38). In 2 Sam. xxiii 136 the
name Igal is substituted (B. C. about 1000).
to. Chief of the Gershonites, who brought up
the ark from the house of Obed-edom in the reign
of David (i Chron. x\:y, 11).
I/. A Gershonite Levite, son of Jehiel (i
Chron. xxvi:22), having charge of the treasures
of the Temple under David. Probably the same
as Joel, 9.
12. Son of Pedaiah and chief of the half-tribe
of_ Manasseh on the west of the Jordan in the
reign of David (I Chron. xxvii:2o), B. C. about
1000.
13. A Kohathite Levite, one of the two rep-
resentatives of his tribe in the ceremonies preced-
ing the restoration of the Temple in the time of
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix:i2), B. C. 719.
14. "Son" of Nebo and one of those returning
with Ezra, who had taken a foreign wife (Ezra
x:43), B. C. 456.
15. A Benjamite. son of Zichri, commanding
Judah and his own tribe at Jerusalem after the
return from Babylon (Neh. xi:9).
JOELAH (jo-e'lah), (Heb. ^^i^t^", yo-ay-law'.
furthermore), son of Jeroham, of Gedor, who came
to David at Ziklag (i Chron xii:7), B.C. before
1000.
JOEZER (jo-e'zer), (Heb. 1?'', yo-ek'zer, Jeho-
vah his help), a Korhite captain, who fought by
David while he dwelt among the Philistines (l
Chron. xii;6), B. C. before 1000.
JOGBEHAH (jog'be-hah), (Heb. ^^'W„yog-bek-
^(774/', hillock), one of the "fenced cities' rebuilt
by the tribe of Gad when they took possession of
their territory east of the Jordan (Num. xxxii:35).
It is mentioned in the account of Gideon's vic-
tory over the Midianites (Judg. viii:ii). No
trace of the place has been found ; but it could not
have been far from the Jordan, judging from the
places with which it is associated.
JOOH (jSg'li), (Heb. ^r?;, yog-lee, exiled), of
Bukki, a Danite chief (Num. xxxiv:22), B. C.
1 170.
JOHA (jo'ha), (Heb. **'?'*■', yo-khaw' , probably,
Jehovah lives).
1- A son of Beriah. a Benjamite chief, dwell-
ing in Aijalon, who had driven out the inhabitants
of Gath (i Chron. viii:i6). Perhaps the same en-
counter is referred to in viii:i3, and i Chron. vii:
21 (B. C. about 588).
2. A Tizite, and, according to Kennicott, son
of Shimri. He was one of David's guard (l
Chron. xi:4s), B. C. 1000.
JOHANAN (jo-ha'nan), (Heb. ^J'7''^ yo-khaw-
naiun' , God-bestowed).
1. One of the officers who came and recognized
Gedaliah as governor of Judaea after the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, and who appears to have been
the chief in authority and influence among them.
He penetrated the designs of Ishmael against the
governor, whom he endeavored, without success,
to put upon his guard. When Ishmael had ac-
complished his design by the murder of Gedaliah,
and was carrying away the principal persons at
the seat of government as captives to the Am-
monites, Johanan pursued him and released them.
Being fearful, however, that the Chaldaeans might
misunderstand the affair, and make him and those
who were with him responsible for it, he resolved
to withdraw for safety into Egypt, with the prin-
cipal persons of the remnant left in the land.
Jeremiah remonstrated against this decision; but
Johanan would not be moved, and even con-
strained the prophet himself to go with them.
They proceeded to Taphanes, but nothing further
is recorded of Johanan, B. C. 588 (2 Kings xxv:
23; Jer. xl:8-i6; xli ; xlii; xliii).
2. Son of Azariah. and grandson of Ahimaaz
(i Chron. vi :9, 10). He was high-priest, probably,
in the reign of Rehoboam (Hervey, Gencal.
ch. x).
3. Son of Elioenai in the line of Zerubbabel's
heirs (l Chron. iii:24), B. C. after 400.
4. Eldest son of King Josiah (l Chron. iii:is).
He must have previously died or fallen with Jo-
siah at Megiddo (B. C. after 639).
5. A Benjamite captain, who joined David at
Ziklag (i Chron. xii:4), B. C. 1000.
6. The eighth of the "lion faced" warriors of
Gad who joined David (i Chron. xii:l2), B. C
1000.
■''• Father of Azariah, a head of the Ephraim-
ites in the time of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii:i2), B.
C. about 735.
8. Son of Hakkatan, and chief of the sons of
Azgad, who came back with Ezra (Ezra viii:i2).
B. C. about 457.
9. Son of Eliashib (Neh. xii:23). To his
chamber Ezra retired and mourned over the sins
of the people who had been carried away (Ezra
X :6).
10. Son of Tobiah, the Ammonite, who mar-
ried the daughter of the priest Meshullam (Neh.
vi :i8), B. C. 445.
JOHN (jon), (Gr. 'Idiiviqit, ee-o-ati'nace, from He-
brew Jehohanan, Jehovah favored).
1. A member of the family of the high-priest.
He, with Caiaphas and Annas, heard the case
brought against Peter and John for curing the
lame man and preaching in the temple (Acts iv:6).
Lightfoot {Cent. Chor. Matth. praf. ch. 15) iden-
tifies him with R. Johanan ben Zaccai, president of
the great synagogue after its removal to Jabne.
2. Hebrew name for Mark. In Acts xii:i2,
25; xiii:s, 13; xv.37. he is designated by the
name under which he was known among his
countrymen. (See Mark.)
3. The .\postle John, who was the son of
Zebedee. a fisherman, and of Salome. It is prob-
able that he was born at Bethsaida. on the lake
of Galilee. His parents appear to have been in
easy circumstances ; at least, we find that Zebedee
JOHN
970
JOHN
employed hired servants (Mark i:20), and thai
Salome was among the number of those women
who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus
(Matt. xxvii:56).
The Apo<;tle Jolin.
(1) Belonged to Wealthy Class. We also
find that John received Mary into his house after
the death of Jesus. Since this house seems to
have been situated at Jerusalem ("from that
hour," John xix:27), it would appear that he was
the owner of two houses. John's acquaintance,
also, with the high-priest (xviii:l5) seems to
indicate that he lived at Jerusalem, and belonged
to the wealthier class.
(2) Religiously Inclined. We may suppose
that from a tender age he nourished religious feel-
ings, since Salome, who evinced so much love
for Jesus, probably fostered at an earlier period
those hopes of a Messiah which she expresses in
Matt. xx:2o; and we find that he entered into
communion with the Baptist from pure motives.
The occupation, also, of a fisherman was adapted
to promote holy meditations, since it would {'■e-
quently lead him to pass whole nights in still-
ness upon the water, amid a charming country
similar to the environs of the lake of Maggiore.
(3) Called by John the Baptist. On the
banks of the Jordan the Baptist directed John to
Jesus, and he immediately became the Lord's dis-
ciple, and accompanied him on his return to
Galilee. Having arrived there, he at first resumed
his trade, but was afterwards called to remain
permanently with the Redeemer (Luke v:S-lo).
Jesus was particularly attached to John (John
xiii :23 : xix:26; xx :2 , xxi.7), who was one of
the three who were distinguished above the other
Apostles (Matt, xvii;l; xxvi:37; Mark v.Jj).
(4) Apostleship. After the ascension, John
abode at Jerusalem, where Paul met him on his
third journey, about the year 52 (Gal. ii:3o).
Since he had undertaken the care of the mother
rvf Jesnc we cannot well suppose that he left
Jerusalem before Marys death; and, indeed, we
find that about the year 58, when Paul was at
Ephesub, John was not living there yet. If we
consider the great importance of Ephesus among
the various churches of Asia Minor, and the
dangers arising from false teachers, who were
prevalent there as early as the days of Paul (Acts
XX 129), it will appear likely that John was sent
to Ephesus after Paul had left that scene, about
the year 65. During the time of his activity
in Asia Minor he was exiled by the Roman em-
peror to Patmos, one of the sporadic isles in the
yEgean Sea, where, according to Revelations i :9,
he wrote the Apocalypse. Irenaeus (Adv. Har.
V. 30) and. following him, Eusebius {Hist. Ec-
cles. iii:i8) state that John beheld the visions of
the Apocalypse about the close of the reign of
Domitian.
(5) Exile to Patmos. If this statement can
be depended upon, the exile to Patmos also took
place under Domitian, who died A. D. 96. Ter-
tuUian {PrcBScr. adv. Har. c. 30) relates that in
the reign of Domitian, John was forcibly conveyed
to Rome, where he was thrown into a cask of oil;
that he was miraculously released, and then
brought to Patmos. But since none of the an-
cient writers besides the rather undiscriminatmg
TertuUian, relate this circumstance, and since this
mode of capital punishment was unheard of at
Rome, we ought not to lay much stress upon it
(compare Mosheim, Dissertationes ad Historiam
Ecclesiasticam, i, p. 497, sq.). It is, however,
likely that John was called to suffer for his faith,
since Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, writing about
A. D. 200, calls him naprvs (martyr) (Euseo.
Reputed Tomb of Si John.
Hist. Eccles. V. 24). According to Eusebius
(Hist. Eccles. iii :20, 23), he returned from exile
during the reign of Nerva.
(6) Epistles. The three epistles of John, as
also the affecting account concerning his fidelity
JOHN THE BAPTIST
971
JOHN THE BAPTIST
as a spiritual pastor, given by Clemens Alexan-
drinus (Quis Dives Salvusf ch. 52), testify that
he was the pastor of a large diocese. John's
second epistle, verse 12, and third epistle, verse
14, indicate that he made journeys of pastxjral
visitation.
(7) Death. John died at Ephesus past the
age of ninety, in the reign of the Emperor Trajan.
According to Jerome, he was a hundred years old,
and according to Suidas, a hundred and twenty.
Jerome (Comm. ad Gal. iii, p. 314, mart.) re-
lates that when John had attained a great age he
was so feeble that he could not walk to the as-
semblies of the church ; he, therefore, caused him-
self to be carried in by young men. He was
no longer able to say much, but he constantly
repeated the words, 'Little children, love one an-
other.' On being asked why he constantly re-
peated this one saying, he replied: 'Because it
is the command of the Lord ; and enough is done
if this is done.' (French, Life and Character of
John the Evangelist ; Stanley, Sermons and Es-
says on the Apost. Age,\y.)
JOHN THE BAPTIST (Gr.'Iudi'nijo BairT«rTi)5,
ee-o-an'ace ho bap-tis-taci, John the baptizer), the
forerunner of Jesus Christ, or simply '\ijii.vin\%,
fohn, when the reference is clear, as m Matt. iii:4;
iv;i2; Lat. Joannes, Tacit. Hist. v:i2.
(1) Birth and Early Life. His parents were
Zacharias and Elisabeth, the latter a cousin of
Mary, the mother of Jesus, whose senior John was
by a period of six months (Luke i). According to
the account contained in the first chapter of Luke
his father while engaged in burning incense, was
visited by the angel Gabriel, who informed him
that in compliance with his prayers his wife should
bear a son. whose name he should call John — in
allusion to the grace thus accorded. Zacharias is
slow to believe these tidings and seeks some token
in evidence of their truth. Accordingly, a sign is
given which acts also as a punishment of his want
of faith — his tongue is sealed till the prediction
is fulfilled by the event. Six months after Elisa-
beth had conceived she received a visit from Mary,
the future mother of Jesus. On being saluted by
her relation, Elisabeth felt her babe leap in her
womb, and, being hlled with the Holy Spirit, she
broke forth into a poetic congratulation to Mary,
as the destined mother of her Lord. At lengtli
Elisabeth brought forth a son, whom the relatives
were disposed to name Zacharias, after his father
— but Elisabeth was in some way led to wish that
he should be called John. The matter was re-
ferred to the father, who signified in writing that
his name was to be John. This agreement with
Elisabeth caused all to marvel. Zacharias now
had his tongue loosed, and he first employed his
restored power in praising God.
The parents of John were not only of a priestly
order, but righteous and devout. Their influence,
in consequence, in the training of their son, would
not only be benign but suitable to the holy office
which he was designed to fill. More than this —
the special aids of God's Spirit were with him
(Luke i:66). How thoroughly Zacharias was
penetrated with his parental responsibility and the
future dignity of his son. appears from the 'divine
song' to which he gives utterance. As a conse-
quence of the lofty influences under which he
was nurtured, the child waxed strong in spirit.
The sacred writer adds that 'he was in the deserts
till the day of his showing unto Israel' (Luke
i:8o).
(2) Beginning of Ministry. In the fifteenth
year of the Emperor Tiberius. John made his
public appearance, exhibiting the austerity, the
costume, and the manner of life of the ancient
Jewish prophets (Luke iii; Matt. iv). His rai-
ment was camel's hair ; he wore a plain leathern
girdle about his loins; his food was what the
desert spontaneously offered — locusts and wild
honey from the rock. The burden of John's
preaching bore no slight resemblance to the old
prophetic exhortations, whose last echo had now
died away for centuries. He called upon the
Jewish people to repent (/«Ta»o«r7-«), to change
their minds, their dispositions and affections, and
thus prepared the way for the great doctrine pro-
mulgated by his Lord, of the necessity of a spirit-
ual regeneration. That the change which John had
in view was by no means of so great or so ele-
vated a kind as that which Jesus required, is very
probable; but the particulars into which he enters
when he proceeds to address classes or individuals
(Matt, iii 7, sq., Luke iii 7, sq.), serve fully to
show that the renovation at which he aimed was
not merely of a material or organic, but chiefly of
a moral nature. In a very emphatic manner did
he \yarn the ecclesiastical and philosophical au-
thorities of the land of the necessity under which
they lay of an entire change of view, of aim, and
of desire, declaring in explicit and awful terms
that their pride of nationality would avail them
nothing against the coming wrathful visitation, and
that they were utterly mistaken in the notion that
Divine providence had any need of them for com-
pleting its own wise purposes (Luke iii :8, 9). The
first reason assigned by John for entering on his
most weighty and perilous oflice was announced in
these words — 'the kingdom of heaven is at hand.'
It was his great work to prepare the mind of the
nation, so that when Jesus himself came they
might be a people made ready for the Lord. "The
reference which we have made to John's addresses
to his auditors suffices to show that there was an
ample and predominant moral element in his con-
ception of this kingdom; and indeed the whole
tenor of his teaching seems to our mind intended
and fitted to refine, exalt, and expand the ordinary
Jewish mind and so to prepare the way for the
perfect day of Christ.
The doctrine and manner of life of John appear
to have roused the entire of the south of Palestine,
and people flocked from all parts to the spot
where, on the banks of the Jordan, he baptized
thousands unto repentance. Such, indeed, was
the fame which he had gained, that 'people were
in expectation, and all men mused in their hearts
of John, whether he were the Christ or not' (Luke
iii :i5). Had he chosen, John might without doubt
have assumed to himself the higher oflSce, and
risen to great worldly power. But he was faithful
to his trust, and never failed to declare it in the
fullest and clearest manner, that he was not the
Christ but merely his harbinger, and that the sole
work he had to do was to usher in "the day-
spring from on high."
(3) Meeting with Jesus. The more than pro-
phetic fame of the Baptist reached the ears of
Jesus in his Nazarene dwelling, far distant from
the locality of John (Matt, ii :9, 11). The nature
of the report— namely, that his divinely predicted
forerunner had appeared in Judaea — showed our
Lord that the time was now come for his being
made manifest to Israel. Accordingly he comes to
the place where John is. to be baptized of him, in
order that thus he might fulfill all that was re-
quired under the dispensation which was about to
disappear (Matt, iii :I4). John's sense of inferior-
ity inclines him to ask rather than to give baptism
in the case of Jesus, who. however, wills to have
it otherwise, and is accordingly baptized of John.
JOHN THE BAPTIST
972
JOHN, GOSPEL OF
Immediately upon the termination of this sym-
bolical act, a divine attestation is given from the
opened vault of heaven, declaring Jesus to be in
truth the long looked-for Messiah — 'This is my
beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased' (Matt.
iii:i7). The events which are found recorded in
John i:ip, sq., seem to have happened after the
baptism of Jesus by John. This appears to us to
be implied in the past character of the narrative.
John is obviously speaking of something over and
gone ; for instance, "This is he of whom I said
(not I say), 'after me cometh a man,' " etc.
The relation which subsisted between John and
Jesus, after the emphatic testimony above re-
corded had been borne, we have not the materials
to describe with full certainty.
It seems but natural to think, when their hith-
erto relative position is taken into account, that
John would forthwith lay down his office of har-
binger, which, now that the Sun of Righteousness
himself had appeared, was entirely fulfilled and
terminated. Such a step he does not appear to
have taken. On the contrary, the language of
Scripture seems to imply that the Baptist church
contmued side by side with the Messianic (Matt.
xi:2; Luke viing; Matt. ix:i4; Luke xi:i; Acts
xviii:25), and remained long after John's execu-
tion (Acts xix:3). Indeed, a sect which bears the
name of 'John's disciples' exists to the present day
in the East, whose sacred books are said to be
pervaded by a Gnostic leaven.
(4) Subsequent Ministry. Still, though it has
been generally assumed that John did not lay down
his office, we are not satisfied that the New Testa-
ment establishes this alleged fact. John may have
ceased to execute his own peculiar work, as the
forerunner, but may justifiably have continued to
bear his most important testimony to the Messiah-
ship of Christ ; or he may even have altogether
given up the duties of active life some time, at
least, before his death ; and yet his disciples, both
before and after that event, may have maintained
their individuality as a religious communion. It
was, not improbably, with a view to remove some
error of this kind that John sent the embassy of
his disciples to Jesus, which is recorded in Matt.
xi:3; Luke viing. The spiritual course which the
teachings of Jesus were more and more taking,
and the apparent failure or at least uneasy post-
ponement of the promised kingdom in the popular
sense, especially the fact that their esteemed mas-
ter lay in prison, and was in imminent danger of
losing his life, may well have led John's disciples
to doubt if Jesus were in truth the expected Mes-
siah. Appearances, to them, were purely adverse.
What step so fit on the part of their master, as
that he should send them to Jesus himself? No
intimation is found in the record that John re-
quired evidence to give him satisfaction; and all
the language that is used is proper and pertinent
if we suppose that the doubt lay only in the minds
of his disciples. That the terms employed admit
the interpretation that John was not without some
misgivings (Luke vii :23 ; Matt. xi:6), we are free
to allow. And if any doubt had grown up in the
Baptist's mind it was most probably owing to the
defective spirituality of his views ; for even of him
Jesus has declared, 'h» that is least in the kingdom
of heaven is greater than he' (Matt. xi:ii). Were
this the case it would of itself account not only for
the embassy sent by John to Jesus, but also
for the continuance and perpetuation of John's
sf-parate influence as the founder of a sect.
(5) Imprisonment and Death. The manner
of John's death is too well known to require to
be detailed here (Matt. iv:i2; xiv:3; J^uke iii:i9;
Mark vi:i7; Joseph. Antiq. xviii, s, 2). He re-
proved a tyrant for a heinous crime, and received
his reward in decapitation.
John the Baptist is mentioned in the Koran
with much honor, under the name of Jahja.
(6) Literature. Neander, Life of Jesus; Tay-
lor, Life of Christ; Olshausen, Com. on the Gos-
pels; Farrar, Life of Christ; Edersheim, Life of
Christ.
JOHN, GOSPEL OF.
(1) Authenticity and Credibility. During the
eighteenth century and the first ten years of the
nineteenth, the Gospel of John was attacked, but
with feeble arguments, by some English deists
and by four German theologians : Bretschneider
{Probahilia de Evangelii et EpUtolarum Johannis
origine et indole, 1820) ; Strauss, (The Life of
Jesus) ; Liitzdberger (Die kirchliche Tradition
iiber den Apostel Johannes und seine Schriften,
1840) ; and Schwegler {Der Montanismus und
die Christliche Kirche des zweiten Jahrhunderts,
1841). However, even in Germany, the opponents
of its authenticity have not met with much sym-
pathy.
The credibility of the Gospel of St. John is
open to attack on account of its differing SO
much, as well in substance as in form, from the
three first Gospels, and on account of its apparent
contradiction of them. Among the apparent con-
tradictions may be mentioned the statements that
(ihrist was crucified on the same day on which
the Passover was to be eaten (John xviii :28),
while according to the other (jospels Jesus ate the
Passover with his disciples; and that Jesus, be-
fore he went to Gethsemane, offered up a prayer
full of sublimity and confidence (xvii), while
according to the other Gospels he endured in
Gethsemane a very heavy internal conflict, re-
specting which John is silent. But the most strik-
ing difference is that of the speeches. This differ-
ence is, perhaps, still more apparent in the form
than in the substance of them.
(2) The History and the Speeches. This
difference may be accounted for by supposing
that John intended to relate and complete the
history of the Lord according to his own view
of it. We are led to this supposition from the fol-
lowing circumstances ; that, with the exception of
the history of his passion and his resurrection,
there are only two sections in which John coin-
cides with the synoptic gospels (vi:i-2i; xii:i);
that he altogether omits such important facts as
the baptism of Jesus by John, the history of his
temptation and transfiguration, the institution of
the Lord's supper, and the internal conflict at
Gethsemane; and that chapters i :32 ; iii:24; xi:2,
indicate that he presupposed his readers to be al-
ready acquainted with the Gospel history. He
confined himself to such communications as were
wanting in the others, especially with regard to
the speeches of Jesus. The historical section in
chapter vi he communicated because it is con-
nected with the subsequent speeches of Jesus;
and chapter xii:i, because it was of importance
for him to relate the history of Judas, so that
each event should clearly be understood to be
the result of a preceding fact. The history of
Christ's sufferings and resurrection, being a
prominent part, could not be omitted, although, in
the account of these also, John differs in his state-
ments frorh the writers of the other Gospels
Clemens Alexandrinus (Euseb. Hist. Ecclcs. vi :
14) relates, as he says, upon the statement of old
Presbyters, that John wrote his Gospel at the re-
quest of his friends, in order to place by the side
of the aujiaTiKi, eiayyfKia, bodily gospels, his irwv-
JOHN, (iOSPEL OF
973
JdllN, (lOSPEL Oh
iMTiKhv tiayyiXiov, spiritual gospel. The same
account is confirmed by a Latin fragment of the
second century preserved by Muratori, in which
it is recorded that the aged apostle was solicited
by liis co-disciples to commii his Gospel to writing.
Now with regard to the difference of form. In
the Gospel of John, Jesus seldom speaks in
gnomes, sentences, and parables, but generally in
longer speeeches, the parts of which are not closely
connected, containing frequent repetitions, and
the linguistic characteristics of which strongly re-
semble those of John's epistles.
The gentle and feminine character of the dis-
ciple allows us to suppose that, to a certain de-
gree, he adopted as his own the expressions of
the Redeemer, and, consequently, that many terms
in which the Epistles agree with the Gospel did
not originate with the disciple, but with Christ
himself. We find an example of the manner in
which the disciple adopted the expressions of his
Master in John xii :43, compared with v:4i-44.
We do not deny that the formation of sentences
and expressions is considerably influenced by the
peculiar character of the disciple, but with regard
to the particular contents of the speeches, we see
no reason why we should doubt their authenticity.
Strauss himself makes a concession from which
much results, namely, that the most characteristic
speeches in John are those in which occur the an-
titheses of ffipi and irveO/io, /lesh and spirit, <pwt
and ffKdros, light and darkness, fwi) and Wkotoj,
life and death, S-vu and xdrio, above and beloiv ;
and also the mystical expressions of d^ros t^s fw^i,
bread of life, C5«p X"", living water. These terms
are even by Strauss (vol. i. p. 176) considered to
be parts of the original speeches of Christ, and he
asserts that the evangelist only developed them in
the style of the Alexandrian writers.
(3) Peculiarities. It must be granted that the
pecuHarities of John's Gospel more especially con-
sist in the four following doctrines :
(i) That of the mystical relation of the Son to
the Father.
(2) That of the mystical relation of the Re-
deemer to believers.
(3) The announcement of the Holy Ghost as
the Comforter.
(4) The peculiar importance ascribed to Love.
Although there can be shown in the writings of
the other evangelists some isolated dicta of the
Lord, which seem to bear the impress of John, it
can also be shown that they contain thoughts not
originating with that disciple, but with the Lord
himself. Matthew (xi:27) speaks of the relation
of the Son to the Father so entirely in the style
of John that persons not sufficiently versed in
Holy Writ are apt to search for this passage in
the Gospel of John. The mystical union of the
Son with believers is expressed in Matt, xxviii :20.
The promise of the effusion of the Holy Ghost in
order to perfect the disciples is found in Luke
xxiv :49. The doctrine of Paul with respect to
love, in i Cor. xiii. entirely resembles what, ac-
cording to John. Christ taught on the same sub-
ject. Paul here deserves our particular attention.
In the writings of Paul are found Christian truths
which have their points of coalescence only in
John, viz., that Christ is V.Ik&v to5 GcoO toO aof6.Tov,
the image of the invisible God, by whom all things
are created (Col. i:i5, 16). Paul considers the
Spirit of God in the church, the spiritual Christ,
as Jesus himself does (John xiv:i6), frequently
using the words Ava.i iv Xpiarf, ei-nay en Chris-to' ,
to be in Christ.
That the speeches of Christ have been faithfully
reported may be seen by a comparison of the
speeches of the Baptist in the Gospel of John. The
Baptist speeches bear an entirely Old Testament
character; they are full of gnomes, allusions to
the Old Testament, and sententious expressions
(John iii:27-30; 1:26-36).
(4) Place, Time, and Langruage. The Fath-
ers supposed that the Gospel of John was written
at Ephcsus. The autlior of a synopsis annexed
to the works of Athanasius makes an observation
which deserves to be noticed on account of the as-
surance with which it is advanced. It is, that
John wrote the Gospel which bears his name in
Patmos, but that it was edited by the same Gains
whom Paul in the epistle to the Romans calls
6 iiws iwv, mine host (Athanasii Opera, vol. ji, p,
•55. Venet.). One might be inclined to explain
by this circumstance the postscript contained in
John xxi :24, 25.
There is some internal evidence in favor of the
statement that this Gospel was writteri at Ephesus
— namely, that the author sometimes alludes to the
tenets of Hellenistic theosophy, and that he has in
view readers who do not live in Palestine (John
ii :6, 13; iv:9; v:i, 2). In addition to this must
be mentioned the command of the Hellenistic
Greek evinced by the writer. It is, however, not
unlikely that John acquired his knowledge of
Greek in his native country. The researches of
Dr. Paulus, Hug. and Credner, have rendered it
highly probable that the knowledge of Greek was
then widely spread in Palestine. Even James, the
brother of our Lord, although he never left his
native country, writes in his epistle tolerably good
Greek.
The language of John's Gospel is not very peri-
odic, but moves uniformly on between the particles
i^, but,- and odf, moreover. This defect of style
may, however, be explained by the mental charac-
teristics of the disciple. John's mind was deficient
in the dialectic element ; he wanted the logical
acuteness of Paul. Even where he reports the
speeches of Christ, we often find a want of pre-
cision in his representation. The simplicity of
John's character is also evinced by the repetition
of certain leading thoughts, reproduced in the
same words both in the Gospel and in the Epistles;
such as fiapTvpla, testimony,- S6^a, glory; i\-/i$eia,
truth ,- 0uJ!, light ; (ncirot, darkness ; fiii; aliimos,
eternal life ; p-tvuv, to abide.
(5) Interpreters. Among the ancient commen-
tators upon John's Gospel, Chrysostom deserves the
first place. The two compilers, Theophylact, who
died A. D. 1107, and Euthymius Zigabenus, who
died after A. D. 1 1 18, are also worthy of notice,
.^mong the Roman Catholic interpreters, Maldo-
natus, who died in 1583, is distinguished by orig-
inality and accuracy. Calvin is distinguished above
the other Reformers for the originality and ease
of his interpretation, but his commentary on the
Epistles is more carefully worked out than that on
the Gospel. Beza is characterized by philological
and critical learning. The most complete com-
mentary on the Gospel of John is that of Lampe,
(Commeiilarius Exegetico-.-liialytictis in Evatige-
lium Johannis, Amstelodami, 1637, 3 vols. 4to).
The style of this commentary is tasteless and stiff,
but in learning the author has not been surpassed
by any other interpreter. Liicke (3d ed. 1840) is
the most comprehensive of the modern commenta-
tors. Shorter commentaries have been written by
Tholuck (sth ed.), by Olshausen (3d ed. 1832),
and by De Wette (2d ed. 1839).
As introductions to the study of the writings of
John, we may mention Frommann's Johanneischer
Lehrbegriff, 1831, and Neander's Abriss der Jo-
JOHN HYRCANUS
974 JOHN.SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES
hanneischen Lehre in his Gcscliichte dcr Pfiansung
dcr Cliristliclicn Kirche (3d ed. 1841, p. 75, sq.).
Against its Genuineness. See J. J. Taylor, At-
tempt to ascertain the Character of the Fourth
Gospel, Load., 1867 ; Davidson, Introd. to the N.
T., Land., 1868; ^Koi John the Author of the
Fourth Gospel? by a layman, Lend., J 868.
For the Genuineness. See Fisher, The Gen-
uineness of the Fourth Gospel, in Essays on the
Supernatural Origin of Christianity, N. Y., 1866;
Thenius, Das Evangelium dcr Evangelien, Leipz.,
1865 ; Gage's transl. of The Origin of the Four Gos-
pels, by Tischendorf, Am. Tract. Soc, 1868; Row.
Hist. Character of the Gospels tested, Journal of
Socr. Lit., Oct., i86s, July, 1866; Mombert, Origin
of the Gospels, in Bibl. Sacra, Oct., 1866; F.
Clarke, The Fourth Gospel and its Author, in
Christian Exam., Jan., 1868. On doctrine see
Westcott, Introd. to the Study of the Gospels,
Boston, 1862; Scholten, Das Ev. nach Johannes,
Berl.. 1867; Neander, P/?aiix;H)ig ioid Lfi/MMg, Eng.
transl. by Robinson, N. Y., 1865.
JOHN HYRCANTTS (jon hyr'ka-nus). See
Maccabees.
JOHN MARK. See Mark.
JOHN, THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF.
(1) Authenticity. For the authenticity of the
first epistle very ancient testimony may be ad-
duced. Papias, the disciple of John, quotes some
passages from it. Polycarp, also, another disciple
of Jphn, quotes a passage from this epistle {ad
Philipp., c 7. So, also Irenaeus (Adv. Hcer, iii :
16; v:8).
The author of the first epistle describes himself,
at its commencement, as an eye-witness of the life
of our Lord. The style and language manifestly
harmonize with those of the author of the Go.-spel
of John. The polemics, also, which in chapter ii:
18-26. are directed against the Docetic Gnostics,
in chapter iv ;i-3, agree with the sphere of action
in Asia Minor in which the Evangelist John was
placed. We may, therefore, suppose that the epis-
tle was written to Christian congregations in
Asia Minor, which were placed under the spiritual
care of the apostle. It is generally admitted that
chapter i :2 refers to the Gospel. If this is correct,
the apostle wrote this epistle at a very advanced
age, after he had written his gospel. The epistle
breathes love and devotion, but also zeal for moral
strictness (iii:6-8; v:i6). There is a remarkable
absence of logical connection in the form of
separate expressions, and in the transitions from
one thought to another. Some writers have been
inclined to find a reason for this in the advanced
age of the writer. Old age may, perhaps, have
contributed to this characteristic, but it is chiefly
attributable to the mental peculiarity of tlie apostle.
(2) Time and Place of Writing the First
Epistle. On this head nothing certain can be de-
termined. It has been conjectured by many inter-
preters, ancient and modern, that it was written at
the same place as the Gospel. The more ancient
tradition places the writing of the Gospel at Ephe-
sus. and a less authentic report refers it to the
island of Patmos. Hug (Introduction) infers,
from the absence of writing materials (3 John
13), that all John's Epistles were composed at
Patmos ! The most probable opinion is that it was
■written somewhere in Asia Minor, in which was
the ordinary residence of the Apostle (Euseb.
Hist. Eccl. iii 123), perhaps, according to the tra-
dition of the Greek church, at Ephesus ; but for
this we have no historical warrant (Liicke's Conv-
mentary).
It is equally difficult to determine the time of the
writmg of this Epistle, although it was most prob-
ably posterior to the Gospel, which seems to be re-
ferred to in I John i -.4. Some are of opinion that
the Epistle was an envelope or accompaniment to
the Gosepl, and that they were consequently writ-
ten nearly simultaneously (Hug's Introd.). It
has been argued by several, from chapter ii:i8
{iaxirii upa iarlv, it is the last time), that the
Epistle was written before the destruction of Je-
rusalem.
Various, indeed, have been the hypotheses re-
garding the persons to whom this Epistle was
written, but it is by no means improbable, from
the absence of Old Testament references, that it
was addressed to Gentile converts, of which there
were several congregations in Asia Minor.
(3) Object and Design. The main object and
design of this Epistle has been generally per-
ceived to consist in the refutation of certain er-
rors and heresies in the churches subject to St.
John's episcopate. But opinions are divided as to
who the teachers of these heresies were, whether
Jews, Ebionites, Gnostics, Docetae, Cerinthus and
his followers, or finally the disciples of John the
Baptist. This polemical object appears, however,
to form but a secondary part of the design of
John, his main object being rather to enforce the
necessity of progressive sanctification, genuine
brotherly love, and the renunciation of the world.
The design of the Epistle is didactic rather than
polemical.
Another portion of this Epistle seems directed
against a certain class of antinomian Christians,
who perverted Christian liberty into antichristian
licentiousness and libertinism, and decided what
was sinful or otherwise, not according to the posi-
tive law of God, but by their own internal feel-
ings— thus confounding light and darkness, (Jod
and the world. This vital error was rather to be
found among the heathen than the Jewish Chris-
tians, and was probably founded on a perversion
of St. Paul's doctrine of justification by faith.
( See Augustine, Tractat. .x. in Ep. Johannis ad
Parthos; Luther's Zwiefache Ausleg. ed. Walch.
vol ix ; Whiston's Commentary on the 3 Cath.
Epist. of St. John.)
There has been no subject connected with Bib-
lical literature which has attracted more attention
than this epistle, in consequence of the contro-
versies which have existed since the commence-
ment of the sixteenth century, respecting the once
contested but now rejected passage in i John v:7,
8. It is sufficient here to say that the disputed
passage is found in no Greek manuscript save two,
both belonging to the fifteenth century ; and that it
has not once been quoted by any of the Greek,
Latin or Oriental fathers. It is now generally
omitted in all critical editions of the New Testa-
ment, as it is in the R. V. (See Dean Turton's '
Vindication of the Literary Character of Professor
Porson from the Animadversions of the Right
Rev. Thomas Burgess, D. D., etc., published un-
der the name of Crito-Cantabrigiensis, 1827.) The
Memoir of the Controversy Respecting the Heav-
enly Witnesses (1830), by the Rev. W. Orme,
contains interesting critical notices of the princi-
pal writers on both sides of this much agitated
question. Dr. Tregelles, in Journ. Sacr. Lit.,
April, 1858, p. 167, sq., exposes the misstatements
of Dr. Turnbull : Candlish, Lectures. W. W.
JOHN, THE SECOND AND THIRD EPIS-
TLES OF.
Authenticity. Eusebius places the second and
third epistles of John among the an-tee-!eh-g07n-
eh'na, avrCKtioixiva, disputed books (Hist. Ecclcs,
iii:25).
JOIAUA
The second epistle is addressed to a lady, called
Kvpla, koo-ree'ah, Kuria, Lady, which name fre-
quently occurs in ancient writers as that of a
woman (comp. Liicke's Commentar,-p. 351).
The third epistle is addressed to Gaius, a person
otherwise unknown. It is remarkable that the
writer of this epistle calls himself 6 irpetrjjOrepos,
ho-pres-bu' Ur-os, tlie elder, or presbyter. Some
writers have been inclined to ascribe these letters
to the presbyter John, who is sometimes spoken of
in the ancient church, and to whom even the
Apocalypse has been attributed ; but if the pres-
byter John wrote these epistles, John's Gospel
also must be ascribed to the same person, of whom
otherwise so little is known. This, however, is
inadmissible. We may suppose that the term,
v/xc^uTtpoi, elder, expressed in the epistles of
John a degree of friendliness, and was chosen on
account of the advanced age of the writer. The
apostle Paul, also, in his friendly letters to Phile-
mon, abstains from the title Apostle. The cir-
cumstances and events in the church, to which the
second epistle alludes, coincide with those which
are otherwise known to have happened in John's
congregation. Here, also, are allusions to the
dangers arising from the Gnostic heresy. The
admonition, in verse 10. not to receive such here-
tics as Christian brethren, agrees with the an-
cient tradition, that John made haste to quit a
public bath after Cerinthus the Gnostic entered it,
declaring he was afraid the building would fall
down.
Rickli's Johannis erster Brief erkldrt und an-
gewendct mil bistorischcm Vorbericht und erkliir-
endcn Anmcrkuxgen (Lucerne, 1828) ; Liicke's
Auslcgung (2d ed. 1836). Dr. Shepherd's Notes
on the Gospels and Epistles of St. John, 410, 1796;
and the only separate work on the Epistles is
Hawkins' Commentary on the Epistles of St.
John, 1808. A translation of Liicke's Commen-
tary 0)1 the Epistles of St. John exists in the Bib-
lical Cabinet, vol. xv. Saml. Cox, The Private
Letters of St. Paul and John, Lond., 1867. (See
also literature cited under John, The First
Epistle General of.) A. T.
JOIADA (joi'a-da), (Heb. 3''?'^', yo-yaw-daw',
Jehovah knows), contraction of Jehoiada (which
see).
1. A high-priest of the Jews, successor to
Eliashib, or Joashib, who lived under Nehemiah,
B. C. about 434 (Neh. xii:io, II, 22; xiii:28).
2. Son of Paseah, and apparently one of the
chief priests. He helped to repair the Old Gate,
after the captivity (Neh. iii;6).
JOIAKIM (joi'a-kim), (Heb. C-;";i'_ yo-yatu-
keem' , Jehovah sets up), a high-priest, the son of
that Jeshua who, with Zerubbabel, led the first re-
turn from Babylon. His son was Eliashib (Neh.
xii:lo, 12, 26). Joiakim is a contraction of Jehoia-
kim. (B. C. before 445.)
JOIAKIB (joi'a-rib), (Heb. 3'"'.^', yo-yaw-reeb' ,
Jehovah will contend).
1. A Shilonite, which probably means a de-
scendant of Shclah, the son of Judah. He is
named in the genealogy of Maaseiah (Neh. xi:
S), B. C. 445-
2. One of those who returned from the cap-
tivity with Ezia (Ezra viii:i6).
3. Founder of one of the courses of priests
(Neh. xii;6). His descendants after the captivity
are given in Neh. xi:lo; and xii:l9, B. C. 536.
The name appears also in full. (See Jehoi-
ARIB.)
JOIN (Heb. p3?, dawbak'). (i) To knit or unite
tQ(j;eUier (Job xli:i7). (2) To make an alliance or
876
JOKSHAN
league (Dan. xi:6). (3) To enter into intimacy
with (Acts viii:29). (4) To be reckoned with (Job
iii;6).
JOINING (join'Ing), (Heb. f^'I^D?, mekh-alh
ber-oih'), binders or cramps in the wall of a build-
ing (I Chron. xxii:3).
The term is applied ( i ) To things; so house is
joined to house, when one is added to another un-
der the same master (Is. v:8). (2) To persons,
when they are united in marriage (Eph. v:3i) ; in
affinity (2 Chron. xviii:i); in assistance (Exod.
i:ioJ; or in church fellowship (Acts ix:26); or
in battle, army fighting close with army (i Sam.
'v:2). (3) To minds, when people are united in
judgment and affection. To be joined to the
Lord, is to be spiritually espoused to his Son, and
solemnly devoted to his service (i Cor. vi:i7;
Jer. 1:5). To be joined to idols, is to be firmly
intent on worshiping them (Hos. iv:i7). To be
joined to a harlot, is to have the affections set
upon her, and to commit sin with her (l Cor. vi:
If))- Brown.
JOINT (Heb. pi's!?, kham-viook), a wrapping.
JOINTS are, (i) The uniting of the bones in an
animal body (Dan. v:6). (2) The uniting parts
of a harness (2 Chron. xviii:33). Joint is em-
ployed erroneously in the A. V. (Cant. vii:l) for
drawers, "a part of the female dress, which, in
the case of bridal toilet, are represented as being
fringed with a worked edging like lace, or a
skillfully chased jewel" (McC. and S., Cyc.) It
may possibly have reference to a richly embroid-
ered girdle.
Figurative. The j'otnis and bands which unite
Christ's mystical body, are his Spirit, ordinances,
and influences and their mutual relations to him,
and to one another, and their graces of faith and
love fixed on him, and in him loving one another
(Col. iirip; Eph. iv:l6). The joints and marrow
of men's hearts, are their secret dispositions,
which the convincing word of God, with no small
pain to them, shows and affects them with (Heb.
iv:i2).
JOKDEAM (j6k'de-5m), (Heb. C?"!|?;, yok-deh-
awm', burning of people), a city in the mountains
of Judah (Josh. xv:56). From its comicction it
must have been south of Hebron.
JOKHa (j5'kim), (Heb. ^T'', yo-keem'), contrac-
tion oi Joiakim' , son of Shelah, and grandson of
Judah (I Chron. iv:22). Nothing is positively
known of his history. Jerome says he was Elim-
elech, the husband of Naomi (Qiiast. in Paral).
JOKMEAM (jok'me-am), (Heb.=?ri?T,J'<'/t-wf>5-
aivm'. people will be raised), a city of Ephraim,
afterwards given tu the Levitcsof Fiohath's family
(l Chron. vi:68). In the parallel list in Josh. xxi:22,
Kibzaim takes its nlace. From its mention (I
Kings iv:l2) it must liave been situated in the Tor-
dan valley on the eastern boundary of the tribe;
in this passage the A. V. incorrectly writes Jok-
NEAM.
JOKNEAM (j6k'ne-am), (Heb. 0?^!?;, j-oyt-w/i-
awm' , people will be lamented), a city of Zebulun,
given to the Levites of Merari's family (Josh, xxi:
34; xix:ii), surnamed Jokneam, of Carmel (Josh.
xii:22) because adjacent to that mciuntain. It has
been identified pretty well with the modem Tell
Kaimon, below the eastern termination of Carmel.
The Jokneam of 1 Kings iv:i2, according to all the
requirements, must be an erroneous form for
JOKMF.AM.
JOKSHAN aak'shan). (Heb. 1?i?^ yok-shawn':
snarer or fowler), second son of Abraham and
JOKTAN
976
JONAH
Keturah, whose sons Sheba and Dedan appear to
have been the ancestors of the Sabasans and De-
danites, who peopled a part of Arabia Felix (Gen.
xxv:2, 3; I Chron. 1:32). (See Arabia.)
JOKTAN (jok'tan), (Heb. V^J^"^, yoJi-tawK' .small).
The second of the sons of Eber, a descendant
from Shem (Gen. x ;2S, 26,29; i Chron. i :i9), and
the supposed progenitor of many tribes in South-
ern Arabia. The Arabians call him Kahtan, and
recognize him as one of the principal founders of
their nation. See Pocock, Spec. Hist. Arab., pp.
3, 38.) We find traces in Arabia of the names
of Joktan's sons, which is a further confirmation
of this opinion. These sons were Almohad, Sha-
leph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Dik-
lah, Obal, Abimeel, Sheba, Ophir, Havilah, and
Jobab (Gen. x:26, etc.). These ancient Arabians
lived here without mingling with other people,
till Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar, and his
sons, settled here, who, mixing with them, were
called Mos-arabes, or Mosts-arabes, that is,
mixed Arabians.
JOKTHEEL (j6k'the-el), (Heb. ^^^T„ yok-theh-
ale' , veneration of God).
1. A name given by King Amaziah to the city
Sela, or Petra, the capital of Arabia Petraea, when
he took it from the Edomites (2 Kings xiv 7 ; 3
Chron. xxv:ii-i3). (See Petra.)
2. There was also a city of this name in the
tribe of Judah, between Mizpeh and Lachish (Josh.
xv:38), possibly preserved in the ruins of Keitu-
laneh.
JONA (jo'na), (Gr. 'IupS, ee-oh-nak' , father of the
Apostle Peter (John 1:42) and hejice is addressed
as Simon Bar-jona (Matt. xvi:i7). In John xxi:i5-
17 he is called Jonas, which would have been a
correct form throughout.
JONADAB (jon'a-dib), (Heb. '^IP . yo-naw-
dawb', contraction of yeh-ho-naw-dawb' , 3'7J'"Ti
Jehovah impels).
1. A nephew of David, a crafty person, whose
counsel suggested to his cousin Amnon the means
by which he accomplished his abominable design
upon his half-sister Tamar (2 Sam. xiii:4, s).
2. (1) Descendant of Bechab. A son or de-
scendant of Rechab, the progenitor of those no-
madic Rechabites, who held themselves bound by
a vow to abstain from wine, and never to relin-
quish the nomadic life. The principle on which
the tribe acted may be considered elsewhere. (See
Rechabites.)
(2) Head of Tribe. Jonadab was at the
head of this tribe at the time when Jehu received
his commission to exterminate the house of Ahab,
and is supposed to have added to its ancient aus-
terities the inhibition of wine.
(3) Relation to Jehu. He was held in great
respect among the Israelites generally; and Jehu,
alive to the importance of obtaining the counte-
nance and sanction of such a man to his proceed-
ings, took him up in his chariot, when on his road
to Samaria to complete the work he had begun
at Jezreel. The terms of the colloquy which took
place on this occasion are rather remarkable.
Perceiving Jonadab, he saluted him. and called
out, 'Is thine heart right, as my heart is with thy
heart?' Jonadab ajiswered, 'It is.' Then said
Jehu, 'If it be, give me thine hand.' And he gave
him his hand, and was taken vp into the chariot,
Jehu inviting him to 'Come and see my zeal for
the Lord' (2 Kings x:l5-l7; Jer. xxxv:6-lo).
(4) Rechabites a Branch of the Kenites. It
would seem that the Rechabites were a branch of
the Kenites, oyer another branch of whom Heber
was chief in the time of Deborah and Barak
(Judg. iv:li, 17) ; and as it is expressly said that
Jonadab went out to meet Jehu, it seems probable
that the people of Samaria, alarmed at the men-
acing letter which they had received from Jehu,
had induced Jonadab to go to meet and appease
him on the road. His venerated character, his
rank as the head of a tribe, and his neutral posi-
tion, well qualified him for this mission ; and it
was quite as much the interest of Jonadab to con-
ciliate the new dynasty, in whose founder he be-
held the minister of the divine decrees, as it was
that of Jehu to obtain his concurrence and support
in proceedings which he could not but know were
likely to render him odious to the people.
JONAH (jo'nah), (Heb. 'T'', yo-na-w' , a dove;
Sept. 'Iwi-o!, ee-o-nas'), the fifth in order of the
minor prophets.
No era is assigned to him in the book of his
prophecy, yet there is little doubt of his being the
same person who is spoken of in 2 Kings xiv :25.
His birthplace was Gath-hepher, in the tribe of
Zebulun. Jonah flourished in or before the reign
of Jeroboam II, and predicted the successful con-
quests, enlarged territory, and brief prosperity of
the Israelitish kingdom under that monarch's
sway. The oracle itself is not extant, though
Hitzig has, by a novel process of criticism,
amused himself with a fancied discovery of it in
chaps. XV and xvi of Isaiah. (Hitzig, Des Proph.
Jon. Orakel. uebcr Moab Ktitisch-vindicrit, etc.,
Heidelberg, 1831.)
(1) Ordered to Nineveh. God ordered this
prophet to go to Nineveh, and warn the inhabit-
ants of their approaching destruction. Fearing
that the merciful Lord might forbear punishing
them if they repented, and so seemingly tarnish
his honor, Jonah fled from the presence of the
Lord and embarked at Joppa for Tarshish
(whether in Cilicia, Africa, or Spain, is uncer-
tain), that, being out of the Promised Land, the
spirit of prophecy might forbear to excite him.
(2) Cast Overboard. A storm quickly pur-
sued the ship wherein he was. The heathen
mariners awaked him, and required him to call
on his God for deliverance. Lots being cast, to
discern for whose sake the storm rose, the lot
fell on Jonah. With shame he confessed his guilt
to the mariners. He desired them to cast him into
the sea, that the storm might be stayed. With
reluctance they were at last obliged to do it,
whereon the storm immediately ceased. A large
fish swallowed up Jonah, and retained him safe
in her belly for three days.
(3) Ejected by the Whale. There he earnest-
ly prayed to the Lord, at whose command the fish
vomited him alive on the dry land ; but whether
on the east end of the Syrian sea near Scande-
roon we know not, though that is most probable.
His orders to warn the Ninevites of their ap-
proaching destruction were immediately renewed.
(4) Warns the Ninevites. AH obedient, he
hasted to that vast city. He had not traveled in
it above a day's journey, denouncing their ruin.
when the king, whom we cannot suppose Pul, but
one about fifty or sixty years earlier, and all his
people, applied themselves to solemn fasting and
pra-yer. Hereupon God forbore to execute his
vengeance upon them, which had been but condi-
tionally threatened. Displeased with the divine
mercy, Jonah angrily wished to die, rather than
live and see his prediction unfulfilled.
(5) The Gourd. While he sat without the city,
waiting for his desired view of Nineveh's ruin,
God caused a gourd to spring up quickly, to over-
JONAH, BOOK OF
977
JONAH. BOOK OF
shadow him from the scorching heat of the sun ;
but next day, a worm having bitten its root, it
suddenly withered. The scorching sun and blast-
ing wind vehemently beating on Jonah, he fainted,
and angrily wished to die, and averred to God
himself that he was right in so doing. The Lord
bid him think, if he had pity on the shortlived
gourd, was there not far more reason for him and
their Maker to pity the penitent inhabitants of
Nineveh, where were above 120,000 infants, and
much cattle (Jonah i-iv).
Figurative. Did not the fate of this prophet
typify our Savior, who was tu be cast into the
raging sea of wrath ; his lying a part of three
days in the grave ; his glorious resurrection from
the dead ; and the effectual publication of the gos-
pel to multitudes of sinners, for their everlasting
salvation? (See Jon.\h, Book of.) Brown.
Tomb of Jonah at Mosul.
JONAH, BOOK OF.
Analysis. The book of Jonah contains an ac-
count of the prophet's commission to denounce
Nineveh, and of his refusal to undertake the em-
bassy— of the method he employed to escape the
unwelcome task (see Tarshish), and the mirac-
ulous means which God used to curb his self-
willed spirit, and subdue his petulant and queru-
lous disposition. The third and fourth chapters
briefly detail Jonah's fulfillment of the Divine
command, and present us with another exemplifi-
cation of his refractory temper.
(1) Distraction. His attempt to flee from the
presence of the Lord must have sprung from a
partial insanity, produced by the excitement of
distracting motives in an irascible and melancholy
heart. The temerity and folly of the fugitive
could scarcely be credited, if they had not been
equaled by future outbreaks of a similar peevish
and morbid infatuation. The mind of Jonah was
dark and moody, not unlike a lake which mirrors
in the waters the gloomy thunderclouds which
overshadow it. and flash over its sullen waves a
momentary gleam.
(2) Striking History. The history of Jonah
is certainly striking and extraordinary. Its char-
acteristic prodigy does not resemble the other
miraculous phenomena recorded in Scripture ; yet
we must believe in its literal occurrence, as the
Bible affords no indication of its being a myth,
allegory, or parable.
(3) Reality. Qn the other hand, our Savior's
pointed and peculiar allusion to it is an evidence of
its reality (Matt. xii:4o). The opinion of the
earlier Jews (Tobit xiv:4; Joseph. Antiq. ix:io,
2) is also in favor of the literality of the ad-
venture. It requires less faith to credit this sim-
ple excerpt from Jonah's biography, than to believe
the numerous hypotheses that have been invented
to deprive it of its supernatural character, the
?reat majority of them being clumsy and far-
etched, doing violence to the lang[uage, and de-
spite to the spirit of revelation.
62
(4) Vindication of Reality. In vindication of
the reality of this striking narrative, it may be
argued that the allusions of Christ to Old Testa-
ment events on similar occasions are to actual oc-
currences (John iii:i4; vi 148) ; that the purpose
which God had in view justified his miraculous
interposition ; that this miracle must have had a
salutary effect both on the minds of the Ninevites
and on the people of Israel. Neither is the char-
acter of Jonah improbable. Many reasons might
induce him to avoid the discharge of his prophetic
duty — fear of being thought a false prophet, scorn
of a foreign and hostile race, desire for ilieir utter
destruction, a false dignity which might reckon
it beneath his prerogative to officiate among uncir-
cumcised idolaters (Jahn, Intruduclion tu the Old
Testament, translated by S. Turner, pp. 372, 373,
translator's notes). Some, who cannot altogether
reject the reality of the narrative; suppose it to
have had a historical basis, though its present
form be fanciful or mythical. Such an opinion is
the evident result of a mental struggle between
receiving it as a real transaction or regarding it
as wholly a fiction. Grimm regards it as a dream
produced in that sleep which fell upon Jonah as
he lay on the sides of the ship and others regard
this book as an allegory.
These hypotheses are all vague and baseless, and
do not merit a special refutation. Endeavoring to
free us from one difficulty they plunge us into
others yet more intricate and perplexing.
(5) Profane- Wit. Much profane wit has been
expended on the miraculous means of Jonah's de-
liverance, very unnecessarily and very absurdly;
it is simply said. 'The Lord had prepared a great
fish to swallow up Jonah.' Now the species of
marine animal is not defined, and the Greek kay-
tos, K^Tos sea-monster, or whale, is often used to
specify, not the genus whale, but any large fish or
sea-monster. All objections to its being a whale
which lodged Jonah in its stomach, from its strait-
ness of throat, or rareness of haunt in the Medi-
terranean, are thus removed. The Scripture thus
speaks only of an enormous fish, which under
God's direction swallowed the prophet, and does
not point out the species to which the voracious
prowler belonged. Since the days of Bochart it
has been a common opinion that the fish was of
the shark species, or 'sea-dog' (Bochart, Op. iii:
72; Calmet's Dissertation stir Jonah). Entire hu-
man bodies have been found in some fishes of
this kind. The stomach, too, has no influence on
any living substance admitted into it. Granting
all these facts as proof of what is termed the
economy of miracles, still must we say, in refer-
ence to the supernatural preservation of Jonah, Is
anything too hard for the Lord?
On what portion of the coast Jonah was set
down in safety we are not informed. The opin-
ions held as to the peculiar spot by rabbins and
other thaumaturgic expositors need not be re-
peated. The prophet proceeded, on receiving a
second commission, to fulfill it.
(6) Saving of the City. The fearful menace
had the desired effect. "The city humbled itself
before God, and a respite was vouchsafed. The
king (Pul. according to Usher) and his people
fasted, and their penitence was accepted. The
spirit of Jonah was chafed that the doom he had
uttered was not executed. He retired to a station
out of the city whence he might witness the
threatened catastrophe. Under the shadow of a
gourd prepared by God he reclined, while Jehovah
taught him by the growth and speedy death of this
plant, and his attachment to it. a sublime lesson
of patient and forgiving generosity.
JONAN
978
JONATHAN
(7) A Simple Narrative. The book of Jonah
is a simple narrative, with the exception of the
prayer or thanksgiving in chapter ii. Its style and
mode of narration are uniform. There are no
traces of compilation, as Nactigall supposed ;
neither is the prayer, as De Wette (Einleit. 237)
imagines, improperly borrovvfed from some othe_r
sources. That prayer contains, indeed, not only
imagery peculiar to itself, but also such imagery
as at once was suggested to the mind of a reverent
Hebrew preserved in circumstances of extreme
jeopardy. On this principle we account for the
similarity of some portions of its phraseolog>' to
Ps. li.x, xlii, etc. The language in both places had
been hallowed by frequent usage, and had become
the consecrated idiom of a distressed and suc-
cored Israelite. The hymn seems to have been
composed after his deliverance, and the reason
why his deliverance is noted after the hymn is re-
corded may be to show the occasion of its com-
position.
Among the numerous commentators on Jonah
may be noticed Martin, Jonah's mission; King's
Commentary; Pusey's Commentary; Davidson,
On Prophecy, Dis. vi. pt. 2. For further litera-
ture see Habakkuk. J. E.
JONAN (jo'nan), {Gr.'laviv, ee-o-nan' , Jonan),
son of Eliakim, in the genealogy of Christ, about
the time of Jehoram (Luke iii:30).
The name is probably only another form of Jo-
hanan, or Jonathan.
JONAS (jo'nas), (Or. "lui'ds, ee-o-nas' , from the
Hebrew Jonah).
1. The form of the name of the prophet Jonah
(Matt, xii :39, 40, 41 ; xvi 14 ; Luke xi :29, 30, 32).
2. (John xxi:i5-i7) another form of Jona,
which see.
JONATHAN (jon'a-than), (Heb. "!''?*". yo-naw-
thawn' , God-given).
/. A Levite descended from Gershom, the son
of Moses (Judg. xviii:3o). It is, indeed, said, in
our common copies, that the Gershom from whorri
this Jonathan sprang was 'the son of Manasseh ;'
but some supposed that in the name of Moses
(mo-seh') the single letter (i) has been inter-
polated changing it into Manasseh.
The history of this Jonathan is involved in the
narrative which occupies Judges xvii, xviii ; and is
one of the two accounts which form a sort of ap-
pendix to that book. The events themselves ap-
pear to have occurred soon after the death of
Joshua, and of the elders who outlived him, when
the government was in a most unsettled state.
Jonathan, who was resident at Bethlehem. lived
at a time when the dues of the sanctuary did not
afford a livelihood to the numerous Levites who
had a claim upon them ; and belonged to a tribe
destitute of the landed possessions which gave to
all others a sufficient maintenance. He. therefore,
went forth to seek his fortune. In Mount Eph-
raim he came to 'a house of gods.' which had been
established by one Micah, who wanted nothing
but a priest to make his establishment complete.
(See Micah.) This person engaged Jonathan as
his priest for his food, a yearly suit of clothes, and
ten shekels (twenty-five shillings, about $6.00), a
year in money. Here he lived for some time, till
the Danite spies, who were sent by their tribe to
explore the north, passed this wiy and formed
his acquaintance. When, not long after, the body
of armed Danites passed the same way while go-
ing to settle near the sources of the Jordan, the
spies mentioned Micah's establishment to them;
on which they went and took away not only 'the
ephod, the teraphim, and the graven image,' but
the priest also, that they might set up the same
worship in (he place of which they were going to
take possession. Micah vainly protested against
this robbery ; but Jonathan himself was glad at
the improvement in his prospects, and from that
time, even down to the captivity, he and his de-
scendants continued to be priests of the Danites in
the town of Laish, the name of which they
changed to Dan.
There is no reason to suppose that this estab-
lishment, whether in the hands of J^Iicah or of
the Danites, involved an apostasy from Jehovah.
It appears rather to have been an attempt to local-
ize or domesticate his presence under those sym-
bols and forms of service which were common
among the neighboring nations but were forbidden
to the Hebrews. The offense here was two-fold,
— the establishment of a sacred ritual different
from the only one which the law recognized, and
the worship by symbols, naturally leading to idola-
try, with the ministration of one who could not
legally be a priest, but only a Levite, and under
circumstances in v;hich no Aaronic priest could
legally have officiated. It is more than likely that
this establishment was eventually merged in that
of the golden calf, which Jeroboam set up in this
place, his choice of which may possibly have been
determined by its being already in possession of 'a
house of gods.'
2. Eldest Son of Saul, king of Israel, and con-
sequently heir apparent of the throne which David
was destined to occupy (i Sam. xiv:8; i Chron.
viii :33; ix:39). The war with the Philistines,
which occupied the early part of his father's reign,
afforded Jonathan more than one opportunity of
displaying the chivalrous valor and the princely
qualities with which he was endowed. His ex-
ploit in surprising the Philistine garrison at Mich-
mash, attended only by his armor-bearer, is one
of the most daring which history or even romance
records (1 Sam. xiv:l-i4). His father came to
follow up this victory, and in the ensuing pursuit
of the Philistines, Jonathan, spent with fatigue and
hunger, refreshed himself with some wild honey
which he found in a wood through which he
passed. He knew not that his father had rashly
vowed to put to death any one who touched a
morsel of food before night. When the fact
transpired, Saul felt himself bound to execute his
vow even upon his gallant son ; but the people,
with whom the young prince was a great favorite,
interposed (i Sam. xiv:i6-52).
(1) Affection for David. The act of David in
meeting the challenge of Goliath, and in overcom-
ing that huge barbarian, entirely won his heart;
and from that day forward the son of Jesse found
no one who loved him so tenderly, who admired
his high gifts with so much enthusiasm, or who
risked so much to preserve him from harm, 'as
the very prince whom he was destined to exclude
from a throne. Jonathan knew well what was to
happen, and he submitted cheerfully to the ap-
pointment which gave the throne of his father to
the young shepherd of Bethlehem. In the inten-
sity of his love and confidence he shrank not to
think of David as his destined king and master;
and his dreams of the future pictured nothing
brighter than the day in which David should reign
over Israel, and he be one with him in friendship,
and next to him in place and council.
When Saul began to hate David as his intended
successor, he was highly displeased at the friend-
ship which had arisen between him and his son.
This exposed Jonathan to much contumely, and
even to danger of life ; for, once at least, the king's
passion against him on this account rose sc high
JONATHAN
970
JOPPA
that he cast a javelin at him 'to smite him to the
wall.'
This unequivocal act taught Jonathan that the
court of Saul was no safe place for David. He
told him so, and they parted with many tears.
David then set forth upon these wanderings
among strangers and in solitary places which
lasted all the time of Saul. The friends met only
once more. Saul was in pursuit of David when
he was in the wilderness of Ziph ; and Jonathan
could not forbear coming to him secretly in the
wood to give him comfort and encouragement ( i
Sam. xxiii :i6-i8). Nothing more is related of
Jonathan till both he and his father lost their lives
in the fatal battle of Gilboa, combating the ene-
mies of their country.
(2) David's Lament. There is, perhaps, noth-
ing in Hebrew poetry more beautiful and touching
than the lamentation of David for the loss of his
friend — nothing more complete as a whole, or
more full of fine images and tender thoughts (2
Sam. i :i7, sq.).
(3) Character. Jealousy and every mean or low
feeling were strangers to the generous heart of
Jonathan. Valiant and accomplished himself,
none knew better how to acknowledge valor and
accomplishment in others. He is one of the love-
liest personages in Bible history.
3. The son of Abiathar, the high-priest, who
gave notice to Adonijah and his party, near the
fountain of Rogel, that David had declared Solo-
mon his successor (i Kings i 142, 43). At the
time of David's flight from Absalom he accompa-
nied his father as far as Olivet (2 Sam. xv:36;
xvii:i5-2i). He also appears as a swift and
trusted messenger. '(B. C. 1000.)
4. Jonathan, or Johanan, or John, high-priest
of the Jews, son of Jehoiada, and father of Jed-
doa, or Jaddus, celebrated in the time of Alexan-
der the Great (Neh. xii:n). He lived under
Ezra and Nehcmiah. He died, after having ex-
ercised the high-priesthood thirty-two years, and
was succeeded by Jeddoa, his son.
5. Son of Shammah, or Shimea, brother of
Jonadab, and nephew of David, (2 Sam. xxi :2i ; I
Chron. xx:7). He was gifted with both civjl and
military prowess, and slew a giant Philistine.
6. Son of Shage the Hararite, and one of
David's heroes ( i Chron. xi :34 ; 2 Sam. xxiii :
32).
7. A son of Adin, whose representative, Ebed,
returned with Ezra as the leader of fifty males
(Ezra viii:6), B. C. 457.
S. Son of Asahel, and one of the four priests
who assisted Ezra in the investigation of the for-
eign marriages that had been contracted in Baby-
lon (Ezra x:i5), B. C. 457.
9. A priest in the days of Joiakim, son of
Jeshua. He represented the family of Melicu
(Neh. xii:i4), B. C. 549.
10. The brother of Johanan, the son of Ka-
reah ; they were associated in their intercourse
with the Babylonian governor (Jer. xl:8), B. C.
S88.
11. Father of Zechariah, who blew the trum-
pet at the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. xii:35).
12. Second of the two sons of Jada and grand-
son of Jerahmeel, of the family of Judah (l
Chron. ii:32, 33), B. C. after 1612.
13. A scribe and keeper of the prisons in
Jerusalem under Zedekiah (Jer. xxxvii:i5, 20).
He was very severe to the prophet Jeremiah, who
therefore earnestly desired Zedekiah that he might
not be sent back into that dungeon, where his life
was in danger. (B. C. 589.)
J0NATH-ELEIC-KECH0KIlC(j5'nath-e'lem-
re-ko'kim), (Heb. ^'""1 ^i^ ^i'*, yo-nai/i'ay/em
rekh-o-kcetn' , "To the tune of 'The silent dove of
those afar' "), the heading of I's. Ivi. There have
been many attempts to explain this title, but Aben
Ezra seems to come the nearest to the meaning in
his explanation that Jonath Elem Rechokim indi-
cates the rhythm of the psalm; i. e., "after the
melody of the Psalm" which beginsy^waM Elem
Rechokim.
ZQi^'Bh. (jop'pa), (Heb. '2', or *<'C', yaw-fo' ,
beauty; Gr. 'I6irir>;, ee-op'pay, which name is still
preserved in the Arabic Yafa or Jaffa), a seaport
town and haven on the coast of Palestine, situated
on an eminence, in a sandy soil, about forty miles
northwest of Jerusalem, and nine miles west-
northwest from Ramleh.
(1) Location. The place existed when the Is-
raelites invaded the land of Canaan, and is men-
tioned as lying on the border of the tribe of Dan
(.Josh. xix:46). Joppa was the only port pos-
sessed by the Israelites till Herod formed the har-
bor at Csesarea ; and hence it was here that the
timber from Lebanon destined for both the first
and second temples was landed (i Kings v:9;
2 Chron. ii:i6; Ezra iii:7). It was the place to
which Jonah went in expectation of finding a
ship bound on some distant voyage, and where
he found one going to Tarshish (Jonah i:3).
Joppa belonged to the powers which were suc-
cessively dominant on this shore ; and it does not
again appear in Jewish history till the time of
Judas Maccabaeus, when the inhabitants having,
contrary to the faith of treaties, thrown 200 Jews
into the sea, the hero, to avenge them, surprised
the haven by night, and set the shipping on fire
(2 Mace, xii :y/).
(2) Visit of Peter. It is mentioned in the
New Testament only in connection with the visit
of the Apostle Peter, who here raised Tabitha
from the dead, and lodged in the outskirts of
the town with Simon the tanner, when favored
with the vision which taught him to 'call no man
common or unclean' (Acts ix:36-39; x:5, 8; xi:5).
(3) History. During the Jewish war Joppa
was taken by surprise by Cestius, when it was
plundered and burnt, and 8.400 of the inhabitants
were put to the sword (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. ii.
18, 10). Its ruins afterwards became the refuge
of a great number of persons who had escaped
from the destruction of other cities by Vespa-
sian, and who took to piracy for a subsistence.
From the first crusade down to our own day
Joppa has been the landing-place of pilgrims go-
ing to Jerusalem, and is hence mentioned in al-
most all the innumerable itineraries and books of
travels in the Holy Land which have appeared in
different languages. There is still here an hos-
pital for pilgrims, dependent on the convent of
St. Salvador in Jerusalem, and occupied by Span-
ish monks. In 1797 the place was taken by storm
by the French army under Napoleon, and was
sacked without mercy; when the Turkish prison-
ers, to the number of 500 or 600, were carried to
the neighboiing sand-hills and put to death by
his order.
Josephus describes the natural unfitness of Jaffa
for a haven in terms very similar to those which
modern travelers employ (De Bell. Jud. iii. 9, 3).
The port is so dangerous, from exposure to the
open sea, that the surf often rolls in with the ut-
most violence, and even so lately as 1842 a lieu-
tenant and some sailors were lost in pulling to the
shore from an English steamer that lay in the har-
bor (Stent's Egypt and the Holy Land, ii :28).
JORAH
980
JORAM
But, however bad, it was the only port which ex-
isted within reach of the important district which
lay behind it inland; and the miserable state of
the ancient roads, or rather perhaps the absence
of any roads, made a near harbor, however incom-
modious, of more immediate consequence than a
good one at a greater distance.
(4) Modern Condition.. The town is ap-
proached on the land side through rich and ex-
tensive gardens and orchards, and is very pictur-
esquely situated upon an eminence or promontory,
which is crowned by a castle. It chiefly faces the
north ; and the buildings appear, from the steep-
ness of the site, as if standing upon one another.
The most prominent features of the architecture
from without are the flattened domes by which
most of the buildings are surmounted, and the
appearance of arched vaults. The aspect of the
whole is mean and gloomy, and inside the place
has all the appearance of a poor though large vil-
lage. There are no public buildings to engage the
eye, and the houses are mean and comfortless.
No ancient ruins have been observed, nor are any
expected to be in a place so often destroyed in
war. There are three mosques in Joppa, and
Latin, Greek and Armenian convents. The for-
mer is that in which European pilgrims and trav-
elers usually lodge. The town still enjoys a con-
siderable trade with the neighboring coasts. Its
chief manufacture is soap, which is largely con-
sumed in the baths of Cairo and Damascus ; and
its excellent fruits are exported in large quanti-
ties, especially watermelons, which are very ex-
tensively cultivated here and in other parts of the
plain of Sharon. The inhabitants are said not to
exceed 4,000, of whom one-fourth are reckoned
to be Christians. A British consul is now resi-
dent in the place. (Raumer's Palaslina ;Wo\nty,
1:136, sq.; Chateaubriand, ii:i03; Clarke, iv :438,
sq.; Buckingham, 1:227, sq.; Richter, p. 12; Rich-
ardson, ii:i6; Skinner, 1:175-184; Robinson, i:j8;
Stent, ii:27; Thomson, Land and Book, ii:273.)
JOBAH (jo'rah), (Heb. '''7'^ yo-raw', sprink-
ling), one of the descendants of Jorah, who to the
number of one hundred and twelve returned with
Ezra from Babylon (Ezra ii:i8). In Neh. vii:24
their place is taken by the Bene-Hariph, which is
probably only a variation caused by a slight con-
tusion of letters (B. C. about 536).
JOBAI (jo'ra-i), (Heb. '!)''', yo-rah'ee, rainy,
same as Jorah), a Gadite who dwelt in Gilead of
Bashan. His genealogies were recorded in the
time of Jotham of Judah (i Chron. v:i3), B. C.
about 782.
JORAM (jo'ram), (Heb. O'?''". yo-rawm', a
shortened form of Jehoram (which see).
/. The ninth king of Israel, son of Ahab, anJ
successor to his elder brother Ahaziah, who died
childless. He began to reign B. C. 896, and
reigned twelve years (2 Kings i:i7; iii:i). Jo-
ram adhered to the sinful policy of Jeroboam in
the matter of the golden calves ; but, although
his mother Jezebel was still alive, he discontinued
the dark idolatries of Baal which she had intro-
duced and maintained at such high cost of guilt
and blood to the nation.
(1) Revolt of Moabites. The Moabites had
been tributary to the crown of Israel since the
separation of the two kingdoms. But King Me-
sha deemed the defeat and death of Ahab so
heavy a blow to the power of Israel that he might
safely assert his independence. He accordingly
did so, by withholding his tribute of '100,000
lambs and 100,000 rams, with thfr wool.' The short
reign of Ahaziah had afforded no opportunity for
any operations against the revolters ; but the new
king hastened to reduce them again under the
yoke they had cast off. The good king of Judah,
Jehoshaphat, was too easily induced to take a part
in the war. He perhaps feared that the example
of Moab, if allowed to be successful, might se-
duce into a similar course his own tributary, the
king of Edom, whom he now summoned to join
in this expedition. The deliverance of the allies
from perishing for lack of water, and the signal
overthrow of the Moabites at the word of Elisha,
have been already described under Elisha and
Jehoshaphat.
(2) Benhadad. After this a more redoubtable
enemy, Benhadad, king of Syria, occupied for a
long time the attention and strength of the king.
In the sacred records the more striking events of
this war seem to be recorded for the sake of show-
ing forth the great acts of Elisha, and they have
therefore been related under his name. It suffices
here to indicate that they consisted in the Syrian
king being constrained to terminate one campaign
in consequence of all his plans being made known
by the prophet to the king of Israel (2 Kings vi:
1-23) ; and in the deliverance of Samaria, accord-
ing to the prediction of the prophet, from a hor-
rible famine, caused by the city being besieged
by the Syrians (2 Kings vi :24-33 ; vii). An in-
terval of the war also afforded occasion for the
remarkable cure of Naaman, the Syrian leper,
by the same prophet (2 Kings v), one of the
striking incidents of Old Testament history. (See
Naaman.)
(3) Hazael. After the death of Benhadad, Jo-
ram found a new and active enemy in his mur-
derer and successor Hazael. During the illness of
Benhadad, the king of Israel seems to have em-
ployed himself in strengthening his eastern fron-
tier against the Syrians, and in fortifying Ra-
moth-Gilead, which had fallen into his hands, and
in the attempt to recover which from the Syrians
his father had perished. This strong fortress
thenceforth became the headquarters of the oper-
ations beyond the river. Hazael was scarcely set-
tled on the throne before he took arms and
marched against Ramoth, in the environs of which
the Israelites sustained a defeat, and the king
was wounded. He returned to Jezreel to be healed
of his wounds, leaving the army in charge of
Jehu, one of his ablest and most active generals.
It was in this interval that Jehu was anointed
king of Israel by the messenger of Elisha, and
immediately proceeded to Jezreel to fulfill his
commission to exterminate the house of Ahab.
The king, who went forth from the city to meet
him when the watchman on the tower of Jezreel
announced his approach, was slain under the cir-
T'lmstances described in the article Jehu; and
Ahaziah, the king of Judah, who was at Jezreel on
a visit to his sick cousin, shared his fate (B. C.
884). With Joram ended the dynasty of Ahab,
which reigned forty-four years in Israel (2 Kings
viii :25-29; ix :i-2o).
2. King of Judah (2 Kings viii:2i, 23, 24; I
Chron. iii:ii; 2 Chron. xxii :s, 7; Matt. i:8).
(See Jehoram.)
3. One of the priests sent by Jehoshaphat to
instruct the cities of Judah in the law of Moses
(2 Chron. xvii :8).
4. A Levite, ancestor of Shelomith, who lived
in the time of David (i Chron. xxvi:25).
5. A messenger sent by his father. King Toi,
of Hamath, to congratulate David on his victory
over Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii:io), B. C. about
986. (See Hadoram, 2.)
JORDAN. RIVER OF
981
JORDAN, RIVER OF
JORDAN', KIVEK OF (jSr'dan), (Hebrew gen-
erally with article l^'"]-'"!, hah-yar-dane' , the de-
scender, probably from the rapid descent of tlie
stream), the great river of Palestine, as the Nile is
of Egypt.
(1) Name. The name "Jordan" is always joined
with the article in the Old Testament, with two
exceptions (Ps. xlii :6; Job xl :2j). The Arabs call
it csh-Shcriah, or the watering-place." A tra-
dition as old as St. Jerome, A. D. 400, says that
the Jordan derived its name from two rivers, the
Jor, rising at Banias, and the Dan, rising at Tell
el-Kadi. But this tradition seems to be erro-
neous; for, according to Gen. .\iii:io, the river
was known to Abraham as the Jordan long before
the children of Dan gave their name to Leshem
(Josh. xix:47), or Laish (Judg. xviii:29).
(2) Sources. The Jordan rises among the moun-
tains of Anti-Lebanon, and has four sources: (t)
The Hasbdny, which issues from the large foun-
tain ' Ain Furar, near Hasbcya, at an altitude of
1,700 feet above the sea. This pool, which the
natives say is 1,000 feet deep, Macgregor found
to have a depth of II feet. (2) The Banias, which
rises near the ruins of Banias (Caesarea-Philippi),
at the base of Mount Hermon, 1,140 feet above
the sea-level. (3) The Le/ft/dn rising in a large
fountain on the west side of the Tell el-Kadi
("hill of the judge," the site of the city of Dan).
In the midst of a thicket of oleander bushes is a
large pool, 50 or 60 yards wide, with the water
bubbling out of the ground in a full-grown
stream. This, which Josephus calls the Little
Jordan, is the most copious source. (4) The Esh-
Sliar, a minor tributary, only one or two yards
broad. Besides the above four sources, there arc
numerous small streams from the springs of Leba-
non which find their way into the swamp .above
Lake Hulch, and contribute to swell the Jordan.
(3) Course of the Stream. After flowing
twelve miles through the valley, it enters a dark
defile of six or seven miles, thence through a
marsh ten miles, and coming out into the beauti-
ful Lake Merom or Huleh. Taking a south course
twelve miles further on it enters the sea of Gali-
lee. Issuing from its southwest corner it flows on
some sixty miles till it empties into the Dead Sea.
(4) The Plains of the Jordan. The popular
notion that the waters of the river do not seem to
mingle with those of the lake, but pass through
in a united stream, is a "fable." From the Sea
of Tiberias to the Dead Sea there is one deep
depression, the hills from the east and west nearly
meeting in many places. This depression is filled
up to a certain level with an alluvial deposit,
forming a vast plain called the Jordan valley, or
ChSr (the hollow). This is the "upper plain."
It varies in width from one to twelve miles. The
river has cut out for itself a plain lower than the
preceding by some 50 to 100 feet, and from a
quarter of a mile to a mile wide. This is the
"lower plain," through which the river, some 60
yards wide, winds its way. During the spring
floods this lower plain is immdated. Although
the distance in a straight line between Tiberias
and the Dead Sea is only 66 miles, the actual dis-
tance the stream flows, on account of its many
windings, is 200 miles, and the fall 667 feet.
Twenty-seven threatening rapids were counted by
Lieut. Lynch, besides many others of minor im-
portance. The whole distance from the sources
of the river to its mouth is not more than 13')
miles in a straight line. The whole descent is
2.999 feet to the Dead Sea, which, according to
the latest determination of the British survey, is
1,292 feet below sea-level, although Lynch had
reported it at 1,317 feet. (See Salt Sea.) The
width of the stream varies from 45 to 180 feet,
and its depth from three to twelve feet.
(5) Tributaries. The only living tributaries
to the Jordan noticed particularly below Gennesa-
ret were the Yartmlk (Hieromax) and the Zerka
(Jabbok). The mouth of the former of these
was passed on the third day, 40 yards wide, with
moderate current, while the latter, whose course
became visible on the seventh day, was, on the
eighth day, discovered to have two distinct out-
lets into the main stream, one of which was then
dry. Older writers had distinguished two beds
and banks of the Jordan ; the first, that occupied
by the river in its normal state; the second, com-
prising the space which it occupied during its
swelling or overflow (Martiniere, Diet. Gcograph.
s. v). Similarly Lieut. Lynch has remarked:
"There are evidently two terraces to the Jordan,
and through the lower one the river runs its ser-
pentine course. From the stream, above the im-
mediate banks, there is, on each side, a singular
terrace of low hills, like truncated cones, which is
the bluflF terminus of an extended table-land,
reaching quite to the mountains of Hauran on the
eastern and the high hills on the western side"
{Narrat., April 3, and comp. what Capt. New-
bold says. p. 22).
(6) Bridges and Fords. There are no bridges
over the Jordan to which an earlier date has been
assigned tbpn that of the Roman occupation; and
there are vestiges of Roman roads in different
•parts of the country — between A'tibuhts and Itei-
Siin, for instance — that may well have crossed
these bridges. The Saracens afterwards added
to their number, or restored those which they
found in ruins. Thus the bridge called el-Ghujan
over the Hashbeiya has two pointed arches and
one round (Newbold, p. 13), while the entire
architecture of the Jisr BenAt Ya'Koh ( of the
daughters of Jacob), two and one-half miles to
the south of Little Hijleh, as well as of the khan
adjacent to it on the eastern side, is pronounced
to be Saracenic (same, p. 20). A Roman bridge
of ten arches, Jisr Semakh, spans the Jordan near
the village bearing that name, and was doubtless
en the route from Tiberias and Tarichea to Ga-
dara and Decapolis (Newbold, p. 21 ; Irby, p. 90).
Lastly, the bridge of Atejatnich, which crosses the
Jordan about si.x miles from the Lake of Gennesa-
ret, was Saracenic; while that near the ford, Dd-
inieh, was more Roman (Newbold, p. 20, and
Lynch, Narr., April 16.)
There are four principal fords over the river :
the lower one, opposite Jericho, near the famous
bathing place of the pilgrims; another, eastward
of Sakut; and two others, nearer the Sea of Gali-
lee. At low water there are many other points
at which the river might be easily forded, and the
British Survey discovered evidences of various
fords. During the floods the Arabs are frequently
obliged to swim their horses across the river.
(7) Climate and Vegetation. The great de-
pression of the Jordan valley gives to it a semi-
tropical character. "In its natural products it
stands unique, a tropical oasis sunk in the tem-
perate zone." Under the intense heat vegetation
advances with wonderful rapidity, but is as .quick-
ly scorched whenever the water supply is not
abundant.
(8) Scripture Reference and History. There
is no regular description of the Jordan to be met
with in Holy Scripture, and it is only by putting
scattered notices of it together that we can give
the general idea which runs through the Bible re-
specting it.
JORDAN, RIVER OF
982
JORDAN, RIVER OF
The earliest of these allusions is not so much to
the river itself as to the plain or plains which it
traversed : "Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all
the plain of Jordan, that it was well watered every-
where even as the garden of the
Lord, like the land of Egypt" (.Gen. xiii:ia).
Abram had just left Egypt (xii :io-2o), and there-
fore the comparison between the fertilizing prop-
erties of the Jordan and of the Nile is very apposite,
though it has since been pushed much too far,
as we shall see. We may suppose Lot to have
had his view from one of the summits of those
hills that run north in the direction of Scythopo-
lis (B. J., iv :7, Sec. 2), bounding the plains of
Jordan on the west ; for Lot and Abram were now
sojourning between Bethel and Ai (Gen. xiii:3).
Red Sea, where the intermediate agency of a
strong east wind is freely admitted (Exod. xiv :2l),
it is here said, in terms equally explicit, not only
that the river was then unusually full of water,
but that "the waters which came down from above
stood and rose up upon an heap . . . while those
that came down toward the sea of the plain . . .
failed and were cut off," as soon as ever "the feet
of the priests that bare the ark were dipped in the
brim of the water" (Josh, iiins, 16). That it
happened in harvest time is seen also from chapter
v:io-i2. Among those who crossed over the
Jordan were Gideon, "faint yet pursuing" after
Zebah and Zalmunna (Judg. viii:4, 5) ; the Am-
monites, invading Judah (Judg. x :9) ; Abner, in
flight (2 Sam. ii:29) ; David in flight (2 Sam.
View of Jordan.
How far the plain extended in length or breadth
is not said: other passages speak of "Jordan and
his border" (Josh. xiii:27), "the borders of Jor-
dan" (xxii:ii), and "the plains of Jericho" (iv:
13: comp. 2 Kings xxv:5); all evidently sub-
divisions of the same idea, comprehending the
east bank equally with the west (Josh. xiii:27).
One of the fords we have mentioned un-
doubtedly witnessed the first recorded passage of
the Jordan in the Old Testament ; we say recorded,
because there can be little dispute but that Abra-
ham must have crossed it likewise. But only the
passage of Jacob is mentioned, and that in remark-
able language; "With my staff I passed over this
Jordan, and now I am become two bands" (Gen.
xxx'i:io, and Jabbok in connection with it, verse
22^ . And Jordan was next crossed — over against
Je'richo — by Joshua the son of Nun, at the head
of the descendants of the twelve sons of him who
signalized the first passage. The magnitude of
their operations may be inferred from the fact,
that — of the children of Reuben and of Gad, and
half the tribe of Manasseh only — "about 40,000
prepared for war passed over before the Lord unto
battle." . . . . (Josh. iv:i2 and 13.)
The ceremonial of this second crossing is too
well known to need recapitulation. It mav be ob-
served, however, that, unlike the passage of the
::vii:22), and returning to his capital (xix:lS,
18) (mention is here made of a ferry-boat, prob-
ably only a raft, the only time in Scripture) ;
David, to war with the Syrians; Absalom,
in pursuit of his father (2 Sam. xvii :24) ; Elijah
and Elisha, parting the waters with the mantle
(2 Kings ii:6-i4). As two and a half tribes of
Israel dwelt east of the river, the amount of
crossing and recrossing must have been consider-
able, and the best fords were well known (comp.
Josh. ii:7; Judg. iii:28; vii:24; xii :5, 6). The
river was known to Job (Job xl :23), and Jererniah
speaks of "the swelling of Jordan" (Jer. xii :s ;
xlix:i9; 1:44). Noteworthy miracles, in addi-
tion to those already mentioned, were thecuring
of Naaman (2 Kings v:i4), and the making the
iron to swim (vi :6).
The Jordan is mentioned about 180 times in the
Old Testament. In the New Testament.it is men-
tioned IS times. The chief events noted in con-
nection with it in the New Testament are John's
baptism of the multitudes (Matt. iii:6), and espe-
cially his baptism of Jesus (Mark i:9). In com-
memoration of this latter event it is the custom
for Christian pilgrims in great numbers to bathe
in the Jordan not far from Jericho at Easter.
The Jordan has been several times navigated in
a boat in modern times — by Costigan, 1835 ; by
JORDAN, VALLEY OF
983
JOSEPH
Molyncaux, 1847; by Lieut. Lynch, 1848; by J.
Macgrcgor (Rob Roy), 1869. "The sight of the
Jordan," says Schaff, "is rather disappointing. It
bears no comparison in majesty and beauty to the
great rivers of Europe and America. Naaman
thought the clear rivers of his native Damascus far
superior, yet the Abana and Pharpar could not
wash away his leprosy. Its chief importance is
historic. In this respect the Jordan surpasses the
Hudson and the Mississippi, the Rhine and the
Danube, and even the Nile. It marks the termina-
tion of the wanderings of the children of Israel
from the banks of the Nile, and the beginning of
their history as an independent nation in their
own home. It blends the memories of the old and
new Covenants as the culmination of John's testi-
mony and the inauguration of Christ's kingdom."
— Through Bible Lands, p. 299. "Surely," says
Macgregor, "the Jordan is by far the most won-
derful stream on the face of the earth, and the
memories of its history will not be forgotten in
heaven." — Rob Roy on the Jordan, p. 406. It is
a sacred stream alike to Jew. Ishmaelite. Chris-
tian, and Mohammedan, and in this surpasses in
interest any other river in the world (SchaflE Bib.
Diet.). (See Palestine.)
JORDAN, VALLEY OF (jSr'dan), (Heb.
'''?^??, ar-a-w-ba-w' ; rendered " the plain," Josh.
xviii-.iS, marg., " the champaign," Deut. xi:30, " the
desert," Ezek. xlvii:i8). Its modern name is El
Ghor. (See Jordan, River of.)
JORIM (jo'rim), (Gr. 'loipd/i, ee-o-rime'), given in
the genealogies of Christ as the son of Matthat
(Luke iii:29), in the 13th generation from David, or
about the time of Ahaz. The name should prob-
ably be Joram or Joiarim.
JORKOAM (jor'ko-am), (Heb. O?!?!^, yor-keh-
awm' , scattered people), either a descendant of
Caleb ; or, according to Jarchi, the name of a
place in the tribe of Judah, of which Raham was
prince (i Chron. ii;44).
JOSABAD (j6s'a-bad), (Heb. "'?)''', yo-zaw-
bawff, Jehovah endowed), properly Jozabad, a
Gederatliite, one of the warriors of Benjamin who
Ijft Saul and came over to David at Ziklag (1
Chron xii:4), B. C. before 1,000.
JOSAPHAT (jos'a-phat), (Gr.'lwaa<t>iT, ee-os-ah-
fat' , Matt. i;8. King of Judah). See Jehoshaphat.
JOSE (jo'se), (Gr. 'loxn}, ee-oh-say, Luke iii:29),
an incorrect form of Joses (which see).
JOSEDECH (jos'e-dek), (Heb. PIV''^"!, yeh-ho-
tsaw-daivk' , justified by Jehovah, Zech. vi:li; Hag.
i:l, 12, 14; ii:2, 4), fatherof Jeshua. Elsewhere the
name appears as Josedec (I Esdr. v:5, 48, etc.)
JOSEPH (jo'sSf), (Heb. 15^', j/o-m/^, increaser,
adding).
1. Son of Jacob and Rachel, born under
peculiar circumstances, as may be seen in Gen.
XXX :24; on which account, and because he was
the son of his old age (xxxvii:3), he was be-
loved by his father more than were the rest of his
children, though Benjamin, as being also a son
of Jacob's favorite wife, Rachel, was in a peculiar
manner dear to the patriarch. The partiality
evinced towards Joseph by his father excited jeal-
ousy on the part of his brethren, the rather that
they were born of different mothers (xxxvii :2).
(1) Hated by His Brothers. Joseph had
reached his seventeenth year, having hitherto been
engaged in boyish sports, or aiding in pastoral
duties, when some conduct on the part of 'the
sons of Bilhah and the sons of Zilpah, his father's
wives,' seems to have been such as in the opinion
of Joseph to require the special attention of
Jacob, to whom, accordingly, he communicated
the facts. This regard to virtue, and this mani-
festation of filial fidelity, greatly imcreased his
brothers' dislike, who henceforth 'hated him, and
could not speak peaceably unto him' (xxxvii :4).
Their aversion, however, was carried to the high-
est pitch when Joseph acquainted them with two
dreams, which appeared to indicate that Joseph
would acquire preeminence in the family, if not
sovereignty ; and while even his father rebuked
him, his brothers were filled with envy. Jacob,
however, was not aware of the depth of their ill
will ; so that on one occasion, having a desire to
hear intelligence of his sons, who were pasturing
their flocks at a distance, he did not hesitate to
make Joseph his messenger for that purpose. His
appearing in view of his brothers was the signal
for their malice to gain head. They began to
devi.se means for his immediate destruction, which
they would unhesitatingly have efTected but for
his half-brother, Reuben, who, as the eldest son,
might well be the party to interfere on behalf of
Joseph.
(2) Cast Into a Pit. A compromise was
entered into, in virtue of which the youth was
stripped of the distinguishing vestments which
he owed to his father's affection, and cast into
a pit. Having performed this evil deed, and while
they were taking refreshment, the brothers be-
held a caravan of Arabian merchants, who were
bearing the spices and aromatic gums of India
down to the well-known and much-frequented
mart, Egypt. Judah on this feels a bitter emo-
tion arise in his mind, and proposes that, in-
stead of allowing Joseph to perish, they should
sell him to the merchants, whose trade obviously
from this embraced human beings as well as
spicery.
(3) Sold Into Slavery. Accordingly the un-
happy young man was sold for a slave, to be con-
veyed by his masters into Egypt. While on his
way thither, Reuben returned to the pit, intending
to rescue his brother, and convey him safely back
to their father. Joseph was gone. On which
Reuben went to the wicked young men, who, not
content with selling a brother into slavery, deter-
mined to punish their father for his partiality
towards the unoffending sufferer. With this view
they dipped Joseph's party-colored garment in
the blood of a kid and sent it to Jacob, in order
ft) make him believe that his favorite child had
been torn to pieces by some wild beast. The
trick succeeded, and Jacob was grieved beyond
measure.
Meanwhile the merchants sold Joseph to Poti-
phar, an officer of Pharaoh's, and captain of the
royal guard, who was a native of the country.
(4) Member of Potiphar's Household. In
Potiphar's house Joseph enjoyed the highest con-
fidence and the largest prosperity. The Hebrew
race have always been remarkable for personal
beauty, of which Joseph seems to have had an
unusual share. This fact explains, if it cannot
palliate, the conduct of Potiphar's wife, who tried
every means to bring the uncontaminated and
pure-minded youth to fulfill her unchaste desires.
Foiled in her evil wishes, she resolved to punish
Joseph, who thus a second time innocently brings
on himself the vengeance of the ill-disposed.
Charged with the very crime to which he had in
vain been tempted, he is. with a fickleness char-
acteristic of Oriental lords, at once cast into the
state prison.
(5) Imprisonment. The narrative states,
however, that Joseph was not left without special
JOSEPH
984
JOSEPH
aid, in consequence of which he gained favor with
the keeper of the prison to such an extent that
everything was put under his direction.
Two regal officers, the chief of the butlers and
the chief of the bakers, had, while in prison with
Joseph, each one a dream, which Joseph inter-
preted correctly. The butler, whose fate was
auspicious, promised the young Hebrew to em-
ploy his influence to procure his restoration to the
free air of day; but when again in the enjoyment
of his 'butlership,' he 'forgat' Joseph (Gen. xl).
Pharaoh himself, however, had two dreams, which
found in Joseph a successful expounder ; for the
butler remembered the skill of his prison com-
panion, and advised his royal master to put it to
the test in his own case. Pharaoh's dream, as in-
terpreted by Joseph, foreboded the approach of
a seven years' famine ; to abate the evils of which
Joseph recommended that some 'discreet and wise'
man should be chosen and set in full power over
the land of Egypt. The monarch was alarmed,
and called a council of his advisers.
(6) Dictator. The wisdom of Joseph was rec-
ognized as of divine origin and supereminent
value; and the king and his ministers (whence it
appears that the Egyptian monarchy — at Memphis
— was not despotic, but constitutional) resolved
that Joseph should be made (to borrow a term
from Rome) Dictator in the approaching time of
need.
The highest honors were conferred upon him,
and he was made ruler over all the land of Egypt.
Pharaoh called Joseph's name Zaphnath-paaneah
('savior of the world;' comp. Jablonski, Opusc.
i :207, sq.; and he gave him to wife Asenath, the
daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of On. And 'Jo-
seph went out over all the land of Egypt' (Gen.
xli:39, sq.).
Seven years of abundance afforded Joseph op-
portunity to carry into effect such plans as se-
cured an ample provision against the seven years
of need. The famine came, but it found a pre-
pared people. The visitation did not depend on
any mere local causes, for 'the famine was over
all the face of the earth,' 'and all countries came
into Egypt to Joseph to buy com' (verses 56, 57).
(7) Coining of the Sons of Jacob. Among
these customers appeared ten brethren, sons of the
Hebrew Jacob. 'They had of necessity to appear
before Joseph, whose license for the purchase of
corn was indispensable. Joseph had probably ex-
pected to see them, and he seems to have formed
a deliberate plan of action. His conduct has
brought on him the always ready charges of those
who would rather impeach than study the Bible,
and even friends of that sacred book have hardly
in this case done Joseph full justice (Niemeyer,
Charakt., ii:366; Heuser, Diss, iion inhumaniter
sed prudentissime Josephmn cum fratribtis fe-
cissc, Hal. 1773). Joseph's main object appears
to have been to make his brothers feel and recog-
nise their guilt in their conduct towards him. For
this purpose suffering, then as well as now, was
indispensable.
Accordingly Joseph feigned not to know his
brothers, charged them with being spies, threat-
ened them with imprisonment, and allowed them
to return home to fetch their younger brother, as
a proof of their veracity, only on condition that
one of them should remain behind in chaiTis, with
a prospect of death before him should not their
words be verified.
Then it was, and not before, that 'they said
one to another, We are verily guilty concerning
our brother, in that we saw the anguish of his
soul and would not hear; therefore is this dis-
tress come upon us. And Reuben said, Spake I
not unto you, saying. Do not sin against the
child, and ye would not hear? therefore, behold,
also his blood is required' (xlii:2l). On which,
after weeping bitterly, he by common agreement
bound his brother Simeon, and left him in cus-
tody.
(8) Second Visit. At length Jacob consents
to Benjamin's going in company with his brothers,
and provided with a present consisting of balm,
honey, spices and myrrh, nuts and almonds, and
with double money in their hands (double, in
order that they might repay the sum which Jo-
seph had caused to be put into each man's sack
at their departure, if, as Jacob supposed, 'it was
an oversight'), they went again down to Egypt
and stood before Joseph (xliii:i5); and there,
too, stood Benjamin, Joseph's beloved brother.
The required pledge of truthfulness was given. If
it is asked why such a pledge was demanded,
since the giving of it caused pain to Jacob, the
answer may be thus : Joseph knew not how to
demean himself towards his family until he ascer-
tained its actual condition. That knowledge he
could hardly be certain he had gained from th«
mere words of men who had spared his life for
the express purpose of selling him into slavery.
How had these wicked men behaved towards his
venerable father? His beloved brother Benjamin,
was he safe? or had he suffered from their jeal-
ousy and malice the worse fate with which he
himself had been threatened? Nothing but the
sight of Benjamin could answer these questions
and resolve these doubts.
Benjamin had come, and immediately a nat-
ural change took place in Joseph's conduct ; the
brother began to claim his rights in Joseph's
bosom. Jacob was safe, and Benjamin was safe.
Joseph's heart melted at the sight of Benjamin;
'And he said to the ruler of his house. Bring these
men home, and slay and make ready, for these
men shall dine with me at noon' (xliii:i6). But
guilt is always the ready parent of fear. Accord-
ingly the brothers expected nothing but being re-
duced to slavery. When taken to their own
brother's house, they imagined they were being
entrapped. A colloquy ensued between them and
Joseph's steward, whence it appeared that the
money put into their sacks, to which they now
attributed their peril, was in truth a present from
Joseph, designed, after his own brotherly manner,
to aid his family in their actual necessities. Noon
came, and with it Joseph, whose first question re-
garded home: 'He asked them of their welfare,
and said. Is your father well, the old man of
whom ye spake? is he yet alive? And he lifted
up his eyes and saw his brother Benjamin, his
mother's son, and said, Is this your younger
brother? And he said. God be gracious unto thee,
my son !' 'And Joseph made haste, for his bowels
did yearn upon his brother, and he sought where
to weep, and he entered into his chamber and
wept there.' Does this look like harshness?
(9) Egyptian Customs. The connection brings
into view an Egyptian custom, which is of more
than ordinary importance, in consequence of its
tjeing adopted in the Jewish polity ; 'And they set
on (food) for him by himself (Joseph), and
for them by themselves (the brethren), and for
the Egyptians which did eat with them, by them-
selves ; because the Egyptians might not eat bread
with the Hebrews; for that is an abomination with
the Egyptians' (verse 32). This passage is also
interesting, as proving that Joseph had not, in
his princely grandeur, become ashamed of his
origin, nor consented to receive adoption into a
JOSEPH
985
JOSEPH
strange nation; he was still a Hebrew, waiting,
like Moses after him, for the proper season to use
Ills power for the good of his own people.
Other customs appear in this interesting nar-
rative: 'And they (the brothers) sat before him
(Joseph), the Hrst-born according lo his birth-
right, and the youngest according to his youth.'
And he sent messes (delicacies) unto them from
before him; but Benjamin's mess was five times
so much as any of theirs' (Gen. xliii 132, 3z). Fear
had now given place to wonder, and wonder at
length issued in joy and mirth (comp. verses 18,
33. 34)- Thus ended the second act in the
drama. Another now opens.
(10) The Silver Cup. Joseph, apparently with
a view to ascertain how far his brethren were
faithful to their father, hit upon a plan which
would in its issue serve to show whether they
would make any, and what, sacrifice, in order to
fulfill their solemn promise of restoring Benja-
min in safety to Jacob. Accordingly he orders
not only that every man's money (as before)
should be put in his sack's mouth, but also that
his 'silver cup, in which my lord drinketh, and
whereby he divineth,' should be put in the sack's
mouth of the youngest. The brethren leave, but
are soon overtaken by Joseph's steward, who
charges them with having surreptitiously carried
off this costly and highly-valued vessel. They
on their part vehemently repel the accusation,
adding, 'with whomsoever of thy servants it be
found, both let him die, and we also will be my
lord's bondmen.' A search is made, and the cup
is found in Benjamin's sack. Accordingly they
return to the city. And now comes the hour
of trial : Would they purchase their own lib-
eration by surrendering Benjamin? After a most
touching interview, in which they prove them-
selves worthy and faithful, Joseph declares him-
self unable any longer to withstand the appeal
of natural affection. On this occasion Judah,
who is the spokesman, shows the deepest regard
to his aged father's feelings, and entreats for
the liberation of Benjamin even at the price of
his own liberty. In the whole of literature we
know of nothing more simple, natural, true, and
impressive (xliv).
(11) Revelation of Identity. Most natural
and impressive is the scene also which ensues, in
which Joseph, after informing his brethren who
he was, and inquiring, first of all, 'Is my father
alive?' expresses feelings free from the slightest
taint of revenge, and even shows how, under
Divine Providence, the conduct of his brothers
had issued in good — 'God sent me before you to
preserve a posterity in the earth, and to save
your lives by a great deliverance.' Five years
had yet to ensue in which 'there would be neither
earing nor harvest ;' and therefore the brethren
were directed to return home and bring Jacob
down to Egypt with all speed. 'And he fell
upon his brother Benjamin's neck and wept; and
Benjamin wept upon his neck. Moreover, he
kissed all his brethren and wept upon them ; and
after that his brethren talked with him' (xlv:i4,
is).
The news of these striking events was carried
to Pharaoh, who being pleased with Joseph's con-
duct, gave directions that Jacob and his family
should come forthwith into Egypt. The brethren
departed, being well provided for — 'And to his
father Joseph sent ten asses laden with the good
things of Egypt, and ten she asses laden with corn
and bread and meat for his father by the way.'
(12) Jacob Goes Down to Egypt. The intelli-
gence which they bore to their father was of such
a nature that 'Jacob's heart fainted, for he be-
lieved them not.' When, however, he had re-
covered from the thus naturally told effects of his
surprise, the venerable patriarch said, 'Enough ;
Joseph my son is yet alive; I will go and see him
before I die' (xlv:26, 28).
Accordingly Jacob and his family, to the num-
ber of threescore and ten souls, go down to Egypt,
and by the express efforts of Joseph are allowed
to settle in the district of Goshen, where Joseph
met his father : 'And he fell on his neck, and
wept on his neck a good while.' There Joseph
'nourished his father and his brethren, and all
his father's household, with bread, according to
their families' (xlvii:i2).
(13) Distress in Egypt. Meanwhile the pre-
dicted famine was pauperizing Eg\'pt. The in-
habitants found their money exhausted, and their
cattle and substance all gone, having been parted
with in order to purchase food from the public
granaries, until at length they had nothing to
give in return for sustenance but themselves.
'Buy us' — they then imploringly said to Joseph —
'and our land for bread, and we and our land
will be slaves unto Pharoah.' 'And Joseph bought
all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh, so the land
became Pharaoh's.' The people too, 'Joseph re-
moved to cities from one end of the borders
of the land to the other end.' Religion, however,
was too strong to submit to these political and
social changes, and so the priests still retained
their land, being supplied with provisions out
of the common store gratuitously. The land,
which was previously the people's own, was now
let to them on a tenancy, at the rent of one-fiftS
of the produce; the land of the priests being ex-
empted.
(14) Death of Jacob. Joseph had now to pass
through the mournful scenes which attend on
the death and burial of a father. Having had
Jacob embalmed, and seen the rites of mourning
fully observed, the faithful and affectionate son —
leave being obtained of the monarch — proceeded
into the land of Canaan, in order, agreeably to a
promise which the patriarch had exacted, to lay
the old man's bones with those of his fathers,
in 'the field of Ephron the Hittite.' Having per-
formed with long and bitter mourning Jacob's
funeral rites, Joseph returned into Egypt. The
last recorded act of his life forms a most becom-
ing close. After the death of their father, his
brethren, unable, like all guilty people, to forget
their criminality, and characteristically finding
it difficult to think that Joseph had really for-
given them, grew afraid now they were in his
power that he would take an opportunity of in-
flicting some punishment on them. They accord-
ingly go into his presence, and in imploring terms
and an abject manner, entreat his forgiveness.
'Fear not' — this is his noble reply — 'I will nourish
you and your little ones.'
(15) Death of Joseph.* Joseph lived an hun-
dred and ten years, kind and gentle in his affec-
tions to the last ; for we are told, 'The children
of Machir, the son of Manasseh, were brought up
upon Joseph's knees' (1:23).- And so having ob-
tained a promise from his brethren that when
the time came, as he assured them it would come,
that God should visit them, and 'bring them unto
the land which he sware to Abraham, to Isaac,
•Note.— There is insurmoantable difficntty in reconciling
the chronology of the patriarchs and the Exodus. The Assyr-
ioloEists seem to have shown that Abraham was bom in (he
23d century B. C and recent research has proved that the
Exodus cannot be later than the 13th century B. C. (Seo
Chronology.) (Cbas. R. Barnes' Prof. Bib. Cyc.)
JOSEPH
986
JOSEPH
and to Jacob,' they would carry up his bones out
of Egypt, Joseph at length 'died, and they em-
balmed him, and he was put in a coffin' (1:26).
This promise was rehgiously fulfilled. His de-
scendants, after carrying the corpse about with
them in their wanderings, at length put it in its
final resting place in Shechem, in a parcel of
ground that Jacob bought of the sons of Hamor,
which became the inheritance of the children of
Joseph (Josh. xxiv:32).
By his Egyptian wife Asenath, daughter of the
high priest of Heliopolis, Joseph had two sons,
Manasseh and Ephraim (Gen. xli :50, sq.), whom
Jacob adopted (Gen. xlviii:s), and who accord-
ingly took their place among the heads of the
twelve tribes of Israel. J. R. B.
(16) Character. Joseph possessed many noble
qualities. Piety, a singularly high morality, gen-
tleness, simplicity, patience, fidelity, magnanimity,
practical wisdom, firmness and tenacity of pur-
pose were among his characteristics.
2. The Husband o/JVfary, of whom was born
Jesus, who is called Christ (Matt. i:i6). By Mat-
thew he is said to have been the son of Jacob.
whose lineage is traced by the same writer through
David up to Abraham. Luke represents him as
being the son of Heli, and traces his origin up to
Adam. For the reconciliation of these accounts
see Genealogy.
(1) Biblical Statements. The statements of
Holy Writ in regard to Joseph are few and sim-
ple. According to a custom among the Jews,
traces of which are still found, such as hand-
fasting among the Scotch, and betrothing among
the Germans, Joseph had pledged his faith to
Mary ; but before the marriage was consummated
she proved to be with child. Grieved at this,
Joseph was disposed to break off the connection ;
but, not wishing to make a public example of one
whom he loved, he contemplated a private disrup-
tion of their bond. From this step, however, he
is deterred by a heavenly messenger, who assures
him that Mary has conceived under a divine in-
fluence, 'And she shall bring forth a son, and thou
shalt call his name Jesus ; for he shall save his
people from their sins' (Matt, i :l8, sq.; Luke
i:27). To this account various objections have
been taken ; but most of them are drawn from the
ground of a narrow, short-sighted, and half-in-
formed rationalism, which judges everything by
its own small standard, and either denies miracles
altogether, or admits only such miracles as find
favor in its sight.
(2) An Artificer. Joseph was by trade a car-
penter, in which business he probably educated
Jesus. In Matt, xiii :55, we read. 'Is not this the
son of the carpenter?' and in Mark vi :3. 'Is not
this the carpenter, the son of Mary?' The Greek
term employed, tcch-tone, is of a general charac-
ter (from tech-noh, 'I form'), and may be fitly
rendered by the English word 'artificer,' or 'arti-
san.' Schleusncr (on this subject) asserts that the
universal testimony of the ancient church repre-
sents our Lord as being a carpenter's son. Hila-
rius, on Matthew (quoted in Simon's Diclioiinairc
He la Bible, i, 691), asserts, in terms which cannot
be mistaken, that Jesus was a smith. Of the same
opinion was the Venerable Bede ; while others
have held that our Lord was a mason, and Car-
dinal Cajetan, that he was a goldsmith.
The last notion probably had its origin in those
false associations of more modern times which
disparage hand labor. Among the ancient Jews
all handicrafts were held in so much honor that
they were learned and pursued by the first men of
the nation.
(3) Tradition, Christian tradition makes Jo-
seph an old man when first espoused to Mary
(Epiphan. Hwr. 78, 7), being no less than eighty
years of age, and father of four sons and two
daughters. The painters of Christian antiquity
conspire with the writers in representing Joseph
as an old man at the period of the birth of our
Lord — an evidence which is not to be lightly re-
jected, though the precise age mentioned may be
but an approximation to fact.
(4) Death. It is not easy to determine when
Joseph died. That event may have taken place
before Jesus entered on his public ministry. This
has been argued from the fact that his mother
only appeared at the feast at Cana in Galilee. The
premises, however, hardly bear out the inference.
With more force of argument, it has been alleged
(Simon, Diet, de la Bible) that Joseph must have
been dead before the crucifixion of Jesus, else he
would in all probability have appeared with Mary
at the cross. Certainly the absence of Joseph
from the public life of Christ, and the absence of
reference to him in the discourses and history,
while 'Mary' and 'His brethren' not unfrcquently
appear, afford evidence not only of Joseph's death,
but of the inferior part which, as the legal father
cnly of our Lord, Joseph might have been expected
to sustain. The traditions respecting Joseph are
collected in Act. Sanct. iii, p. 4, sq. ; there is a Life
of Joseph written in Italian by Affaitati. (Pearson,
On the Creed; Mill, On the Brethren of the Lord;
Alford's Note on Matt, xiii :5s ) J. R. B.
3. Father of Igal, who was the spy, sent from
the tribe of Issachar to investigate the land of
Canaan (Num. xiii 7), B. C. before 1657.
4. An Israelite of the family of Bani, and one
of those who put away their foreign wives in the
time of Ezra (Ezra x:42), B. C. 456.
5. A priest in the family of Shebaniah in the
next generation after the return from captivity
(Neh. xii:i4), B. C. after 536.
6. An ancestor of Christ (Luke iii 130). He
was the son of Jonan, and was in the eighth gen-
eration from David, or about contemporary with
Ahaziah.
7. An ancestor of Christ (Luke iii:26). He
was the son of Judah or Abiud, and grandson of
Joanna or Hananiah the son of Zerubbabel.
S. Another ancestor of Christ (Luke iii:24).
He was the son of Mattathias, in the seventh gen-
eration, before Joseph, Mary's husband.
9. Surnamed Caiaph.\s (which see).
10. Joseph of jirimathea. The name Ari-
mathea denotes probably the place where Joseph
was born, not that where he resided.
(1) Location of Arimathea. Arimathea lay
in the territory of Benjamin, on the mountain
range of Ephraim, at no great distance south of
Jerusalem (Josh.xviii :25 ; Judg. iv :5),not far from
Gibeah (Judg. xix:i3; Isa. x:29; Hos. v:8).
(2) Begs the Body of Jesus. Joseph was a
secret disciple of Jesus — 'an honorable counsellor
(jSouXei/Tiis), who waited for the kingdom of
God' (Mark xv:43), and who, on learning the
death of our Lord, 'came, and went in boldly unto
Pilate, and craved the body of Jesus.' Pilate hav-
ing learned from the centurion, who commanded
at the execution, that 'Jesus was actually dead,'
gave the body to Joseph, who took it down and
wrapped his deceased Lord in fine linen which he
had purchased for the purpose ; after which he
laid the corpse in a sepulcher which was hewn out
of a rock, and rolled a stone unto the door of the
sepulcher (Mark xv :43, sq.). From the parallel
passages in Matthew (xxvii:58, sq.), Luke (xxiii:
JOSES
987
JOSHUA
50, sg.), and John (xix :38, sq.), it appears that
the body was previously embalmed at the cost of
another secret disciple, Nicodenuis, and that the
sepulcher was new, 'wherein never man before was
laid ;' also that it lay in a garden, and was the
property of Joseph himself. This garden was 'in
the place where Jesus was crucified.'
(3) Character. Luke describes the character
of Joseph as 'a good man and a just,' adding that
'he had not consented to the counsel and deed
of them,' )'. e. of the Jewish authorities. From
this remark it is clear that Joseph was a member
of the Sanhedrim; a conclusion which is corrob-
orated by the epithet 'counsellor,' applied to him
by both Luke and Mark. Tradition represents
Joseph as having been one of the Seventy, and as
having first preached the Gospel in old England
(Ittig. Diss, de Pat. Apostol, sec. 13; Assemani
Biblioth. Orient. iii:i, 319, sq.). For an attempt
to fix the precise spot where Jesus died and was
buried, see the article Golgotha. J. R. B.
11. Joseph called Barsabas was one of the
two persons whom the primitive church, immedi-
ately after the resurrection of Christ, nominated,
praying that the Holy Spirit would show which
of them should enter the apostolic band in place
of the wretched Judas. On the lots being cast, it
proved that not Joseph, but Matthias, was chosen.
Joseph bore the honorable surname of Justus,
which was not improbably given him on account
of his well-known probity. He was one of those
who had 'companied with the Apostles all the time
that the Lord Jesus went in and out amongst
them, beginning from the baptism of John,' until
the ascension (Acts \:2t,. sq.). Tradition also ac-
counted him one of the Seventy (Euseb. Hist.
Ecclcs. i:i2; Heinrichs, On Acts 1:23; Ullmann,
in the Theolog. Stud, und Kritik, i. 377).
J. R. B.
JOSES (jo'sez), (Or. 'luo-^t, ee-oh-sace').
1. The son of Mary and Cleopas, and brother
of James the Less, of Simon and of Jude, and, con-
sequently, one of those who are called the 'breth-
ren' of our Lord (Matt. xiii:55; xxvii:s6; Mark
vi:3; xv :40, 47). (See James; Judas.) He was
the only one of these brethren who was not an
apostle — a circumstance which has given occasion
to some unsatisfactory conjecture. It is perhaps
more remarkable that three of them were apostles
than that the fourth was not.
2. Son of Eliezer in the genealogy of Girist
(Luke iii 129). He was in the fifteenth generation
from David, which was about the time of Man-
assch. Jose of the A. V. is incorrect, being merely
the genitive case.
3. (See B.\rnadas.)
JOSHAH (jo'shah), (Heb. !^^\ yo-shaiv' , Jeho-
vah established), a prince of the house of Simeon,
who attacked the Hamite Shepherds in Gedor,
without provocation, and, after exterminating
them, occupied their country (i Chron. iv:34), B,
C. about 711.
JOSHAPHAT (i6sh'a-ph5t), (Heb. t3Etfi^_ yg.
shavj-fawt', Jehovah judged), a Mithnite among
the guards of David, who evidently came from the
east of the Jordan (i Chron. xi:43), B. C. about
1000.
JOSHAVIAH (josh'a-vl'ah), (Heb. ^J?^^', yo-
shav-yaw' , Jehovah sufficient), son of Elnaam and
one of David's guards (i Chron. xi:46), B. C. 1000.
JOSHBEKASHAH (josh -bSk'a- shah), (Heb.
■"VirrfT, yosh-bek-aw-shaw' , seat in hardness), a
member of the house of Hcman and head of the
sixteenth course of musicians (I Chron. xxv:4, J4),
B. C. about 960.
J08HEB-BASSEBEIH (jo'sheb-bSs'se - bStb),
(Heb. '^.?F5 -?', yo-shabe' bash-sheh' beth, sitting
in the council), the chief of David's three leading
heroes (2 Sam. xxiii:8), called Jashobeam (I Chron.
xi:ii).
JOSHUA (j6sh'u-a), (Heb. ?'"l*''^"l, yeh-ho-shoo'-
ah, Jehovah saves). The name is rendered by Jo-
sephus, the Septuagint, and the New Testament,
'IilffoOs, ee-ay-soos, Jesus.
In the same manner is spelt the name of the aii-
thor of the apocryphal book Ecclcsiasticus. This
is the name of four persons in the Old Testament,
and means whose salvation is Jehovah (compare
the German name Gotthilf).
1. The most distinguished of the four persons,
so called, who occur in the Old Testament, is
Joshua the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim,
the assistant and successor of Moses. His name
was originally Hoshca, salvation (Num. xiii :8) ;
and it seems that the subsequent alteration of it
by Moses (Num. xiii:i6) was significant, and pro-
ceeded on the same principle as that of Abram into
Abraham (Gen. xvii:s), and of Sarai into Sarah
(Gen. xviiiis).
(1) Commander of Israelites. In the Bible
he is first mentioned as being the victorious com-
mander of the Israelites in their battle against
the Amalekites at Rephidim (Exod. xvii:8-i6),
B. C. 1210.
(2) On Mount Sinai. When Moses was on
the mount, Joshua tarried somewhere on the side
of it, and came down with him (Exod. xxiv:i3;
xxxii :!/).
(3) In Charge of Tabernacle. After the de-
fection of Israel and their worship of the golden
calf, Moses moved the tabernacle outside of the
camp, and, returning to the congregation, left it
in charge of Joshua (xxxiii:ii).
(4) Eldad and Medad. Zealous for Moses'
honor, he was for prohibiting Eldad and Medad
from prophesying. Moses rebuked him, saying.
"Enviest thou for my sake? would God that all
the Lord's people were prophets, and that the
Lord would put his Spirit upon them" (Num. xi :
27-29).
(5) A Spy. He was one of the spies that
searched the Promised Land (Num. xiii:8, 16;
xiv:6, 38; xi :28, 29).
(6) Appointed Ruler. A little before Moses'
death. Joshua was solemnly installed in the gov-
ernment of the Hebrew nation ; and such honor
was by Moses put upori him as tended to make
them reverence and obey him (Num. xxvii: 18-23;
Deut. iii :2i ; xxxi:i4-23).
(7) With Moses in the Tabernacle. It was
made known to Moses that he was about to die,
and that he should appear with Joshua in the
tabernacle. And while in the presence of Jeho-
vah Moses gave his devoted minister a "charge,"
and said, "Be strong and of good courage ; for
thou shalt bring the children of Israel into the
land which I sware unto them ; and I will be with
thee" (Deut. xxxi:l4. 23).
(8) Takes Charge of Israel. After Moses'
death, God directed and encouraged Joshua to
take on him the government of the Hebrews, and
promised to give him his continued presence and
support. Joshua warned the Reubenites, Gadites,
and eastern Manassites, who were settled by
Moses, to prepare for crossing the Jordan and
JOSHUA
988
JOSHUA
conquering Canaan, along with their brethren.
Spies were sent to view Jericho. These, by means
of Rahab, were preserved, and returned safe,
though no small search had been made for them;
they reported that the Canaanites were in the ut-
most consternation, for fear of the Hebrew in-
vasion.
(9) Crosses the Jordan. At this time, the
Jordan overflowed its banks ; but, as soon as the
feet of the priests, who bare the ark of the Lord,
going at the distance of 2,000 cubits, or 3,648 feet,
before the host, touched the brim of the waters of
Jordan, they parted ; those above stood like a
mountain, and those below ran off into the Dead
Sea, leaving an empty space of about six miles
for the Hebrew tribes to pass over. The priests,
with the ark, continued in the middle of the chan-
nel till all were got over.
(10) In Canaan. To commemorate this event,
Joshua erected twelve large stones in the very spot
where the ark had stood ; and, taking twelve other
stones from the mid channel of the river, erected
them on the banks. Some days after he or-
dered that all that had been born for thirty-eight
years back to be circumcised ; fully assured of
God's protecting them, when sore, from their foes.
Next, the passover was celebrated. On the mor-
row after, they began to eat the old corn of Ca-
naan, and the manna fell no more about their
tents.
(11) The Angel of Jehovah. Soon after, the
angel of Jehovah appeared to Joshua as a glorious
man, with a drawn sword, and told him he was
come, as chief commander of the Hebrew troops
in their approaching wars. He fell on his face,
and reverently put off his shoes (Josh. v:i3-i5).
(12) Capture of Jericho. Directed of God,
Joshua made his troops encompass Jericho seven
days, and seven times on the seventh, with the
ark carried before them, and some sounding with
ram's horns. When they had finished the thir-
teenth circuit, they gave a great shout, and the
walls of Jericho, all around, fell flat to the ground.
None but Rahab and her family were saved (Josh,
vi). The metal found in the city was devoted to
the service of God, but everything else to ruin ;
and a curse was denounced against the rebuilder
of the city. Achan, however, coveted and took
part of the spoil. (See Achan.)
(13) The First Defeat. Advised by some,
Joshua, to ease his troops, sent no more but 3,000
to attack Ai. To punish Achan's theft, they were
repulsed, and thirty-six of the number slain. This
exceedingly grieved Joshua, as he thought it
would make the Canaanites triumph over God and
his people. After solemn prayer he was informed
of the cause, and the sacrilege was punished by
the death of Achan and his family (Josh. vii).
(14) Capture of Ai. Next the Lord ordered
the whole Hebrew host to attack Ai, and to use
stratagems beside. After it was taken, Joshua
and the Hebrews seem to have marched north-
ward to Ebal and Gerizim. On Ebal they erected
stones, plastered them with plaster, and plainly
inscribed thereon a copy of the Mosaic laws, or
rather an abridgement, or perhaps no more than
the blessings and curses mentioned in Deut.
xxvii and xxviii. An altar of rough stones was
raised, and the burnt-offerings and peace-offer-
ing being finished, the people feasted on the flesh
of the last with joy and gladness, that they were
thus the covenant people of God. The priests
then went down to the valley of Moreh between
two hills, and with a loud voice read the blessings
and curses. Six of the tribes, descended from
free women, with their wives, and the strangers
among them, stood on Gerizim, and echoed
Amen to the blessings. Six of the tribes, four of
which were descended of bond women, and one
of Reuben, who had lost his birthright, with their
wives, and the strangers, stood on Mount Ebal,
and echoed their Amen to the curses as they
were read. After this solemn dedication of them-
selves to God's service, the Hebrews returned to
Gilgal (Josh, vi-viii ; Deut. xxvii).
(15) League with the Gibeonites. Next,
Joshua and the princes entered into a league with
the Gibeonites ; and being convinced of his mis-
take, he devoted that people to the laborious part
of the service of God. Enraged that the Gibeon-
ites had made peace with Joshua, Adonizedek,
and four of his neighboring princes, entered into
a league to destroy them.
(16) Battle of Gibeon. Informed of this,
Joshua marched to their assistance and routed
the five kings. A little before sunset, Joshua
brought these kings out of the cave of Makkedah,
where he had shut them up, and after causing his
captains to trample on their necks, he hanged
them. Joshua proceeded to burn their cities, and
slay the inhabitants throughout the south part
of the promised land.
(17) Subsequent Conquests. This great bat-
tle was followed by the conquest of Makkedah,
Libnah, Lachish, Gezer, Eglon, Hebron, and De-
bir. In this one campaign Joshua subdued the
southern half of Palestine, from Kadesh-barnea to
Gaza, the eastern and western limit of the south-
ern frontier ; and he led the people back to Gilgal
(Josh, x: 15-43). In another campaign he marched
to Lake Merom, where he met and overthrew a
confederacy of the Canaanitish chiefs of the north,
Jabin, King of Hazor, and in the course of a pro-
tracted war he led his victorious soldiers to the
gates of Zidon and into the Valley of Lebanon un-
der Hermon. In six years, six nations, with thirty-
one kings, swell the roll of his conquests, and
amongst others the Anakim — the old terror of
Israel — are specially recorded as destroyed every-
where except in Philistia. (Smith, Diet, of the
Bible.)
(18) Dividing the Inheritance. Joshua, now
advanced in years, proceeded, in conjunction with
Eleazar and the heads of the tribes, to complete
the division of the conquered land ; and when all
was allotted, Timnath-serah, in Mount Ephraim,
was assigned by the people as Joshua's peculiar
inheritance. The tabernacle of the congregation
was established at Shiloh, six cities of refuge
were appointed, forty-eight cities assigned to the
Levites, and the warriors of the trans-Jordanic
tribes dismissed in peace to their homes.
(19) Assembles the Hebrews. After Joshua
had governed the Hebrews seventeen, or perhaps
twenty-five years, he, finding his end approaching,
assembled the Hebrews, rehearsed to them what
God had done for them, and made them renew
their solemn engagements to worship and serve
him at Shechem, a place already famous in con-
nection with Jacob (Gen. xxxv:4), and Joseph
(Josh. xxiv:32).
(20) Death. He died aged one hundred and
ten, and was buried at Timnath-serah, his own
city fjosh. xxiv :29, 30).
(21) Character. Joshua's life has been noted
as one of the very few which are recorded in his-
tory with some fullness of detail. In his character
liave been traced, under an Oriental garb, such
features as chiefly kindled the imagination of
western chroniclers and poets in the Middle Ages ;
JOSHUA, BOOK OF
989
JOSHUA, BOOK OK
the character of a devout warrior, who has been
taught by serving as a youth how to command as
a man ; who earns by manly vigor a quiet, hon-
ored old age; who combines strength with gen-
tleness, ever looking up for and obeying the di-
vine impulse with the simplicity of a child, while
ho wields great power, and directs it calmly, and
without swerving, to the accomplishment of a
high, unselfish purpose. (Smith, Bib. Did.) (See
Canaanites.)
Figurative. Holy Scripture itself suggests
(Hob. iv;8) the consideration of Joshua as a type
of Christ. Many of the Christian Fathers have
enlarged upon this view. (See Bishop Pearson,
who has collected their opinions On the Creed.
Art. ii, pp. 87-90, and 94-96, ed. 1843).
2. A Bcth-shemite (i Sam. vi:i4), the owner
of the field into which the cart came which bore
the ark on its return from the land of the Philis-
tines. (B. C. about 1076.)
3. The governor of the city of Jerusalem at
the commencement of the reign of Josiah. He
gave his name to one of the city gates (2 Kings
x.xiii:8), B. C. 621.
4. Joshua or Jeshua, the son of Jozadak, or
JosEDECH, was high-priest of the Jews when they
returned from Babylon. He assisted Zerubbabel
in rebuilding the temple. Zechariah saw him rep-
resented as standing before the Lord in filthy gar-
ments, and Satan standing at his right hand to ac-
cuse and resist him ; but the Angel of Jehovah re-
buked the devil, and arrayed Joshua in pure
raiment. Not long after, Zechariah was directed
to make a golden crown for him (Ezra iv:3; Hag.
i:i; Zech. iii and vi).
Figurative. Did not he prefigure Jesus, as the
High-Priest, Builder, and Savior of his church,
who, though once laden with our iniquities, and
in the likeness of sinful flesh, is now glorious in
his apparel, and crowned with many crowns?
Brown.
JOSHUA, BOOK OF.
(1) Profane Mention of Other Books. There
occur some vestiges of the deeds of Joshua in
other historians besides those of the Bible. Pro-
copius mentions a Phoenician inscription near the
city of Tingis in Mauritania, the sense of which
in Greek was: — *H/«rj ^(T/jlcv ol rpvydm-es dird irpoatiirov
'IijffoC ToO XjjffToO vlov Navij — 'We are those who fled
before the face of Joshua the robber, the son of
Nun' {De Bell. Vandal, ii, 10). Suidas (sub verbo
Xo^'odx): — iiitiiii iaii€i> XavavaToi oCs iSlu^ev 'IrjiroOt 6
\ij<rT7)s— 'We are the Canaanites whom Joshua the
robber drove away.'
A letter of Shaubech, king of Armenia Minor,
in the Samaritan book of Joshua (ch. xxvi),
styles Joshua lupus fercussor, 'the murderous
wolf;' or, according to another reading in the
book Juchasin (p. 154, f. l), and in the S/ialsAe-
leth Rakkahbalah (p. 96), lupus vcspertinus, 'the
evening wolf.'
(2) Name of the Book. The book of Joshua
is so called from the personage who occupies the
principal place in the narration of events con-
tained therein, and may be considered as a con-
tinuation of the Pentateuch. It commences with
the words now it came to pass, which may be
renderd thereupon it happened. Books beginning
with what Dr. Samuel Lee calls the illative vau,
are to be regarded as continuations of earlier
works. The Pentateuch, and especially Deuter-
onomy, are repeatedly referred to in the book of
Joshua, the narration of which begins with the
death of Moses and extends to the death of
Joshua, embracing a chronological period of some-
what less than thirty years. The subject of the
book is thus briefly stated in ch. i :$, 6: 'There
shall not any man be able to stand before thee
all the days of thy life. As I was with Moses,
so I will be with thee; I will not fail thee, nor
forsake thee. Be strong and of a good courage ;
for unto this people shalt thou divide for an
inheritance the land which I swarc unto their
fathers to give them.' In these two verses is also
indicated the division of the book into two prmci-
pal portions, with reference to the conquest and
the distribution of the land of Canaan. The con-
quest is narrated in the first twelve, and the dis-
tribution in the following ten chapters. In the
last two chapters are subjoined the events sub-
sequent to the distribution up to the death of
Joshua.
(3) Conquest of Canaan. The history of the
conquest of Canaan is a series of miracles, than
which none more remarkable are recorded in any
part of sacred history. The passage into the
Promised Land, as well as that out of Egypt,
was through water. Jericho was taken not by
might, but by the falling of the walls on the blast
of the trumpets of seven priests ; and in the
war against Gibeon the day was prolonged to
afford time for the completion of the victory.
(4) First Twelve Chapters. It is generally
granted that the first twelve chapters form a con-
tinuous whole; although the author in ch. x:i3,
refers to another work, he not merely transcribes
but intimately combines the quotation with the
tenor of his narration. It is certain that there
sometimes occur episodes which seem to interrupt
the chronological connection, as for instance the
portion intervening between chs. i, ii, and iii:l.
The whole tenor of the first twelve chapters be-
speaks an eye-witness who bore some part in the
transactions, and the expression we passed over,
in ch. v:i, bears this out, as well as the cir-
cumstantial vividness of the narrative, which
clearly indicates that the writer was an eye-
witness.
(5) Time of Writing. The statement that the
monuments which he erected were extant to this
day, indicates that he did not promulgate the
book immediately after the events narrated
(comp. iv:9; vii:26; viii :28, 29; x:27). The
book could not have been written very long after
the time of Joshua, because we find that Rahab
was still alive when it was composed (vi:25).
The section from chapters xiii to xxii inclusive,
which contains an account of the distribution of
the land, seems to be based upon written docu-
ments, in which the property was accurately de-
scribed. That this was the case is likely not
merely on account of the peculiar nature of the
diplomatic contents by which this 'Doomsday
Book' is distinguished from the preceding part of
Joshua, but also on account of the statement in
chapter xviii :4. where Joshua says to the children
of Israel. 'Give out from among you three men
from each tribe ; and I will send them, and they
shall rise, and go through the land and describe it
according to the inheritance of them ; and they
shall come again to me.' Compare verse 6, 'Ye
therefore shall describe the land into seven parts.'
Compare also verses 8 and 9. 'And the men arose
and went aw.iy ; and Joshua charged them that
went to describe the land, saying. Go, and walk
through the land, and describe it. and come again
to me, that I may here cast lots for you before
the Lord in Shiloh.'
(6) Sources. The list of towns granted to the
Levites in Josh, xxi differs from that in I Chron.
vi 139-66 so much that we nmst suppose the latter
TOSHUA, BOOK OF
990
JOSHUA, BOOK OF
to contain abstracts from a source different from
that in the book of Joshua. That a change of
circumstances might demand changes in such lists
becomes evident, if we consider tlie fate of indi-
vidual cities. For instance, Ziklag was given to
the tribe of Simeon (Josh, xix :5) ; nevertheless
we read in I Sam. xxvii:6, that Achish gave
Ziklag to David.
Since the book of Joshua contains also a de-
scription of the territories of Reuben, Gad, and
the half tribe of Manasseh, situated on the left
bank of the Jordan, which tribes entered into pos-
session before the death of Moses, the Pentateuch
itself may be considered as one of the sources
from which the second part of the book of Joshua
has been compiled. That the author of the book
of Joshua derived part of his information from the
Pentateuch is evident, if we compare Deut. xviii :
I, 2, and Num. xviii :20, with Josh. xiii:i4, 33;
xiv -.4. Compare also Num. xxxi :8, with Josh.
xiii :2i and 22.
The author of the book of Joshua frequently
repeats the statement of the Pentateuch in a more
detailed form, and mentions the changes which
had taken place since the Pentateuch was written.
Compare Num. xxxiv:i3 and 14, with Josh, xiv:
1-4; Num. xxxii :37, with Josh. xiii:i7, sq.; Num.
XXXV with Josh. xxi.
(7) Similarities. There is also considerable
similarity between the following passages in the
books of Joshua and Judges : Josh, xiii .'3 ; Judg.
iii:3; Josh. xv:i3, sq.; Judg. i:io, 20; Josh, xv:
15-19; Judg. i:ii-i5; Josh. xv:63; Judg. i :2i ;
Josh. xvi:io; Judg. 1 129 ; Josh, xvii :i2; Judg. i •.27;
Josh. xix:47; Judg. xviii. The book of Joshua
seems to explain the text of the book of Judges
by brief notices ; as, for instance, the names
Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai (Josh. xv:i4),
(comp. Judg. i:io), and makes use of more regu-
lar grammatical forms, instead of the more un-
usual forms in the book of Judges.
(8) Authentic Records. It seems to have
been the intention of the author of chapters xiii-
xxii to furnish authentic records concerning the
arrangements made by Joshua after the conquest
of Canaan. Since we do not find in the subse-
quent history that the tribes, after the death of
Joshua, disagreed among themselves about the
ownership of the land, it would appear that the
object of the book of Joshua, as a 'Doomsday
Book,' was fully attained. The circumstance that
the book of Joshua contains many Canaanitish
names of places to which the Hebrew names are
added, seems also to indicate that the second part
originated in an early age, when neither the
Canaanitish name was entirely forgotten, nor the
Hebrew name fully introduced; so that it was
expedient to mention both.
(9) Authorship. In the last two chapters
occur two orations of Joshua, in which he bids
farewell to the people whom 'he had commanded.
In chapter xxiv :26, we read, 'And Joshua wrote
these words in the book of the law of God.' The
expression, these words, seems to refer only to
his last address, and the subsequent resolution of
the people to follow his example. We are here,
however, expressly informed that Joshua did
write this much ; and consequently, we deem it
the more likely that he also committed to writing
the other memorable events connected with his
career, such as the conquest and the distribution
of the land.
Viewing all the circumstances together, we
consider it highly probable that the whole book of
Joshua was composed by himself up to the twenty-
eighth verse of the last cliapter ; to which a
friendly hand subjoined some brief notices, con-
tained in verses 29-33, concerning the death, age,
and burial of Joshua ; the continuance of his in-
fluence upon the people; the interment, in She-
chem, of the bones of Joseph, which the children
of Israel had brought from Egypt; and the death
and burial of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, whom
hjs son Phinehas interred in his allotment on
Mount Ephraim.
(10) Authority. The authority of the book of
Joshua mainly rests upon the manner in which
it is treated in other parts of the Bible.
Besides the above allusions in the book of
Judges, we find Joshua referred to in I Kings
xvi :34 : — 'In his days did Hiel the Bethelite
build Jericho ; he laid the foundation thereof in
Abiram, his firstborn, and set up the gates thereof
in his youngest son Segub, according to the word
of the Lord, which he spake by Joshua the son
of Nun.' (Comp. Josh. vi:26.) The second and
third verses of Psalms xliv contain a brief sum-
mary of the whole book of Joshua : — 'Thou didst
•drive out the heathen with thy hand, and plantedst
them ; thou didst afflict the people, and cast them
out. For they got not the land in possession by
their own sword, neither did their own arm
save them ; but thy right hand and thine arm,
and the light of thy countenance, because thou
hadst a favor unto them.' (Compare Psalm
Ixviii :I2-I4; Ixxviii :S4, 55; cxiv :3 and 5, which
refer to the book of Joshua.) Also, Hab. iii:li :
'The sun and moon stood still in their habitation,'
etc. Heb. xiii :5 : 'For he hath said, I will never
leave thee, nor forsake thee.' (Compare Josh.
i:S.) Heb. xi :3I : 'By faith the harlot Rahab
perished not with them that believed not, when
she had received the spies with peace ;' and James
ii :25 : 'Likewise also was not Rahab the harlot
justified by works, when she had received the
messengers, and had sent them out another way?'
(Compare Josh, ii and vi :22-25.) Acts vii:45:
'Which (the tabernacle) also our fathers that
came after brought in with Jesus into the pos-
session of the Gentiles, whom God drave out
before the face of our fathers.' (Compare Josh.
iii:i4.) Heb. xi :30 : 'By faith the walls of
Jericho fell down, after they were compassed
about seven days.' (Compare Josh, vi: 17-23.)
Heb. iv:8: 'For if Jesus (Joshua) had given
them rest, then would he not afterwards have
spoken of another day.'
The quotation from the book of Jasher (Josh.
x:i3) is said to be contradicted by 2 Sam. i:i8,
where it appears that this book was written in the
days of David. But this is by no means clear
from the passage referred to ; and even if it were
so, it would seem that the book of Jasher was an
anthologia, augmented in the days of David.
Others have based upon this quotation the infer-
ence that the book of Joshua was written after the
times of David. De Wette, in his Einteilung
(Berlin, 1833, p. 219), asserts that the book of
Joshua was written after the Babylonian cap-
tivity.
The mention of the book of Jasher has given
rise to some spurious compilations under that
name, as well in Hebrew as in English. (See the
article Jasher, Book of.)
(11) Literature. See, besides the Introduc-
tions of Eichhorn, De Wette, and Havernick;
George Bush, Notes on Joshua and Judges (New
York, 1838) ; Wordsworth, Holy Bible with notes,
pt. i :i-74 (Lond., 1865) ; Ewald, Gesch. des
Volkes Israel. Eng. transl. by Martineau (Lond.,
1868) ; Palfrey, Lectures on the Jewish Scrip-
tures, ii. 134-183; Davidson, Introd. to the Old
Testament. 1:409-448; Rawlinson, Hist. Evidences
Lect. iii ; Keil, Introd. to Old Testament.
JOSIAH
991
JOSIAH
JOSIAH (j6-si'ah), (Heb. ^V^^", yo-shee-yaw.
founded by Jah).
I. The sixteenth king of Judah, and son of
Amon whom he succeeded on the throne ( B. C.
639). at the early age of eight years, and reigned
thirty-one jears.
(1) Accession, to the Throne. As Josiah thus
early ascended the throne, we may the more ad-
mire the good qualities which he manifested.
Avoiding the example of his immediate prede-
cessors, he 'did that which was right in the sight
of the Lord, and walked in all the ways of David
his father, and turned not aside to the right hand
or to the left' (2 Kings xxii:i, 2; 2 Chron. xxxiv:
I, 2).
(2) Purification of the Land. As early as
the sixteenth year of his age he began to manifest
that enmity to idolatry in all its forms which dis-
tinguished his character and reign ; and he was not
quite twenty years old when he proclaimed open
war against it, although more or less favored by
many men of rank and influence in the court and
kingdom. He then commenced a thorough puri-
fication of the land from all taint of idolatry, by
going about and superintending in person the op-
erations of the men who were employed in break-
ing down idolatrous altars and images, and cutting
down the groves which had been consecrated to
idol worship. His detestation of idolatry could
not have been more strongly expressed than by
ransacking the sepulchers of the idolatrous priests
of former days, and consuming their bones upon
the idol altars before they were overturned.
(3) His Action Predicted. Yet this operation,
although unexampled in Jewish history, was fore-
told three hundred and twenty-six years before
Josiah was born, by the prophet who was commis-
sioned to denounce to Jeroboam the future pun-
ishment of his sin. He even named Josiah as the
person by whom this act was to be performed; and
said that it should be performed in Bethel, which
was then a part of the kingdom of Israel (l Kings
xiii:2). All tliis seemed much beyond the range
of human probabilities. But it was performed to
the letter; for Josiah did not confine his proceed-
ings to his own kingdom, but went over a con-
siderable part of the neighboring kingdom of Is-
rael, which then lay comparatively desolate, with
the same object in view ; and as Bethel, in par-
ticular, executed all that the prophet had foretold
(2 Kings xxiii:l-i9; 2 Chron. xxxiv :3-7, 32). In
these proceedings Josiah seems to have been actu-
ated by an absolute hatred of idolatry, such as no
other king since David had manifested, and which
David had scarcely occasion to manifest in the
same degree.
(4) Temple Repaired. In the eighteenth year
of his reign and the twenty-sixth of his age, when
the land had been thoroughly purified from idola-
try and all that belonged to it, Josiah proceeded
to repair and l>eautify the temple of the Lord.
(5) Finding of the Law. In the course of this
pious labor, the high-priest Hilkiah discovered in
the sanctuary a volume, which proved to contain
the books of Moses, and which, from the terms
employed, seems to have been considered the or-
iginal of the law as written by Moses. On this
point there has been much anxious discussion and
some rash assertion. Some writers of the German
school allege that there is no external evidence
—that is, evidence beside the law itself — that the
book of law existed till it was thus produced by
Hi!''i:»h. This assertion it is the less necessary to
ansvver here, as it is duly noticed in the article
Pkntateuch. But it may be observed that it is
founded very much on the fact that the king was
greatly astonished when some parts of the law
were read to him. It is indeed perfectly manifest
that he had previously been entirely ignorant of
mucli that he then heard ; and he rent his clothes
in consternation when he found that, with the best
intentions to serve the Lord, he and all his people
had been living in the neglect of duties which the
law declared to be of vital importance. It is cer-
tainly difficult to account for this ignorance.
Some suppose that all the copies of the law had
perished, and that the king had never seen one.
This is very unlikely, but however scarce com-
plete copies may have been, the pious king was
likely to have been the possessor of one. The
probability seems to be that the passages read were
those awful denunciations against disobedience
with which tlic book of Deuteronomy concludes,
and which from some cause or other the king had
never before read, or which had never before pro-
duced on his mind the same strong conviction of
the imminent dangers under which the nation lay,
as now when read to him from a volume invested
with a character so venerable, and brought with
such interesting circumstances under his notice.
The king in his alarm sent to Huldah 'the
prophetess,' for her counsel in this emergency (see
Huldah) ; her answer assured him that, although
the dread penalties threatened by the law had been
incurred and would be inflicted, he should be
gathered in peace to his fathers before the days of
punishment and sorrow came.
(6) Renewal of the Covenant. It was per-
haps not without some hope of averting this doom
that the king immediately called the people to-
gether at Jerusalem, and engaged them in a solemn
renewal of the ancient covenant with God. When
this had been done, the Passover was celebrated
with careful attention to the directions given in
the law, and on a scale of unexampled magnifi-
cence. But all was too late ; the hour of mercy
had passed ; for 'the Lord turned not from the
fierceness of his great wrath, wherewith his anger
was kindled against Judah' (2 Kings xxii 13-20;
x.xiii :2i-27; 2 Chron. xxxiv 18-33; xxxvti-ip).
(7) Death. That removal from the world
which had been promised to Josiah as a blessing,
was not long delayed and was brought about in
a way which he had probably not expected. His
kingdom was tributary to the Chaldsean empire;
and when Pharaoh-nccho, king of Eg>'pt, sought
a passage through his territories, on an expedition
against the Chald.Teans, Josiah, with a very high
sense of the obligations which his vassalage im-
posed, refused to allow the march of the Egj'ptian
army through his dominions, and prepared to re-
sist the attempt by force of arms. Necho was very
unwilling to engage in hostilities with Josiah ; the
appearance of the Hebrew army at Mcgiddo, how-
ever, brought on a battle, in which the king of
Judah was so desperately wounded by arrows that
his attendants removed him from the war-chariot,
and placed him in another, in which he was taken
to Jerusalem, where he died (B. C. about 6S0).
(8) Character. Josiah possessed many esti-
mable qualities. No king that reigned in Israel
was ever more deeply lamented by all his subjects
than he; and we are told that the prophet, Jere-
miah, composed on the occasion an elegiac ode,
which was long preserved among the people, but
which is not now in existence (2 Kings xxiii :29-
37; 2 Chron. xxxv:20-27).
2. Son of Zephaniali, whose house Zechariah
was commanded to make the assembling place of
the chief men of the captivity when Joshua, the
high-priest, was crowned (Zech. vino), B. C.
519-
JOSIAS
992
JOY
JOSXAS (jo-si'as), (Gr. 'lu<rtas, ee-oh-se'os), the
Grecized form of Josiah, king of Judah, found
Matt. i;lo, U.
JOSIBIAH (jos-i-bi'ah), (Heb. '"''?"'?'"\ yo-shib-
yaw' , i. e. Josl.ibiah, dweller with Jehovah), father
of Jehu, a descendant of that branch of the Sim-
eonite tribe of which Shimei was founder, and
which later was the most numerous (i Chron.
iv:35), B. C. before 711.
JOSIPHIAH (jos'i-phi'ah), (Heb. '^^??^^\ yo-
shib-yaw' , dweller with Jehovah), an ancestor,
perhaps father, of Shelomith, who returned from
the captivity with Ezra (Ezra viii: 10), B. C. about
457-
JOT (jot), English form of Iota, lOra, ee-oh'ta,
the Greek letter so called, the same in power and
place as the English i. (See Iota.)
JOTBAH (jot'bah), (Heb. '^'W-,, yot-baw',
pleasantness), given as the native place of Meshul-
lemeth, queen of Manasseh, and mother of Amon,
King of Judah (2 Kings xxiiig). The place is not
elsewhere mentioned, but it is commonly identi-
fied with JOTBATH.
JOIBATH or JOTBATHA (jot'bath' or j6t'ba-
thah), (Heb. '^??Vt, yot-baw' thaw , pleasantness),
the twenty-ninth encampment of Israel in the
wilderness, between Gidgad and Ebronah (Num.
xxxiii:33, 34; Deut. x:;).
JOTHAH (jo'tham), (Heb. °?''', yo-thawm' ,
God is upright).
J. The youngest of Gideon's seventy legitimate
sons ; and the only one who escaped when the rest
were massacred by the order of Abimelech (Judg.
ix :s). When the fratricide was made king by the
people of Shechem, the young Jotham was so dar-
ing as to make his appearance on Mount Gerizim
for the purpose of lifting up a protesting voice,
and of giving vent to his feelings. This he did in
a beautiful parable, wherein the trees are repre-
sented as making choice of a king, and bestowing
on the bramble the honor which the cedar, the
olive, and the vine would not accept. The obvious
application, which indeed Jotham failed not him-
self to point out, must have been highly exasper-
ating to Abimelech and his friends ; but the
speaker fled, as soon as he had delivered his par-
able, to the town of Beer, and remained there out
of his brother's reach. We hear no more of him;
but three years after, if then living, he saw the
accomplishment of the malediction he had pro-
nounced (Judg. ix:s-2i).
2. The tenth king of Judah. and son of Uzziah,
whom he succeeded in B. C. 758, at the age of
twenty-five; he reigned sixteen years. His father
having during his last years been excluded by lep-
rosy from public life (see Uzziah), the govern-
ment was administered by his son. Jotham
profited by the experience which the reign of his
father, and of the kings who preceded him, afford-
ed, and he ruled in the fear of God, although he
was unable to correct all the corrupt practices into
which the people had fallen.
(1) Prosperous B«ign. His sincere intentions
were rewarded with a prosperous reign. He was
successful in his wars. The Ammonites, who had
'given gifts' as a sort of tribute to Uzziah, but
had ceased to do so after his leprosy had in-
capacitated him from governing, were constrained
by Jotham to pay for three years a heavy tribute
in silver, wheat, and barley (2 Chron. xxvi:8;
xxvii :s, 6).
(2) Public Works. Many important public
works were also undertaken and accomplished by
Jotham. The principal gate of the temple was re-
built by him on a more magnificent scale ; the
quarter of Ophel, in Jerusalem, was strengthened
by new fortifications ; various towns were built or
rebuilt in the mountains of Judah ; and castles and
towers of defense were erected in the wilderness.
(3) Death. Jotham died greatly lamented by
his people, and was buried in the sepulcher of the
kings (2 Kings xv:38; 2 Chron. xxvii:3-9), B. C.
about 735-
3. A descendant of Judah, son of Jahdai (l
Chron. ii:47).
JOURNEY (jar'ny), (Heb. ""l^, deh'rek, a re-
moval from one place to another).
A day's journey is reckoned about sixteen or
twenty miles. To this distance, around the He-
brew camp, were the quails gathered for food for
the people (Num. xi:3i). Shaw computes the
eleven days' journey from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea
to be about one hundred and ten miles (Deut. i:
2). A Sabbath day's journey is reckoned by the
Hebrews at 2000 cubits, or nearly seven hundred
and thirty paces; and it is said, that if any Jew
traveled above this from the city on the Sabbath,
he was beaten ; but it is probable they were al-
lowed to travel as far to the synagogue as was
necessary (Acts i:i2; 2 Kings iv :23) . The He-
brews seem to have had fifty-two journeys or
marches from Rameses to Gilgal (Num. xxxiii).
JOY (joi), (generally some form of Heb. ' ^'
gheel, to spin round, or leap with pleasure); a
stronger term than '"'C^r, sim-khaw' (Ps. xxx:5,
etc.); Maiu-soce' (2?"^^, Job viii: 19, etc.), rejoic-
ing; khar-ah' (Gr. xop"^. Matt. ii:io), gladness;
the cause or occasion of joy (Luke ii.io; 1 Thess.
ii:20). Joy or gladness in general, is an agreeable
mental sensation arising from conscious possession
of, or from hope of enjoying, something pleasant or
valuable; and the expression thereof in praise, etc.
1. Natural Joy, Etc. We may discriminate
between natural joy, gladness and mirllt as fol-
lows : What creates joy and gladness is of a per-
manent nature; that which creates mirth is tem-
porary ; joy is the most vivid sensation in the
soul ; gladness is the same in quality, but inferior
in degree ; joy is awakened in the mind by the
most important events in life ; gladness springs
up in the mind on ordinary occasions; the return
of the prodigal son awakened joy in the heart of
his father ; a man feels gladness at being relieved
from some distress or trouble ; public events of a
gratifying nature produce universal joy; relief
from either sickness or want brings gladness to
an oppressed heart ; he who is absorbed in his
private distresses is ill prepared to partake of the
mirth with which he is surrounded at the festive
board. Joy is depicted on the countenance, or
expresses itself by various demonstrations ; glad-
ness is a more tranquil feeling, which is enjoyed
in secret, and seeks no outward expression.
(Crabbe's Synonyms.)
2. Spiritual Joy. Spiritual joy is excited by
the Holy Ghost, and arises from union to, pos-
session of, and hope to enjoy forever, a God rec-
onciled in Christ. This joy produces an agree-
able earnestness in promoting his honor (Gal. v:
22). Thus the saints rejoice in Christ, or in God;
they take pleasure in and boast of their connection
with him ; they praise him for his kindness to
them, and for what he is in himself (Luke i:47)-
JOZABAD
993
JUBILEE
Their rejoicing in hope, is their delightful views,
holy boasting and cheerful praise, on account of
their infallible perseverance and eternal happiness
(Heb. iii:6). A saint's rejoicing in himself,
means his inward satisfaction in the testimony
of a good conscience (Gal. vi:4).
Objects and Sources of Spiritual Joy.
The ground or object of one's rejoicing, is
called his joy; thus God is the joy, the exceeding
joy, of his people; he, as theirs, and as enjoyed
by them, is the cause and ground of their eternal
and superlative joy (Ps. xliii:4). Christ's ex-
altation, promised to him, to encourage him in his
work, is the joy set before him (Heb. xii:2). The
heavenly blessedness is called the joy of the Lord.
It consists in the delightful enjoyment of God in
Christ, and it much resembles that pleasure he
has in our redemption (Matt. xxv:2i, 23). Con-
verts are the "joy" of ministers, who are instru-
mental in bringing them to Christ (l Thess. ii:2o).
Jerusalem and Zion were the "joy of the whole
earth ;" as God was there present, and peculiarly
worshiped, there was more ground of ioy than
elsewhere ; or the words may signify, that they
were the joy of the whole land; as all the Jews
took pleasure therein, and boasted thereof (Ps.
xlviii:2; Lam. ii:is). The church is created a
"rejoicing," and her people a "joy," when she is
so reformed, settled, purged, and blessed, as to
abound with spiritual gladness, and to rejoice the
heart of every pious beholder (Is. Ixv:l8). Fall-
ing into temptations, or troubles, is to be ac-
counted "all joy;" as troubles work exceedingly
for our real good (James i:2). The "joy of
God's salvation." is the heart-exhilarating bless-
ings therein contained, and the spiritual gladness
that issues therefrom (Ps. Ii:i2). Spiritual glad-
ness is called "joy in the Holy Ghost." as it pro-
ceeds from his dwelling and working in our
heart (Rom. xiv :I7). Brown.
JOZABAD (joz'a-bad), (Heb.'^^r'', yo-zaw-bawd" ,
contraction of Jehozabad, Jehovah endowed).
1. One of the captains of Manasseh. who came
over to David before the battle of Gilboa, and
aided in the rout of the marauding Amalekites
(l Chron. xii:20), B. C. before 1000.
2. A Levite. who, in the reign of Hezekiah, had
charge of the offerings and dedicated things in
the temple, under Cononiah and Shimei (2 Chron.
xxxi:l3), B. C. about 719.
3. A captain of Manasseh, who. like (i) came
to David (l Chron. xii:2o). B. C. before 1000.
4. A Levite, son of Jeshua. He, with Mere-
troth and Eleazar, made an inventory of the ves-
sels of gold and silver in the Temple, which were
brought from Babylon, and recorded their weight
(Ezra viii:33), B. C .about 457.
5. A prince of the Levites, who was an over-
seer of the offerings and dedicated things in the
Temple, and assisted in the great feast of the
Passover, held at Jerusalem in the time of Josiah
(2 Chron. XXXV :9), B. C. 623.
6. A priest, son of Pashur. and one of those
who married foreign wives (Ezra x:22), B C
456.
7. A Gederathite, a famous Benjamite archer,
who joined David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:4), B.
C. 1000. (See Josabad.)
JOZACHAB (joz'a-kar), (Heb. "'?r, yo-zaw-
kawr' , remembered by Jehovah), the son of the
Ammonitcss Shimeath, and one of the murderers
of Joash, king of Judah (2 Kings xii:2i). In 2
Chron. xxiv:26, he is called Zabad, which accord-
ea
ing to Kennicott and others is a clerical mistake
for Jozachar (B. C. 839).
JOZADAK (joz'a-dik), (Heb. 7^T , yo-zaw-
dawk,]A\ is great, Ezra iii:2, 8; v:2; x:i8; Neh.
xii:26), a contracted form of Jehozadak (which
See).
JTTBAJj (jQ bal), (Heb. '3^', >'£)o-*aK//', stream).
One of Cain's descendants, son of Lamech and
Adah. He is described as the inventor of the
kinnor, and the ugab, rendered in our version
'the harp and the organ,' but perhaps more prop-
erly 'the lyre and mouth-organ,' or Pandean pipe
(Gen. iv:2i), B. C. 3490. (See Music.)
JUBILEE (jQ'bl-le), (Heb. ^^'',yo-6a/e'. Lev.
XXV :8; Vulg. Annus Jubilei, ox Jubileus).
According to some, a period of fifty years, ac-
cording to others, of forty-nine years, the termi-
nation of which led to certain great changes in
the condition of the Hebrews, all of which seem
to have been designed and titled to bring about
from time to time a restoration of the original
social state instituted by Moses, and so to sustain
in its unimpaired integrity the constitution of
which he was the author.
(1) Sabbatical Year. Intimately connected
with the Jubilee was another singular Mosaic in-
stitution, namely, the Sabbatical year. On this
account, we shall speak briefly of the latter, as pre-
paratory to a right understanding of the former.
While yet wandering in the wilderness, and,
therefore, before they had entered 'th.e land of
promise,' the children of Israel received from
the lips of their great legislator the following
law — six years thou shalt sow thy land, and shalt
gather in the fruits thereof; but the seventh year
thou shalt let it rest ; that thine o.\ and thine ass
may rest, and the son of thy handmaid and the
stranger may be refreshed' (Exod. xxiiino, sq.).
This injunction is repeated in Lev. xxv:i-7, where
it stands as proceeding immediately' from the
Lord. The land is to keep 'a sabbath for the
Lord.'
(2) Seven Sabbaths of Years. Then in im-
mediate sequence follows the law relating to the
Jubilee (Lev. xxv:8). 'And thou shalt number
seven sabbaths of years unto thee, seven times
seven years, forty and nine years ; then shalt thou
cause the trumpet of the Jubilee to sound in the
tenth d.iy of the seventh month, in the day of
atonement shall ye make the trumpet sound
throughout all your land. And ye shall hallow
the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout
all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof; and
ye shall return every man unto his possession and
unto his family (Lev. xxv:8-24). Land might be
redeemed by a kinsman or by the party who sold
it ; but in the Jubilee year it must return to its
original proprietor. Dwelling-houses within a
walled city might be redeemed within the first
year; if not redeemed within the space of a full
year they became the freehold of the purchaser.
The houses of villages were to be counted as the
fields of the country. The cities and houses of
the Levites were redeemable at any time, and
could never be held longer than the ensuing Jubi-
lee; the field of the suburbs of their cities might
not be sold (verses 25-38). Israelites who were
hired servants ( Israelitish hond-scTvants were
not allowed) might serve till the year of Jubilee,
when they returned to their possessions. A He-
brew sold as a slave to a foreigner, resident in
Palestine, was redeemable by himself or relative
at any time, by making payment according to the
JUBILEE
994
JUBILEE
number of years to elapse before the next Jubilee ;
but at the Jubilee such bondsman was, under all
circumstances, to be set at liberty (verses 39-55)-
The only exception to this system of general res-
titution was in the case of property set apart and
devoted to the divine service — 'Every devoted
thing is most holy unto the Lord ; none devoted
shall be redeemed' (Lev. xxvii:28, 29). With
these scriptural details, the account given by Jo-
seplius (Antiq. iii:l2, 3) substantially agrees.
The time required by the Sabbatical year and
by the Jubilee to be rescued from the labors of
the field, was very considerable. Strictly inter-
preted, the language we have cited would take out
of the ordinary course of things every sixth, sev-
enth, and eighth year, during each successive
septenary, till the circle of fifty years was in each
period completed. Nay, more, the old store, pro-
duced in the si.xth year, was to last until the ninth
year, for the sixth year was to bring forth fruits
for three years.
The reader has now before him the whole of
this extraordinary power of legislation, which,
viewed in all its bearings — in its effects on human
labor, on character, on religious institutions and
observances, as well as on the general condition
of society, no less than on the productiveness of
the land, and the means of sustenance to its in-
habitants— is wholly unparalleled by any event in
the history of the world. It is, however, in per-
fect concord with the Mosaic economy.
(3) Restitution of Lands. The recurring pe-
riods of seven years are in keeping with the insti-
tution of the seventh day as a Sabbath for man
and beast. The aim in both is similar — needful
repose. The leading idea involved in the Jubilee
— namely, restitution — also harmonizes with the
fundamental principles of the Mosaic system.
The land was God's, and was entrusted for use
to the chosen people in such a way that every
individual had his portion. A power of perpetual
alienation would have been a virtual denial of
God's sovereign rights, while the law of Jubilee
was one of continued recognition of them. The
conception is purely iheocratical in its whole char-
acter and tendencies. The theocracy was of such
a nature as to disallow all subordinate 'thrones,
principalities and powers ;' and consequently, to
demand entire equality on the part of the people.
But the power of perpetual alienation in regard
to land would have soon given rise to the great-
est inequalities of social condition, presenting
what modern states have, alas ! exhibited but too
much of — splendid affluence on one side and sor-
did pauperism on the other.
(4) Benevolent Legislation. A passage in
Deuteronomy (xv:4), when rightly understood,
as in the marginal translation — 'to the end that
there be no poor among you' — seems expressly to
declare that the aim in view, at least of the Sab-
batical release, was to prevent the rise of any
great inequality of social condition, and thus to
preserve unimpaired the essential character of
the theocracy.
Equally benevolent in its aim and tendency
does this institution thus appear, showing how
thoroughly the great Hebrew legislator cared and
provided for individuals, instead of favoring class-
es. Beginning with a narrow cycle of seven days,
he went on to a wider one of as many years, em-
bracing at least seven times seven annual revo-
lutions, seeking in all his arrangements rest for
man and beast, and, by a happy personification,
rest even for the brute earth ; and in the rest
which he required for human beings, providing
for that more needful rest of mind which the
sharp competitions and eager rivalries of mod-
ern society deny to ten thousand times ten thou-
sand. The benign character and tendency of the
law of the Sabbatical and Jubilee years is in ac-
cordance with the general spirit of the Mosaic
legislation, and appears not unworthy of its divine
origin.
Warburton adduced this law (Divine Legation
of Moses) m order to show that Moses was in
truth sent and sustained by God, since nothing
but a divine power could have given the neces-
sary supplies of food in the sixth year, and no
unprejudiced person can well deny the force of
his argument.
(5) Moses the Lawgiver. But these laws
either emanated from Moses, or they did not. If
they did not, they arose after the settlement in
Canaan, and are of such a nature as to convict
their fabricator of imposture, if, indeed, any one
could have been found so daring as to bring forth
laws implying institutions which did not exist,
and which under ordinary circumstances could
not find permanence, even if they could ever be
carried into operation at all. But if these laws
emanated from Moses, is it credible that he would
have given utterance to commands which convict
themselves of impossibility? or caused the rise of
institutions, which, if unsupported of heaven,
must come to a speedy termination, and in so do-
ing act to his own discredit as a professed divine
messenger ?
(6) Productiveness of Land. On the possi-
bility of the land's affording sufficient food, we
find the following important passage in Palfrey's
Lectures on the Jewish Scriptures, Boston, 1841,
vol. i, p. 303 :
'I find no difficulty arising from any inadequacy
of the produce of six years to afford sustenance
to the people for seven. To say that this was in-
tended would merely be to say that the design
was that the consumption of each year should
only amount on an average to si.x-sevenths of its
produce. In such an arrangement it cannot be
thought that there was anything impracticable.
'There are states of the union which export
yearly more than half their produce, and subsist
substantially on the remainder, their imports con-
sisting mostly of luxuries. Again, in England
nearly three-quarters of the families are engaged
in commerce, manufactures, professions, and un-
productive pursuits; but in Judea every man was
a producer of food, with the advantage of a fine
climate and a rich soil.
It may be of some importance to remark that
those who believe that these laws were good, and
were also executed, are not therefore required to
maintain that the regular and intended series of
things was never interrupted.
(7) Conditional Promises. The promises of
God are in all cases conditioned on human obedi-
ence. This condition is expressly laid down in
the case before us (Lev. xxv:i8, 36, 38). At the
same time, the silence of the sacred history before
the captivity looks as if the law in question was
so uninterruptedly, regularly, and as a matter of
course, observed from Jubilee to Jubilee, that no
occasion transpired for remark. In history, as in
every day life, more is said of the exceptional
than the periodical and the ordinary.
(8) Execution of Laws. The tenor of these
observations will probably lead the reader to con-
sider it a somewhat surprising assertion, that
these laws were not executed before the Babylo-
nish exile; yet such is the statement of Winer
(Rcal-worterb. under 'Jubeljahr' and De Wette
(Lehrb. der Arckdol.,p. 158). Some passages of
JUCAL
996
JUDAEA
Scripture are referred to, which arc thought to
imply the truth of this position, as i Kings xxi:
.3; Is. v;8; 2 Chron. xxxvi :2i ; Lev. xxvi:34).
For the opposite view, there is, in agreement
with the general tenor of this article, some posi-
tive evidence which must be briefly indicated (see
Roman historian Tacitus' Hisl. v. 4; Josephus
Aiitiq. xiv, ID, 6; i Mace. vi:49; Ezek. xlvi:i7;
Is. Ixi :i, 2) ; and since the essential element
of this system of law, namely the Sabbatical
year, was, as we have seen, an established institu-
tion in the days of Tacitus, Josephus, the Macca-
bees, Ezekicl. and Isaiah, we think the fair and
legitimate inference is in favor of those laws hav-
ing been long previously observed, probably from
the early periods of the Hebrew republic. Their
existence in a declining state of the common-
wealth cannot be explained without seeking their
origin nearer the fountain-head of those pure,
living waters, which, with the force of all primi-
• tive enthusiasm, easily effectsd great social won-
ders, especially when divinely guided and divinely
sustained. J. R. B.
JTTCAIj (jukal), (Heb. "5''"', yoo-kaf, able), son
of Shelemiah (Jer. xxxviiiii). Elsewhere the name
is Jehucal (which see).
JTTSA (juda), (Heb. '7^^'',, yeh-hoo-iiaw' , praise;
Gr. 'loi/Jot, ee-00' dai, Judas; Juda is only the
genitive case).
1- Son of Joseph, in the ninth generation from
David in the genealogy of Christ (Luke iii;3o),
probably the same with Adaiah, the father of
Maaseiah (2 Chron. xxiii:i). B. C. before 876.
( See Genealogy of Jesus Christ.)
2. Son of Joanna (Luke iii:26), or Hananiah
(8), and probably the same person as Abiud
(Matt. i:l3). (See Hervey, Genealogies, p. 118,
sq.). Probably also identical with Obadiah (l
Chron. iii:2i), B. C. before 406.
3. One of the brethren of Christ mentioned in
Mark vi :3. In Matt, xiii :$$ the name is Judas.
For his identity with Jude, see article Judas.
4- The patriarch Judah, thus called in Luke
iii :33; Heb. vii:l4; Rev. v:5, vii:5.
5. Juda, City of (Luke i:39). Whether this
is a town or territory, that is in Judea, is dis-
puted. If a city, it was in the hill country, and
perhaps unknown to Luke himself. (See Light-
foot, Hor. Heb. ii. 493 ; Thomson, Land and
Book, ii. 536; Robinson, ISib. Res., ii. 206.)
JXTDXA (ju-de'a), (Gr. 'lovSala, ee-oo-dah' yah\,
the southernmost of the three divisions of the Holy
Land. It denoted the kingdom of Judah as dis-
tinguished from that of Israel. But after the
captivity, as most of the exiles who returned be-
longed to the kingdom of Judah, the name Jtidasa
(Judah) was ayiplied generally to the whole of
Palestine west of the Jordan (Hag. i:l, 14; ii;2).
(1) Under the Romans. Under the Romans,
in the time of Christ, Palestine was divided into
Juda;a, Galilee, and Samaria (John iv 13. 4; Acts
ix:3i), the last including the whole of the south-
ern part west of the Jordan. But this division
was only observed as a political and local dis-
tinction, for the sake of indicating the part of the
country, just as we use the name of a county
(Matt, ii :i, S ; iii W ; iv:25 ; Luke i :65) : but when
the whole of Palestine was to be indicated in a
general way, the term Judaea was still employed.
Thus person? in Galilee and elsewhere spoka of
going to Judsea (John vii :3 ; xi7), to distin-
guish the part of Palestine to which they were
proceeding; but when persons in Rome and other
places spoke of Judaea (Acts xxviii:2l), they
used the word as a general denomination for the
country of the Jews, or Palestine. Indeed, the
name seems to have had a more extensive appli-
cation than even to Palestine west of the Jordan.
U denoted all the dominions of Herod the Great,
who was called king of Juda;a ; and much of
these lay beyond the river. After the death of
Herod, however, the Juda:a to which his son
Archelaus succeeded was only the southern prov-
ince so called (Matt, ii 122) ; which afterwards
became a Roman province dependent on Syria
and governed by procurators, and this was its con-
dition during our Lord's ministry. It was after-
wards for a time partly under the dominion of
Herod Agrippa the elder (Acts xii:i-i9), but
on his death it reverted to its former condition
under the Romans.
(2) Province of Judaea. It is Judxa in the
provincial sense only that requires our present
notice, the country at large being described in the
article Palestine. In this sense, however, it was
much more extensive than the domain of the
tribe of Judah. even more so than the kingdom
of the same name. There are no materials for
describing its limits with precision; but it included
the ancient territories of Judah, Benjamin, Dan,
Simeon, and part of Ephraim.
In the rabbinical writings Judoea, as a division
of Palestine, is frequently called 'the south.' or
'the south country,' to distinguish it from Galilee,
which was called 'the north' (Lightfoot, Chovog.
Cent. xii). The di'^tinction of the tribe of Judah
into 'the Mountain,' 'the Plain," and 'the Vale,'
which we meet with in the Old Testament (Num.
xiii:30), was preserved under the more extended
denomination of Judsa. The Mountain, or hill
country of Judaea (Josh. xxi:ii; Luke i:39), was
that 'broad back of mountains,' as Lightfoot calls
it (Chorog. Cent, xi), which fills the center of the
country from Hebron northward to beyond Jeru-
salem. The ['lain was the low country towards
the seacoast, and seems to have included not only
the broad plain which extends between the sea
and the hill country, but the lower parts of the
hilly region itself in that direction. Thus the
rabbins allege that from Bethhoron to the sea is
(me region (T. Hieros. Shez'iitli, ix:2). The Vale
is defined by the rabbins as extending from En-
gedi to Jericho (Lightfoot, Panergon. sec. 2).
(3) Topography. Judaea is, as the above inti-
mations would suggest, a country full of hills and
valleys. The hills are generally separated from
one another by valleys and torrents, and are. for
the most part, of moderate height, uneven, and
seldom of any regular figure. The rock of which
they are composed is easily converted into soil,
which being arrested by the terraces when washed
down by the rains, renders the hills cultivable in a
series of long, narrow gardens, formed by these
terraces froin the base upwards. In this manner
the hills were in ancient times cultivated most in-
dustriously, and enriched and beautified with the
fig tree, the olive tree, and the vine; and it is thus
that the scanty cultivation which still subsists is
now carried on. But when the inhabitants were
rooted out. and the culture neglected, the terraces
fell into decay, and the soil which had been col-
lected in them was washed down into the valleys,
leaving only the arid rock, naked and desolate.
This is the general character of the scenery; but
in some parts the hills are beautifully wooded, and
in others the application of the ancient mode of
cultivation still suggests to the traveler how rich
the country once was and might he again, and
how beautiful the prospects which it offered. .\s,
however, much of this was the result of cultiva-
JUD^A. THE LAND OF
996
JUDAM
tion, the country was probably anciently, as at
present, naturally less fertile than either Samaria
or Galilee. (See Kitto, Pictorial History of Pal-
estine; Intruduct. pp. 39, 40, 1 19; Olin, ii:323. )
JXTDiEA, THE LAND OF (ju-dae'a, the land
6v), indicates the country as distinguished from
the capital, or Jerusalem (Mark i:5; John iii:22).
Wilderness of Judaea.
JTIDiEA, THE WILDEBI^SS OF.
Here John the Baptist first taught (Matt. iii:i)
and Christ was tempted ; probably towards the
north of it, not far from Jericho. Some parts of
it were not absolutely barren or uninhabited.
It lay along the eastern border of Judaea to-
wards the Dead Sea, in which were the six cities
mentioned in Josh, xv :6i sq. It was a region
thinly inhabited, and used mostly as a pasture
land.
JtTDAH (ju'dah),(Heb. ^T''^^, ye-hoo-daw' , Qt\e-
brated).
1. The fourth son of Jacob and Leah (B. C.
about 1916). The narrative in Genesis brings
this patriarch more before the reader, and makes
known more of his history and character than it
does in the case of any other of the twelve sons
of Jacob, with the single exception of Joseph.
It is indeed chiefly in connection with Joseph
that the facts respecting Judah transpire ; and
as they have already been given in the articles
J.'VCOB and Joseph, i, it is only necessary to indi-
cate them shortly in this place.
(1) Relation to Joseph. It was Judah's advice
that the brethren followed when they sold Joseph
to the Ishmaelites, instead of taking his life. By
the light of his subsequent actions we can see that
his conduct on this occasion arose from a gener-
ous impulse, although the form of the question he
put to them has been sometimes held to suggest an
interested motive: 'What profit is it if we slay
our brother and conceal his blood? Come, let us
sell him,' etc. (Gen. xxxvii :26, 27).
(2) Domestic Relations. Not long after this
Judah withdrew from the paternal tents, and went
to reside at Adullam, in the country which after-
wards bore his name. Here he married a woman
of Canaan, called Shuah, and had by her three
sons, Er, Onan, and Shelah. When the eldest
of these sons became of fit age, he was married
to a woman named Tamar. but soon after died.
As he died childless, the patriarchal law, after-
wards adopted into the Mosaic code (Deut. xxv :
6), required him to bestow upon the widow his
second son. This he did; but as Onan also soon
died childless, Judah became reluctant to bestow
his only surviving son upon this woman, and put
her off with the excuse that he was not yet of
sufficient age. Tamar accordingly remained in
her father's house at Adullam. She had the usual
passion of Eastern women for offspring, and
could not endure the stigma of having been twice
married without bearing children, while
the law precluded her from contracting
any alliance but that which Judah with-
held her from completing.
Meanwhile Judah's wife died, and
after the time of mourning had ex-
pired, he went, accompanied by his
friend Hirah, to attend the shearing
of his sheep at Timnath in the same
neighborhood. These circumstances
suggested to Tamar the strange thought
of connecting herself with Judah him-
self, under the guise of a loose woman.
Having waylaid him on the road to
Timnath, she succeeded in her abject,
- . ': and when the consequences began to
be manifest in the person of Tamar,
Judah was highly enraged at her crime,
-'" _^^^ and, exercising the powers which be-
_ ^^^g longed to him as the head of the fam-
ily she had dishonored, he commanded
her to be brought forth, and committed
to the flames as an adulteress. But when
she appeared, she produced the ring, the brace-
let, and the staff which he had left in pledge with
her, and put him to confusion by declaring that
they belonged to the father of her coming off-
spring. Judah acknowledged them to be his, and
confessed that he had been wrong in withholding
Shelah from her. The result of this painful affair
was the birth of two sons, Zerah and Pharez
(B. C. about 1893), from whom, with Shelah, the
tribe of Judah descended. Pharez was the an-
cestor of the line from which David, the kings of
Judah, and Jesus came (Gen. xxxviii; xlvi:l2;
I Chron. ii:3-5; Matt. 1:3; Luke iii :33).
(3) Later Life. These circumstances seem to
have disgusted Judah with his residence in towns;
for we find him ever afterwards at his father's
tents. His experience of life, and the strength of
his character, appear to have given him much in-
fluence with Jacob; and it was chiefly from con-
fidence in him that the aged father at length con-
sented to allow Benjamin to go down to Egypt.
That this confidence was not misplaced has al-
ready been shown (see Joseph) ; and there is not
in the whole range of literature a finer piece of
true natural eloquence than that in which Judah
offers himself to remain as a bond-slave in the
place of Benjamin, for whose safe return he had
made himself responsible to his father. The
strong emotions which it raised in Joseph disabled
him from keeping up longer the disguise he had
hitherto maintained, and there are few who have
read it without being, like him, moved even to
tears.
We hear nothing more of Judah till he received,
along with his brothers, the final blessing of his
father (B. C. 1856), which was conveyed in lofty
language, glancing far into futurity, and strongly
indicative of the high destinies which awaited the
tribe that was to descend from him (Gen. xlix:
8-12).
2. A Levite whose sons assisted in rebuilding
the temple after the return from captivity (Ezra
iiirg), B. C. 536. (Hervey, Genealogy, p. iig. )
3- A Levite who had taken a foreign wife (Ezra
x:23). Probably the same person is meant in
Neh. xii:8, 36 (B. C. 536).
JUDAH, KINGDOM OF
997
JUDAH, KINGDOM OF
4. Son of Senuah, a Benjamite (Neh. xitg), B.
C. about 440.
5- One of those who followed half of the Jewish
chiefs around the southern section of the newly-
erected walls of Jerusalem (Neh. xii:34), B. C.
446.
JTTBAE, EINOBOII OF (ju'dah, king'dum 6v).
When the territory of all the rest of Israel, ex-
cept Judah and Benjamin, was lost to the kingdom
of Rehoboam, a special single name was needed to
denote that which remained to him.
(1) Extended Meaning. And almost of neces-
sity the word Judah received an extended mean-
ing, according to which it comprised not Benjamin
only, but the priests and Levites, who were ejected
in great numbers from Israel, and rallied round
the house of David.
(2) The Term Jew. At a still later time, when
the nationality of the ten tribes had been dissolved,
and every practical distinction between the ten
and the two had vanished during the captivity, the
scattered body had no visible head, except in Je-
rusalem, which had been re-occupied by a portion
of Judah's e-xiles. In consequence the name Judah
(or Jew) attached itself to the entire nation (rom
about the epoch of the restoration. But in this
article Judah is understood of the people over
which David's successors reigned, from Rehoboam
to Zcdekiah.
(3) Revolt and Invasion. When the king-
dom of Solomon became rent with intestine war,
it might have been foreseen that the Edomites,
Moabites and other surrounding nations would
at once refuse their accustomed tribute, and be-
come again practically independent ; and some ir-
regular invasion of these tribes might have been
dreaded. It was a mark of conscious weakness,
and not a result of strength, that Rehoboam forti-
fied fifteen cities (2 Chron. xi:5-ii), in which his
people might find defense against the irregular
armies of his roving neighbors. But a more for-
midable enemy came in, Shishak, king of Egypt,
against whom the fortresses were of no avail (xii ;
4), and to whom Jerusalem was forced to open
its gates; and, from the despoiling of his treas-
ures, Rehoboam probably sustained a still greater
shock in its moral effect on the Moabites and
Edomites, than in the direct loss ; nor is it easy to
conceive that he any longer retained the commerce
of the Red Sea, or any very lucrative trade.
(4) Decline. After Jehoshaphat followed the
calamitous affinity with the house of Ahab. and
the massacres of both families. Under Jehoiada
the priest, and Jehoash his pupil, no martial ef-
forts were made; but Amaziah, son of Jehoash,
after hiring 100,000 Israelites to no purpose, made
war on the Edomites, slew 10,000. and threw
10,000 more down from the top of their rock
(xxv:s, 6, II, 12). His own force in Judah. from
twenty years old and upwards, was numbered at
only 300,000 choice men, able to handle spear
and shield. His son Uzziah had 2,600 military
officers and 307,500 men of war (xxvi:i2. 13).
Ahaz lost, in a single battle with Pekah, 120.OOO
valiant men (xxviii:6), after the severe slaughter
he had received from Rezin. king of Syria ; after
which no further military strength is ascribed to
the kings of Jtidah.
(5) Army of Rehoboam. It perhaps deserves
remark, that in the book of Kings no numbers of
such magnitude are found. The army ascribed
to Rehoboam d Kings xii :2l) is. indeed, as in
Chronicles, 180.000 men ; but if we explain it of
those ahlc to fight, the number, though certainly
large, may be dealt with historically. (See the
article on Statistics.)
(6) External Relations. As the most impor-
tant external relations of Israel were with Da-
mascus, so were those of Judah with Edom and
Egypt. Some revolution in the state of Egypt
appears to have followed the reign of Shishak.
Apparently the country must have fallen under
the power of an Ethiopian dynasty ; for the name
of the Lubtiii, who accompanied Zerah m his at-
tack on Asa, is generally regarded as proving
that Zerah was from Sennaar, the ancient Meroe.
But as this invasion was signally repulsed, the at-
tempt was not repeated; and Judah enjoyed entire
tranquillity from that quarter until the invasion of
Pharaoh-necho.
(7) Favorable Reaction. In fact, it may seem
that this success assisted the reaction, favorable to
the power of Judah, which was already begun, in
consequence of a change in the policy of Damas-
cus.
Whether Abijah had been in league with the
father of Benhadad I ( as is generally inferred
from I Kings xv:l9) may be doubted; for the
address cannot be rendered, 'Let there be a
league between me and thee, as there was between
my father and thine;' and it possibly is only a
hyperbolical phrase of friendship for, 'Let us be
in close alliance ; let us count our fathers to have
been allies.' However this may be, Asa bought,
by a costly sacrifice, the serviceable aid of the
Damascene king. Israel was soon distressed, and
Judah became once more formidable to her south-
ern neighbors.
(8) Edomites Made Tributary. Jehoshaphat
appears to have reasserted the Jewish authority
over the Edomites without war, and to have set
his own viceroy over them (i Kings xxii:47).
Intending to resume the distant commerce which
had been so profitable to Solomon, he built ships
suitable for long voyages ('.ships of Tarshish.' as
they are rightly called in i Kings xxii 148 — aphrase
which the Chronicler has misunderstood and
translated into 'ships to go to Tarshish' (2 Chron.
XX -.36) ; but not having the advantage of Tyrian
sailors, as Solomon had, he lost the vessels by
violent weather before they had sailed. Upon
this, Ahaziah, king of Judah, offered the service
of his own mariners, probably from the tribe of
Asher and others accustomed to the Mediterra-
nean ; but Jehoshaphat was too discouraged to ac-
cept his offer, and the experiment was never re-
newed by any Hebrew king.
(9) Revolt of Edomites. The Edomites, who
paid only a forced aHegiance, soon after revolted
from Jehoram, and elected their own king (2
Kings viii :20, 22). At a later time they were
severely defeated by Amaziah (2 Kings xiv:7),
whose son, Uzziah, fortified the town of Elath,
intending, probably, to resume maritime enter-
prise : but it remained a barren possession, and
was finally taken from them by Rezin. in the
reign of Ahaz (2 Kings xvi:6). The Philistines.
in these times, seem to have fallen from their
former greatness, their league having been so
long dissolved.
(10) Jerusalem Plundered. The most re-
markable event in which the Philistines are con-
cerned is the assault on Jerusalem, in the reign
of Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi:l6. 17).
It is strikingly indicative of the stormy scenes
through which the line of David passed that the
treasures of the king and of the "Temple were so
often plundered or bargained away. First, under
Rehob<iam, all the hoards of Solomon, consecrated
and common alike, were carried off by Shishak
(i Kings xiv:26). Two generations later, Asa
emptied out to Benhadad all that bad since accu-
JUDAH, KINGDOM OF 9£
mulated 'in the house of Jehovah or in the king's
house.' A third time, when Hazael had taken
Gath, and was preparing to march on Jerusalem,
Jehoash, king of Judah, turned him away by
sending to him all 'that Jehoshaphat, Jehoram,
Ahaziah and Jehoash himself had dedicated, and
all the gold that was found in the treasures of the
house of Jehovah and in the king's house (2
Kings xii:i8). In the very next reign Jehoash,
king of Israel, defeated and captured Amaziah,
took Jerusalem, broke down the walls, carried off
hostages, and plundered the gold and silver depos-
ited in the temple and in the royal palace (2
Kmgs xiv:ll-l4). A fifth sacrifice of the sacred
and of the royal treasure was made by Ahaz to
Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings xvi:8). The act was
repeated by his son Hezekiah to Sennacherib, who
had demanded '300 talents of silver and 30 talents
of gold.' It is the more extraordinary, therefore,
to find expressions used when Nebuchadnezzar
took the city, which at first sight imply that Solo-
mon's far-famed stores were still untouched (2
Kings xxiv:l3).
The severest shock which the house of David
received was the double massacre which it endured
from Jehu and from Athaliah (2 Kings x, xi).
(11) Rule of Jehoiada. After a long minority,
a youthful king, the sole surviving male descend-
ant of his great-grandfather, and reared under
the paternal rule of the priest Jehoiada, to whom
he was indebted not only for his throne but even
for his recognition as a son of Ahaziah, was not
in a situation to uphold the royal authority. That
Jehoash conceived the priests to have abused the
power which they had gained sufficiently appears
in 2 Kings xii, where he complains that they had
for twenty-three years appropriated the money,
which they ought to have spent on the repairs of
the temple. Jehoiada gave way; but we see here
the beginning of a feud (hitherto unknown in the
house of David) between the crown and the
priestly order; which, after Jehoiada's death, led
to the murder of his son Zechariah. The execu-
tion of the priest of Baal, and of Athaliah (2
Kings xi:i3-i8), granddaughter of a king of Si-
don, must also have destroyed cordiality between
the Phoenicians and the kingdom of Judah; and
when the victorious Hazael had subjugated all
Israel and showed himself near Jerusalem, Jeho-
ash could look for no help from without, and had
neither the faith of Hezekiah nor a prophet like
Isaiah to support him.
(12) Assassination of Jehoash. The assassi-
nation of Jehoash in his bed by 'his own servants'
is described in the Chronicles as a revenge taken
upon him by the priestly party for his murder of
'the sons' of Jehoiada; and the same fate, from
the same influence, fell upon his son Amaziah, if
we may so interpret the words in 2 Chron. xxv -.ly.
(13) Amaziah, TTzziah, and Ahaz. 'From the
time that Amaziah turned away from following
Jehovah they made a conspiracy against him,'
etc. Thus the house of David appeared to be
committing itself, like that of Saul, to permanent
eninity with the priests. The wisdom of Uzziah.
during a long reign, averted this collision, though
a symptom of it returned towards its close. No
further mischief from this cause followed, until
the reign of his grandson, the weak and unfortu-
nate Ahaz ; after which the power of the kingdom
rapidly moldered away.
The struggle of the crown against priestly con-
trol was perhaps the most immediate cause of the
ruin of Judah. Ahaz was probably less guided by
policy than by superstition, or by architectural
B JUDAH, TRIBE OF
taste, in erecting his Damascene altar (2 Kings
xvi:io-i8).
(14) Ruinous Conduct of Manasseh. But
the far more outrageous proceedings of Manasseh
seem to have been a systematic attempt to extir-
pate the national religion because of its supporting
the priestly power ; and the 'innocent blood very
much,' which he is stigmatized for shedding (2
Kings xxi:i6), was undoubtedly a sanguinary
attack on the party opj)osed to his impious and
despotic innovations. The storm which he had
raised did not burst in his lifetime; but two years
after it fell on the head of his son Amon ; and the
disorganization of the kingdom which his mad-
ness had wrought is commemorated as the cause
of the Babylonish captivity (2 Kings xxiii:26;
xxiv:3, 4). It is also credible that the long-
continued despotism had greatly lessened patriotic
spirit ; and that the Jewish people of the declining
kingdom were less brave against foreign irrvaders
than against kindred and neighbor tribes or civil
opponents.
(15) Fatal Decline. Faction had become very
fierce within Jerusalem itself (Ezek. xxii), and
civil bloodshed was common. Wealth, where it
existed, was generally a source of corruption, by
introducing foreign luxury, tastes, manners, su-
perstitions, immorality, or idolatry ; and when
consecrated to pious purposes, as by Hezekiah
and Josiah, produced little more than a formal
and exterior religion.
The appointment of Hilkiah to the office of
high-priest seems to mark the era at which (by a
reaction after the atrocities of Manasseh and
Amon) the purer priestly sentiment obtained its
triumph over the crown. But the victory came too
late. Society was corrupt and convulsed within,
and the two great powers of Egypt and Babylon
menaced it from without. True lovers of their
God and of their country, like Jeremiah, saw that
it was a time rather for weeping than for action ;
and that the faithful must resign themselves to the
bitter lot which the sins of their nation had
earned. F. W. N.
J'DDAH, TRIBE OF (ju'dah, trib 6v). This
tribe sprang from Judah, the son of Jacob.
When the Israelites quitted Egypt, it already
exhibited the elements of its future distinction in
a larger population than any of the other tribes
possessed.
(1) Population. It numbered 74,000 adult
males, being nearly 12,000 more than Dan, the
next in point of numbers, and 34,100 more than
Ephraim, which in the end contested with it the
superiority among the tribes. During the sojourn
in the wilderness. Judah neither gained, like some
tribes, nor lost like others. Its numbers had in-
creased to 76,500, being i2,ioo more than Issa-
char, which had become next to it in population
(Num. i :27).
(2) Distribution of Lands. In the first dis-
tribution of lands, the tribe of Judah received the
southernmost part of Palestine, to the extent of
fully one-third of the whole country to be dis-
tributed among the nine and a half tribes for
which provision was to be made. This oversight
was discovered and rectified at the time of the
second distribution, which was founded on an
actual survey of the country, when Simeon and
Dan received allotments out of the territory which
had before been wholly assigned to Judah (Josh.
xix:9). That which remained was still very large,
and more proportioned to the future greatness
than the actual wants of the tribe. When Judah
became a kingdom, the origmal extent of terri-
JUDAH UPON JORDAN
999
JUDAS ISCAKIOT
tory assigned to the tribe was more than restored
or compensated, for it must have included the
domains of Simeon, and we know that Benjamin
was included in it.
(3) History of the Judges. The history of
the Judges contains fewer facts respecting this
important tribe than might be expected. It seems,
however, to have been usually considered that the
birthright which Reuben forfeited had passed to
Judah under the blessing of Jacob; and a sanc-
tion was given to this impression when, after the
death of Joshua, the divine oracle nominated
Judah to take precedence of the other tribes in
the war against the Canaanites (Judg. i:2).
It does not appear that any tribe was disposed
to dispute the superior claim of Judah on its own
account, except Ephraim, although in doing this
Ephraim had the support of other tribes.
Ephraim appears to have rested its claims to the
leadership of the tribes upon the ground that the
house of Joseph, whose interest it represented,
had received the birthright, or double portion of
the eldest, by the adoption of the two sons of
Joseph, who became the founders of two tribes
in Israel.
The existence of the sacerdotal establishment at
Shiloh, in Ephraim, was doubtless also alleged by
the tribes as a ground of superiority over Judah.
When, therefore, Judah assumed the scepter in
the person of David, and when the sacerdotal es-
tablishment was removed to Jerusalem, Ephraim
could not brook the eclipse it had sustained, and
took the first opportunity of erecting a separate
throne, and forming separate establishments for
worship and sacrifice.
Perhaps the separation of the kingdoms may
thus be traced to the rivalry of Judah and
Ephraim. After that separation the rivalry viras
between the two kingdoms ; but it was still popu-
larly considered as representing the ancient rivalry
of these great tribes ; for the prophet, in foretell-
ing the repose of a coming time, describes it bv
saying, 'The envy also of Ephraim shall depart,
and the adversaries of Judah shall be cut off;
Ephraim shall not envy Judah, and Judah shall
not vex Ephraim' (Is. xi:l3).
JTJDAH XTPON JORDAN (ju'dah iipon jor'-
dan), a border town of Kaphtali (josh. xix:34).
While Judah was in the south and Naphtali
in the north it is entirely possible that a town in
one tribe was named after the country of an-
other.
JUJJAISH (ju'da-izm), (Gr. 'lovda'i:<rfi6t, ee-oo-
day-is-mas').
Judaism denotes the Jewish faith in its ex-
travagant form of blind attachment to rites and
traditions, and national exclusiveness. This must
have been prevalent in the time of Christ, because
of his constant exposure of their formalism and
self-assumption, and because in John's Gospel "the
Jews" is used as synonymous with opposers of
Christ and his teachings.
In the eyes of the Jew, Judaism possessed the
merit of both piety and patriotism (Gal. i, 13, 14.)
JTTDAS or JTJDE (ju'das), (Gr. 'louaos, ee-00'-
das, the Greek form of the Hebrew Juhah).
1. The patriarch Judah (Matt, i :2, 3).
2. A man who lived in Damascus, and with
whom Saul lodged after his conversion (Acts
ix:ll), in the street, "that is called straight."
No further mention of him occurs. It is far
from probable that he was a Christian, as none
of Saul's company were Christians, nor did they
know that he himself had become converted. The
so-called "House of Judas" is still shown in an
open space called "the Sheik's Place," a few steps
out of the Street of Bazaars.
3. Judas, otherwise Jude, surnamed fiarsabas,
was sent from Jerusalem, with Paul and Barnabas,
to the church at Antioch, to report the resolution
of the Apostles at Jerusalem, concerning the non-
observance of the ways by the Gentiles (Acts xv :
22, 23, 27), A. D. 54. Some think, that this Judas
was the brother of Joseph, surnamed also Bar-
sabas, who was proposed, with Matthias, to fill up
the place of the traitor Judas (.■\cts i :23. Luke
says that Judas Barsabas was a prophet, and one
of the chief among the brethren; and it is also
believed that he was one of the seventy disciples.
4. Judas Gaulanitis, or the Gaulanite, opposed
(he enrollment of the people made by Cyrenius
in Judaea (see Cyrenius) and raised a very great
rebellion, pretending that the Jews, being free,
ought to acknowledge no dominion besides that of
God. His followers chose rather to suffer ex-
treme torments than to call any power on earth
lord or master. The same Judas is named Judas
the Galilean (Acts v.^y) because he was a native
of the city of Gamala in the Gaulanitis, which
was comprised in Galilee.
5. There were two of this name among the
twelve Apostles — Judas, called also Lebbseus and
Thaddxus (Matt, x :3, 4; Mark iii:i8, which
see), and Judas Iscariot. Judas is the name
of one of our Lord's brethren, but it is not agreed
whether our Lord's brother is the same with the
."Xpostle of this name (See James). We are not
informed as to the time of the calling of the
Apostle Jude to that dignity. Indeed, the only
circumstance relating to him which is recorded
in the Gospels consists in the question put by him
to our Lord (John xiv:22). 'Judas saith unto
him (not Iscariot), Lord, how is it that thou wilt
manifest thyself to us, and not unto the world?'
Nor have we any account given of his proceed-
ings after our Lord's resurrection, for the tradi-
tionary notices which have been preserved of him
rest on no very certain foundation. It has been
asserted that he was sent to Edessa, to Abgarus,
king of Osroene (Jerome, Annot. in Matt.), and
that he preached in Syria, Arabia. Mesopotamia,
and Persia ; in which latter country he suffered
martyrdom (Lardner's Hist, of the Apostles).
Jude the Apostle is commemorated in the West-
ern church, together with the Apostle Simon (the
name, also, of one of our Lord's brethren) on the
8th of October.
St. Luke (Acts xv:22, 27-33) speaks of Judas,
the son of Barsabas, in company with Silas, both
of whom he styles 'prophets,' and 'chief men
among the brethren.' Schott supposes that Bar-
sabas means the son of Sabas, or Zabas, which
he looks upon as an abridged form for Zebedee,
and concludes that the Judas here mentioned was
a brother of the elder James and of John.
JUDAS ISCARIOT (ju'das is-car'i-ot).
Tlie object of this article is not to elucidate all
the circumstances recorded respecting this person
but simply to investigate his motives in delivering
up Jesus to the chief priests. The evangelists
relate his proceedings, but give no opinion. "The
subject is consequently open to inquiry. Our
conclusions must be guided by the facts of the
case, and the known feelings and principles of hu-
man nature. Some hypothesis is necessarily
formed by every reader.
(1) Motives. The only conceivable motives
for the conduct of Judas are a sense of duty in
bringing hi« M.-is'cr to justice, resentment, avarice,
dissatisfaction with the procedure of Jesus, and a
JUDAS ISCARIOT
loon
JUDAS ISCARIOT
consequent scheme for the accomplishment of his
own views.
(2) Duty. With regard to the first of these
motives, if Judas had been actuated by a sense of
duty in bringing his Master to justice for anything
censurable in his intentions, words, or actions, he
would certainly have alleged some charge against
him in his first interview with the chief priests,
and they would have brought him forward as a
witness against Jesus, especially when they were
at so great a loss for evidence ; or they would have
reminded him of his accusations when he appealed
to them after our Lord's condemnation, saying, 'I
have sinned in that I have betrayed innocent blood'
— a confession which amounts to an avowal that he
had never seen anything to blame in his Master,
but everything to approve. Moreover, the knowl-
edge of the slightest fault in Jesus would have
served, at least for the present, to tranquili^e his
own feelings, and prevent his immediate despair.
The chief priests would also most certainly have
alleged any charge he had made against Jesus, as
a justification of their conduct, when they after-
wards endeavored to prevent his apostles from
preaching in his name (Acts iv:is-23; v 127-40).
(3) Resentment. The second motive supposed,
namely, that of resentment, is rather more plau-
sible. Jesus had certainly rebuked him for blam-
ing the woman who had anointed him in the house
of Simon the leper, at Bethany (comp. Matt.
xxvi:8-i7; John xii:4, 5); and Matthew's narra-
tive seems to connect his going to the chief priests
with that rebuke (verse 14), 'Then one of the
twelve, called Judas Iscariot, went unto the chief-
priests'; but closer inspection will convince the
reader that those words are more properly con-
nected with verse 3. Besides, the rebuke was gen-
eral, 'Why trouble ye the woman?' Nor was it
nearly so harsh as that received by Peter, 'Get
thee behind me, Satan' (Matt. xvi:23), and cer-
tainly not so public (Mark viii :32, 33).
Even if Judas had felt ever so much resentment,
it could scarcely have been his sole motive ; and
as nearly two days elapsed between his contract
with the chief priests and its completion, it would
have subsided during the interval, and have yielded
to that covetousness which we have every reason
to believe was his ruling passion. St. John ex-
pressly declares that Judas 'was a thief, and had
the bag, and bare (that is, conveyed away from it,
stole, l^iaraiev, eh-bas' tads-en) what was put
therein' (xii:6; comp. xx:is, in the original, and
see a similar use of the word in Josephus, p. 402.
39, ed. Huds.).
This rebuke, or rather certain circumstances at-
tending it, might have determined him to act as
he did, but is insufficient, of itself, to account en-
tirely for his conduct, by which he endangered all
his expectations of worldly advancement from
Jesus, at the very moment when they seemed upon
the verge of being fulfilled. It is, indeed, a most
important feature in the case, that the hopes enter-
tained by Judas, and all the apostles, from their
Master's expected elevation, as the Messiah, to the
throne of Judsa, and. as they believed, to the em-
pire of the whole world, were never more steadfast
than at the time when he covenanted with the
chief priests to deliver him into their hands. Nor
does the theory of mere resentment agree witli the
terms of censure in which the conduct and char-
acter of Judas are spoken of by our Lord and the
evangelists.
(4) Covetousness. Since, then, this supposition
is insufficient, we may consider another motive to
which his conduct is more commonly ascribed.
namely, covetousness. But if by covetousness be
meant the eager desire to obtain 'the thirty pieces
of silver,' with which the chief priest 'covenanted
with him' (Matt. xxvi:l5), it represents scarcely a
less inadequate motive. Can it be conceived that
Judas would deliberately forego the prospect of
immense wealth from his Master, by delivering
him up for about four pounds ten shillings ster-
ling, or twenty-two dollars of American money,
upon the highest computation, and not more than
double the value of a sum which he might easily
have purloined from the bag? Is it likely that
he would have made such a sacrifice for any
further sum, however large, which we may sup-
pose 'they promised him' (Mark xiv:ll), and of
which the thirty pieces of silver might have been
the mere earnest (Luke xxii :5) ? Had covetous-
ness been his motive, he would have ultimately
applied to the chief priests, not to bring again
the thirty pieces of silver with the confession, 'I
have sinned in that I have betrayed the innocent
blood' (Matt. xxvii:4), but to demand the com-
pletion of their agreement with him.
(5) Dissatisfaction with the Master. We are
now at liberty to consider the only remaining
motive for the conduct of Judas, namely, dissatis-
faction with the procedure of his Master, and a
consequent scheme for the furtherance of his own
views. It seems to us likely that the impatience of
Judas for the accomplishment of his worldly views,
which we conceive to have ever actuated him in
following Jesus, could no longer be restrained, and
that our Lord's observations at Bethany served to
mature a stratagem he had meditated long before.
He had no doubt been greatly disappointed at see-
ing his Master avoid being made a king, after
feeding the five thousand in Galilee.
Many a favorable crisis had Jesus seemed to
lose, or had not dared to embrace, and now while
at Bethany he talks of his burial (John xii:/) ; and
though none of his apostles, so firm were their
worldly expectations from their Master, could
clearly understood such 'sayings' (Luke xviii:34),
yet they had been made 'exceeding sorry' by them
(Matt. xvii:23).
At the same time Judas had long been convinced
by the miracles he had seen his Master perform
that he was the Messiah (John vii:3i). He had
even heard him accept this title from his apostles
in private (Matt. xvi:i6). He had promised them
that when he should 'sit upon the throne of his
glory, they should sit upon twelve thrones judging
the twelve tribes of Israel' (Matt. xix:28). Yet
now, when everything seemed most favorable to
the assumption of empire, he hesitates and de-
sponds. In his daily public conferences, too,
with the chief priests and Pharisees, he appears
to offend them by his reproofs, rather than to
conciliate their favor. Within a few days, the
people, who had lately given him a triumphal entry
into the city, having kept the passover. would be
dispersed to their homes, and Judas and his fellow
apostles be, perhaps, required to attend their Mas-
ter on another tedious expedition through the
country. Hence it seems most probable that Judas
resolved upon the plan of delivering up his Master
to the Jewish authorities, when he would be com-
pelled, in self-defense, to prove his claims, by giv-
ing them the sign from heaven they had so often
demanded; they would, he believed, elect him in
due form as the King Messiah and thus enable
him to reward his followers. He did, indeed,
receive from Jesus many alarming admonitions
against his design; but the plainest warnings are
lost upon a mind totally absorbed by a purpose,
and agitated by many violent passions. The worst
he would permit himself to expect was a temporary
JUDAS ISCARIOT
1001
JUDE, EPISTLE OF
displeasure for placing his Master in this dilemma;
but as he most likely believed, judging from him-
self, that Jesus anticipated worldly aggrandize-
ment, he might calculate upon his forgiveness
when the emergency should have been triumph-
antly surmounted.
(6) Hope of a Miracle. Judas could not doubt
his Master's ability to extricate himself from his
enemies by miracle. He had known him to do so
more than once (Luke iv:3o; John viii:S9; x:39).
Hence his directions to the officers to 'hold him
fast," when he was apprehended (Matt. xxvi:48).
With other Jews he believed the Messiah would
never die (John xii .34) ; accordingly, we regard
his pecuniary stipulation with the priests as a mere
artful cover to his deeper and more comprehensive
design; and so that he served their purpose in
causing the apprehensioi. of Jesus, they would
little care to scrutinize his motive. All they felt
was being 'glad' at his proposal (Mark xiv:ii),
and the plan appeared to hold good up to the very
moment of our Lord's condemnation ; for after
his apprehension his miraculous power seemed un-
abated, from his healing Malchus.
Judas heard him declare that he could even then
'ask, and his father would give him twelve le-
gions of angels' for his rescue. But when Judas,
who awaited the issue of the trial with such differ-
ent expectations, saw that though Jesus had
avowed himself to be the Messiah, he had not
convinced the Sanhedrim, and, instead of ex-
tricating himself from their power by miracle,
had submitted to be 'condemned, buffeted and
'spit upon' by his judges and accusers, then it
would seem he awoke to a full view of all the
consequences of his conduct.
(7) Bepentance and Suicide. The prophecies
of the Old Testament, 'that Christ should suffer,'
and of Jesus, concerning his own rejection and
death, flashed on his mind in their true sense
and full force, and he found himself the wretched
instrument of their fulfilment. He made a last
desperate effort to stay proceedings. He presented
him.self to the chief priests, offered to return the
money, confessed that he had sinned iti that he
had betrayed the innocent blood, and upon re-
ceiving their heartless answer was wrought into
a frenzy of despair, during which he committed
suicide.
There is much significancy in these words of
Matt, xxvii :3, 'Then Judas, ichen he satv he was
condemned,' not expiring on the cross, 'repented
himself,' etc. If such be the true hypothesis of his
conduct, then, however culpable it may have been
as originating in the most inordinate covetousness,
impatience of the procedure of Providence,
crooked policy, or any other bad quality, he is
certainly absolved from the direct intention of
procuring his Master's death.
(8) Difference Between Judas and Other
Apostles. 'The difference.' says Archbishop
Whatcly, 'between Iscariot and his fellow apos-
tles was, that though they all had the same ex-
pectations and conjectures, he dared to act on
his conjectures, departing from the plain course
of his known duty to follow the calculations of
his worldly wi-idom and the schemes of his worldly
ambition.' The reader is directed to the Primate's
admirable Discourse on the Treason of Judas
Iscariot, and Notes, annexed to Essays on Some
of the Dangers to Christian Faith, Lond., 1839:
Whitby on Matt, xxvii :3. for the opinions of
Theophylact, and some of the Fathers: Bishop
Bull's Sermons, ii and iii. On Some Important
Points, vol. i, Lond., 1713; Hales, New Analysis
of Chronoloev. vol. ii. b. ii, pp. 877, 8(78; Mag-
knight's Harmony of the Gospels, vol. ii, pp. 427-
30. Lond.. 1822; Rosenmiiller, Kuinoel, in he;
Adam Clarke's Cotnmentary. J. F. D.
JTTDAS lOACCABiEUS. See Maccabees.
JXTDE (jude). See JUDAS.
JTJDE, EPISTLE OF (jude, e-pis' '1).
(1) Authenticity. Doubts have been thrown
upon the genuineness of this Epistle, from the
fact that the writer was supposed to have cited
two apocryphal books — Enoch and the Assump-
tion of Moses. But, notwithstanding the diffi-
culties connected with this point, this epistle was
treated by the ancients with the highest respect,
and regarded as the genuine work of an inspired
writer. Although Origen on one occasion speaks
doubtfully, calling it the 'reputed epistle of Jude,'
yet on another occasion, and in the same work
(Cotn. in Matt.), he says, 'Jude wrote an epistle,
of few lines indeed, but full of the powerful
words of heavenly grace, who at the beginning
says, "Jude, the servant of Jesus Christ and
brother of James."' The same writer (Com. in
Rom. and De Princip. iii :2, i:i38) calls it the
writing of Jude the Apostle.
The moderns are, however, divided in opinion
between Jude the Apostle and Jude the Lord's
brother, if indeed they be different persons. Hug
and De Wette ascribe it to the latter.
(2) Another Brother of James. The author
simply calls himself Jude, the brother of James,
and a servant of Jesus Christ. This form of ex-
pression has given rise to various conjectures.
Hug supposes that he intimates thereby a nearer
degree of relationship than that of an apostle.
At the same time it must be acknowledged
that the circumstance of his not naming himself
an apostle is not of itself necessarily sufficient
to militate against his being the apostle of that
name, inasmuch as St. Paul does not upon all
occasions (as in Philippians, Thessalonians. and
Philemon) use this title. From his calling him-
self the brother of James, rather than the brother
of the Lord, Michaelis deduces that he was the
son of Joseph by a former wife, and not a full
brother of our Lord's, as Herder contends. (See
James; Judas or Jude.)
(3) Coincidence with Epistles of Peter.
From the great coincidence both in sentiment
and subject which exists between our epistle and
the second of St. Peter, it has been thought by
many critics that one of these writers had seen
the other's work ; but we shall reserve the discus-
sion as to which was the earlier writing until we
come to treat of St. Peter's Epistle.
(4) When Written. Dr. Lardner supposes
that Jude's Epistle was written between the years
64 and 66. Beausobre and L'Enfant between 70
and 75 (from which Dodwell and Cave do not
materially differ), and Dr. Mill fixes it at the year
90. If Jude has quoted the apocryphal book of
Enoch, as seems to be agreed upon by most mod-
ern critics, and if this book was written, as
Liicke thinks, after the destruction of Jerusalem,
the age of our epistle best accords with the date
assigned to it by Mill.
(5) To 'Whom Addressed. It is difficult to de-
cide who the persons were to whom this epistle
was addressed, some supposing that it was writ-
ten to converted Jews, others to all Christians
without distinction. Many of the arguments seem
best adapted to convince the Jewish Christians,
as appeals are so strikingly made to their sacred
hooks and traditions.
(6) Design. The design of this epistle is
to warn the Christians against the false teachers
JUDEA
1002
JUDGES
who had insinuated themselves among them and
disseminated dangerous tenets of insubordination
and licentiousness. The author reminds them,
by the example of Sodom and Gomorrah, that
God had punished the rebellious Jews; and that
even the disobedient angels had shared the same
fate. The false teachers to whom he alludes
'speak evil of dignities,' while the archangel
Michael did not even revile Satan. He com-
pares them to Balaam and Korah, to clouds with-
out water, and to raging waves. Enoch, he says,
foretold their wickedness ; at the same time he
consoles believers, and exhorts them to perse-
vere in faith and love. The epistle is remarkable
for the vehemence, fervor and energy of its com-
position and style. (See Antilecomena.)
W. W.
JTTDEA (ju-de'a). See Jud^a.
JXTDGE (jiij), (Heb. '^?t, shaw-fat).
1. To try and determine a cause (Exod.xviii:i3).
The manner of giving sentence was different in
different nations. The Jewish judges gave sen-
tence by simply declaring to the accused. Thou art
guilty, or Thou art innocent. The Romans did it
by casting various tables into a box or urn, marked
with an A, if they absolved; and with a C, if they
condemned the accused. Some of the Greeks in-
timated the sentence of absolution, by giving a
white stone; and of condenmation by giving a
black one ; to this allusion is made in Rev. ii :I7.
2. To esteem; account, as if on trial (Acts
xvi:i5).
3. To rule and govern, as one having power to
try and determine causes (Ps. lviii:ii).
4. To punish, as in consequence of trial and
sentence ; and to declare and denounce such pun-
ishments (Heb. xiii:4; Ezek. vii 13-8 and xxii:2).
5. To censure rashly (Matt. vii:i).
6. To appear upon one's side, as in consequence
of trial of his cause (Prov. xvii:i8). (See Law.)
JUDGES (jiii'es). This name is applied to
fifteen persons who at intervals presided over the
affairs of the Israelites during the 350 years (ac-
cording to Usher's chronology) which elapsed
from the death of Joshua to the accession of Saul.
(1) Bulers of the People. The term Judges,
used in the English Bibles, does not exactly rep-
resent the original Heb. O'^iJSjB^ sho-phe-tim , i. e.,
'rulers of the people.' The station and office of
these shophetiin are involved in great obscurity,
partly from the want of clear intimations in the
history in which their exploits and government are
recorded, and partly from the absence of parallels
in the history of other nations, by which our no-
tions might be assisted.
(2) Singular Institution. In fact the govern-
ment of the judges forms the most singular part
of the Hebrew institutions, and that which ap-
pears most difficult to comprehend. The kings,
the priests, the generals, the heads of tribes — all
these offer some points of comparison with the
same functionaries in other nations ; but the judges
stand alone in the history of the world ; and when
we think that we have found officers resembling
them in other nations, the comparison soon breaks
down in some point of importance.
(3) Nature of the Office. It remains to inquire
into the nature of the office itself, and the powers
and privileges which were connected with it. It
is usual to consider them as commencing their ca-
reer with military exploits to deliver Israel from
foreign oppression ; but this is by no means in-
variably the case. Eli and Samuel were not mili-
tary men; Deborah judged Israel before she
planned the war against Jabin ; and of Jair, Ibzan,
Elon, and Abdon, it is at least uncertain whether
they ever held any military command. The com-
mand of the army can therefore scarcely be
considered the distinguishing characteristic of
these men, or military exploits the necessary
introduction to the office. In many cases it
is true that military achievements were the means
by which they elevated themselves to the rank of
judges; but in general the appointment may be
said to have varied with the exigencies of the
times, and with the particular circumstances which
in times of trouble would draw the public atten-
tion to persons who appeared suited by their gifts
or influence to advise in matters of general con-
cernment, to decide in questions arising between
tribe and tribe, to administer public affairs, and to
appear as their recognized head in their inter-
course with their neighbors and oppressors.
(4) Choice of the People. In nearly all the in-
stances recorded the appointment seems to have
been by the free, unsolicited choice of the people.
The election of Jephthah, who was nominated as
the fittest man for the existing emergency, prob-
ably resembled that which was usually followed
on such occasions ; and probably, as in his case,
the judge, in accepting the office, took care to
make such stipulations as he deemed necessary.
(5) Divine Appointment. The only cases of
direct Divine appointment are those of Gideon and
Samson, and the last stood in the peculiar position
of having been from before his birth ordained 'to
begin to deliver Israel.' Deborah was called to
deliver Israel, but was already a judge. Samuel
was called by the Lord to be a prophet, but not a
judge, which ensued from the high gifts which the
people recognized as dwelling in him; and as to
Eli, the office of judge seems to have devolved
naturally, or rather ex officio, upon him ; and his
case seems to be the only one in which the high-
priest appears in the character which the theocrat-
ical institutions designed for him.
(6) Duties and Privileges. The following
clear summary of their duties and privileges is
from Jahn (Biblischcs Archiiologie, th. ii. bd. i.
sec. 22; Stowe's translation, ii :86) : The office of
judges or regents was held during life, but it was
not hereditary, neither could they appoint their
successors. Their authority was limited by the
law alone ; and in doubtful cases they were di-
rected to consult the Divine King through the
priest by Urim and Thummim (Num. xxvii:2i).
They were not obliged in common cases to ask
advice of the ordinary rulers; it was sufficient if
these did not remonstrate against the measures of
the judge. In important emergencies, however,
they convoked a general assembly of the rulers,
over which they presided and exerted a powerful
influence. They could issue orders, but not enact
laws ; they could neither levy taxes nor appoint
officers, except perhaps in the army.
Their authority extended only over those tribes
by whom they had been elected or acknowledged ;
for it is clear that several of the judges presided
over separate tribes. There was no income at-
tached to their office, nor was there any income
appropriated to them, unless it might be a larger
share in the spoils, and those presents which were
made them as testimonials of respect (Judg. viii :
24)-
They bore no external marks of dignity, and
maintained no retinue of courtiers, though some of
them were very opulent. They were not only
simple in their manners, moderate in their desires,
JUDGES
1003
JUDGES
and free from avarice and ambition, but noble and
magnanimous men, who felt that whatever they
did for their country was above all reward, and
could not be recompensed ; who desired merely to
promote the public good, and who chose rather to
deserve well of their country than to be enriched
by its wealth.
(7) Exalted Patriotism. This exalted patriot-
ism, like everything else connected with politics in
the theocratical state of the Hebrews, was partly
of a religious character, and those regents always
conducted themselves as the officers of God; in
all their enterprises they relied upon him, and
their only care was that their countrymen should
acknowledge the authority of Jehovah, their In-
visible King (Judg. viii: 22, sq.; comp. Heb. xi).
(8) Character. Still they were not without
faults, neither are they so represented by their
historians; they relate, on the contrary, with the
utmost frankness, the great sins of which some of
them were guilty. They were not merely deliv-
erers of the state from a foreign yoke, but destroy-
ers of idolatry, foes of pagan vices, promoters of
the knowledge of God, of religion, and of moral-
ity ; restorers of theocracy in the minds of the
Hebrews, and powerful instruments of Divine
Providence in the promotion of the great design
of preserving the Hebrew constitution, and, by
that means, of rescuing the true religion from de-
struction.
(9) Not a Complete History. The times of
the judges would certainly not be considered so
turbulent and barbarous, much less would they
be taken, contrary to the clearest evidence and to
the analogy of all history, for a heroic age, if they
were viewed without the prejudices of a precon-
ceived hypothesis. It must never be forgotten
that the book of Judges is by no means a com-
plete history. This no impartial inquirer can ever
deny. It is, in a manner, a mere register of dis-
eases, from which, however, we have no right to
conclude that there were no healthy men, much
less that there were no healthy seasons ; since the
book itself, for the most part, mentions only a few
tribes in which the epidemic prevailed, and notices
long periods during which it had universally
ceased.
(10) Condition of the People. Whatever may
be the result of a more accurate investigation, it
remains undeniable that the condition of the He-
brews during this period perfectly corresponds
throughout to the sanctions of the law: and they
were always prosperous when they complied with
the conditions on which prosperity was promised
them; it remains undeniable that the government
of God was clearly manifested, not only to the
Hebrews, but to their heathen neighbors; that the
fulfilling of the promises and threatenings of the
law were so many sensible proofs of the universal
dominion of the Divine King of the Hebrews ;
and, consequently, that all the various fortunes of
that nation were so many means of preserving the
knowledge of God on the earth. The Hebrews
had no sufficient reason to desire a change in tht-ir
constitution; all required was, that they should
observe the conditions on which national prosper-
ity was promised them.
(11) Chronology. The chronology of the pe-
riod in which the judges ruled is beset with great
and perhaps insuperable difficulties. There are in-
tervals of tiine the extent of which is not speci-
fied; as, for instance, that from Joshua's death
to the yoke of Chushan-rishathaim (ii:8); that
of the rule of Shamgar (iiiiji); that be-
tween Gideon's death and Abimelcch's accession
(viii :3l, 32) ; and that of Israel's renewal of idol-
atry previous to their oppression by the Ammon
ites (x:6, 7). Sometimes round numbers seem to
have been given, as forty years for the rule of
Othniel, forty years for that of Gideon, and forty
years also for the duration of the oppression by
the Philistines. Twenty years are given for the
subjection to Jabin, and twenty years for the gov-
ernment of Samson ; yet the latter never com-
pletely conquered the Philistines, who, on the con-
trary, succeeded in capturing him.
Some judges, who are commonly considered to
have been successive, were in all probability con-
temporaneous, and ruled over different districts.
Under these circumstances it is impossible to fix
the date of each particular event in the book of
Judges; but attempts have been made to settle its
general chronology, of which we must in this plaqe
mention the most successful.
The whole period of the judges, from Joshua to
Eli, is usually estimated at 299 years, in order to
meet the 480 years which (i Kings vi:i) are
said to have elapsed from the departure of the
Israelites from Egypt to the foundation of the
temple by Solomon. But St. Paul says (Acts
xiii:2o), 'God gave unto the people of Israel
judges about the space of 450 years until Samuel,
the prophet.' Again, if the number of years speci-
fied by the author of our book, in stating facts,
is summed up, we have 410 years, exclusive of
those years not specified for certain intervals of
time above mentioned. In order to reduce these
410 years and upwards to 299, events and reigns
must, in computing their years of duration, either
be entirely passed over, or, in a most arbitrary
way. included in other periods preceding or sub-
sequent.
(a) Of Usher. This has been done by Arch-
bishop Usher, whose peculiarly faulty system has
been adopted in the Authorized Version of the
Scriptures. He excludes the repeated intervals
during which the Hebrews were in subjection to
their enemies, and reckons only the years of
peace and rest which were assigned to the suc-
cessive judges. For example, he passes over the
eight years of servitude inflicted upon the He-
brews by Chushan-rishathaim, and, without any
interruption, connects the peace obtained by the
victories of Othniel with that which had been
conferred on the land by the government of
Joshua ; and although the sacred historian relates
on the plainest terms possible that the children of
Israel served the king of Mesopotamia eight
years, and were afterwards delivered by Othniel
who gave the land rest forty years, the arch-
bishop maintains that the forty years now men-
tioned began, not after the successes of this judge,
but immediately after the demise of Joshua.
Nothing certainly can be more obvious than that in
this case the years of tranquillity and the years
of oppression ought to be reckoned separately.
Again, we are informed by the sacred writei
that after the death of Ehud the children of Israel
were under the oppression of Jabin. king of Hazor,
for twenty years, and that afterwards, when their
deliverance was effected by Deborah and Barak,
the land had rest forty years. Nothing can be
clearer than this; yet Usher's system leads him
to include the twenty years of oppression in the
forty of peace, making both but forty years.
(6) Of Hales. All this arises from the obliga-
tion which Usher unfortunately conceived him-
self under of following the scfienie adopted by
the Massoretic Jews, who. as Dr. Hales remarks,
have by • curious invention included the first
four servitudes in the years of the judges who
JUDGES
1004
JUDGES, BOOK OF
put an end to them, contrary to the express
declarations of Scripture, which represents the
administrations of the judges, not as synchroniz-
ing with the servitudes, but as succeeding them.
The Rabbins were indeed forced to allow the
fifth servitude to have been distinct from the
administration of Jephthah, because it was too
long to be included in that administration ; but
they deducted a year from the Scripture account
of the servitude, making it only six instead of
seven years. They sank entirely the sixth servi-
tude of forty years under the Philistines, because
it was too long to be contained in Samson's ad-
ministration ; and, to crown all, they reduced
Saul's reign of forty years to two years only.
(c) The necessity for all these tortuous opera-
tions has arisen from a desire to produce a con-
formity with the date in I Kings vi:l, which, as
already cited, gives a period of only 480 years from
the Exode to the foundation of Solomon's temple.
As this date is incompatible with the sum of the
different numbers given in the book of Judges,
and as it differs from the computation of Josephus
and of all the ancient writers on the subject,
whether Jewish or Christian, it is not unsatisfac-
tory to find grounds which leave this text open
to much doubt and suspicion. We cannot here
enter into any lengthened proof ; but that the text
did not exist in the Hebrew and Greek copies
of the Scripture till nearly three centuries after
Christ, is evident from the absence of all refer-
ence to it in the works of the learned men who
composed histories of the Jews from the ma-
terials supplied to them in the sacred books. This
could be shown by reference to various authors,
who, if the number specified in it had existed,
could not fail to have adduced it. But our space
forbids such reference. (See Chronology.)
(12) Government. We find that, apart from
such offices as those of Moses and Joshua, a very
excellent provision existed for the government of
the chosen people, both as regarded the interests
of the nation generally, as well as of the several
tribes. To this latter branch of the government
it is important to draw particular attention, be-
cause, as it existed before the Law, and is as-
sumed throughout as the basis of the theocratical
constitution, we hear but little of it in the books
of Moses, and are apt to lose sight of it alto-
gether.
The fact is, however, that, through the per-
versity of the people, this settlement of the gen-
eral government on theocratical principles was not
carried out in its proper form and extent ; and it
is in this neglect we are to seek the necessity for
those officers called Judges, who were from tiine
to time raised up to correct some of the evils
which resulted from it.
It is very evident, from the whole history
of the judges, that after the death of Joshua the
Israelites threw themselves back upon the seg-
regative principles of their government by tribes,
and all but utterly neglected, and for long
periods did utterly neglect, the rules and usages
on which the genera! government was established.
There was, in fact, no human power adequate to
enforce them. They were good in themselves,
they were gracious, they conferred high privi-
leges; but they were enforced by no sufficient
authority. No one was amenable to any tribunal
for neglecting the annual feasts, or for not refer-
ring the direction of public affairs to the Divine
King. Omissions on these points involved the
absence of the Divine protection and blessing, and
were left to be punished by their consequences.
The people could not grasp the idea of a Divine
and Invisible King; they could not bring them-
selves to recur to him in all those cases in which
the judgment of a human king would have de-
termined the course of action, or in which his
arm would have worked for their deliverance.
(13) Reason for Judges. Therefore it was
that God allowed them judges in the persons of
faithful men, who acted for the most part as
agents of the divine will, regents for the Invisible
King; and who, holding their commission directly
from him, or with his sanction, would be more
inclined to act as dependent vassals of Jehovah
than kings, who, as members of royal dynasties,
would come to reign with notions of independent
rights and royal privileges, which would draw
away their attention from their true place in the
theocracy. In this greater dependence of the
judges upon the Divine King we see the secret
of their institutions.
The Israelites were disposed to rest upon their
separate interests as tribes ; and having thus al-
lowed the standing general government to re-
main inoperative through disuse, they would in
cases of emergency have been disposed 'to make
themselves a king like the nations,' had their at-
tention not been directed to the appointment of
officers whose authority could rest on no tangible
right apart from character and services. This,
with the temporary nature of their powers, ren-
dered their functions more accordant with the
principles of the theocracy than those of any
other public officers could be. And it is prob-
ably in this adaptation to the peculiar circum-
stances of the Hebrew theocracy that we shall
discover the reason of our inability to find any
similar office among other nations. In being thus
peculiar it resembled the Dictatorship among the
Romans; to which office indeed that of the judges
has been compared ; and perhaps this parallel is
the nearest that can be found. E. W. H.
JTIDGES, BOOK OF (jiij'es, book 6v), the
third in the list of the historical compositions of
the Old Testament. It consists of two divisions,
the first comprising cc. i-xvi; the second, being
an appendix, cc. xvii-xxi.
(1) Plan of the Book. That the author, in
composing this work, had a certain design in view,
is evident from ch. ii:ii-23, where he states the
leading features of his narrative. He introduces
it by relating (ch. i) the extent to which the wars
against the Canaanites were continued after the
death of Joshua, and what tribes had spared them
in consideration of a tribute imposed; also by al-
luding (ch. ii:i-io) to the benefits which Je-
hovah had conferred on them, and the distin-
guished protection with which he had honored
them.
Next he states his leading object, namely, to
prove that the calamities to which the Hebrews
had been exposed since the death of Joshua were
owing to their apostasy from Jehovah, and to
their idolatry. 'They forsook the Lord, and
served Baal and Ashtaroth' (ch. ii:i3) ; for which
crimes they were deservedly punished and greatly
distressed (ch. ii:i5). Nevertheless, when they
repented and obeyed again the commandments of
the Lord, he delivered them out of the hand of
their enemies by the Sho{<heiim whom he raised
up, and made them prosper (ch. ii:l6:23).
To illustrate this theme, the author collected
several fragments of the Hebrew history during
the period between Joshua and Eli. Some epi-
sodes occur; but in arguing his subject he never
loses sight of his leading theme, to which, on
the contrary, he frequently recurs while statins
facts, and shows how it applied to them ; the
moral evidently being, that the only way to hap-
JUDGES, BOOK OF
1006
JUDGES, BOOK OF
piness was to shun idolatry and obey the com-
mandments of the Lord. The design of the author
was not to give a connected and complete his-
tory of the Hebrews in the period between Joshua
and the kings; for if he had intended a plan of
that kind, he would also have described the state
of the domestic affairs and of the government in
the several tribes, the relation in which they stood
to each other, and the extent of power exercised
by a judge; he would have further stated the
number of tribes over whom a judge ruled, and
the number of years during which the tribes
were not oppressed by their heathen neighbors,
but enjoyed rest and peace. The appendix, con-
taining two narratives, further illustrates the law-
lessness and anarchy prevailing in Israel after
Joshua's death.
(2) Author. If the first and second divisions
had been by the same author, the chronological
indications would also have been the same. Now
the author of the second division always de-
scribes the period of which he speaks thus : 'In
those days there was no king of Israel, but every
man did that which was right in his own eyes'
(cc. xvii:6; xviii:i; xix:i; xxi:25); but this
expression never once occurs in the first division.
If one author had composed both divisions, in-
stead of this chronological formula, we should
rather have expected, 'In the days of the Slw-
phetim,' 'At a time when there was no Shophet,'
etc., which would be consonant with the tenor of
the first sixteen chapters.
The style also in the two divisions is different,
and it will be shown that the appendix was writ-
ten much later than the first part. All modern
critics, then, agree in this, that the author of the
first sixteen chapters of our book is different from
him who composed the appendix. (See L. Ber-
tholdt. Hhtorisch-Kritische EinUitune in die
siimmtlichen Schriften des A. und N. T., p. 876;
Eichhorn's Einleitung in das A. T., iii, sec. 457).
The authorship of the first sixteen chapters has
been assigned to Joshua, Samuel, and Ezra. That
they were not written by Joshua appears from
the difference of the method of relating subjects,
as well as from the difference of the style.
But though we cannot determine the author-
ship of the book of Judges, still its age may be
determined from internal evidence. The first six-
teen chapters must have been written under Saul,
whom the Israelites made their king in the hope
of improving their condition. Phrases used in
the period of the judges may be traced in them,
and the author must consequently have lived
near the time when they were yet current. He
says that in his time 'the Jebusites dwelt with the
children of Benjamin in Jerusalem' (ch. i:2i);
now this was the case only before David, who
conquered the town and drove out the Jebusites.
Consequently, the author of the first division of
the book of Judges must have lived and written
before David, and under King Saul. If he had
lived under David he would have mentioned the
capture of Jerusalem by that monarch, as the
nature of his subject did not allow him to pass
it over in silence. The omission, moreover, of the
history, not only of Samuel but also of Eli, indi-
cates an author who, living in an age very near
that of Eli, considered his history as generally
known, because so recent. The exact time when
the appendix was added to the book of Judges
cannot indeed be determined, but its author cer-
tainly lived in an age much later than that of the
recorded events.
(3) Character of the Book. Parts of the work
are undoubtedly taken from ancient records and
genealogies, others from traditions and oral in-
formation. From ancient authentic documents
are probably copied the song of Deborah (ch. v),
the beautiful parable of Jotham (ch. ix:8-is),
and the beginning of Samson's epinicion, or
triumphal poem (ch. xv:i6). In their genealo-
gies the Hebrews usually inserted also some his-
torical accounts, and from this source may have
been derived the narrative of the circumstances
that preceded the conception of Samson, which
were given as the parents related them to others
(ch. xiii).
(4) Authority of the Book, (a) It was pub-
lished at a time when the events related were
generally known, and when the veracity of the
author could be ascertained by a reference to the
original documents. Several of its narratives are
confirmed by the books of Samuel (comp. Judg.
iv :2 ; vi:i4; xi, with I Sam. xii:9-l2; Judg. ix:5,3
with 2 Sam. xi:2i). The Psalms not only allude
to the book of Judges (comp. Ps. lxxxiii:ii, with
Judg. vii:2S), but copy from it entire verses
(comp, Ps. Ixviii :8, 9; xcviirs; with Judg. v :4,
5). Philo and Josephus knew the book, and made
use of it in their own compositions. The New
Testament alludes to it in several places (comp.
Luke i : 13-16 with Judg. xiii:5; xvi:i7; Acts xiii:
20; Heb. xi 132).
(b) This external evidence in support of the
authority of the book of Judges is corroborated
by many internal proofs of its authenticity. All its
narratives are in character with the age to which
they belong, and agree with the natural order of
things. We find here that shortly after the death
of Joshua the Hebrew nation had, by several vic-
tories, gained courage and become valorous (Judg.
i and xix) ; but that it afterwards turned to agri-
culture, preferred a quiet life, and allowed the
Canaanites to reside in its territory in considera-
tion of a tribute imposed on them, when the orig-
inal plan was that they should be expelled. This
changed the Hebrew character entirely ; it became
effeminate and indolent — a result which we find in
the case of all nations who, from a nomadic and
warlike life, turn to agriculture.
(c) The intercourse with their heathen neigh-
bors frequently led the uncultivated Hebrews to
idolatry; and this, again, further prepared them
for servitude. They were consequently over-
powered and oppressed by their heathen neigh-
bors. The first subjugation, indeed, by a king of
Mesopotamia, they endured but eight years ; but
the second, more severe, by Eglon. lasted longer;
it was the natural consequence of the public spirit
having gradually more and more declined, and of
Eglon having removed his residence to Jericho
with a view of closely watching all their move-
ments (Joseph. Aniiq. v:5).
When Ehud sounded the trumpet of revolt the
whole nation no longer rose in arms, but only the
inhabitants of Mount Ephraim (ch. iii:27): and
when Barak called to arms against Sisera many
tribes remained quietly with their herds (ch.
v:i4, 15, 26. 28). Of the 30.000 men who offered
to follow Gideon, he could make use of no more
than 300, this small number only being, as it would
seem, filled with true patriotism and courage.
(d) Thus the people had sunk gradually, and
deserved for forty years to bear the yoke of the
Philistines, to whom they had the meanness to
deliver Samson, who, howe\'er, loosed the cords
with which he was tied, and killed a large number
of them (ch. xv). It is impossible to consider
such an historical work, which perfectly agrees
with the natural course of things, as a fiction; at
that early period of authorship no writer could
JUDGMENT
1006
JUDGMENT-HALL
have, from infancy, depicted the character of the
Hebrews so conformably with nature and estab-
lished facts. All in this book breathes the spirit
of the ancient world. Martial law we find in it, as
could not be but expected, hard and wild. The
conquered people are subjected to rough treat-
ment, as is the case in the wars of all uncivilized
people; the inhabitants of cities are destroyed
wholesale (cc. viii;i6, 17; xx). Hospitality and
the protection of strangers received as guests is
considered the highest virtue (ch. xix ; comp.
Gen. xix).
(e) In the state of oppression in which the He-
brews often found themselves during the period
from Joshua to Eli, it was to be expected that men
filled with heroism should now and then rise up
and call the people to arms in order to deliver
them from their enemies. Such valiant men are
introduced by our author, and he extols them
indeed highly; but on the other hand he is not
silent respecting their faults, as may be seen in
the instances of Ehud, whom he reports to have
murdered a king to recover liberty for his country
(ch. iii:i6, sg.) ; of Gideon, who is recorded to
have punished the inhabitants of Succoth and
Penuel cruelly, for having refused bread to his
weary troops (ch. viii:i6, 17); and of Jephthah,
who vows a vow that if he should return home
as a conqueror of the Ammonites he would offer
as a burnt-offering whatever should first come out
of the door of his house to meet him (ch. xi 134) ;
in consequence of this inconsiderate vow, his
only daughter is sacrificed by a savage father, who
thus becomes a gross offender against the Mosaic
law, which expressly forbids human immola-
tions. This cannot be a fiction ; it is no pane-
gyric on Israel to describe them in the manner the
author has done. And this frank, impartial tone
pervades the whole work. It begins with display-
ing the Israelites as a refractory and obstinate
people, and the appendix ends with the statement
of a crime committed by the Benjamites, which
had the most disastrous consequences. At the
same time due praise is bestowed on acts of gen-
erosity and justice, and valiant feats are carefully
recorded.
(5) Authenticity of the Book. This has been
questioned, because of the remarkable exploits
ascribed to its heroes. But it will be easy to show
that, when properly understood, they do not neces-
sarily exceed the limits of human power. Ex-
traordinary indeed they were; but they are not al-
leged by the Scripture itself to have been super-
natural. Those, however, who do hold them to
have been supernatural cannot reasonably take ex-
ception to them on the ground of their extraor-
dinary character. Considering the very remote
period at which our book was written — consider-
ing also the manner of viewing and describing
events and persons which prevailed with the
ancient Hebrews, and which very much differs
from that of our age — taking, moreover, into ac-
count the brevity of the narratives, which consist
of historical fragments, we may well wonder that
there do not occur in it more difficulties, and that
not more doubts have been raised as to its histor-
ical authority. (Bishop Hall, Contemplations on
the O. T., bks. X, xi; Milman, Hist, of the lews,
N. Y. 1864; Stanley, Jezmsh Ch., 1:315-426, Amer.
ed. ; Bachman, Der Buch der Richter, etc., 1868,
i:i-242; Keil. Josua. in Bibl. Comni. of Keil and
Delitzsch, iii:i7S-356, trans, by J. Martin, in
Clark's For. Theol. Libr. Edin. 1865.)
JUDGMENT auj'm^nt), (Heb. ^Sf^, mish-
pawt).
(1) Wisdom and prudence, whereby one can
judge of what is proper or improper, right or
wrong (Jer. x :24 ; Is. xxx:i8; Ps. lxxii:i). (2)
'Strict equity,' such as should appear in judging
(Luke xi:42). (3) The decision of a judge (1
Kings iii:28). (4) Courts for trying causes (Matt.
v:2i). (5) Controversies to be tried and de-
cided (I Cor. vi:4). (6) Sentiment, opinion, ad-
vice (i Cor. i:ioand vii:2s). (7) Chastisement
inflicted on saints (i Pet. iv:l7). (8) The statutes
or commandment of God, or what he has decided
in his word, particularly in what relates to civil
punishments (Ps. xix 7 ; Matt. xii:i8; Exod. xxi :
1). (9) The punishment inflicted for sin (Prov.
xix:29; Is. liii:8; Ezek. xxx:i4). (10) The power
of judging the world: this God has committed to
Christ (John v :22 and xvi:8). (11) The solemn
trial of men at the last day, that the wicked may
be condemned, and the righteous adjudged to
everlasting life (Eccl. xii:l4; Jude 6, 15).
Examples of Its Use. (i) God brings forth
men's judgment as the noon-day, when, in his
wise and righteous providence, he openly mani-
fests and rewards them according to the goodness
and equity of their cause (Ps. xxxvii:6). (2)
Zion shall be redeemed with judgment, shall be
delivered according to the wisdom and equity of
God, and through the infliction of punishment on
God's Son (Is. i:27). (3) Christ brings forth
judgment to the Gentiles, and sends it forth unto
victory, when he effectually reveals the truths of
God, and forms a people to himself (Is. xlii :2, 3;
Matt. xii:i8, 20). (4) Now is the judgment of
this world come; notu shall the prince of this
world be cast out. Now shall God separate multi-
tudes to himself; now shall he bring down their
high looks and imaginations ; now shall Satan be
cast out from men's hearts, and lose his authority
in the world (John xii:3i). (5) The Holy Ghost
shall convince men of judgment, because the prince
of this world is judged; by dislodging Satan from
men's bodies, and casting him out of their hearts,
he shall demonstrate Jesus' power and authority,
and evince his future appearance to judgment
(John xvi:il). (6) God's judgments are true
and righteous; his conduct in delivering his peo-
ple, and punishing his enemies, corresponds with
the predictions and threatenings of his word, and
the equity of his nature (Rev. .xix:2). (7) Rash
judgments are absolutely forbidden in the sacred
Scriptures (Matt, vii :l). (a) We thereby author-
ize others to requite us in the same kind, (b) It
often evidences our pride, envy, and bigotry, (c)
It argues a want of charity, the distinguishing fea-
ture of the Christian religion, (d) They who are
most forward in censuring others are often most
defective themselves.
J'UDGMENT-HALL (juj'mfnt hall), (Gr. ITpot-
Tilipiov, prahee-to'ree-on, praetorium, occurs in
Matt. xxvii:27; Mark xv:i6; John xviii:28, 33;
xix:9; Acts xxiii;35; Phil. i:i3, in all which places
the Vulgate has praetorium.
The English Version, however, uses prastorium
once only, and then unavoidably (Mark xv:l6),
'The hall called praetorium.' In all the other
instances it gives an explanation of the word
rather than a translation; thus (Matt, xxvii :27)
'the common hall,' margin, 'or governor's house' ;
John xviii :28, j,},) 'the judgment hall,' margin, 'or
Pilate's house'; (Phil. i:i3), 'the palace,' margin,
'or Cxsar's court.'
(1) Original Signification. The word prae-
torium originally sig^nified the general's tent in a
camp, and came at length to be applied to the
residence of the civil governor in provinces and
JUDGMENT-SEAT
1007
JUDITH
cities (Cic. I'err. ii, v. 12); and being properly
an adjective, as is also its Greek representative, it
was used to signify whatever appertained to the
praetor or governor ; for instance, his residence
either the whole or any part of it, as his dwell-
ing-house, or the place where he administered
justice, or even the large enclosed court at the
entrance to the pra'torian residence (Bynaeus, De
Morle Jes. Christ, ii :407, Amst., i6g6).
(2) Pilate's Residence. Upon comparing the
instances in which the evangelists mention the
prastorium, it will be seen, first, that it was the
residence of Pilate (John xviii 128) which seems
to have been the magnificent palace built by
Herod, situated in the north part of the upper
city, west of the temple (Joseph. Antiq. xv :9, 3),
and overlooking the temple (Joseph, xx :8, 11).
(3) A Portion of the Palace. Secondly, the
word is applied in the New Testament, by synec-
doche, to a particular part of the prxtorian resi-
dence. Thus, Matt, xxvii :27, and Mark xv:i6,
'And the soldiers led Jesus away into the hall
called Praetorium, and gathered unto them the
whole band, and they clothed him with purple,"
etc. ; where the word rather refers to the court
or area in front of the praetorium, or some other
court where the procurator's guards were sta-
tioned. In John xixig, the word seems applied,
when all the circumstances are considered, to
Pilate's private examination room. In like man-
ner, when Felix 'commanded Paul to be kept
in Herod's praetorium' (Acts xxiii:3s), the words
apply not only to the whole palace originally
built at Caesarea by Herod, and now most likely
inhabited by the praetor, but also to the keep or
donjon, a prison for confining offenders, such as
existed in our ancient royal palaces and grand
baronial castles.
(4) Prastorian Camp. Thirdly, in the remain-
ing instance of the word (Phil. 1:13), 'So that
my bonds in Christ are manifest in all the prae-
torium,' 'palace,' it is, in the opinion of the best
commentators, used by hypallage to signify the
pratorian camp at Rome, a select body of troops
constituted by Augustus to guard his person and
to have charge of the city, the 'cohortes prcetori-
ance' (Suet. Tib. 37; Claud. 10; Ner. 8; Tacitus,
Annal. xii 169) ; so that the words of the apostle
reallv mean, 'My bonds in Christ are manifest to
all the praetorians, and by their means to the pub-
lic at large.'
JTTDGMENT-SEAT (juj'me-nt set), (Or. B^/10,
bay' ma, a step; i Cor. vi:2, 4, KpiTiJpioi", AV/-/'(y'-
rion, a court of judgment). See PR/ETOrium;
Judgment-Hall.
Judgments of God are the punishments inflicted
by him for particular crimes. The Scriptures give
us manystriking instances of the display of Divine
justice in the punishment of nations, families, and
individuals, for their iniquities (see Gen. vi ; xix :
25 ; Exod. XV ; Judg. i :6, 7 ; Acts xii :23 ; Esther
v:i4, with ch, vii:io; Lev. x:i, 2; Acts v:i-io;
Is. xxx:i-5; I Sam. xv :9, 23; i Kings xii :2S, 33).
It becomes us, however, to be exceedingly cautious
how we interpret the severe and aflflictive dispen-
sations of Providence, in the present world.
Dr. Jortin justly observes that there is usually
much rashness and presumption in pronouncing
that the calamities of sinners are particular judg-
ments of God; yet, he says, if from sacred and
profane, from ancient and modern historians, a
collection were made of all the cruel, persecuting
tyrants, wlio delighted in tormenting their fellow-
creatures, and who died not the common death of
all men, but whose plagues were horrible and
strange, even a skeptic would be moved at the evi-
dence, and would be apt to suspect that it was
thcion ti, that the hand of God was in it.
JUDICIAL, BLINDNESS OR HARDNESS.
A term used to denote moral incorrigibility and
spiritual blindness (Mark iii:s). "Being grieved
for the blindness — hardness — of their hearts." So
(Rom. xi:25). "Blindness — hardness — in part
hath happened to Israel" (Eph. iv:i8). "Because
of the blindness — hardness — of their hearts" (2
Cor. iii:i4). "Their minds were blinded" — hard-
ened; and elsewhere. In other expressions God is
declared to be the cause of such hardness and
blindness (John xii:40). He has blinded their
eyes and hardened their hearts; which seems to be
contradictory to Matt. xiii:is, where the people
themselves are said to have closed their own
eyes ; and so Acts xxviii :27. These seeming con-
tradictions are very easily reconciled by taking the
phraseology in its true import :
(a) "Set the eyes of this people" — prophesy such
flowing times, such abundant jollity, that the peo-
ple, devoting themselves to gormandizing, may be
inebriated with the very idea ; and still more with
the enjoyment itself when it arrives.
0>) God, by giving plenty and abundance, affords
the means of the people's abusing his goodness,
and becoming both over-fat with food, and intoxi-
cated with drink; and thus, his very beneficence
may be said to make their heart fat, and their eyes
heavy.
(c) While, at the same time, the people by their
own act, their overfeeding, become unwieldy —
indolent — bloated — over-fat at heart ; and. more-
over, so stupefied by liquor and strong drink that
their eyes and ears may be useless to them ; with
wide open eyes, "staring they may stare, but not
perceive; and listening they may hear, but not un-
derstand"; and in this lethargic statethey will con-
tinue ; preferring it to a more sedate, rational con-
dition, and refusing to forbear from prolonging the
causes of it, lest at any sober interval they should
see truly with their eyes, and hear accurately with
their ears; in consequence of which they should be
shocked at themselves, be converted, be changed
from such misconduct, and God should heal them,
should cure these blinding effects of dissoluteness
(comp. Is. v:ii; xxviii).
JTTDITH (ju'dith),(Heb. ^^'>'*^':. yeA-Aoo-t/ee/^'
Jewess).
I. Daughter of Beeri the Hittite and Esau's
wife (Gen, xxvi:34).
II. Judith is the name of one of the apocryphal
or deutero-canonical books of the Old Testament,
is placed in manuscripts of the Alexandrine Ver-
sion between the books of Tobit and Esther. In
its external form this book bears the character
of the record of an historical event, describing
the complete defeat of the Assyrians by the Jews
through the prowess of a woman.
/. Narrative. The following is a sketch of
the narrative: Nebuchadnezzar, or, as he is called
in the Greek, Nabuchodonosor, king of the .^ssyr-
ians, having, in the twelfth year of his reign,
conquered and taken Arphaxad, by whom his ter-
ritory_ had been invaded, formed the design of
subduing the people of Asia to the westward of
Nineveh, his capital, who had declined to aid him
against Arphaxad. With this view he sent his
general, Holofernes. at the head of a powerful
army, and soon made himself master of Mesopo-
tamia, Syria, Libya, Cilicia, and Idumaea.
The inhabitants of the seacoast made a volun-
tary submission ; which, however, did not prevent
their territories from being laid waste, their sa-
cred groves burned, and their idols destroyed, in
JUDITH
1008
JUNIPER
order that divine honors should be paid only to
Nebuchadnezzar.
(1) Holofernes. Holofernes, having finally
encamped in the plain of Esdraelon (ch. 1:3), re-
mained inactive for a whole month — or two, ac-
cording to the Latin version.
But the Jews, who had not long returned from
captivity, and who had just restored their temple
and its worship, prepared for war under the di-
rection of their high-priest Joacim. or Eliakim,
and the senate. The high-priest addressed letters
to the inhabitants of Bethulia (Gr. BervXoia) and
Betomestham, near Esdraelon (ch. iv:6), charg-
ing them to guard the passes of the mountains.
The Jews at the same time kept a fast, and
called upon God for protection against their ene-
mies. Holofernes, astonished at their audacity
and preparations, inquired of the Moabites and
Ammonites who these people were. Achior, the
leader of the Ammonites, informed him of the
history of the Jews, adding, that if they offended
their God he would deliver them into the hands
of their enemies, but that otherwise they would
be invincible.
Holoternes, however, prepares to lay siege to
Bethulia, and commences operations by taking the
mountain passes, and intercepting the water, in
order to compel the inhabitants to surrender.
Ozias, the governor of the city, holds out as long
as possible ; but at the end of thirty-four days'
siege the inhabitants are reduced to that degree of
distress from drought that they are determined
to surrender unless relieved within five days.
(2) Design of Judith. Meantime Judith, a
rich and beautiful woman, the widow of Manas-
seh, forms the patriotic design of delivering the
city and the nation. With this view she entreats
the governor and elders to give up all idea of
surrender, and to permit the gates of the city to be
opened for her. Arrayed in rich attire, she pro-
ceeds to the camp of Holofernes, attended only by
her maid, bearing a bag of provisions. She is
admitted into the presence of Holofernes, and
informs him that the Jews could not be overcome
so long as they remained faithful to God, but
that they had now sinned against him in con-
verting to their own use the tithes, which were
sacred to the priests alone ; and that she had
fled from the city to escape the impending and
inevitable destruction which awaited it.
She obtains leave to remain in the camp, with
the liberty of retiring by night for the purpose
of prayer, and promises that at the proper mo-
ment she will herself be the guide of Holofernes
to the very walls of Jerusalem.
(3) Holofernes Charmed. Judith is favor-
ably entertained ; Holofernes is smitten with her
charms, gives her a magnificent entertainment, at
which, having drunk too freely, he is shut up
with her alone in the tent.
(4) Death of Holofernes. Taking advantage
of her opportunity, while he is sunk in sleep,
she seizes his falchion and strikes off his head.
Giving it to her maid, who was outside the
tent door, she leaves the camp as usual, under
pretense of devotion, and returns to Bethulia, dis-
playing the head of Holofernes.
The Israelites, next morning, fall on the As-
syrians, who, panic-struck at the loss of their
general, are soon discomfited, leaving an immense
spoil in the hands of their enemies. The whole
concludes with the triumphal song of Judith, who
accompanies all the people to Jerusalem to give
thanks to the Lord. After this she returns to her
native city Bethulia, gives freedom to her maid,
and dies at the advanced age of 105 years. The
Jews enjoying a profound and happy peace, a
yearly festival (according to the Vulgate) is
instituted in honor of the victory.
(5) Difficulties of the Story. The difficulties,
historical, chronological, and geographical, com-
prised in the narrative of Judith are so numerous
and serious as to be held by many divines alto-
gether insuperable. Events, times, and manners
are said to be confounded, and the chronology of
the times before and those after the exile, of the
Persian and Assyrian, and even of the Maccabsean
period, confusedly and unaccountably blended.
The authorship of the book is as uncertain as
its date. It is not named either by Philo or Jo-
sephus ; nor have we any indication whatever by
which to form a conjecture respecting its au-
thor.
The original language is uncertain. Eichhorn
and Jahn (Introduction) and Seiler {Biblical
Hermeneutics), with whom is Bertholdt, conceive
it to have been Greek. Calmet states on the au-
thority of Origen (Ep. ad African.) that the
Jews had the book of Judith in Hebrew in his
time. Jerome (Pref. to Judith) states that it is
written in Chaldee, from which he translated it,
with the aid of an interpreter, giving rather the
sense than the words.
2. Influence. Although the book of Judith
never formed part of the Jewish canon (see Deu-
tero-Canonical), and finds no place in the an-
cient catalogues, its influence in the Christian
church has been very great. (See Apocrypha.)
The book of Judith is supposed by some to be
referred to by St. Paul (i Cor. x 19, 10; comp.
with Judith viii 124, 25). Judith, with the other
deutero-canonical books, has been at all times
read in the church, and lessons are taken from it
in the Church of England in course. ("G. B.,"
in the Journal of Sac. Lit., July, 1856; Cowper,
The Book of Judith and Its Geography, in the
same journal, January 1861.) W. W.
J1TLIA (ju'Ii-a), (Gr. 'louXfo, ee-oo-lee'ah, fern, of
Julius, a name common among the Romans), a
Christian woman of Rome, to whom St. Paul sent
his salutations (Rom. xvi:i5); she is named with
Philologus, and is supposed to have been his wife
or sister.
JXTIiI'D'S (ju'li-us), (Gr. "loi/Xtot, ee-00' lee-os), the
centurion who had the charge of conducting Paul
as a prisoner to Rome, and who treated him with
much consideration and kindness on the way
(Acts xxvii;i,3, 43).
JTJNIA, better JTJNIAS (ju'ni-a or ju'ni-as),
(Gr. 'louvfas, ee-00-nee' as), a person who is joined
with Andronicus in Rom. xvi:7: 'Salute Andron-
icusand Junias, my kinsmen and fellow-prisoners,
who are of note among the apostles." They were,
doubtless, Jewish Christians.
JUNIPER (ju'nt-per), unquestionably the orig-
inal intends the re-tem (Retama rcrtam), a shrub
of the broom family, attaining a height of about
12 feet.
This bush grows in the sandy regions of
Arabia, Northern Africa, and Spain, but is espe-
cially abundant in the desert of Sinai, and is often
the only possible shelter. Under its shade travel-
ers are glad to creep on a sultry day for a noon-
time nap, and thus Elijah lay and slept after
his long journey (i Kings xix :4, 5). The retem
has no main trunk, but consists of many stems,
mostly small. The roots are disproportionally
massive and dense, and from them the Bedouins
manufacti-re charcoal, which is sold in Cairo
and other towns, where it brings the highest price,
JUPITER
1009
JUSTIFICATION
since, of all charcoal, it produces the most in-
tense heat (Ps. cxx:4). In Job xxx:4 we read
of hunger so extreme that the bitter roots of this
shrub are used for food. During the wanderings
of the Israelites one of their stations was named
Kithmah, doubtless from the abundance of the
retem at that place (Num. xxxiii:i8).
JTJPITER (ju'pi-ter), (Gr. Zci/s, dzyooce, zeus),
the Latin form of the Greek name Zeus, the na-
tional god of the Greeks, and the supreme ruler
of the heathen world.
In Acts xiv:i2, 13, "Jupiter, which was before
their city," means that his temple was without the
city. In verse 12, the Lystrians call Barnabas
'Jupiter.' Paul, the chief speaker, they thought
to be Mercury, the god of eloquence, and the
other they thought must be the god whom they
worshiped, Jupiter.
JTJSHAB-HESED (ju'shab-he'sed), (Heb. "^Cn
^^^*. yoo-shab' kheh'sed, returner of kindness),
son of Zerubbabel (i Chron. iii:20). It is im-
possible to tell why the five children here men-
tioned are separated from the three in verse 19,
unless they were bom of a different mother, or in
Judasa after the return from Babylon.
JUSTICE (jus'tis) consists in an exact and
scrupulous regard for the rights of others, with a
deliberate purpose to preserve them on all occa-
sions sacrea and inviolate.
(1) Justice and equity may be discriminated
as follows : Justice, from jus, right, is founded
on the laws of society. Equity, from aquitas,
fairness, rightness, and equality, is founded on
the laws of nature. Justice is a written or pre-
scribed law, to which one is bound to conform
and make it the rule of one's decisions ; equity
is a law in our hearts ; it conforms to no rule
but to circumstances, and decides by the con-
sciousness of right and wrong. The proper ob-
ject of justice is to secure property; the proper
object of equity is to secure the rights of human-
ity. Justice is exclusive, it assigns to every one
his own ; it preserves the subsisting inequality
between men ; equity is communicative ; it seeks
to equalize the condition of men by a fair dis-
tribution.
(2) Dr. Watts gives the following rules re-
specting justice: (a) "It is just that we honor,
reverence, and respect those who are our superi-
ors in any kind (Eph. vi :i, 3 ; i Pet. ii :i7; i Tim.
v:i7). (b) That we show particular kindness
to near relations (Prov. xvii:i7). (c) That we
love those who love us, and show gratitude to
those who have done us good (Gal. iv:i5). (d)
That we pay the full due to those whom we bar-
gain or deal with (Rom. xiii 17, 8; Deut. xxiv:
14). (e) That we help our fellow-creatures in
cases of great necessity (Exod. xxiii:4-7).
JUSTICE OF GOD is that perfection whereby
he is infinitely righteous and just in his principles
and in all his proceedings with his creatures.
(1) It has been defined thus : "The ardent
inclination of his will to prescribe equal laws as
the Supreme Governor, and to dispense equal
rewards and punishments as the Supreme Judge"
(Rev. xvi:5; Ps. cxlv:7; xcvii:i, 2).
(2) It is distinguished into remunerative and
punitive justice. Remunerative justice is a dis-
tribution of rewards, the rule of which is not the
merit of the creature, hut God's own gracious
promise (James i:i2; 2 Tim. iv:8). Punitive or
vindictive justice is the infliction of punishment
for any sin committed by men (2 Thess. i:6).
64
(3) That God will not let sin go unpunished is
evident: (a) From the word of God (Exod.
xxxiv :6, 7; Num. xiv:i8.) (b) From the char-
acter of God (Is. i:i3, 14; Ps. v:s, 6; Heb.
xii:29). (c) From sin being punished in Christ,
the surety of his people (I Pet. iii:i8). (d)
From all the various natural evils which men
feel in the present state.
jruSTIFICATION (jus'tl-fi-ka'shiin), (Heb. p1^'
tsaw-Juk' , to make or declare; Gr. StftaKiwo, (^zZ'-
ah-yo'nee-ah), judicial sentence, declaration ol
right; thus, judicial acquittal, the opposite of con-
demnation.
1. Theological Statement, justification may
be defined, in its theological sense, as the non-
imputation of sin, and the imputation of righteous-
ness. That there is a reciprocation between Christ
and believers, i.e. in the imputation of their sins
unto him, and of his righteousness unto them;
and that this forms the ground of the sinner's jus-
tification and acceptance with God, it will be the
object of the followmg remarks to demonstrate.
(1) Vicajious Atonements. "YVt-vicarious na-
ture of the Redeemer's sufferings was set forth
under the Mosaic dispensation by very signifi-
cant types, one of the most expressive of which
was the offermg of the scapegoat : 'And Aargn
shall lay his hands upon the head of the live goat,
and confess over him all the iniquities of the chil-
dren of Israel, and all their transgressions in all
their sins, putting them on the head of the goat,
and the goat shall bear upon him all their iniqui-
ties' (Lev. xvi :2i, 22). Abarbanel, in the intro-
duction to his commentary on Leviticus {Dc Vicl.
p. 301), represents this ceremony as a symbolical
translation of the sins of the offender upon the
head of the sacrifice, and as a way by which the
evil due to his transgression was to be depre-
cated.
Nachmanides also, commenting on Lev. i, ob-
serves, respecting the burnt-offerings and sacri-
fices for sin : 'It was right the offerer's own blood
should be shed, and his body burnt, but that the
Creator, in his mercy, hath accepted this victim
from him as a vicarious substitute and atonement,
that its blood should be poured out instead of his
blood, and its life stand in place of his life.'
We are informed by Herodotus (ii:39) that
the practice of imprecating on the head of the
victim the evils which the sacrificer wished to
avert from himself was usual also amongst the
heathen. The Egyptians, he adds, would not
taste the head of any animal, but flung it into the
river as an abominataion.
(2) Prophecy and Exposition of Atonement.
If this type foreshadowed the vicarious nature of
the sufferings and death of Christ — and who with
the inspired comment of the author of the Epistle
to the Hebrews before him can doubt this?— we
may with confidence appeal also to the voice of
prophecy, and the expositions of apostles, for the
further illustration and enforcement of the same
truth.
The fifty-third chapter of Isaiah is so full upon
this point that Bishop Lowth says : 'This chapter
declares the circumstances of our Savior's suf-
ferings so exactly that it seems rather a history
of his passion than a prophecy.' In verses 5 and
6 we are told that God 'laid upon him the iniqui-
ties of us all' that by 'his stripes we might be
healed' — that our sin was laid on him, and he
bare it (ver. 11). St. Paul, re-echoing the same
truth, says. 'He was made sin for us who knew no
sin, that we might be made the righteousness of
JUSTIFICATION
1010
JUSTIFICATION
God in him' (2 Cor. v:2i). This is the recipro-
cation spoken of above.
Again, in Rom. via :3, 4, the Apostle informs us
that God sent his own Son in the Hkeness of sin-
ful flesh, and for sin condemned sin in the flesh,
that the righteousness of the law might be ful-
filled in us; that sin was made his, and he bore
its penalty; his righteousness is forensically trans-
ferred to the believer, and the latter becomes a
happy participator of its benefits. This, then, is
the change in relation to God from which the soul
of a convicted sinner can find peace. Before \ye
notice the objections which have been, and still
are, urged against this view of the question, we
may inquire Iww far it is confirmed by the earli-
est and most eminently pious Fathers of the Chris-
tian church.
(3) Faitli of the Fathers. Amongst these Fa-
thers none could have been better acquainted
with the mind of St. Paul than the venerable
Clement of Rome, inasmuch as he is honorably
recorded by the Apostle as one of his fellow-la-
borers in the Gospel whose names are written in
the book of life (Phil. iv:3). Nothing can be
more explicit than this writer is on the point of
forensic justify ing righteousness, and of intrinsic
sanctifying righteousness (see Clem. Rom. Epist.
ad Corinth, i. sec. 32, 33). Chrysostom's commen-
tary on 2 Corinthians (ch. v. Horn, ii) is also
very expressive on this subject: 'What word,
what speech is this, what mind can comprehend
or speak it? for he (Paul) saith, he made him who
was righteous to be made a sinner, that he might
make sinners righteous; nor yet doth he (Paul)
say so neither, but that which is far more sublime
and excellent. For he speaks not of an inclination
or affection, but expresseth the quality itself. For
he says not he made him a sinner, but sin, that
we might be made not merely righteous, but right-
eousness, and that the righteousness of God, when
we are justified not by works (for if we should,
there must be no spot found in them), but by
grace, whereby all sin is blotted out.'
(4) Boman Catholic View. It was this doc-
trine of justification which constituted the great
ground of controversy between the reformers and
the church of Rome (see Luther to Geo. Spen-
lein, Epist. Ann. 1516, torn. i.). That the reader
may be able to see in a contrasted form the es-
sential differences upon this head between the two
churches, we subjoin what the Tridentine Fathers
have stated. In sess. vi. c. xvi. p. 54, they an-
nounce the views of their church on justification
in the following language :
'Jesus Christ, as the head into the members, and
as the vine into the branches, perpetually causes
his virtue to flow into the justified. This virtue
always precedes, accompanies, and follows their
good works ; so that without it such good works
could in nowise be acceptable to God, and bear
the character of meritoriousness.
'Hence, we must believe that to the justified
themselves nothing more is wanting which needs
to prevent us from thinking both that they have
satisfied the divine law. according to the state of
this life, by those works which are performed in
God, and also that, in their own time, provided
they depart in grace, they truly merit the attain-
ment of eternal life.
'Thus neither our own proper righteousness is so
determined to be our own, as if it were from our-
selves, nor is the righteousness of God either
unknown or rejected. For that which is called our
righteousness, becaiise through its being inherent
in us we are justified, that same is the right-
eousness of God, because it is infused into us by
God through the merit of Christ. Far, however,
be it from a Christian man that he should either
trust or glory in himself, and not in the Lord,
whose goodness to all is so great that what are
truly 'his gifts he willeth to be estimated as
their merits.'
(5) General Protestant View. Such, so far
as the justification and acceptance of man before
God are concerned, is the doctrinal scheme of the
church of Rome, and nothing can be more for-
eign than it is from the system set forth by the
Protestant church in general. In the view of the
latter, justification signifies making just in trial
and judgment, as sanctification is making holy;
but not making just by infusion of grace and holi-
ness into a person, according to the view of the
former, thus confounding justification and sancti-
fication together. On the Protestant principle
justification is not a real change of a sinner in
himself, though a real change is annexed to it ;
but only a relative change in reference to God's
judgment. Thus we find the word used in Rom.
iii :23, 24, 25, 26. In fine, the doctrine of Justifi-
cation by Faith may be expressed in Scriptural
language thus : 'All have sinned and come short
of the glory of God ; every mouth must be
stopped, and all the world become guilty before
God ; therefore by the deeds of the law there
shall no flesh living be justified in his sight.
But we are justified freely by his grace through
the redemption which is in Christ Jesus, whom
God hath set forth as a propitiation through
faith in his blood, to declare his righteousness
for the remission of sins that are past, through
the forbearance of God. Where is boasting, then?
It is excluded. By what law? of works? Nay;
but by the law of faith. Therefore we conclude
that a man is justified by faith without the deeds
of the law.' For a full exposition of the differ-
ences between the two churches, see Mohler's
Symbolik, translated from the German by Rob-
ertson.
2. Objectiops. We now come to notice the
objections which may be urged against this view
of justification.
(1) Cruelty and Butler's Answer. It does
not consist, say some, with the truth and holiness
of God that the innocent should suffer for the
guilty. We answer, that it is no injustice, or
cruelty, for an innocent person to suffer for the
guilty, as Christ did, provided there be these con-
ditions:
(a) That the person suffering be of the same
nature with those for whom he suffers.
(b) That he suffers of his own free will.
(c) That he be able to sustain all that shall be
laid upon him.
(d) That a greater amount of glory redound to
the divine attributes than if he had not so suf-
fered. Now the Scriptures assure us that all
these conditions were realized in the incarnate
Savior.
Bishop Butler {Analogy, ch. v.) has a striking
answer to this objection. He shows that in the
daily course of God's natural providence the in-
nocent do often and constantly suffer for the
guilty; and then argues that the Christian ap-
pointment against which this objection is taken,
is not only of the same kind, but is even less open
to exception, 'because, under the former, we are
in many cases commanded, and even necessitated
whether we will or no, to suffer for the faults of
others ; whereas the sufferings of Christ were vol-
untary. The world's being under the righteous
government of God does, indeed, imply that,
finally, and upon the whole, every one shall re-
JUSTIFICATION
1011
JUTTAH
ceive according to his personal deserts ; and the
general doctrine of the whole Scripture is that
this shall be the completion of the Divine govern-
ment.
'But during the progress, and for aught we
know even in order to the completion, of this
moral scheme, vicarious punishments may be fit,
and absolutely necessary. Men, by their follies,
run themselves into extreme distress — into diffi-
culties which would be absolutely fatal to them,
were it not for the interposition and assistance of
others. God commands by the law of nature that
we afford them this assistance, in many cases
where we cannot do it without very great pains
and labor and suffering to ourselves. And we
see in what variety of ways one person's suffer-
ings contribute to the relief of another, and how,
or by what particular means, this comes to pass,
or follows from the constitution or laws of na-
ture which come under our notice, and. being
familiarized with it, men are not shocked by it.
So that the reason of their insisting upon objec-
tions of the foregoing kind against the satisfac-
tion of Christ is either that they do not consider
God's settled and uniform appointments as his
appointments at all, or else they forget that vi-
carious punishment is a providential appointment
of every day's experience ; and then, from their
being unacquainted with the more general laws
of nature or Divine government over the world,
and not seeing how the sufferings of Christ could
contribute to the redemption of it unless by arbi-
trary and tyrannical will, they conclude his suf-
ferings could not contribute to it any other way.
And yet, what has been often alleged in justifica-
tion of this doctrine, even from the apparent
natural tendency of this method of our redemp-
tion— its tendencies to vindicate the authority of
God's laws, and deter his creatures from sin—
this has never yet been answered, and is, I think,
plainly unanswerable.'
(2) Contradiction of St. Paul by St. James.
Again it is objected, if we are justified on re-
ceiving Christ by faith as the Lord our righteous-
ness, and if this be the sole ground of salvation
propounded by St. Paul, there is then a palpable
discrepancy between him and St. James; for the
former states, that a man is justified by faith with-
out the deeds of the law (Rom. iii:8; Gal. ii:i6) ;
while the latter says, 'a man is justified by works
and not by faith only' (James ii:24). That there
is a difficulty here there can be no question, and
that it led Eusebius and Jerome, together with
Luther and Erasmus, to question the authority of
St. James' Epistle, is notable to every reader of
ecclesiastical history.
(a) Roman Catholic 'View. The church of
Rome builds her system of man's being justified by
reason of inherent righteousness, on the assump-
tion that when St. Paul says 'by the deeds of the
law shall no flesh be justified,' he means the ccrt'-
moniat and not the vioral law. In this way she
would establish her own system of human merit,
and harmonize the two Apostles. But it is quite
clear to the impartial reader of the Epistle to the
Romans that the scope of St. Paul's argument must
include both the moral and the ceremonial law;
for he proves both Jew and Gentile guilty before
God, and this with the view of establishing the
righteousness of faith in the imputed merits of
Christ as the only ground of a sinner's salvation.
Leaving, then, this sophistical reconcilement, we
come to that which our Protestant divines pro-
pose.
(b) Protestant View. This is of a twofold
character, viz., first, by distinguishing the double
sense of justification, which may be taken either
for the absolution of a sinner in God's judgment,
or for the declaration of his nj;htcousness before
men. This distinction is found in Scripture, in
which the word justify is used in both accepta-
tions. Thus St. Paul speaks of justification in
foro Dei; St. James speaks of it i)i foro Iwminis.
A man is justified by faith without works, saith
the one; a man is justified by works, and not by
faith only, declares the other. That this is the true
solution of ihe difficulty appears from the fact
that the two Apostles draw their apparently op-
posite conclusions from the same example of Abra-
ham (Rom. iv:9-23; comp. James ii:2i-24).
(c) Bouble Sense of Faith. Another mode
of reconciling the Apostles is by regarding faith
in the double sense in which it is often found in
Scripture. St. Paul, when he affirms that we are
justified by faith only, speaks of that faith which
is true and living, working by love. St. James,
when he denies that a man is justified by faith
only, disputes against that faith which is false and
unproductive ; when the true Christian, speaking
to the hypocritical boa.ster of his faith, asks :
'Show me thy faith without thy works, and I will
show thee my faith by my works.'
(3) Final Objection Considered. One objec-
tion more may be urged against this fundamental
doctrine, that sinners are justified by the free
grace of God through the imputed righteousness
of the Redeemer, namely, that it weakens the ob-
ligations to holiness of life. This objection the
Apostle himself anticipates when he asks, "What
shall we say then? shall we continue in sin that
grace may abound?' To which he answers by
rejecting the consequence with the utmost abhor-
rence, and in the strongest manner affirming it to
be without any foundation. 'How shall we,' he
continues, 'that are dead to sin, live any longer
therein?' (Rom. vi 1-2). He who expects justifi-
cation by the imputed righteousness of Christ, has
the clearest and strongest convictions of the ob-
ligation of the law of God, and of its extent and
purity. He sees in the vicarious sufferings of his
Saviour the awful nature of sin and the infinite
love of God ; and this love of God, being thus
manifested, constrains him to deny ungodliness
and worldly lusts, and to live soberly, righteously,
and godly in this world. In a word, he loves
iiiuck because he feels that God has forgiven him
much, because the love of God is shed abroad in
his heart by the Holy Ghost which is given unto
him. What a practical illustration have we of this
in the life of the great Apostle of the Gentiles him-
self! (See Miner Raymond, Sys. Theot.; Hodge,
Sys. Theoi; Martensen, Chris. Dogm.; D'Au-
bigne. His. of Ref.). J. W. D.
JTTSTTIS (jus'tus), (Gr. 'IoCcttos, ee-ooce' tos).
1. Surname of Barsabas (Acts 1:23). (See
Joseph.)
2. A Christian at Corinth, with whom Paul
lodged (Acts xviii:;), A. D. 54.
3. A surname of Jesus, a believing Jew, who
was with Paul at Rome when he wrote to the
Colossians (Col. iv:ii). The Apostle names him
and Marcus as being at that time (A. D. 64) his
only fellow-laborers.
JUTTAH (jiSt'tah), (Heb. "?''"', yoo-ta-w' . in-
closed), a city of Judah, (Josh. xv:55), in the neigh-
borhood of Carmel.
It was allotted to the priests (Josh. 3rxi:i6).
Robinson (Bih. Res., ii, 195, 628), describes a place
named Yutta, which doubtless represents the an-
cient town.
KABALA OR KABBALAH
1012
KADESH
K
KABAIiA or KABBATiAH (kab'ba-lah), usu-
ally anglicized Cabala (Heb. '^;?P, kab-baiD-law').
This word is an abstract, and meaiis reception,
a doctrine received by oral transmission ; so that
with mere reference to its etymological significa-
tion, it is the correlate of the Hebrew word tra-
dilion. The term Kabbalah is employed in the
Jewish writings to denote several traditional doc-
trines : as, for example, that which constituted the
creed of the patriarchal age before the giving of
the law ; that unwritten ritual interpretation which
the Jews believe was revealed by God to Moses on
the mount, and which was at length cornmitted to
writing and formed the Mishnah. Besides being
applied to these and other similar traditions, it has
also been used in, comparatively speaking, modern
times, to denote a singular mystical mode o£ in-
terpreting the Old Testament.
This Kabbalah is an art of eliciting mysteries
from the words and letters of the Old Testanient
by means of some subtle devices of interpretation,
or it is an abstruse theosophical and metaphysical
doctrine containing the traditional arcana of the
remotest times.
(1) Traditional Doctrine. The inartificial or
dogmatical Kabbalah consists solely of a tradi-
tional doctrine on things divine and metaphysical,
propounded in a symbolical form. It treats prin-
cipally of the mysteries of the doctrine of emana-
tion, of angels and spirits, of the four Kabbalisti-
cal worlds, and of the ten Sephiroth or so-called
Kabbalistic tree. It is a system made up of ele-
ments which are also found in the Magian doc-
trine of emanation, in the Pythagorean theory of
numbers, in the philosophy of the later Platonists,
and in the tenets of the Gnostics ; but these doc-
trines are here stated with enigmatical obscurity,
and without the coherence and development of a
single and entire scheme. Its general tenor rnay
be conceived from the eminent prerogatives which
it assigns to the law, and from the consequent
latitude of interpretation.
Thus, it is argued in the book of Sohar: 'Alas
for the man who thinks that the law contains
nothing but what appears on its surface ; for, if
that were true, there would be men in our day
who could excel it. But the law assumed a body ;
for if angels are obliged, when they descend to
this world, to assume a body in order that they
may subsist in the world, and it be able to receive
them, how much more necessary was it thai' the
l;iw, which created them and which was the in-
strument by which the world was created, should
be invested wiiTi a body in order that it might be
adapted to the comprehension of man? That
body is a history, in which if any man think there
is not a soul, let him have no part in the life to
come.' Manasseh-ben-Israel, who makes this ci-
tation from the book of Sohar, enforces this
view with many arguments (Conciliator, Amste-
lod. 1633, p. 169).
(2) Origin. The origin of the Kabbalah is in-
volved in great obscurity. The Jews ascribe it
lo Adam, or to Abraham, or to Moses, or to Ezra;
the last being apparently countenanced by 2
F.sdras xiv:20-48, Eichhorn accounts for the
origin of that important part of this Kabbalah,
the system of allegorical interpretation (by which
their occult doctrine was either generated, or, if
not, at least brought into harmony with the law),
by supposing that the Jews adopted it immedi-
ately from the Greeks.
According to him, when the Jews were brought
into contact with the enlightened speculations of
the Greek philosophers, they felt that their law
(as they had hitherto interpreted it) was so far
tsehind the wisdom of the Gentiles, that— both to
vin(Jicate its honor in the eyes of the scoffing
heathen, and to reconcile their newly adopted
philosophical convictions with their ancient creed
— tliey borrowed from the Greek allegorizers of
Homer the same art of interpretation, and ap-
plied it to conjure away the unacceptable sense
of the letter, or to extort another sense which
harmonized with the philosophy of the age (Bibl.
Biblioth. v, 237, sq.). J. N.
KABZEEL (kab'ze-el). (Heb. ^^V?|2, kab-tseh-
ale' , God has gathered), a city in the southern part
of Judah (Josh. xv;2i). It was the native place of
the hero Benaiah-ben-Jehoiada (2 Sam. xxiii:2o;
I Chron. xi:22). In Nehemiah the name is written
Jekabzeel (Neh. xi:25).
KADESH (ka'desh), (Heb. ^^■„ kaw-dashe' ,
sanctuary), more fully KADESH - BABNEA
(ka'desh-bar'ne-a), (Heb. '^^lU, kaw-dashe' , and
?^15, bar-nay' ah ; Simon derived the latter word
from "I?, bar, desert, and^'^., nay' ah, wandering,
rendering it " Desert of Wanderings ").
(1) Name and Location. It was a site on
the southeastern border of the Promised Land
towards Edom, of much interest as being the point
at which the Israelites twice encamped with the
intention of entering Palestine, and from which
they were twice sent back; the first time in pur-
suance of their sentence to wander forty years in
the wilderness, and the second time from the re-
fusal of the king of Edom to permit a passage
through his territories.
(2) Israelites Driven Back. It was from
Kadesh that the spies entered Palestine by ascend-
ing the mountains; and the murmuring Israelites
afterwards attempting to do the same were driven
back by the Amalekitcs and Canaanites, and after-
wards apparently by the king of Arad, as far as
Hormah, then called Zephath (Num. xiii:26; xiv :
40-45; xxi:i-3; Deut. 1:41-44; comp. Judg. i:7).
There was also at Kadesh a fountain (En-mish-
pat) mentioned long before the exode of the Is-
raelites (Gen. xiv 7) ; and the miraculous supply
of water took place only on the second visit, which
implies that at the first there was no lack of this
necessary article. After this Moses sent messen-
gers to the king of Edom, informing him that they
were in Kadesh, a city in the uttermost part of his
border, and asking leave to pass through his coun-
try, so as to continue their course round Moab,
and approach Palestine from the East. This Edom
refused, and the Israelites accordingly marched to
Mount Hor, where Aaron died ; and then along
the Arabah (desert of Zin) to the Red Sea (Num.
XX : 14-29).
(3) Southern Quarter of Judea. The name cj
Kadesh again occurs in describing the southeis.
quarter of Judah, the line defining which is drawn
KADMIEL
1013
KALI
'from the shore of the Salt Sea, from the bay
that looked southward ; and ii went out to the
south side of Akrabbim, and passed along to Zin,
and ascended up on the south side to Kadesh-
barnea' (Josh. xv:i-3; comp. Num. xxxiv:3, 4).
From these intimations the map-makers, who
found it difficult to reconcile them with the place
usually assigned to Kadesh (in the desert about
midway between the Mediterranean and Dead
Sea), were in the habit of placing a second
Kadesh nearer the Dead Sea and the Wady Arab-
ah. It was left for Dr. Kitto (Pictorial Bible.
Note on Num. xx:i) to show that one Kadesh
would sufficiently answer all the conditions re-
quired, by being placed more to the south, nearer
to Mount Hor, on the west border of the Wady
Arabah, than this second Kadesh. According to
this view Kadesh was laid down in the map (in
the Illuminated Atlas) prepared under his direc-
tion, in the same line, and not far from the
place which has since been assigned to it from
actual observation by Dr. Robinson. This con-
currence of different lines of research in the same
result is curious and valuable, and the position
of Kadesh will be regarded as now scarcely open
to dispute.
(4) Discovery of the Fountain. It was clear
that the discovery of the fountain in the northern
part of the great valley would go far to fix the
question. Robinson discovered a fountain called
Ain el-Weibeh, which is even at this day the
most frequented watering-place in all the Arabah,
and he was struck by the entire adaptedness of
the site to the scriptural account of the proceed-
ings of the Israelites on their second arrival at
Kadesh. 'Over against us lay the land of Edom;
we were in its uttermost border; and the great
Wady el-Ghuweir afforded a direct and easy pas-
sage through the mountains to the table-land
above, which was directly before us; while further
in the south Mount Hor formed a prominent and
striking object, at the distance of two good days"
journey for such a host' (Bib. Researches, ii, 538).
Further on (p. 610) he adds: 'There the Israelites
would have Mount Hor in the S.S.E. towering
directly before them ... in the N.W. rises
the mountain by which they attempted to ascen
to Palestine, with the pass still called Sufah (Zcp
hath) ; while further north we find also Tell Arad,
marking the site of the ancient Arad. To all
this comes then the vicinity of the southern bay
of the Dead Sea, the line of cliffs separating the
Ghor from the Arabah, answering to the ascent
of Akrabbim ; and the desert of Zin, with the
place of the same name between Akrabbim and
Kadesh, not improbably at the water of Hash, in
the Arabah. In this way all becomes easy and
natural, and the scriptural account is entirely ac-
cordant with the character of the country.'
KADMIEL {kad'raiel). (Heb. ^T^T-, kad-mee-
ale', presence of God).
1. A Levite who returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel, and was apparently a representative
of Hodaviah or Judah (Ezra ii:40; Neh. vii:43;
xii:8; xii:24). In the first attempt to rebuild the
wall Kadmiel and his brother were appointed by
Zerubbabel to superintend the workmen and of-
ficiate in the ceremonies attending the laying of
the foundation (Ezra iii:9). His house was rep-
resented in the confession of the people on the
day of humiliation. (B. C. 536,)
2. A Levite who assisted in leading the de-
votion of the people (Neh. ix:4, 5) and with other
Levitcs entered into the covenant to keep Ciod's
law (Neh. x:9). Probably a son of 1. (B. C.
445-)
KADMONITES (k4d'mon-ftes), (Heb. "i^lpn.
hak-kad-tno-nee' ,\)Mt Kadmonitc), one of the na-
tions of Canaan, which is supposed to have dwelt
in the northeast part of Palestine, under M^unt
Hermon, at the tune that Abraham sojourned in
the land (Gen. xv:i9).
As the Kadmonites were "Bene-Kedem" (Heb.
CTlj?."';?, Judg. vi:33), A. V. "children of the
East," i. e., "tribes who roved in the great waste
tracts on the east and southeast of Palestine," they
are supposed by Dr. Wells and others to be sit-
uated to the east of the Jordan. The name was
a term applied collectively, like 'Easterns,' or
'Orientals,' to all the people living in the countries
beyond that river, i Thomson, Land and Book,
i, 242.) Boohart supposes the name to be the
same as Cadmus, and identified them with the
Hivites (see Hiviies), whose place they fill in the
list.
KAI,I (ka'H), (Heb. '')'p^,kaw-lee'). Thisword oc-
curs in several passages of the Old Testament, in
all of which, in the Authorized Version, it is trans-
lated parched corn. The correctness of this trans-
lation has not, however, been assented to by all
commentators.
(1) Parched Meal. Some Hebrew writers
maintain that flour or meal, and others, that
parched meal, is intended, as in the passage of
Ruth ii:i4, where the Septuagint translates kali
by S.\<t>iToii, and the Vulgate by polenta, A
difficulty, however, occurs in the case of 2 Sam.
xvii:28, where the word occurs twice in the same
verse. We are told that Shobi and others, on
David's arrival at Mahanaim, in the further limit
of the tribe of Gad, 'brought beds, and basins,
and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and
flour, and parched corn (kali), and beans, and
lentils, and parched pulse (kali), and honey, and
butter, and sheep, and cheese of kine, for David
and for the people that were with him to eat.'
This is a striking representation of what may
be seen every day in the East ; when a traveler
arrives at a village, the common light beds of the
country are brought him, as well as earthen pots,
with food of different kinds.
(2) Corn and Pulse. The meaning of the
above passage is explained by the statement of
Hebrew writers, that there are two kinds of kali
— one made of parched corn, the other of parched
pulse.
Another principal preparation, much and con-
stantly in use in Western Asia, is burgoul, that is,
corn first boiled, then bruised in the mill to take
the husk off, and afterwards dried or parched
in the sun. In this state it is preserved for
use, and employed for the same purposes as
rice. The meal of parched corn is also much
used, particularly by travelers, who mix it with
honey, butter, and spices, and so eat it ; or else
mix it with water only, and drink it as a draught,
the refrigerating and satisfying qualities of which
they justly extol (Pictorial Bible, ii, p. 537).
Parched grain is also, no doubt, very common.
Thus, in the bazaars of India not only may rice
be obtained in a parched state, but also the seeds
of the Nymphcra, and of the Nelumbium Specios-
um, or bean of Pythagoras, and most abundantly
the pulse called f^ram by the English, on which
their cattle are chiefly fed. This is the Cicer
Arietinuin of botanists, or chick-pea, which is
common even in Egypt and the south of Europe,
and may be obtained everywhere in India in a
parched state, under the name of chebcnne. We
know not whether it be the same pulse that is
kallai
1014
KANEH
mentioned in the article Doves' Dung, a son
of pulse or pea, which appears to have been very
common in Jiidsa.
Considering all these points, it does not ap-
pear to us by any means certain that kali is cor-
rectly translated 'parched corn,' in all the passages
of scripture. Thus, in Lev. xxiii:i4: 'Ye shall
eat neither bread, nor parched corn ( kali )j nor
green ears, until . . . .' So in Ruih ii:i4,
'And he (Boaz) reached her parched corn (kali),
and she did eat. I Sam. xvii;i7: Take now
for thy brethren an ephah of parched corn.' And
again, xxv:i8, where five measures of parched
corn are mentioned. The name kali seems, more-
over, to have been videly spread through Asiatic
countries.
(3) Field Pea. 1 ne present writer found it
applied in the Himalayas to the common field-
pea, and has thus mentioned it elsewhere : 'Pisum
arvcnse. Cultivated in the Himalayas, also in the
plains of northwest India, found wild in the
Khadie of the Jumna, near Delhi ; the corra miit-
tur of the natives, called Kullae in the hills' {II-
lust. of Himalayan Botany, p. 200). Hence
we are disposed to consider the pea, or the chick-
pea, as more nearly correct than parched corn in
some of the above passages of Scripture. (See
Parched Corn.) J. F. R.
KAIiLAI (kal'lai), (Heb. "^R, kal-lah' sc frivo-
lous), a son of Sallai, and z. c'r.iei priest in the time
of the high priest Joiakim (Neh. xii:2o), B. C. atier
536.
EANAH (ka'nah), (Heb. >^iP,, kaw-naw', reedi-
ness).
1. A river which flows into the Mediterranean
between Cassarea and Joppa. It served as a
boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh.
xvi:8; xviirg). It is identified by some as the
river Aujeh.
2. A town in the north of Asher (Josh, xix:
28). There are here colossal ruins and figures of
persons which are supposed to be of Phoenician
origin.
KANEH (kah'neh), (Heb. '^?.|+, kaw-neh'), oc-
curs in several places of the Old Testament, in
all of which, in the Authorized Version, it is trans-
lated reed ; as in I Kings xivnj; 2 Kings xviii;2i;
Job xl:2i; Is. xix.6; xxxv:7; xxxvi:6; xlii:3;
Ezek. xxix:6.
(1) Reed. The Greek word KiXa^oi, /fij/'aw-^.r,
rif£^, appears to have been considered the proper
equivalent for the Hebrew Kaneh, being the term
used by St. Matthew (xii:2o), when quoting the
words of Isaiah (xlii:3), 'A bruised r^ed (Kaneh)
shall he not break.' The Greek word Latinized is
well known in the forms of calamus and culmus.
Both seem to have been derived from the Arabic
kaUn, signifying a 'reed' or 'pen,' and forming
numerous compounds, with the latter signification,
in the languages of the East. It also denotes a
weaver's reed, and even cuttings of trees for
planting or grafting.
(2) Latitude of Meaning. Such references to
the meaning of these words in different languages,
may appear to have little relation to our present
subject ; but KiXaiuit, reed, occurs very fre-
quently in the New Testament, and apparently
with the same latitude of meaning: thus, in the
sense of a reed or culm of a grass (Matt. xi:7;
Luke vii:24), 'A reed shaken by the wind;' of a
pen, in 3 John 13, 'But I will not with pen
(xiiKayjoi) and ink write unto thee;' (Matt.
xxvii:29), 'Put a reed in his right hand;' (ver.
30), 'took the reed and smote him on the head;'
and in Mark xv:i9, it may mean a reed or twig
of any kind. So also in Matt, xxvii :48, and
Mark xv:36, where it is said that they filled a
sponge with vinegar, and put it on a reed, while
in the parallel passage (John xix:29), it is said
that they filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it
upon hyssop, and put it Vo his mouth. From
which it seems very probable that the term KdXafws,
reed, was applied by both the Evangelists to the
CommoD Egyptian Reed (AmnJa Dotiax).
stem of the plant' named hyssop, whatever this
may have been, in like manner as Pliny applied
the term Calamus to the stem of a bramble.
In most of the passages of the Old Testament
the word Kaneh seems to be applied strictly to
reeds of different kinds growing in water, that
is, to the hollow stems or culms of grasses, which
are usually weak, easily shaken about by wind
or by water, fragile, and breaking into sharp-
pointed splinters. Thus in i Kings xivris, 'As
a reed is shaken in the water;' Job xl:2i, 'He
lielh in the covert of the reed' (Kaneh): Is. xix:
6, 'And they shall turn the rivers far away; and
the reeds and flags shall wither.' Also in ch.
XXXV :7; while in 2 Kings xviii:2i; Ezek. xxix:
6, and Is. xx.xvi :6, there is reference to the
weak and fragile nature of the reed, 'Lo, thou
trustest in the staff of this broken reed, on Egypt,
whereon if a man lean, it will go into his hand,
and pierce it.'
(3) A Water Plant. From the context of the
several passages of scripture in which Kaneh is
mentioned, it is evident that it was a plant grow-
ing in water; and we have seen from the mean-
ing of the word in other languages that it must
have been applied to one of the true reeds; as
for instance, Arundo A^gyptiaca (perhaps only
a variety of A. Donax), mentioned by M. Bove
as growing on the banks of the Nile ; or it may
have been the Arundo isiaca of Delile, which is
closely allied to A. Phragmites, the Canna and
Catine of the south of Europe, which is found
along the banks of pools and marshes in Spain
and Italy.
In the New Testament Kd\afU)s, reed, seems
to be applied chiefly to plants growing in dry
and even barren situations, as in Luke vii:24;
'What went ye into the wilderness to see? a
KAREAH
1015
KEDRON
reed shaken by the wind?' To such passages,
some of the species of reed-like grasses, with
slender stems and light flocculent inflorescence,
formerly referred to Saccharum, but now sepa-
rated as distinct genera, are well suited.
Hente, as has already been suggested by Rosen-
mijllcr, the noun Kaiich ought to be restricted
to reeds, or reed-like grasses, while Agmon may
indicate the more slender and delicate grasses
or sedges growing in wet situations, but which
are still tough enough to be made into ropes. (See
Reeh.) j. f. R.
KABEAH (ka-re'ah), (Hcb. 01^!, l-aw-rayakh,
bald), father of Tohanan and Jonathan, who sup-
ported Gedaliahs authority and took vengeance
on his murderers (Jer. xl:8, 13, 15, 16; xli:ii, 13, 14,
l6;xlii:l,8; xliii:2, 4, 5). Elsewhere the name is
C.\RE.\H. (B. C. before 588.)
KAKKAA (kar'ka-a), (Heb. i'P-Ts kar-kah' ,
ground floor), a town on the southern confines of
the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv:3) between Addar and
Azmon. All trace of the place has been lost.
KARKOR (kar'kor), (Heb. TIP, kar-iore'.
foundation), a place, probably on the east of
Jordan, where the remnant of the army of Zebali
and Zalmunna had encamped after their rout in
the Jordan Valley, and from which Gideon dis-
persed them (Judg. viii:io). Its identification is
very uncertain.
KARPAS (kar'pas), (Heb.
CB1?
kar-pas' ,
green), occurs in the book of Esther i:6, in the
description of the hangings "in the court of the
garden of the king's palace," at the time of the
great feast given in the city Shushan, or Susan, by
Ahasuerus, who "reigned from India even unto
Ethiopia."
We are told that there were white, green
(karpas), and blue hangings fastened with cords
of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars
of marble.
(1) Leek Green. Karpas is translated green
in our version, on the authority, it is said, 'of
the Chaldee paraphrase,' where it is interpreted
Icek-grecn. Rosenmiiller and others derive the
Hebrew word from the .Arabic kurufs, which sig-
nifies 'garden parsley,' opium petroselinum, as if
it alluded to the green color of this plant; at the
same time arguing that as 'the word karpas is
placed between two other words which undoubt-
edly denote colors, viz., the zcliite and the purple-
blue, it probably also does the same.'
(2) Cotton. But if two of the words denote
colors, it would appear a good reason why the
third should refer to the substance which was
colored. This, there is little doubt, is what was
intended. The Hebrew karpas is very similar
to the Sanscrit karpasum, karpasa, or karpase,
signifying the cotton-plant. Celsius (Hierobot. i.
159) states that the Arabs and Persians have
karphas and kirbas as names for cotton. These
must no doubt be derived from the Sanscrit, while
the word kapas is now applied throughout India
to cotton with the seed, and may even be seen
in English prices-current. Nothing can be more
suitable than cotton, white and blue, in the above
passage of Esther. Hanging curtains usually in
stripes of different colors and padded with cot-
ton, called purdahs, are employed throughout India
as a substitute for doors. This kind of structure
was probably introduced by the Persian conquer-
ors of India, and therefore may serve to explain the
object of the colonnade in front of llic palace in
the ruins of Persepolis. (See Cotton.)
J. F. R.
KARTAH (kar'tah), (Heb. '"V?"!?-. kar-taw,
city), a town in the tribe of Zebulun allotted to the
Merarite Levites (Josh. xxi:34l. Kartah is prob-
ably identical with IC^ttath (Josh. xix:is).
KARTAN (kar'tan), (Heb. l-TiP, kar-tawn\
double city), a city of Naphtali allotted to the Ger-
shonite Levites, and made a city of refuge (Josh.
xxi:32). The name maybe a contraction of Kirja-
TH.M.v (i Chron. vi:76).
KATTATH (kSt'tath), (Heb. HMp, kat-tawth\
littleness), the limit of the tribe of Zebulun (Josh.
xix:i5). In Judg. 1:30 called Kithron, which is the
same in sense. It is also probably the same as
Kartah.
The Vulgate, LXX, Syriac, and Arabic, render
these names, which are from the same root, by
small, trifling, insignifieant things: the (Thaldee
to the same effect ; whence the name of this city,
perhaps, might be analogous to our name litlle-
toiim, Littleton. It is quite possible that this is
the modern Katunith, and the Cana of Galilee
of the New Testament.
KEDAR (ke'dar), (Heb. 1"3p., kay-dawr' , black),
a son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv:i3; i Chron. 1:29), and
the name of the tribe of which he was the founder.
The name is sometimes used in scripture as
that of the Bedouins generally, probably because
this tribe was the nearest to them, and was
best acquainted with them (Cant, i 15 ; Is. xxi:
16, 17; lx.7, xliiai). A great body of specula-
tion founded upon the meaning of the word,
namely, 'black,' may be dismissed as wholly use-
less. The Kedarenes were so called from Kcdar,
and not because they lived in 'black' tents, or
because they were 'blackened' by the hot sun of
Southern Arabia ; neither of which circumstances
could, even if true, have been foreseen at the
time that Kedar received his name. The "glory
of Kedar" is recorded by Isaiah (xxi:i3-i7) and
Ezekiel (xxvii:2l; Ps. cxx :5 ; Jer. ii:io; xlix :
28), from which we infer that the tribe was one
of importance and wealth.
KEDEWATT (k«d'e-raah), (Heb. "trlP, kayd'-
maw, eastward), the youngest son of Ishmael
(Gen. xxv:i5; i Chron. 1:31', B. C. after 2061.
KEDEMOTH (kgd'e-m6th), (Heb."^'3'np,>t<rrf.a)'.
tiiothe'), a city in the tribe of Reuben (Josh. xiii:i8,,
near the river Arnon, which gave its name to the
wilderness of Kedemoth, on the borders of thai
river, from whence Moses sent messengers of
peace to Sihon, king of Heshbon (Deut. ii:26),
the southern frontier of whose kingdom, and the
boundary between the kingdom of the Ammonites
and the ftloabites, was the Arnon.
KEDESH (kedesh), (Heb. -Ip, keh'desh).
1. A city in the tribe of Judah (Josh, xv:
23). Perhaps it is identical with Kadesh-Barnea
(Josh. xv:3; Num. xxxiv:4). (See Kadesh.)
2. A city in the tribe of Naphtali (xix:37).
It was a Levitical city, and one of the six cities
of refuge (Josh, xx 7 ; xxi 132; i Chron. vi76).
Barak was a native of this place (Judg. iv:6),
which was taken by Tiglath-Pileser in the reign
of Pekah (2 Kings xv:29), where it is men-
tioned with Hazor.
3. A city of Issachar allotted to the Gershonite
Levites (i Chron. vi72). As the Kedesh, whose
king was slain by Joshua, is mentioned among
the cities of the north (xii:22), it was doubtless
this Kedesh.
KEDRON (ke'dron). See KiDRON.
KEHELATHAH
1016
KENIZZITES
KEHELATHAH (ke-hel'a-thah), (Heb. ■^W'^p.,
keh-hay-law' thaw, convocation), an encampment
of the Israelites in the desert of which nothing is
known {Num. xxxiii:22, 23).
KEILAH (kei'lah), (Heb.
n^-yn
I?, keh-ee-law' , in-
closed, a citadel), a city of the tribe of Judah (Josh.
xv:44), about twenty miles southwest from Jerusa-
lem.
(1) Besieged by PMlistines. When this city
was besieged by the Philistines, David was com-
missioned by God to relieve it ; notwithstanding
which, if he had not made his escape, the un-
grateful inhabitants would have delivered him
into the hands of Saul (i Sam. xxiii:i-i3).
Keilah was a considerable city in the time of Ne-
hemiah (Neh. iii:i7, 18), and existed in the days
of Eusebius and Jerome, who place it eight Roman
miles from Eleutheropolis on the road to Hebron.
(2) Identification. "The site is satisfactorily
identified with Khdrbet Kila, a ruined village
seven miles from Beit Jibrin. It is on low
ground, which accounts for the expression 'go
down,' and it was a key to the hill country, with
fertile lands around it." (Harper, Bxh. and Mod.
Die, p. 225.)
In the time of Nehemiah Keilah was large
enough to have two prefects who assisted in re-
pairing the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:i7).
EELAIAH (ke-la'iah [ya]),(Heb. '"tS-, kay-lavj-
yaw' , insignificance), (Ezra x;23). It is the same as
Kelita.
KELITA (kel'i-ta), (Heb. ^T^A^., kel-ee-taw' ,
maiming, dwarf), a Levite who returned from the
captivity with Ezra, and had taken a foreign wife
(Ezra x:23). He was associated with Nehemiah in
expounding the law, and sealing the covenant to
follow the law of God (Neh. viii:;; x:io), B. C. 456-
410.
KEMTTEL (ke-mu'el), (Heb.
^X"1^P
;, kem-00-ale' ,
assembly of God; Sept. Ka/iou^\, Kamuel).
1. The third son of Abraham's brother Nahor,
and father of six sons, the first of whom is named
Aram, and the last Bethuel (Gen. xxii:2l, 23).
All these are unknown, except the last, who was
the father of Laban and Rebekah (Gen. xxiv :
is). Aram is manifestly no other than a proper
name which Kemuel gave to his firstborn; but as
it is also the Hebrew name of Syria, some com-
mentators have most strangely conceived that the
Syrians "ere descended from him. This is truly
surprising, seeing that Syria was already peopled
ere he was born, and that Laban (Gen. xxviiirs)
and Jacob (Deut. xxvi:S) are both called 'Syr-
ians,' although neither of them was descended
from Kemuel's son Aram.
2. Son of Shiphtan. He was prince of the
tribe of Ephraim, and one of the twelve ap-
pointed by Moses to divide the land of Canaan
(Num. xxxiv:24). (B. C. 1170.)
3. A Levite ; the father of Hashabiah, who
was prince of the tribe in the reign of David
(r Chron. xxvii:i7). (B. C. about 1000.)
EENAN (ke'nan), (Heb. 1^1^., kay-nawn' , fixed),
the same as Cainan, son of Enos (i Chron. 1:2;
Gen. v:g, marg.).
KENATH (ke'nath), (Heb. f^ip, ken-atvth' , pos-
session), a town of Manasseh, beyond Jordan
(Num. xxxii:42), named Nobah, after Nobah, an
Israelite, had conquered it. At a later period it
was recaptured by Geshur and Aram (i Chron. ii:
23). Eusebius places it in the Trachonitis, about
Bozra; and Pliny in the Decapolis, lib. v, cap. 18.
Its site has been pretty well identified with Kuna-
■wdi (Porter, Damascus, ii:87-ii5; Handbk. 512-514.
KENAZ (ke'naz), (Heb. 'ii?, ken-az' , a hunter).
1. The fifth son of Eliphaz, who was the eldest
son of Esau, and one of the "dukes" of Edom
(Gen. x-x.xvi:i5, 42; i Chron. i :53). He was the
founder of the tribe of Kenezites, and doubtless
they received their name from him. Caleb and
Othniel were of this family. (Josh. xiv:i4).
2. The name of a place or tract of country
in Arabia Petr^a, named after Kenaz 1. (Gen.
xxxviiii, 15, 42).
3. The younger brother of Caleb, and father
of Othniel, who married Caleb's daughter (Josh.
xv:i7; Judg. i:i3; i Chron. iv:i3).
4. A grandson of Caleb (i Chron. iv:i5).
KENEZITE (ken'ez-lte), (Heb. 't*)?!^, hak-ken-
iz-zee' , Num. xxxii:i2; Josh. xiv:6, 14), an epithet
applied to Caleb, son of Jephunneh. (See Keniz-
ZITES.)
KENITES (ken'ites), (Heb. Ti?., kay-nee), a
tribe of people dwelling among the Amalekites (i
Sam.xv:6;comp. Num. xxiv :20, 21), or occupying in
semi-nomadic life the same region with the latter
people in Arabia Petrasa.
When Saul was sent to destroy the Amalekites.
the Ktnites, who had joined them, perhaps upon
compulsion, were ordered to depart from them
that they mi^t not share their fate ; and the
reason assigned was, that they 'shewed kindness
to the children of Israel when they came out of
Egypt.'
This kindness is supposed to have been that
which Jethro and his family showed to Moses,
as well as to the Israelites themselves, in conse-
quence of which the whole tribe appears to have
been treated with consideration, while the family
of Jethro itself accompanied the Israelites into
Palestine, where they continued to lead a nomade
life, occupying there a position similar to that
of the Tartar tribes in Persia at the present day.
According to Judg. i : 16 ; iv : 1 1 ; Hobab the broth-
er-in-law of Moses, was a Kenite. To this family
belonged Heber, the husband of that Jael who
slew Sisera, and who is hence called 'Heber the
Kenite' (Judg. iv:ii). At a later age other fami-
lies of Kenites are mentioned as resident in Pales-
tine, among them were the Rechabites (i Chron.
i' :SS ; Jer- xxxv:2); but it is not clear whether
these were subdivisions of the increasing descend-
ants of Jethro, as seems most likely, or families
which availed themselves of the friendly disposi-
tions of the Israelites towards the tribe to settle
in the country. It appears that the tribe of the
Kenites possessed a knowledge of the true God
in the time of Jethro (see Hobab) ; and that
those families which settled in Palestine did not
afterwards lose that knowledge, but increased it, is
clear from the passages which have been cited.
KENIZZITES (ken'iz-zites), (Heb. "'.^f, ken-u-
zee'\ a Canaanitish tribe, mentioned in Gen. xvrig
along with others over which it was promised that
the seed of Abraham should have dominion.
It is supposed that they sprung from Kenaz,
the grandson of Edom, and had their dwelling
somewhere in Idumaea. The chieftain was known
as Kenaz from the tribe which he ruled (Gen.
.x.xxvi:ii, 15, 40-42). Individuals of the tribe, on
the other hand, united with the sons of Jacob,
Jephunneh the Kenizzite apparently taking to
wife a woman of the tribe of Judah, and Othniel
the Kenizzite becoming the first judge of Israel
after the conquest'. (See Caleb 2.) The Keniz-
KENOSIS
1017
KENOSIS
zites of Num. xxxii:i2; Josh. xiv:6, appear, how-
ever, to be a different race, the origin of which
may without improbability be ascribed to Kenaz.
The Kenizzites are not named among the na-
tions whom the Israelites eventually subdued;
whence it may be supposed that they had by that
time merged into some Of the other nations which
Israel overcame.
KENOSIS (ken-5'sts), (Gr. K^vwait, keti'd-sis), a
Greek term signifying the act of emptying, or self-
divesture. It is employed to express the volun-
tary humiliation of Christ. It is borrowed from
the expression of Paul, " But made himself of no
reputation," iavrbv iK^vwae, emptied himself (Phil.
ii:7).
The New Testament teaching upon this point
may be arranged under five heads: (i) The
virginal conception and birth (Matthew and
Luke) ; (2) The peinpsis, or mission from the
Father (Jesus, John and Paul) ; (3) The parousia,
or coming out of the preexistent state of glory,
into the world (Jesus and John) ; (4) The as-
sumption of the flesh (John and Paul) ; (5)
The Kcnosis or self-etnptying of the Logos
(Paul).
It is true that these classes overlap, but the
arrangement has the recommendation of clearness
and convenience.
(1) The first class of passages records the An-
nunciation, Conception and Birth (Malt, i: 18-24;
Luke i :26-38; ii :l-lo). There is little to add to the
Biblical narratives, which are straightforward ac-
counts of historical events. All that we can say
is that the conception and birth are both (to us)
miraculous, nor can human analogy help us much,
as conception, the ultimate fact of human biology,
is unexplained and probably unexplainable. And
if we thus come — even in a matter of everyday
occurrence, and of such apparent simplicity— to
the limit of human knowledge, how can we ex-
plain the mysteries of a purely spiritual con-
ception ?
All that we learn from the account contained in
the gospels is the fact that he was "conceived of
the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary." What
is important for us is the fact that he whom
these two gospels regard as the Son of the liv-
ing God was born of woman.
This is asserted alsoin Paul's statement: "When
the fullness of time was come, God sent forth
His Son made of a woman," etc. (Gal. iv:4).
That the Son of God in becoming the Son of
man should submit himself to the regular human
method of coming into the world is one of the
most sublime proofs of his loving condescension
to us. Yet one thing we must not forget, — that
this family into which he was born was, on both
sides, of royal stock, both Joseph and Mary being
descendants of king David. This was a neces-
sity, for the Messiah of prophecy was iTie
descendant of David, born in the royal city of
Bethlehem. The attendant circumstances of deep
poverty serve to emphasize the humiliation of our
Savior ; surely he who was rich for our sakes be-
came poor (2 Cor. viii:9).
(2) The second class of passages refers to the
pempsis the Mission of the Son from and by the
Father. Christ here represents his coming as an
act dependent upon the will of the Father who
sent him. The Father sends, the Son comes, as
is attested by numerous passages in the gospel
according to John (John iv:34; v:23; vi :39, etc.).
The same aspect of his coming is presented in
John iii:i6 and the Apostle Paul tells us that,
"when the fullness of time was come, God sent
forth His Son" (Gal. iv:4).
(3) The third class of passages is iTiat large
one in which Jesus refers to his coming. The
most important of course are those which report
his own words. "I am come in the name of my
Father" (John v:43).
"For the bread of God is he that cometh down
from heaven" (John vi:33). "For I am come
forth from God" (John viii:42).
"And now, O Father, glorify thou me with
thine own self with the glory which I had with
thee before the world was" (John xvii:S).
In the prologue to his gospel (i:i-i8) John
afiirms both the preexistence and the Divinity of
the Logos. It is here distinctly stated the Divine
Logos, who was in a preexistent state with God
(a state which, as we learned from John xvii :5,
was a state of glory) when he had assumed flesh,
became as one of us, making this world his
temporary abiding place. Though the method of
transition is not directly stated, yet this text
teaches as does John xvii :$. a coming out of this
preexistent state of glory, into the earthly life
with all that implies.
(4) The fourth class of passages comprises
iliose which refer to the assumption of the flesh.
The most important of these is the following:
"The Logos became (was made) flesh" (John i:
14). This text is the theological statement of
the fact of the human birth of the Christ.
That which in the accounts of Matthew and
Luke appears as a simple historical fact is by
John explained as a process (or episode) within
the eternal life of the Divine Logos. How the
Logos became, or was made flesh, we learn jusi'
as little as we learned from Matthew and Luke,
how the child Jesus was conceived and born.
The celebrated passage in Phil, ii :s-8 teaches
that Christ is both Divine and human. Thus we
preclude, by comparison with this text', any ex-
planation which might possibly posit an es-
sential change in the eternal life of the Divine
Logos. Paul teaches, moreover, that this flesh
which the Logos assumed, was "sinful flesh,"
i. e., flesh which, like our flesh, is subject to
the rule of sin.
In I Tim. iii:i6, Paul speaks of Christ as
"manifest in the flesh."
(5) The last class of statement's noted com-
prises those passages in the Epistles of Paul in
which the Apostle expounds his conception of
Christ's humiliation (Rom. viii:3; 2 Cor. v:2l;
(jal. iii:i3; iv:4, s; 2 Cor. xiii:4; Rom. viii:32;
Phil. ii:s-8).
The general teaching of Paul is that Christ",
who knew not sin, was made sin for our sakes ;
that he was sent in the likeness of sinful flesh;
that he redeemed us from the curse, by becoming
a curse for our sakes ; that he was sent in the
fullness of time of the Father, being made of a
woman ; that though he was rich, yet for our
sakes he became poor; that he was crucified
through weakness, but liveih by the power of
God; that God spared not His own Son; and
that though "being in the form of God" con-
sidered it not a thing to be eagerly grasped "to
be equal with God; but made himself of no repu-
tation, and took upon him the form of a servant,
and was made in the likeness of men. and being
found in fashion as a man, he humbled himself,
and became obedient unto death, even the death
of the cross" (Phil. ii:6-8).
We have, then, under these five heads the teach-
ing of the New Testament on this subject. The
Son of God, sent of the Father, came upon the
earth being born of a woman, in the regular
course of nature (yet she was a virgin, and the
KERCHIEF
1018
KETURAH
conception was brought about by the instru-
mentality of the Holy Spirit). Or, in theological
language, the Divine Logos became flesh, i. e.
assumed the human flesh, with all its liability
to sin, having first emptied himself of equality
with God, and the resultant product of this pro-
cess is Jesus Christ, Son of God, and Son of man.
A careful study of the development of the
child, so far as it is possible, fails to show the
least trace of duality of consciousness. The boy
of twelve in the Temple is just awakening to a
great fact of his life, but there is no indica-
lion that he is conscious of another ego within
himself: "/ must be about my Father's business"
( Luke ii :49) .
The man Christ Jesus, also, is ever conscious
of both his Divinity and his humanity. Thus he
says : "I am the living bread that came down
from Heaven" (John vi:si). "Before Abraham
was, I am" (John viii:s8). "Glorify me with
the glory which I had with thee before the world
was" (John xvii:s).
In these and many similar passages, Jesus
Christ distinctly indicates the unity of his the-
anthropic consciousness, and the continuity of his
theanthropic personality upon which the former
depends. He does not seem to feel separately
conscious of his Divinity and of his humanity,
nor does his claim of existence before Abraham,
and even before the world was, appear at all
strained, but his consciousness of that pree.xist-
ence, and of the continuity of his identity, and of
his personality since before the foundation of ihe
world, is perfectly natural to him. Both natures
intimately united make up the historic Christ
of the New Testament records.
We have, then, arrived at the conclusion that
the man Jesus Christ shared with us, in the fullest
manner, our human constitution, both in the
physical and in the psychical life. The gospels
everywhere bear witness to his physical likeness
to ourselves, and to the reality of his body, which
was not exempt from the weaknesses of the
flesh.
He was subject to bodily weariness and to
thirst (John iv:6-7). He slept in the boat in the
midst of the storm, an indication of great weari-
ness (Matt, viii :24. He was "an hungered"
(Matt. iv:2; xxi.-ip).
He was like us also in his soul life. He loved
tlie young ruler who came to him to inquire the
way of life (Mark x:2i). He is again and again
represented as "sighing," "groaning," or "trou-
bled" in spirit (Mark viii:l2; John -xi :33 ; .xii :
27). He has mercy on the crowds that throng
him (Matt. xiv:i4). He weeps at the grave of
Lazarus (John xi:3S). He fiercely denounces the
Scribes and Pharisees (Matt, xxiii.).
The great turning point in his eternal life of
love is the point at which the Son of God, cast-
ing aside his pristine glory, and taking unto
himself our human nature with all its weaknesses,
becomes the Son of Man, the point at which the
preexistent Christ enters into the world's history
as the man Jesus (Thrist for the salvation of the
world (John iii:i6). (See Incarnation).
Literature. F. C. H. Wendell, article in
Bib. Sacr., Oct. 1897; Lange on Phil., p. 38;
Van Oosterzee, Christ. Dogm., vol. ii. sees. xcv.
and ci. ; Dorner, Hist, of Doct. of Person of
Christ, i-ii:29; Gore, Incarnation of the Son of
God, pp. 176-179; 284, 285. E. A. R.
KEKCHIEF (ker'chif), (Heb. ^'QW^, mis-paw-
khaw' , a dress for the head).
The word, as used in Ezek. xiii:i8, probably
means a more than usually splendid headdress.
which the false prophetesses employed to attract
attention to themselves, or put on the heads of
such as joined them. Woe is denounced against
them because "they made kerchiefs on the
head of every stature, to hunt souls ;" i. e. they
put them on the head of the idolatrous statures ;
or they put them on the head of those whom
they deluded, and that without respect of age;
(stature in this passage probably meaning age.)
It is more than likely that ihe prophet alludes
in the whole passage to the impure worship of
Ashtarte the Syrian Venus.
KEREN-HAPPUCH (ker'en-hap'puk), (Heb.
T^'- l^l^i keh'ren hap-pook', paint-horn, i. e.,
cosmetic box), the name given to Job's youngest
daughter, born during his reviving fortune (Job
xlii:i4). Her name was probably given on account
of her beauty.
KERIOTH (ke'ri-oth), (Heb. '^''li?, ker-ee-yoth' ,
buildings).
1. A city of Moab, named with Dibon and
other places (Jer. xlviii:24). It is supposed to
be a synonym of Ar, the ancient capital of Moab,
because it seems to be referred to as the capital
of Moab, and because in enumerations of the
towns of Moab when Kerioth is cited Ar is omit-
ted (Jer. xlviii. ; Moabite Stone) and vice versa
(Is. XV ; xvi ; comp. Josh. xiii:i6-2i). Porter
thinks it the modern Kureiyeh in the south of
Haurdn (Fh>e Years, etc., ii. 191-198; Handhk.,
pp. 523-524) ■
2. The name of a town occurring with others
in the south of Judah (Josh. xv:25). Robinson
would identify it with el-Kureitcin {Bibl. Res.,
ii, loi). Formerly Kirioth (Amos ii;2).
KERNEL (ker'nel), (Heb. I?"?!!", k/iar-lsan',
sharp, sour), held by the Talmudists to mean the
grape stones, as opposed to the skin ("husk,"
Num. vi:4). The ancient versions refer it to the
sour or unripe grapes themselves. (Mc. & Str.
Ency.)
KEROS (ke'ros), (Heb. ^Vp. or ^^p., kay-roce',
curved), the descendants of a man, or a place
whose former inhabitants returned as Nethinim.
from Babylon after the captivity with Zerubbabel
(Neh. vii:47; Ezra ii:44), B. C. before 536.
KETTLE (ket't'l), (Heb. Til, dood, boiling), a
vessel used for culinary or sacrificial purposes
(I Sam. ii:i4). The same Hebrew word also means
'basket' (Jer. xxiv:2); 'caldron' (2 Chron. xxxv:l3);
'pot' (Jnb xli:20).
KETURAH (ke-tu'rah), (Heb. ^T'^V.. ket-00-
raw' , incense), the second wife, or, as she is called
in I Chron. i:32, the concubine of Abraham, by
whom he had six sons, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan,
Midian, Ishbak and Shuah, whom he lived to see
grow to man's estate, and whom he established
•in the East country,' that they might not inter-
fere with Isaac (Gen. xxv:l-6).
As Abraham was one hundred years old when
Isaac was given to him by the special bounty of
Providence when 'he was as good as dead' (Heb.
xi:i2) as 'he was one hundred and forty years
old when Sarah died: and as he himself died at
the age of one hundred and seventy-five years,
— it has seemed improbable that these six sons
should have been born to Abraham by one woman
after he was one hundred and forty years old.
and that he should have seen them all grow up
to adult age, and have sent them forth to form
independent settlements in that last and feeble
period of his life.
If, however, God restored his youthful vigor.
KETZACH
1019
KEY
there is no reason why he may not afterward
have become ihc father of six sons or even more.
Through the offspring of Keturah, Abraham be-
came "the father of many nations."
KETZACH (ket'sak), (Heb. "?!?, keh-tsakh'),
written Kezach and Ketsah, occurs only in Is.
xxviii:25, 27, and is translated fitches, that is,
vetches, the Authorized Version.
(1) Different Plants. It is no doubt from the
difficulty of proving the precise meaning of kct-
zach, that different plants have been assigned as its
representative. But if we refer to the context, we
learn some particulars which at least restrict it 10
a certain group, namely, to such as are cultivated.
Thus, verse 25, 'When he [the ploughman] hath
made plain the face thereof, doth he not cast
abroad the fitches (ketsach)V And again, verse
27, 'For \.h.i fitches are not threshed with a thresh-
ing instrument, neither is a cart-wheel turned
about upon the cummin; but fitches are beaten
out with a staff, and ihe cummin with a rod.'
From which we learn that the grain called
ketzach was easily separated from its capsule, and
therefore beaten out with a stick. The Septuagint
Fitches (Mgtlla saliva).
translates it ne\iv0iov, melanthium, the Vulgate
gli, and Tremcllius mclanthium, while the Arabic
has slwonc:. All these mean the same thing, name-
ly, a very black-colored and aromatic seed, still
cultivaied and in daily employment as a condiment
in the East.
(2) Nigella. Melanthium is universally rec-
ognized by botanists to be the Nigella. If we con-
sider that this appears to have been always one of
the cultivated grains of the East, and compare the
character of nigella with the passages in which
ketzach is mentioned, we sh.ill find that the for-
mer is applicable to them all. The fruit is com-
posed of five or six capsules, which are com-
pressed, oblong, pointed ; sometimes said to be
hornlike, united below, and divided into several
cells, and enclosing numerous, angular, scabrous,
black-colored seeds. From the nature of the
capsules, it is evident, that when they are ripe,
the seeds might easily be shaken out by moder-
ate blows of a stick, as is related to have been
the case with the ketzach of the text. (See
FiTCUES.) J. F. R.
KETZIOTH (k«tz-I-oth), (Heb. ""'^'■'5!?, kets-ee'-
oth), is translated Cassia in the Authorized Ver-
sion, and is said to be derived from a Hebrew
word meaning to cut off.
(1) Cassia. It therefore denotes 'pieces cut
off,' or 'fragments,' and hence is applicable to
cassia. But many of these derivations have often
been traced out in ignorance of the names and
properties of the various substances known to the
nations of antiquity.
Cassia is mentioned in three places (Exod.
XXX ;24; Ezek. xxviirip; and in Ps. xlv:8), in
conjunction with myrrh, cinnamon, sweet cal-
amus, and ahalim, or eagle-wood. All these are
aromatic substances, and, with the exception of
myrrh, which is obtained from Africa, are prod-
ucts of India and its islands. It is probable, there-
fore, that kctzioth is of a similar nature, and
obtained from the same countries. Both cinna-
mon (see Kinnamon) and cassia (see Kiddah)
were no doubt known to the ancients. (See Cas-
sia.)
(2) Various Kenderings. It has not been the
opinion of several translators and commentators
that the kiddah of Exod. xxx :24 and Ezek. xxvii:
19, and the kctzioth of Ps. xlv :8, both signify the
same thing; the first having been variously ren-
dered iris, stacte, costus, ginger, canna, fistula,
amber, kctziah, and cassia, while kctzioth, or ket-
ziah, has been rendered cassia, acacia, amber, gin-
ger, and aloes. Kctzioth occurs only once, in Ps.
xlv:8: 'All thy garments smell of myrrh, and
aloes (ahalim), and cassia (kctzioth).' It has
been observed with reference to this passage ihat
'The garments of princes are often imbued with
costly perfumes, those of the high-griests were
anointed wiih holy ointment.'
We have seen above that kctzioth has been vari-
ously translated, but no one seems to have noticed
the resemblance of this word to the kooth and
koost of the Arabs, of which Kooshta is said by
their authors to be the Syriac name, and from
which there is little doubt that the kIktto%, costus, of
the Greeks, and costus of the Latins are derived.
Considering, therefore, that costus was one of
the articles of ancient commerce and is men-
tioned by Theophrastus as employed in the com-
position of perfumed unguents, and considering
the similarity of the Syriac kooshta, and ihe
Arabic kast, to the kctzioth of scripture, and
from their correspondence in properties and uses,
the latter appears more likely to be the costus
of the ancients, than cassia, for which there is
another name. (See Kiddah.) J. F. R.
K£T (ke). The keys of the ancients were
very different from ours ; because their doors and
trunks were generally closed with bands, and
the key served only to loosen or fasten those
bands. Chardin says that a lock in the East is
like a little harrow, which enters half way into
a wooden staple, and that the key is a wooden
handle with points at the end of it, which are
pushed into the staple, and so raise this little har-
row.
Figurative. A key was a symbol of power
or authority (Is. xxii:22).
1. Christ gives Peter authority in his church
(Matt xvi:i9), the key of the kingdom of
KEZIA
1020
KIDRON
heaven, the power of binding and loosing; that
is, of opening and shutting ; for this frequently
consisted only, as we have said, in tying and un-
tying. Isaiah remarks, that Eliakim should wear
his key upon his shoulder, as a mark of office,
of his power to open and shut with authority.
3. Christ reproaches the scribes and Pharisees
with having taken away the key of knowledge
(Luke xi:52) ; thai' is, with reading and studying
the scriptures, without advantage to themselves,
and without discovering to others the truth ; which
in some sort they held captive in unrighteousness
(Rom. i:i8).
3. He also says (Rev. i:i8) that he has the
key of death and hell ; that is, power to bring to
the grave, or to deliver from it ; to appoint to
life or to death.
KEZIA (ke-zl'a), (Heb. •T?i?. kets-ee-aw' , cas-
sia), the second daughter of Job, born after his
recovery (Job xlii:i4).
-ZJS.ZVL (ke'ziz), (Heb. V'Vi?, kets-eets', abrupt),
a city of Benjamin (Josh. xviii:2i, A. V. "Valley of
Keziz"), the name of which is still preserved in the
Wady el Kaziz, on the road from Jerusalem to
Jericho, southeast of the Apostles' Well.
EHAN (kan), the Arabic name for the establish-
ments which correspond to our inn. (See Inn.)
KIBROTH - HATTAAVAH (kib'roth-hat-ta'a-
vah), (Heb. "'il^p HWrin, kib-roth' hat-tah-av-aw' ,
graves of the longing), an encampment of the
Israelites in the wilderness, probably about three
days' journey from Sinai (Num. xi:34), thus named
because it was the burial place of many who died
from overeating the preternatural supply of quail-
flesh (Num. xi:35, xxxiii:l6, 17; Deut. ix:22). (See
Wandering, The.)
KIBZAIM (kib-za'im), (Heb. D'??P, kib-tsah'-
yini, a double heap), a city of Ephraim (Josh, xxi:
22), which was given up to the Kohathite Levites.
In I Chron. vi, Jokmeam is substituted for Kibzaim,
perhaps through a mistake owing to the similarity
m the original.
KID (kid). See Goat; Lamb.
KIDDAH (kid'dah), (Heb. ^l"^ ,kid-dawkh'\2i$,
well as Ketzioth, is rendered Cassia in our
Authorized Version.
The word occurs first in Exod. xxx :24, where
cassia (kiddali) is mentioned in connection with
olive oil, pure myrrh, sweet cinnamon, and sweet
calamus; secondly, in Ezek. xxviiag, where Dan
and Javan are described as bringing bright iron,
cassia (kiddah), and calamus to the markets of
Tyre. There is no reason why the substance now
called cassia might not have been imported from
the shores of India into Egypt and Palestine.
Considerable confusion has, however, been cre-
ated by the same name having been applied by
botanists to a genus containing tlie plants yield-
ing senna, and to others, as the cassia fistula,
which have nothing to do with the original cassia.
Cassia-buds, again, though no doubt produced by
a plant belonging to the same, or to some genus
allied to that producing cinnamon and cassia, were
probably not known in commerce at so early a
period as the two latter substances. There is,
certainly, no doubt that some cassia is produced
on the coast of Malabar. The name also would
appear to be of Eastern origin, as kasse koronde
is one kind of cinivamon, as mentioned by Bur-
mann in his Flora Zcylonica; but it will be pref-
erable to treat of the whole subject in connec-
tion with cinnamon. (Sec Kinnamon.)
J. F. R.
KIDNEY (kid'ny), (Heb. ^^^?, kil-yaw' ; Gr.
ve(pp6i, nef-ros").
1. Inward part of some animals (Lev. iii:4).
2. The kernel or substantial part of grains of
wheat (Deut. xxxii:i4).
Figurative. 1. The inmost powers, thoughts,
and desires of the soul are sometimes called reins ;
these being regarded by the Jews as the very in-
nermost parts of the body (Ps. xvi:7; Lam. iii:i3;
Rev. ii:23).
2. God is "far from men's reins," when they
have no true knowledge, fear, love, desire of, or
delight in him, and perform no true obedience to
him (Jer. xii:2).
3. Men are "pricked in their reins," when their
soul is wounded with disquieting thoughts, tor-
menting passions, envy, sorrow, anger (Ps. Ixxiii:
21).
4. Men's "reins instruct" them, when God, by
inspiration or otherwise, stirs up instructive and
directive thoughts in their minds (Ps. xvi:7).
KIDRON (kid'ron), (Heb. V'llp, kid-rone', dusky,
gloomy). The brook or winter torrent which flows
through the valley of Jehoshaphat (as it is now
called), on the east side of Jerusalem.
'The brook Kidron' is the only name by which
'the valley' itself is known in Scripture; for it is
by no means certain, nor even probable, that the
name 'valley of Jehoshaphat' in Joel (iii:i2) was
intended to apply to this valley.
(1) Brook. The word rendered 'brook' (2
Sam. xv:23; I Kings ii:37, etc.), is Vni, nachal,
which may be taken as equivalent to the Arabic
Wady, meaning a stream and its bed or valley,
or properly the valley of a stream, even when
the stream is dry. The Septuagint, Josephus, and
the Evangelists (John xviii:i), designate it
xri/ia/5^os, a storm brook, or winter torrent.
The brook Kidron derives all its importance
from its vicinity to the holy city, being nothing
more than the dry bed of a winter torrent, bear-
ing marks of being occasionally swept over by a
large volume of water. No stream flows through
it, except during the heavy rains of winter, when
the waters descend into it from the neighboring
hills. But even in winter there is no constant
flow, and the resident missionaries assured Dr.
Robinson that they had not during several years
seen a stream running through the valley.
(2) Ravine. The ravine in which the stream
is collected takes its origin above a mile to the
northeast of the city. This ravine deepens as it
proceeds, and forms an angle opposite the tem-
ple. It then takes a southeasterly direction, and,
passing between the village of Siloam and the
city, runs off in the direction of the Dead Sea.
through a singularly wild gorge, the course of
which few travelers have traced (Pictorial Pales-
tine, Introd. p. 194). It is in this ravine that
the celebrated monastery of Santa Saba is situ-
ated. Mr. Madden, who went through the val-
ley to the Dead Sea, thus speaks of the char-
acter which it assumes as it approaches the mon-
astery: — 'After traversing for the last hour a wild
ravine, formed by two rugged perpendicular
mountains, the sides of which contained innumer-
able caverns, which once formed a sort of troglo-
dyte city, in which the early Christians resided,
the sight of the convent in this desolate place
was like a glimpse of paradise.'
(3) Bed of the Kidron. On leaving the con-
vent the next day he says that he 'marched
through the bed of the Kidron, along the horrible
ravine which he entered the day before.' (Dr.
Robinson, Biblical Researches, ii, 249), on pass-
KIKAYON
loei
KINDRED
ing along the western borders of the lake, came
'to the deep and almost impassable ravine of the
Kidron, running down by Mar Saba, and thence
called VVady-er-Rahib, "Monk's Valley ;" but here
also bearing the name of Wady en-Nar,"Fire Val-
ley." At this place it' was running east southeast,
in a deep, narrow channel, between perpendicular
walls of rock, as if worn away by the rushing
waters between these desolate chalky hills. There
was, however, no water in it then ; nor had there
apparently been any for a long time.' (Barclay,
City of the Great King, pp. 302, sq.)
At last its dreary course brings the water
(when there is any) to the precipice above the
Dead Sea, into which it falls. The valley is only
twenty miles long, but it has a descent of three
thousand, nine hundred and twelve feet.
(4) Recent Explorations. Recent excava-
tions have brought to light the fact that the true
bed of the Kidron is about forty feet lower than
its present bed, and about seventy feet nearer to
the sanctuary wall.
Reference is made to it in 2 Sam. xv:23; i
Kings ii:37; xv:i3; 2 Kings xi:i6; xxiii:4; 2
Chron. x.xix :l6.
KIKAYON (kl-kay'6n), (Heb. P'R'P, kee-kaw
yone'), occurs only in Jonah iv, where it is several
times mentioned, as in verses 6, 7,9, 10.
(1) Gourd. It is translated gourd in our Au-
thorized Version, probably from the kol-o-kune'-
thay, Ko\oK<iv9-i\ of the Septuagint, often rendered
cucurbita. In themarginof the English Bible, Pa/m-
Christ is given. Inthe Vulgate AiAioy on is translated
hcdera, 'ivy.' Neither the gourd itor ivy is con-
sidered by modern writers to indicate the plant
intended. We are told, 'The Lord God prepared
a gourd (kikayon), and made it to come over
Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head,'
etc. (verse 6). 'But God prepared a worm when
the morning rose the next day, and it smote the
gourd that it withered' (verse 7). And in verse 10
it is said of the gourd that it 'came up in a
night, and perished in a night.' Hence it ap-
pears that the growth of the kikayon was miracu-
lous, but that il was probably a plant of the coun-
try, being named specifically ; also that it was
capable of affording shade, and might be easily de-
stroyed.
(2) Falma Christi. The Hebrew name kika-
yon is so similar to the kiki of Dioscorides, that
it was early thought to indicate the same plant.
Dioscorides (iv, 164, irto! kIkcus) states that
the kiki, or croton, is called wild sesamum. It
has also been called Pentadaciylus and Patnia
Christi, from the palmate division of its leaves.
Having ascertained that the kiki of the Greeks is
what is now called Ricinus communis, we shall
find that its characters correspond with every-
thing that is required, except the rapidity of
growth, which must be granted was miraculous.
From the erect habit, and the breadth of its foli-
age, this plant throws an ample shade, especially
when young. From the softness and little sub-
stance of its stem, it may easily be destroyed by
insects, which Rumphius describes as sometimes
being the case. It would then necessarily dry
up rapidly. As it' is well suited to the country,
and to the purpose indicated in the text, and as
its name kiki is so similar to kikayon, it is doubt-
less the plant which the sacred penman had in
view. (See Gourd; Jonah.) J. F. R.
KIMOSH and KIMSHON (ki'mosh, kira'shon),
(Heb. ^'"I^?, kim-vioshe\ nettles, and t^'^l, kirn-
shone'), occur, the first in Is. xxxiv:i3, and Hos.
ix:6; and the second in Prov. xxiv:3i, where it is
mentioned along with Charul, which we believe
to indicate charlock.
The field of the slothful is there described as
being grown over with thorns (charullim), 'and
nettles (kimshon) had covered the face thereof.'
In Isaiah it is said, 'And thorns (choach) shall
come up in the palaces, nettles (kimosh) and
brambles in the fortresses thereof.' (Hos. ix:6),
'The pleasant places for their silver, nettles
{kimosh) shall possess them; thorns {choach)
shall be in their tabernacles.'
Though different interpretations have been
given of this word, as thorns, thistles, wild cham-
otnile, etc., the greatest number of authors have
united in adopting nettles, chiefly in consequence
of the authority of Jewish writers, and because
that meaning is as well suited to the passages in
which it occurs as any other which has hitherto been
suggested. (See Thorns and Thistle.s.)
J. F. R.
KIN (kin). See Kindred.
KINAH (ki'nah), (Heb. '^rP, kee-naw', a dirge),
a town of Judah (Josh. xv;22) on the extreme south
boundary of the tribe, next to Edom.
KINDNESS (kind'nes), (Heb. "n, kheh'sed,
desire, zeal).
!• Kindness is the quality of being kind, of
expressing in words and deeds good will and
benevolence and of contributing to the welfare or
happiness of others (Gen. xxi 123 ; 2 Sam. x:2).
It denotes compassion for the afflicted (Job vi :
14). A. V. "pity." It is an act of courtesy, good
will, benignity and tenderness (Luke vi :3s ; I
Cor. xiii:4; 2 Chron. x:;). Kindness and ten-
derness have been discriminated as follows:
Kindness and tenderness are partial modes of
aff'cction, confined to those who know or are re-
lated to each other: we are kind to friends and
acquaintances, tender toward those who are near
and dear: kindness is a mode of affection most'
fitted for social beings ; it is what everyone can
show, and everyone is pleased to receive ; ten-
derness is a state of feeling that is occasionally
acceptable : the young and the weak demand ten-
derness from those who stand in the closest con-
nection with them, but this feeling may be carried
to an excess, so as to injure the object on which
it is fixed. Crabbc.
2. Kindness of God towards men is shown in
mercies, benefits, blessings, etc. (Ps. xxxi :2l ;
cvii :43; cxvii -.2).
KINDRED (kln'dred). The following are the
Hebrew words thus translated in the English
Bible:
1. Mish-paw-khaw' (Heb. '^d?'?, clan), usually
rendered family (Gen. x;i8; Ex. vi:i4; Num. i:2o;
Josh. vii:i7; Judg. xiii;2). It is rendered 'kindred'
(Gen. xxiv:4i ; Josh. vi:23;-}iuth ii:3; Job xxxii;2).
2. Mo-leh'detk (Heb. ^1"!.^^^. a child, translated
'kindred' (Gen. xxviii:^; Lev. xviii;6, 17). It also
means 'persons of the same family' (Gen. xii:i;
xxiv:4;xxxi;3; xliii:7; Num.x:30; Esth. ii:lo; viii:6).
3. Mo-dah' ath (Heb. ^y^'Sj^ jg \x%e.A to express
blood relationships (Ruth iii:2).
4. Gheh-ool-law' (Heb. '"'v^f, redemption), des-
ignating a relationship so close that it would
impose the obligations of a kinsman (Ezek. xi:i5).
6. Awkh (Heb. '^?, brother, i Chron. xii:29).
Elsewhere used to express relationship in a wide
sense. It comprises all affiliated relationships of
consanguinity, affinity, or of the simplest ties.
KING
1022
KING
6. The words which express collateral consan-
guinity are: (i) uncle; (2) aunt; (3) nephew;
(4) niece (not in A. V.) ; (5) cousin. The terms
of affinity are: (l) (a) father-in-law; {b)
mother-in-law; (2) (o) son-in-law; {b) daugh-
ter-in-law; (3) (o) brother-in-law; (b) sister-
in-law. The relations of kindred, expressed by
few words, and imperfectly defined in the earliest
ages, acquired in course of time greater signifi-
cance and wider influence. (See Family; Mar-
riage; Inheritance; Blood-Revenge.)
KING (king), (Heb. and Chald. ^'?.'?, meh'lek,
ruler; Gr. BairiXeut, bas-il-yooce'), a chief ruler, a
sovereign, one invested with supreme authority
over a tribe, country or nation.
(1) General Use of the Word. In the Scrip-
tures it is used with great latitude of meaning.
The kings were local rulers over but one city or
large village. Benhadad had thirty-two kings subj ect
to him (i Kings xx:i, 16). In Canaan, Adoni-
bezek conquered seventy kings, and made them
eat bread under his table. Joshua conquered
thirty-one (Judg. i:y. Josh. xii). Nimrod of
Babylon was the first king we read of ; but soon
after, we find kings in Egypt, Persia, Canaan,
Edom, etc. (Gen. x:io; xiii, xiv, xx, xxxvi).
(2) Belation to Hebrews. Regal authority
was altogether alien to the institutions of Moses
in their original and unadulterated form. Their
fundamental idea was that Jehovah was the sole
king of the nation (i Sam. viii :7) : to use the
emphatic words in Is. xxxiii :22, 'The Lord is
our judge, the Lord is our lawgiver, the Lord is
our king.'
(3) Moses. We consider it as a sign of that
self-confidence and moral enterprise which are
produced in great men by a consciousness of be-
ing what they profess, that Moses ventured, with
his half-civilized hordes, on the bold experiment
of founding a society without a king, and that in
the solicitude which he must have felt for the
success of his great undertaking, he forewent the
advantages which a regal government would have
afforded. Such an attempt was singular and
novel at a period and in a part of the world in
which royalty was not only general, but held in
the greatest respect, and sometimes rose to the
very height of pure despotism. Its novelty is an
evidence of the Divine original to which Moses
referred all his polity.
(a) Patriotism. Equally honorable is the con-
duct of Moses in denying to his lower nature the
gratifications which a crown would have imparted
— we say denying himself, because it is beyond a
question that the man who rescued the Jews from
bondage and conducted them to the land of Ca-
naan, might, had he chosen, have kept the do-
minion in his own hands, and transmitted a crown
to his posterity.
Washington, at this late period of human his-
tory, after the accumulating experience of above
three thousand years, is held deserving of
high honor for having preferred to found a re-
public rather than attempt to build up a throne,
and the Hebrew patriot with supreme power in
his hands was content to die within sight of the
land of promise, a simple, unrewarded, unhon-
ored individual, content 10 do God's work regard-
less of self.
It is equally obvious that this self-denial on
tlie part of Moses, this omission to create any
human kingship, is in entire accordance with the
import, aim, and spirit of the Mosaic institutions,
as being Divine in their origin, and designed to
accomplish a special work of Providence for
man; and, therefore, affords, by its consistency
with the very essence of the system of which
it forms a part, a very forcible argument in fa-
vor of the Divine legation of Moses.
(t>) Difficulties to be Met. That great man,
however, well knew what were the elements with
which he had to deal in framing institutions for
the rescued Israelites. Slaves they had been, and
the spirit of slavery was not yet wholly eradi-
cated from their souls. They had, too, witnessed
in Egypt the more than ordinary pomp and splen-
dor which environ a throne, dazzling the eyes and
captivating the heart of the uncultured. Not im-
probably the prosperity and abundance which they
had seen in Egypt, might have been ascribed by
them to the regal form of the Egyptian govern-
ment. Moses may well, therefore, have appre-
hended a not very remote departure from the fun-
damental type of his institutions.
Accordingly he makes a special provision for
this contingency (Deut. xvii:i4), and labors, by
anticipation, to guard against the abuses of royal
power. Should a king be demanded by the peo-
ple, then he was to be a native Israelite ; he was
not to be drawn away by the love of show, es-
pecially by a desire for that regal display in
which horses have always borne so large a part,
to send down to Egypt, still less to cause the
people to return to that land. He was to avoid
the corrupting influence of a large harem, so
common among Eastern monarchs ; he was to ab-
stain from amassing silver and gold. He was
to have a copy of the law made expressly for
his own study — a study which he was never to
intermit till the end of his days ; so that his heart
might not be lifted up above his brethren, that
he might not be turned aside from the living God,
but observing the Divine statutes, and thus ac-
knowledging himself to be no more than the vice-
gerent of heaven, he might enjoy happiness, and
transmit his authority to his descendants.
(4) Jewish Polity. The Jewish polity, then,
was a sort of sacerdotal republic — we say sacer-
dotal, because of the great influence which, from
the first, the priestly order enjoyed, having no
human head, but being under the special super-
vision, protection, and guidance of the Almighty.
The nature of the consequences, however, of that
Divine influence avowedly depended on the de-
gree of obdience and the general faithfulness of
the nation. The good, therefore, of such a super-
intendence in its immediate results was not neces-
sary, but contingent. The removal of Moses
and of Joshua by death soon left the people to
the natural results of their own condition and
character. Anarchy ensued. Noble minds, indeed,
and stout hearts appeared in those who were
termed Judges ; but the state of the country was
not so satisfactory as to prevent an unenlightened
people, having low and gross affections, from pre-
ferring the glare of a crown and the apparent pro-
tection of a scepter, to the invisible and, there-
fore, mostly unrecognized arm of Omnipotence.
(5) Demand for a King. A king accordingly
is requested. The misconduct of Samuel's sons,
who had been made judges, was the immediate
occasion of the demand being put forth. The
request came with authority, for it emanated from
all the elders of Israel, who, after holding a for-
mal conference, proceeded to Samuel, in order to
make him acquainted with their wish.
Samuel was displeased ; but, having sought in
prayer to learn the Divine will, he is instructed to
yield to the demand on a ground which we
should not assuredly have found stated, had the
book in which it appears have been tampered with
KhN'G
1023
KING
or fabricated for any courtly purposes or any
personal ends, whether by Samuel himself, or by
David, or any of his successors — "for they have
not rejected thee (Samuel), but they have re-
jected mc, that I should not reign over them'
(i Sam. viii 7, 8). Samuel is, moreover, directed
to 'protest solemnly unto them, and show them the
manner of the king that shall reign over them'
(verse 9). Faithfully docs the prophet depict the
evils which a monarchy would inflict on the peo-
ple. In vain. They said, 'Nay, but wc will have a
king over us.'
(6) Saul the Son of Kish. Accordingly, Saul
the son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, was,
by Divine direction, selected, and privately
anointed by Samuel 'to be captain over God's in-
heritance :' thus he was to hold only a delegated
and subordinate authority. Under the guidance
of Samuel, Saul is subsequently chosen by lot
from among the assembled tribes; and though his
personal appearance had no influence in the
choice, yet when he was plainly pointed out to be
the individual designed for the scepter, Samuel
called attention to those qualities which in less
civilized nations have a preponderating influence,
and are never without effect, at least, in support-
ing 'the Divinity which doth hedge a king:' 'See
ye him whom the Lord hath chosen, that there is
none like him among all the people' (i Sam. x:
24), for he was higher than any of the people
from his shoulders and upward ; 'and all the peo-
ple shouted, God save the king.'
(7) Limited Monarchy. Emanating as the
royal power did from the demand of the people
and the permission of a prophet, it was not likely
to be unlimited in iis extent or arbitrary in its
exercise. The government of God, indeed, re-
mained, being rather concealed and complicated
than disowned, much less superseded. The king
ruled not in his own right, nor in virtue of the
choice of the people, but by concession from on
high, and partly as the servant' and partly as the
representative of the theocracy. How insecure,
indeed, was the tenure of the kingly power, how
restricted it was in its authoriiyj appears clear
from the comparative facility with which the
crown was transferred from Saul to David ; and
the part which the prophet Samuel took in af-
fecting that transference points out the quarter
where lay the power which limited, if it did not
primarily, at least, control the royal authority.
We must not, however, expect to find any definite
and permanent distribution of power, any legal
determination of the royal prerogatives as dis-
criminated from the Divine authority; circum-
stances, as they prompted certain deeds, restricted
or enlarged the sphere of the monarch's action.
Thus, in i Sam. xi 14, sq. we find Saul, in an
emergency, assuming, without consultation or de-
liberation, the power of demanding something
like a levy en masse, and of proclaiming instant
war. With the king lay the administration of
justice in ilie last resort (2 Sam. xv:2; I Kings
iii :i6. sq.).
He also possessed the power of life and death
(2 Sam. xiv.). To provide for and superintend
the public worship was at once his duty and his
highest honor (i Kings viii; 2 Kings xii:4; xviii:
4; xxiiiti). One reason why the people re-
quested a king was that they might have a recog-
nized leader in war (i Sam. viii:2o).
The Mosaic law offered a powerful hindrance
10 royal despotism (l Sam. x:25). The people
also, by means of their elders, formed an express
compact, by which they stipulated for their rights
(i Kings xii:4), and were from time to time ap-
pealed to, generally in cases of 'great pith and
moment' (i Chron. xxix:i; 2 Kings xi:i7: Jo-
seph,, De Bell. J lid. ii. I. 2). Nor did the people
fail to interpose their will, where they thought it
necessary, in opposition to that of the monarch
(I Sam. xiv 145).
The part which Nathan took against David
shows how effective, as well as bold, was the
check exerted by the prophets ; indeed, most of
the prophetic history is the history of the noblest
opposition ever made to the vices alike of royally,
priesthood, and people.
If needful, the prophet hesitated not to demand
an audience of the king, nor was he dazzled or
deterred by royal power and pomp (l Kings xx:
22, 38; 2 Kings i:i5). As, however, the monarch
held the sword, the instrument of death was some-
times made to prevail over every restraining in-
fluence (i Sam. xxii:i7).
(8) Transfer of the Crown to David. After
the transfer of the crown from Saul to David, the
royal power was annexed to the house of the lat-
ter, passing from father to son, with preference
to the eldest born, though he might be a minor.
Jehoash was seven years old when he began to
reign (2 Kings xi:2i).
This rule was not, however, rigidly observed,
for instances are not' wanting in which nomination
of a younger son gave him a preferable title to the
crown (t Kings i.17; 2 Chron. xi:2i). The
people, too, and even foreign powers, at a later
period, interrupted the regular transmission of
royal authority (2 Kings xxi:24; xxiii:24, 30;
xxiv:i7).
The ceremony of anointing, which was observed
at least in the case of Saul, David, and Solomon
(i Sam. ix:i4; x:i; xv:i; xvi:i2; 2 Sam. ii :4 ;
v:3; I Kings i :34, 39, 40), and in which the
prophet or high-priest who performed the rite
acted as the representative of the theocracy and
the expounder of the will of heaven, must have
given to the spiritual power very considerable
influence. And both in this particular and in the
very nature of the observance directs the mind to
Egypt, where the same custom prevailed, and
where the power of the priestly caste was im-
mense (Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, v, 279).
Indeed, the ceremony seems to have been essential
to constitute a legitimate monarch (2 Kings xi:
12; xxiii:3o); and thus the authorities of the
Jewish church held in their hands, and had sub-
ject to their will, a most important power, which
they could use either for their own purposes or
the common good. Wc have seen in the esse of
Saul that personal and even external qualities had
their influence in procuring ready obedience to a
sovereign ; and further evidence to the same ef-
fect m.iy be found in Ps. xlv:3; Ezek. xxviii:i2.
Such qualities would naturally excite the enthusi-
asrn of the people, who appear to have manifested
their approval by acclamations (i Sam. x:24; i
Kings 1:25; 2 Kings ix:i3; xi:i3; 2 Chron. xxiii:
II ; see also Joseph. De Bell. Jud. i, Ti:^, 9). Jubi-
lant rtiusic formed a part of the popular rejoicings
(i Kings i:40); thank-offerings were made (i
Kings i:2S); the new sovereign rode in solemn
procession on the royal mule of his predecessor
(l Kings i:38), and took possession of the royal
harem — an act which seems to have been scarcely
less essential than other observances which ap-
pear to us to wear a higher character (l Kings
ii:i3, 22; 2 Sam. xvi :22).
A niimerous harem, indeed, was among the
most highly estimated of the royal luxuries (2
Sam. v:i3; I Kings xi:i; xx:3). It was under
the supervision and control of eunuchs.and passed
KING
1024
KINGDOM
from one monarch to another as a part of the
crown property (2 Sam. xii:8). The law (Deut.
xvii:i7), foreseeing evils such as that by which
Solomon, in his later years, was turned away
from his fidelity to God, had strictly forbidden
many wives. But Eastern passions and usages
were too strong for a mere written prohibition,
and a corrupted religion became a pander to royal
lust, interpreting the Divine command as sanc-
tioning eighteen as the minimum of wives and
concubines.
(9) Boyal Revenues. In the original distri-
bution of the land no share, of course, was re-
served for a merely possible monarch ; yet the
kings were not without several sources of in-
come. In the earlier periods of the monarchy the
simple manners which prevailed would render
copious revenues unnecessary; and a throne which
was the result of a spontaneous demand on the
part of the people, would easily find support in
freewill offerings especially in a part of the world
where the great are never approached without a
present. There seems also reason to conclude
that the amount of the contributions made by
the people for the sustenance of the monarch
depended, in a measure, on the degree of popular-
ity which, in any particular case, he enjoyed, or
the degree of service which he obviously ren-
dered to the siate (i Sam. x:27; xvi:2o; 2 Sain.
viii :ii ; I Kings x:il, 25, sq.).
That presents of small value and humble nature
were not despised or thought unfit for the ac-
ceptance of royalty may be learnt from that which
Jesse sent to Saul (i Sam. xvi:2o), 'an ass, with
bread and a bottle of wine, and a kid.' The in-
direct detail "of the substance which was king
David's,' found in l Chron. xxvii 125, sq. (comp.
I Sam. viii:l4; 2 Chron. xxvi:lo, sq.), shows
at how early a period the Israelitish throne was
in possession of very large property, both personal
and real. The royal treasury was replenished by
confiscation, as in the case ofNaboth (i Kings xxi :
16; comp. Ezek. xlvi:i6, sq.; 2 Sam. xvi:4).
Nor were taxes unknown. Samuel had predicted
(i Sam. viii:i5), 'He will take the tenth of your
seed and of your vineyards,' etc.; and so in other
passages ( i Kings v : 13 ; ix :2i ) we find that levies
both of men and money were made for the mon-
arch's purposes ; and, in cases of special need,
these exactions were large and rigorously levied
(2 Kings xxiii:35), as when Jehoiakim 'taxed
the land to give the money according to the
commandment of Pharaoh ; he exacted the silver
and the gold of the people of the land, of every
one according to his taxation.'
So long, however, as the native vigor of a
young monarchy made victory easy and fre-
quent, large revenues came to the king from the
spoils of war (2 Sam. viii :2, sq.). Commerce
also supplied abundant resources (l Kings
x:i5).
(10) Oriental Ceremony. According to Ori-
ental custom, much ceremony and outward show
of respect were observed. Those who were in-
tended to be received with special honor were
placed on the king's right hand (i Kings iiiig).
The most profound homage was paid to the mon-
arch, which was required not merely by common
usage, but by the voice of religious wisdom
(Prov. xxiv:2i) — a requirement which was not
unnatural in regard to an office that was ac-
counted of Divine origin, and to have a sort of
vice-Divine authority. Those who presented them-
selves before the royal presence fell with their
face towards theground till their forehead touched
it (i Sam. xxv:23; 2 Sam. ix:6; xix: 18), thus
worshiping or doing obeisance to the monarch, a
ceremony from which even the royal spouse was
not exempted (i Kings i;i6). A kiss was among
the established tokens of reverence (i Sam. x:
i; Ps. ii;i2), as were also hyperbolical wishes of
good (Dan. ii:4; iii:9). Serious offenses against
the king were punished with death (l Kings
xxi: 10).
(11) Hebrew Kings Jess Despotic than
Others. Deriving their power originally from
the wishes of the people, and being one of the
same race, the Hebrew kings were naturally less
despotic than other Oriental sovereigns, mingled
more with their subjects, and were by no means
difficult of access (2 Sam. xix;8; i Kings xx :
39; Jer. xxxviii:7; i Kings iii:i6; 2 Kings vi:
26; viii:3). After death the monarchs were in-
terred in the royal cemetery in Jerusalem: 'So
David slept with his fathers, and was buried in
the city of David' (l Kings ii:io; xi :43 ; xiv:3i).
But bad kings were excluded 'from the sepulchers
of the kings of Israel' (2 Chron. xxviii:27).
In I Kings iv will be found an enumeration of
the high officers of state under the reign of Solo-
mon (see also I Kings x:s; xii:i8; xviii:3; 2
Kings viii: 16; x:22; xviii:i8; xix :2 ; I Chron.
xxvii:2S; Is. xxii:is; Jer. lii:2S). The misdeeds
of the Jewish crown, and the boldness with which
they were reproved, may be seen exemplified in
Jer. xxii :3. 'Thus saith the Lord, Execute judg-
ment and righteousness, and do no wrong; do no
violence to the stranger, the fatherless, nor the
widow ; neither shed innocent blood. But if ye
will not hear these words, this house shall be-
come a desolation,' etc. Reference on the subject
here treated of may be made to Ewald, Ge-
schkhte des Volkes Israel, iii. 381 ; Maurice, Kings
and Prophets of the Old Testament.
J. R. B.
Figurative. 1. King is symbolically used in
the scriptures, to men: as invested with regal
authority by their fellows (Luke xxii:2S; I Tim.
ii:i; i Pet. ii:i5, 17) ; to God: as the sole proper
sovereign and ruler of the universe (i Tim. i:
17; vi:is, 16); and to Christ, as the Messiah,
the Son of God, the King of the Jews, the sole
Head and Governor of his church (i Tim. vi:i5,
16; Matt. xxvii:ii; Luke xix:38; John i:49; vi:
15; xviii:32-37).
2. Saints are "kings ;" they have the kingdom
of God within them ; they are heirs of the king-
dom of glory ; they war against and conquer sin,
Satan, and the world ; they rule their own spirit,
and govern their body, and have no small influ-
ence on God's government of nations and churches
(Rev. i:6; v:io; xx:4).
3. Leviathan is "king" over all the children of
pride, or fierce-looking monsters ; in strength or
bulk he exceeds all the animals (Job xli :34). (See
History; Israel, Kingdom or.)
KINGDOM (king-dijm), (Heb. '^?^^^, mam-law-
kaw').
(1) In General, (i) The country or countries
subject to one king (Deut. iii:4). (2) Thepowerof
acting as king, or of supreme administration (I
Sam. xviii:8; x.'c:3i).
(2) Kingdom of God. God's universal do-
minion over all things, is called his "kingdom;"
thereby he preserves, protects, gives laws to, and
regulates all his creatures, and can dispense favors
or judgment's as he pleaseth (i Chron. xxix:ii;
Ps. cxlv:i2. The saints' new-covenant state, and
the work of saving grace in their heart, are called
the "kingdom" of God. and the "kingdom" of
heaven. Therein God erects his throne in their
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
1025
KINGS, BOOKS OF
heart, gives laws and privileges to their souls, ren-
ders them heavenly-minded and meet to enter the
heavenly glory tMait. vi:3.i; xiii;3i; Luke xvii :
20, 21).
(3) Kingdom of Heaven, (a) The visible
church, especially under the New Testament, is
called a "kingdom ;" Christ and his Father rule in
it, and maintain order, safety, and happiness
therein. It is called the "kingdom of heaven ;"
it is of heavenly origin, has a heavenly gov-
ernor and laws; and is erected to render multi-
tudes fit for heaven (Matt, iii :2 ; iv:i7; xiii:47;
xvi;i9; Col. i:i3;.
(i>) The state of glory in heaven is called a
"kingdom." How great is its glory, happiness,
and order ! how ready the obedience of all the
unnumbered subjects of God and the Lamb there-
in ! (Malt. v:io; L-ikc xxii ;iC ; i Cor. vitg).
(4) Kingdom of Priests. The Hebrew nation
and the saints are a "kingdom of priests;" they
were, or arc, a numerous and honored body, who
have access to offer up sacrifices, prayer, praise,
and good works, acceptable to God through Jesus
Christ (Exod. xix:6; i Pet. ii;9).
(5) The Heathen. Nations are called the
heathenish "kingdoms of this world;" their ends,
maxims, and manner of government, are carnal
and earthly (Rev. xi:is). Brown.
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. See Israel, King-
dom OF.
KINGDOM OF JTTDAn. See Jitdah, King-
dom OK.
KINGLY OFFICE OF CHBISI. See Jf.sus
Chri.st.
KINGS, BOOKS OF (krngs, books 6v). The two
books of Kings f jrmed anciently but one book in
the Jewish Scriptures.
But great stress cannot always be laid on the
Jewish forms of the sacred books, as they were
arranged so as to correspond with the letters
of the Hebrew alphabet.
(1) Brief Annals. The books of Kings con-
tain the brief annals of a long period, from the
accession of Solomon till the dissolution of the
commonwealth. The first chapters describe the
reign of Solomon over the united kingdom, and
the revolt under Rehoboam. The history of the
rival states is ne.xt narrated in parallel sections
till the period of Israel's downfall on the in-
vasion of Shalmaneser. Then the remaining
years of the principality of Judah are recorded
till the conquest of Nebuchadnezzar and the com-
mencement of the Babylonish captivity. In the ar-
ticle IsR.\EL, the period comprised has been ex-
hibited under the name and reign of the kings
who are mentioned tliere and in these books, and
in the article JUDAii, Kinguo.m of, the chronology
of the books has been sufficiently considered.
(2) Peculiarities. There are some peculiari-
ties in this succinct history worthy of attention.
It is very brief, but very suggestive. It is not a
biography of the sovereigns, nor a mere record of
political occurrences, nor yet an ecclesiastical reg-
ister. King, church, and state are all comprised in
their sacred relations. It is a theocratic history,
a retrospective survey of the kingdoms as existing
under a theocratic government.
The character of the sovereign is tested by his
fidelity to the religious obligations of his office,
and this decision in reference to his conduct is
generally added to the notice of his accession.
The new king's religious character is generally
portrayed by its similarity or opposition to the
way of David, of his father, or of Jeroboam,
son of Nebat, 'who made Israel to sin.'
Ecclesiastical affairs are noticed wiih a simi-
lar purpose, and in contrast with past or prev-
alent apostasy, especially as manifested in the
popular superstitions, whose shrines were on the
'high places.'
Political or national incidents are introduced in
general for the sake of illustrating the iniUience
of religion on civic prosperity; of showing how
the theocracy maintained a vigilant and vengeful
guardianship over its rights and privileges — ad-
herence to its principles securing peace and plenty,
disobedience to them bringing along with it sud-
den and severe retribution.
(3) ■V^eriflcation of Mosaic 'Warnings. The
books of Kings are a verification of the Mosaic
warnings, and the author of them has kept this
steadily in view. He has given a brief history
of his people, arranged under the various political
chiefs in such a manner as to show that the gov-
ernment was essentially theocratic, that its spirit,
as developed in the Mosaic writings, was never
extinct, however modified or inactive it might
sometimes appear.
(4) Religious Form. Thus the books of Kings
appear in a religious costume, quite different from
the form they would have assumed either as a po-
litical or ecclesiastical narrative. In the one case
legislative enactments, royal edicts, popular move-
ments, would have occupied a prominent place ;
in the other, sacerdotal arrangements, Levitical
service, music and pageantry, would have filled
the leading sections of the treatise.
In either view the points adduced would have
had a restricted reference to the palace or the
temple, the sovereign or the pontiff, the court
or the priesthood, the throne or the altar, the
tribute or tithes, the nation on its farms, or the
tribes in the courts of the sacred edifice.
But the theocracy conjoined both the political
and religious elements, and the inspired annalist
unites them as essential to his design. The agency
of Divinity is constantly recognized, the hand of
Jehovah is continually acknowledged.
(5) Agency of the Prophets. The chief or-
gan of theocratic influence enjoys peculiar prom-
inence. We refer to the incessant agency of the
prophets, their great power and peculiar modes of
action as detailed by the composer of the books of
Kings. They interfered with the succession, and
their instrumentality was apparent in the schism.
They roused the people, and they braved the sover-
eign. The balance of power was in their hands;
the regal dignity seet:ied to be sometimes at their
disposal; indeed they were his vicegerents by
whom his judgments were executed.
In times of emergency they dispensed with
usual modes of procedure, and assumed almost
unlimited authority with whicli no subject in an
ordinary govcrnrnent can safely be intrusted, exe-
cuting the law with a summary promptness which
rendered opposition impossible or at least unavail-
ing. They felt their Divine commission, and that
they were the custodians of the rights of Jehovah.
At the same time they protected the interests of
the nation, and. could we divest the term of its
association with unprincipled turbulence and cedi-
tion. we would, like Winer, style them the dema-
gogues of Israel (Winer, Rcaheort, art. Prophet).
The Divine prerogative was to them a vested
right, guarded with a sacred jealousy from royal
usurpation or popular invasion: and the interests
of the people were as religiously protected against
encroachments, too easily made under a form of
government which had not the safeguard of popu-
lar representation or aristocratic privilege. The
priesthood was in many instances, though there
KINGS. BOOKS OF
1026
KINGS, BOOKS OF
are some illustrious exceptions, merely the creature
of the crown, and therefore it became the prophet-
enthum to assert its dignity and stand forth in the
majestic insignia of an embassy from heaven.
(6) Evidence as to Method, Etc. The truth of
these sentiments, as to the method, design, and
composition of the books of Kings, is confirmed
by ample evidence.
(i) Large space is occupied with the building
of the Temple — the palace of the Divine Pro-
tector— his throne in it being above the mercy-
seat and between the cherubim (ch. v-viii). Care
is taken to record the miraculous phenomenon of
the descent of the Shekinah (ch. viiiiio). The
prayer of Solomon at the dedication of the house
is full of theocratic views and aspirations.
(2) Reference is often made to the Mosaic
Law with its provisions; and allusions to the
earlier history of the people frequently occur (l
Kings ii:3; iii:i4; vi:ii, 12; viii :s8, etc.; 2 Kings
x:3i; xiv:6; xvii.ij, 15, 37; xviii:4-6; xxi:i-8).
Allusions to the Mosaic code are found more fre-
quently toward the end of the second book, when
the kingdom was drawing near its termination, as
if to account for its decay and approaching fate.
(3) Phrases expressive of Divine interference
are frequently introduced (i Kings xi:3i; xii:
is; xiii:i, 2, 9; and xx:i3, etc.).
(4) Prophetic interposition is a very prominent
theme of record. It fills the vivid foreground
of the historical picture. Nathan was occupied
in the succession of Solomon (i Kings i:45);
Ahijah was concerned in the revolt (xi:29-4o).
Shemaiah disbanded the troops which Rehoboam
had mustered (xii:2l). Ahijah predicted the ruin
of Jeroboam, whose elevation he had promoted
(xiv.7). Jehu, the prophet, doomed the house
of Baasha (xvi:i). The reign of Ahab and
Ahaziah is marked by the bold, rapid, mysterious
movements of Elijah. Under Ahab occurs the
prediction of Micaiah (xxii:8). The actions and
oracles of Elisha form the marvelous topics of
narration under several reigns. The agency of
Isaiah is also recognized (2 Kings xix:2o; xx:
16). Besides I Kings xiii presents another in-
stance of prophetic operation ; and in xx 135, the
oracle of an unknown prophet is also rehearsed.
Huldah, the prophetess, was an important person-
age under the government of Josiah (2 Kings
xxii:i4). Care is also taken to report the ful-
fillment of striking prophecies, in the usual phrase,
'according to the word of the Lord' (i Kings
xii: 15; xv:29; xvi:l2; 2 Kings xxiii: 15-18; ix:
36; xxiv:2). So, too, the Old Syriac version
prefixes, 'Here follows the book of the kings
who flourished among the ancient people ; and in
this is also exhibited the history of the prophets
who flourished during their times.'
(S) Theocratic influence is recognized both in
the disposition and succession of kings (i Kings
xiii :33; xv:4, 5, 29, 30; 2 Kings xi:i7, etc.). Com-
pare on the whole of this view Havernick. Ein-
leit. sec. 168; Jahn, Inlroduct. sec. 46; Gesenius,
Ueber Jes. vol. i, p. 934. It is thus apparent that
the object of the author of the Books of Kings was,
to describe the history of the kingdoms, especially
in connection with the theocratic element.
(7) Authorship. The authorship and age of
this historical treatise may admit of several sup-
positions. Whatever were the original sources,
the books are evidently the composition of one
writer. The style is generally uniform through-
out. The same forms of expression are used to
denote the same thing, e. g. the male sex (i Kings
xiv:io, etc.) ; the death of a king (i Kings xi :
43, etc.); modes of allusion to the law (i
Kings xi:i3;) ; fidelity to Jehovah (i Kings viii:
53, etc.; De Wette, Einlcit, sec. 184, a; Havernick;
Einleit. sec. 171). Similar idioms are ever recur-
ring, so as to produce a uniformity of style
(Monotonie der Darstellung, Havernick, /. c).
(8) Sources. The sources whence this historic
information has been derived have been various-
ly named. That annals contemporary with the
events which they describe were written in the
early period of the Jewish state, may be at once
admitted. Eichhorn supposes that the sources
of "Kings' were private historical works (Einleit.
sec. 482). De Wette, from the legends related in
them, cannot believe them to be official docu-
ments. Bertholdt, Havernick, and Movers hold
that the books are extracts from the public annals
(comp. Havernick, sec. 169). The inspired his-
toriographer refers his readers to these sources
of evidence in such frequent phrases as 'the rest
of the acts.' Such a reference is made especially
to the sources, when other royal acts than those
narrated in the books of Kings are glanced at.
These sources are styled the book of the Chron-
icles of the kings of Judah, or Israel. Similar
phraseology is used in Esther x:2; vi:i, to de-
note the official annals of the Persian empire.
Public documents are spoken of in the same way
(Neh. xii:23). There is little reason to suppose
that the book referred to in this last passage is
that styled Chronicles in our copy of the Scrip-
tures (Movers, Chronik, sec. 234). So we infer
that the 'Book of the Chronicles of the Kings,'
so often alluded to, was an authentic document,
public and official. Once indeed mention is made
of a work entitled 'The Book of the Acts of Solo-
mon.'
(9) Contemporaneous Events Becorded by
the Prophets. That the prophets themselves
were employed in recording contemporaneous
events, is evident from 2 Chron. xx:34; I Chron.
xxix :29. In the course of the narrative we meet
with many instances of description, having the
freshness and form of nature, and which are ap-
parently direct quotations from some journal,
written by one who testified what he had seen
(i Kings xx:io; 2 Kings xii: 15; xiv:8). Thus
the credibility of the history contained in these
books rests upon a sure foundation.
(10) The Compiler. Now, the compiler from
these old documents — he who shaped them into
the form they have in our present books of Kings
— must have lived in a late age. The Second
Book of Kings concludes with an account of the
liberation of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, from
prison in Babylon — an event which, according to
Jahn, happened in the twenty-sixth, or according
to Prideaux, in the twenty-eighth year after the
destruction of Jerusalem. Jahn and Havernick
place the composition of 'Kings' in the reign of
Evil-merodach ; and De Wette, towards the end
of the Captivity. Instances of later phraseology
occurring in the books of Kings are given by De
Wette (sec. 115, 6). Jewish tradition makes
Jeremiah the author (Baba-bathra. fol. 15, i).
Calmet ascribes the authorship to Ezra. The
former opinion, adopted by Grotius, and lately
revindicated by Havernick, certainly appears the
more probable. It explains the close similarity of
the books of Kings and Jeremiah in spirit, style,
and tendency, more easily and more satisfactorily
than the supposition of De Wette, or any other
conjecture of like nature.
The age of the books of Kings may be inter-
mediate between the early work of Samuel and
the later treatise of Chronicles. J. B.
KING'S DALE
1027 KINSMAN, KINSWOMAN AND KINSFOLK
(11) Literature: Hales, Analysis; Hunscn,
Egypt's Plate in Hist. ; Maurice, Kings anil J'roph-
ets ; KeW.Buc/ier der Konige ; Wordsworth, Books
of Kings in his Holy Bible ; Jalin. Ilcb. Common-
wealth; Milman,//i.s/. of the Jews; Newman, //u/.
of the Hcb. Monarchy; Rawhnson. Monarchies of
the Ancient Eastern World, ii and iii ; Cheyne,
Intr. Book of Is., 1895, p. 212, sq.; H. Ewald. Hist,
of Isr.
KING'S DALE (kings dale), a place where the
king of Sodom met Abraham when lie returned
with the spoil of Sodom (Gen. xiv:i7). Also men-
tioned as the place where Absalom had erected a
pillar (2 Sam. xviii:i8). It was doubtless close to
Jerusalem, but the exact locality has not been
agreed upon. The majority take it to be the val-
ley of Jehoshaphat.
KING'S GARDEN (kings gar'd'n), the royal
garden near the fortress of Zion (2 Kings xxi:i8;
xxv:4). It was near Bir Ayyiib, which is probably
En-rogel. (See Garden.)
KING'S HOTJSE (kings hous), "House of the
forest of Lebanon," Solomon's palace (l Kings
vii;i-i2). (See Palace.)
KING'S MOTHER (kings miith'er), (i Kings
iiiig). See Queen.
KING'S POOL (kings pool), (Neh. ii:l4). See
Si LOAM.
KING'S SEPULCHER (kings sgp'ul-ker). See
Burial and Sepulchers.
KENNAMON kin'na-raon), (Heb. l"''^!:, kin-naw-
ww«<"), translated 'cinnamon,' occurs in three places
of Scripture; first, about 1600 years before the
Christian era, in Exod. xxx:23, where it is enum-
erated as one of the ingredients employed in the
preparation of the holy anointing oil.
It is next mentioned in Prov. vii:i7, 'I have
perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes (ahalitn).
and cinnamon.' And again in Cant. iv:i4, 'Spike-
nard and saffron ; calamus and cinnamon, with
all trees of frankincense ; myrrh and aloes (aha-
CinQamoo {KtHnamomum Cassia).
Km), with all the chief spices. While in Rev.
xviii:i3. among the merchandise of Babylon, we
have 'cinnamon, and odors, and ointments, and
frankincense.'
(1) Sweet Cinnamon. In the earliest notice,
it is called kinnamon besem, or 'sweet cinnamon.'
Dr. Vincent is inclined to consider khennah besem
and kinnamon besem as derived from the same
root. Many writers have doubted whether the
Kinnamon of the Hebrews is the same article that
we now call cinnamon. If we were to put faith
in all these doubts, we should be left without any
substances possessed of sufficiently remarkable
properties to have been articles of ancient com-
merce. Galen says that cassia and cinnamon are
so much alike that it is not an easy matter to
distinguish the one from the other. This is a
difficulty that still continues to be experienced.
(2) Cassia Bark. Cassia bark, as we have
seen, was distinguished with difficulty from cin-
namon by the ancients. In the present day it is
Cinnamoo {Laurus Kinnamomum).
often sold for cinnamon ; indeed, unless a pur-
chaser specify true cinnamon, he will probably be
supplied with nothing but cassia. It is made up
into similar bundles with cinnamon, has the same
general appearance, smell, and taste; but its sub-
stance is thicker and coarser, its color darker, its
flavor much less sweet and fine than that of
Ceylon cinnamon, while it is more pungent, and
is followed by a bitter taste ; it is also less closely
quilled, and breaks shorter than genuine cinna-
mon. There can be no reasonable doubt, as cin-
namon and cassia were known to the Greeks,
that they must have been known to the Hebrews
also, as the commerce with India can be proved to
have been much more ancient than is generally
supposed. (See Cinnamon; Kiddah.)
J. F. R.
KINSMAN, KDTSWOMAN and KINSFOLK
(kinz'man, kinz'woora'an, kinz'fok). Several Hebrew
words are thus translated, i. Sheh-ayr" ("?!?"
Num. xxvii:ii; "kinswoman," Lev. xviii:i2, 13;
"kinswomen," xviii:i7). Mo-dah' ipT^\ "kins-
woman," Prov. vii:4). Kaw-robe' , (^'^5, literally,
near, "kinsfolk," Job xix: 14; "kinsmen," Ps. xxxviii:
II). 2. Soong-ghen-ace' (Gr. ffiry7f>TJs, relative,
"kinsfolk," Luke ii;44; xxi:i6). 3. The Hebrew
word ■^^, go-ale' , redeemer, however, denoted the
nearest male blood relation living (Lev. xxv:25:28;
Ruth iii;2; iv:i.
(1) Blood Avenger. One of the kinsman's
most peculiar offices was that of an avenger of
blood. (See Blood-Re\'enge. )
(2) Redeemer. Another duty of the kinsman
was that of kinsman redeemer. If his nearest rel-
ative had through poverty mortgaged his inher-
itance, the goale was to buy it back. If he had
sold himself into slavery, the goale was to pay his
KIPPOD
1028
KIRJATHAIM
ransom. If he was murdered, the goate was to
avenge his blood. If he died childless, the goak
might espouse his widow, and raise up seed to
him; but it does not appear that he was obliged to
do this, except he was an unmarried brother
(Num. v:8; xxvii:ii, and xxxv; Deut. xxv:i-8;
Ruth iii, and iv).
Figurative. Did not this goa/e typify Christ's
assuming our nature, purchasing our happiness,
recovering our liberty, avenging our blood on
Satan and his agents, and raising up to our wid-
owed nature a seed of saints and good works?
God is called a Redeemer: with mighty power
and kindness, he rescued the Hebrews from their
bondage and trouble, and often delivers the op-
pressed ; and he, through the blood of his Son,
saves from deep slavery and woe, under the
broken law, to endless glory and happiness (Is.
Ixiiing). Christ is a Redeemer: by his righteous-
ness, he paid the price of our redemption ; by his
intercession, he pleads for and procures it ; by
his Spirit, he applies it to our souls (Is. lix:
20; Job xix:25). Our redemption or deliverance
from sin, and all its effects, is through his blood,
and Spirit (Eph. i:i3; Col. i:i4; Heb. ix:i2),
and begins in our forgiveness, is carried on in
our sanctification, and perfected in our eternal
blessedness, when, at the resurrection, our very
bodies shall be delivered from all the deathful
effects of sin ; and this entrance on eternal glory
is called our redemption, as it brings the deliver-
ance to its perfection (Luke xxi:28; Rom. viii:
23). Brown.
KIPPOD (kip-pod'), (Heb. ""'Bp, kip-pode'). This
name occurs but three times in Scripture ( Is. xiv:
23; xxxiv,ii; and Zeph. ii:i4), and has been vari-
ously interpreted— owl, osprey, tortoise, porcupine,
otter, and m the Arabic, bustard.
(1) Various Translations. Now, in Is. xiv:
23, 'I will make it a possession for the kippod
(bittern), and pools of water,' etc., the words are
plain and natural. Marshes and pools are not
the habitation of hedgehogs, for they shun water.
(2) Bittern. In Is. xxxiv:ii, it is said, 'The
cormorant (Sterna caspia) and kippod (bittern)
shall possess it, the owl also and the raven shall
dwell in it,' etc.; that is, in the ruins of Idumsea.
Here, again, the version is plain, and a hedgehog
most surely would be out of place. Zeph. ii:i4,
'Both the cormorant (Sterna caspia) and the kip-
pod (bittern) shall lodge in the upper lintels of it;
and their voice shall sing in the windows,' etc.
Surely here kippod cannot mean the hedgehog,
a nocturnal, groveling, worm-eating animal, en-
tirely or nearly mute, and incapable of climbing
up walls ; one that does not haunt ruins, but
earthy banks in wooded regions, and that is ab-
solutely solitary in its habits. The Arabian
bustard, Otis houbara, might be selected, if it
were not that bustards keep always in dry deserts
and uplands, and that they never roost, their
feet not admitting of perching, but rest on the
ground.
(3) Heron. We think the term most applicable
to the heron tribes, whose beaks are formidable
spikes that often kill hawks; a fact well known
to Eastern hunters. Of these Nycticorax Eu-
ropcriis, or common night heron, with its pencil
of white feathers in the crest, is a species, not
uncommon in the marshes of Western Asia; and
of several species of bittern, Ardea (botaurus)
stellaris has pointed long feathers on the neck
and breast, freckled with black, and a strong
pointed bill.
After the breeding season it migrates and passes
the winter in the south, frequenting the marshes
and rivers of Asia and Europe, where it then
roosts high above ground, uttering a curious note
before and after its evening flight, very distinct
from the booming sound produced by it in the
breeding season, and while it remains in the
marshes. Though not building, like the stork, on
the tops of houses, it resorts, like the heron, to
ruined structures, and we have been informed
that it has been seen on the summit of Tauk
Kesra at Ctesiphon. (See Bittern; Heron, etc.).
C. H. S.
KIR (kir), (Heb. "^ P, ieer, fortress), a people
and country subject to the Assyrian empire, to
which the conquered Damascenes were trans-
planted (2 Kings xvi:9; Is. xxii:6; Amos i:5), and
whither also the Aramseans in the east of Syria
once wandered (Amos ix:7).
This is supposed by Major Rennel to be the
same country which still bears the name of
Kuidistan or Kotirdistan (Gecg. of Herodot. y)l).
Objections. There are, however, objections
to this view, which do not apply so strongly to
the notion of Rosenmiiller and others, that it
was a tract on the river Cyrus, or rather Kuros
(Kipo! and KiJ/S^os), in Zend Koro, which rises
in the mountains between the Euxine and Caspian
Seas, and runs into the latter after being joined
by the Araxes. Gurjistan, or Grusia (Grusiana),
commonly called Georgia, seems also to have
derived its name from this river Kur, which
flows through it. Furrer's identification with the
district Cyrrhestica, northwest of Antioch, lacks
proof.
. KIR-HABASETH (kir'har'a-seth), (Heb. ^'P
^"^y^.^keer-khar-eh' seth, 2 Kings iii:25; "Kir-hare-
seth," Is. xvi:7; "Kir-haresh," xvi:li; "Kir-heres,"
Jer. xlviii:3i, 36; and "Kirof Moab," Is. xv:i). See
Kir of Moab and Kir-Moab.
KIR-HARESETH (kir'har'e-seth), (Heb. rp
ni??!n, keer-khar-eh' seth, Is. xvi7). See KlR-HARA-
SETH, Kir of Moab and Kir-Moab.
KIR-HARESH (kir'ha'resh), (Is. xvi:ll). See
Kir-Moab.
KIR-HERES (kir-he'res), (Jer. xlviii:3i, 36).
See Kir-Moab.
KIRIATH (kir'i-ath). See KiRJATH.
KIRIATHAIM (kir'i-a-tha'im), (Heb. D'??t1P.
keer-yaw-thah' yim), a town beyond Jordan, ten
miles from Medaba, west (Josh. xiii:i9). It is the
same as Kirjathaim (which see).
KIRIOTH (kir'i-oth). See Kerioth.
KIRJATH (kir'jath), (Heb. !^!1P, keer-yath' ,
city). This word means town or city, and is much
used in the formation of names of places, like our
own town.
It is also the name of a place in the tribe
of Benjamin (Josh. xviii:28). It is probably iden-
tical with Kirjath-Jearim (Josh. xv:g, 60; xviii:
14).
KIRJATHAIM (kir'ja-tha'im), (Heb. Q'^^tIP'
keer-yaw-thah' yim, double town).
1. One of the most ancient towns in the coun-
try east of the Jordan, as it was possessed by
the gigantic Emim (Gen. xiv:5), who were ex-
pelled by the Moabites (Deut. ii IQ, 10), who in
their turn were dispossessed by the Amorites,
from whom it was taken by the Israelites.
Kirjathaim was then assigned to Reuben (Num.
xxxii :37; Josh. xiii:i9). But during the Assyrian
KIRJATH-ARBA
1029
KIRJATH-SEPHER
exile, the Moabitcs again took possession of this
and other towns (Jer. xlviii :i-23 ; Ezek. xxv :
9). Eusebius places it about half an hour west
of the ruins of Medeba. Burckhardt found other
ruins, called El Teym, which he conjectures to
have been Kiria/Aaiwi, the last syllable of the name
being retained. This is somewhat doubtful, as the
Ko/jidJa (Viapiiea) of Eusebius is placed ten miles
west of Medeba, whereas El Teym is but two
miles. Harper and others identitied it with the
ruins of El Kurciyat, between Medeba and Dibon.
2. There was another place of this name in the
tribe of Naphtali (i Chron. x'wyb).
KIBJATH-ABBA (kir'jath-ar'ba), (Heb. "IIP
i'?"]??, keer-yath' ar-hah' , city of Arbah), the an-
cient name of Hebron, but still in use in the time
of Nehemiah (xi:2S). (See Hb3Ron.)
that the ancient Kirjalh-jearim may be recognized
in the present Kuriet-cl-Enab.
(2) Name and Position. So close a corre-
spondence of name and position seems to war-
rant the conclusion of Dr. Robinson in favor of
Kuriet-el-Enab. This place is that which ecclesi-
astical tradition has identified with the Anathoth
of Jeremiah, which Dr. Robinson refers to Anat;
(see An.\thoth). It is now a poor village, iti
principal buildings being an old convent of the
Minorites, and a Latin church. The latter is now
deserted, but not in ruins, and is said to be one
of the largest and most solidly constructed
churches in Palestine (Robinson, ii, 109; .334-33").
Conder argues for the ruins 'Erma, 11 miles west
by south of Jerusalem, and two and a quarter south
by west of Kesla. But contrary to his opinion
josh. xv:io is surely against the location pro-
Kirjath-jearim
KIRJATH-ARIM (kir'jalh'a'rim), an abbrevi-
ated form of KiRjATH-jEARiM (Ezra ii:25), which
jce.
KIHJATH-BAAL (kir'jath-ba'al). (Heb. "lip
'??, keer-yath' bah'al, city of Baal). This city is
more usually called Kirjath-jearim (Josh, xv:6o;
xviii;i4).
KIBJATH-HT7Z0TH (kir'jath-hu'zoth), (Heb.
P'Sn n^lP, keer-yath' khoo-lsoth' , city of streets),
a town in Moab (Num. xxii:3g), to which Balak
accompanied Balaam after his arrival in Moab.
The place has not been identified, though it lay
between the Arncm and Bamoih-Baal.
KIKJATH-JI^ARIM (kir'jath-je'a-rlm), (Heb.
Cll" ""p, keer-yath' yeh-aw-reem' , city of forests).
One of the towns of the Gibeonites (Josh, ix:
17). It was to this place that the ark was
brought from Bethshemesh, after it had been re-
moved from the land of the Philistines, and
where it remained till removed to Jerusalem by
David (l Sam. vii. ; i Chron. xiii.).
(1) Ancient Site. This was one of the ancient
sites which were again inhabited after the exile
(Ezra ii:25; Neh. vii:29). Eusebius and Jerome
speak of it as being in their day a village nine
or ten miles from Diospolis (Lydda), on the road
to Jerusalem. Dr. Robinson thinks it possible
posed by him. 'Erma and Jearim are also radical-
ly different, and the site is too remote from the
other Gibeonite settlements.
KIRJATH-SANNAH (klr'jath-sSn'nah), (Heb.
iiiC n*'^J?_ keer-yath' san-iiaw' , Josh. xv:49), ^nd
KIRJATH-SEPHER (krr'jath-se'pher), (Heb.
"l?? "-IP, keer-yath' say'fer, both meaning the
city of books, or instruction), a city of the tribe
of Judah, called also Debir (Josh. xv:i5, 16;
Judg. i:ii, 12). (See Debir.)
It was situated among the mountains of Judah.
It was captured by Joshua and was given to Caleb.
It was retaken by the Canaanites only to be cap-
tured again by the Israelites, who were led in the
attack by Othniel, to whom Caleb for his reward
gave his daughter Achsah in marriage (Josh, xv :
15; Judg. i:il).
This city was so called long before Moses; at
least it would seem so by the manner of mention-
ing it, which proves that books were known be-
fore that legislator, and that he is not the oldest
writer, as the fathers have asserted : a character
which, it is to be observed, he never assumes.
It is possible that the Canaanites might lodge
their records in this city, and those few monu-
ments of antiquity which they had preserved; or
it might be something like the cities of the priests
KIR-MOAB
1030
KISHION
in Israel, the residence of the learned ; a kind of
college.
This idea receives confirmation from its other
name Debir, which designates an oracle; and
seems to hint at a seat of learning; an establish-
ment, probably, of priests, for the purpose of
educating the younger members of their body.
The circumstance is very remarkable, because it
occurs so early as the days of Joshua ; and is
evidently an establishment by the Canaanites,
previous to the Hebrew invasion.
KIR-MOAB (kir-mo'ab), (Heb. 2X';?3"17_ x-^^^.
}no-awb' , the wall, stronghold, or citadel of Moab),
(Is. xv:i), called also Kir-hareseth and Kir-
HERES, meaning brick-fortress (Is. xvi:7, ii; Jer.
xlviii:3i), a fortified city in the territory of Moab.
Joram king of Israel took the city, and de-
stroyed it, except the walls; but it appears from
the passages here cited that it must have been
rebuilt before the time of Isaiah.
(1) Fortified Town. Abulfeda describes Karak
as a small town, with a castle on a high hill, and
remarks that it is so strong that one must deny
himself even the wish to take it by force.
(2) During the Crusades. In the time of the
Crusades, and when in possession of the Franks,
it was invested by Saladin ; but after lying be-
fore it a month he was compelled to raise the
siege (Bohaeddim, Vita Saladin, p. 55).
(3) Modern Condition. The first person who
visited the place in modern times was Seetzen,
who says, 'Near to Karak the wide plain terminates
which extends from Rabbah, and is broken
only by low and detached hills, and the country
now becomes mountainous.
'Karak, formerly a city and bishop's see, lies on
the top of the hill near the end of a deep val-
ley, and is surrounded on all sides with lofty
mountains. The hill is very steep, and in many
places the sides are quite perpendicular. The
walls round the town are for the most part de-
stroyed, and Karak can at present boast of little
more than being a small country town. The
castle, which is uninhabited, and in a state of
great decay, was formerly one of the strongest in
these countries. The inhabitants of the town con-
sist of Mohammedans and Greek Christians. The
present bishop of Karak resides at Jerusalem.'
(4) The Hill of Karak. 'From this place one
enjoys, by looking down the Wady Karak, a fine
view of part of the Dead Sea, and even Jerusalem
may be distinctly seen in clear weather. The
hill on which Karak lies is composed of lime-
stone and brittle marl, with many beds of blue,
black, and gray flints. In the neighboring rocks
there are a number of curious grottoes; in those
which are under ground wheat is sometimes pre-
served for a period of ten years' (Zach's Monat-
liche Correspond, xviii, 434). A fuller account of
the place is given by Burckhardt (Travels in
Syria, pp. 379-387), by whom it was next visited;
and another description is furnished by Irby and
Mangles (Travels, pp. 361-370). From their ac-
count it would seem that the caverns noticed by
Seetzen were probably the sepulchers of the an-
cient town. We also learn that the Christians of
Karak (which they and Burckhardt call Kerek),
are nearly as numerous as the Turks, and boast
of being stronger and braver. They were, how-
ever, on good terms with the Turks, and ap-
peared to enjoy equal freedom with them.
As the Rev. J. L. Porter surveyed the country of
Moab from this eminence as well as from other
lofty summits he was led to exclaim : How literal
and how true have the words of Jeremiah become !
"O vine of Stbmah, I will weep for thee with the
weeping of Jazer: .... the spoiler is fallen upon
thy summer fruits, and upon thy vintage. And
joy and gladness is taken from the plentiful field,
and from the land of Moab ; and I have caused
wine to fail from the wine-presses ; none shall
tread with shouting" (Jer. xlviii:32, 33). Nowhere
on earth is there such a melancholy example of
tyranny, rapacity, and misrule, as here. Fields,
pastures, vmeyards, houses, villages, cities — all
alike deserted and waste. (Giant Cities of Ba-
shan.)
KISH (kish), (Heb. ^^T, keesh, a bow or horn).
1. Son of Ner, and father of king Saul (i Sam.
ix:i; I Chron. viii:33; ix:38, 39).
This genealogy may indeed merely register the
fact that Kish was a descendant of Ner, with-
out implying that he was his immediate son;
and allow of the insertion of Abiel and others
between Kish and Ner.
Jeiel.
Abdon
I
Zur
Kisb
Baal
I
Ner
I
Zeror
Abiel
Nadab
Kish
Saul
Ner
I
Abner
But perhaps only one Kish and one Ner
descended from Jeiel. If so, the explanation of
the genealogy is that Ner's descendants became
two tribal houses, those of Kish and Ner. The
former, the important royal family of Saul, looked
to Ner's son Kish as its founder, but it was
merely a younger branch of the older, but less
distinguished, line of Ner. Both houses belonged
to the family of Jeiel, and hen;e Kish as well
as Ner is registered, according to the familiar
principle, among Jeiel's sons (ix:36). Saul's
father, Kish, and Abner's fathfr, Ner, are men-
tioned as sons of Abiel also (i Sam. ix:i; xiv:
51), and either Ner or Abner is stated to have
been Saul's uncle (xiv:so). Abiel may be, as
some expositors suppose, or may not be, another
name or the uncorrupted form of Jeiel. (B. C.
about 1060.) (Davis, Bih. Diet.)
2. Sen of Jeiel, and uncle of 1 (I Chron. ix:36).
(B. C. about 1060.)
3. A Benjamite, and great-grandfather of
Mordecai, who was carried captive to Babylon
(Esth. ii:s). (B. C. before 478.)
4. The son of Abdi, a Levite of Merari's fam-
ily (2 Chron. xxi.x:i2), and one who assisted
Hezekiah in restoring the tribe religion.
5. Second son of Mahli ; his sons married the
daughters of his brother Eieazar (i Chron. xxiii:
21, 22). One son was named Jerahmeel (l
Chron. xxiv:29). (B. C. about io(X).)
KISHI (ktsh'i), a Merarite, father or forefather
of Ethan the minstrel (i Chron. vi:44). He is
called Kushaiah(l Chron. xv:l7). (See KuSHAiAH).
KISHION (klsh'i-6n), (Heb. "i^'^i?, kish-yone'.
hard ground), a city of the tribe of Issachar,
yielded to the Levites of Gershom's family (Josh.
xix:2o; xxi:28). In the latter passage the A. V. has
Kishon incorrectly, ns the Hebrew is the same in
both. It is also incorrectly called Kedesh (l
Chron. vi:72).
KISHON
1031
KISHUIM
KISHON (ki'shon), (Heb. I^^Tp. kee-shone',
winding). The incorrect form of Kishiun (Josh.
xxi:28). In i Cliron. vi72, tlie name Kedesh ap-
pears in its place in the lists.
The most important river in Palestine next to
the Jordan. After traversing the plain of Acre,
it enters the bay of the same name at its south-
east corner. It is celebrated in Scripture for the
overthrow of the host of Sisera in its overflow-
ing stream (Judg. iv:i3; v:2l).
(1) Source of the Kiver. It has been usual to
trace the source of this river to Mount Tabor ;
but Dr. Shaw affirms that in traveling along the
southeastern brow of Mount Carmel he had an
opportunity of seeing the sources of the river
Kishon, three or four of which lie within less than
a furlong of each other, and are called Ras el
Kishon, or the head of the Kishon. These alone,
without the lesser contributions near the sea, dis-
charge water enough to form a river half as large
as the Isis.
During the rainy season all the waters which
fall upon the eastern side of Carmel, or upon
the rising grounds to the southward, empty them-
selves into it in a number of torrents, at which
time it overflows its banks, acquires a wonderful
rapidity, and carries all before it.
It was doubtless in such a season that the host
of Sisera was swept away, in attempting to ford
it. But such inundations are only occasional,
and of short duration, as is indeed implied in the
destruction in its waters of the fugitives, who
doubtless expected to pass it safely.
The course of the stream, as estimated from
the sources thus indicated, is not more than seven
miles. It runs very briskly till within half a
league of the sea ; but when not augmented by
rains, it never falls into the sea in a full stream,
but insensibly percolates through a bank of sand,
which the north winds have thrown up at its
mouth. It was in this state that Shaw himself
found it in the month of April, 1722, when it was
crossed by him.
Notwithstanding Shaw's contradiction, the as-
sertion that the Kishon derives its source from
Mount Tabor has been repeated by modern travel-
ers as confidently as by their ancient predecessors.
It will probably be found that the remoter source
of the river is really in Mount Tabor ; but that
the supply from this source is cut ofT in early
summer, when it ceases to be maintained by rains
or contributory torrents. The copious supply from
the nearer springs at Ras el Kishon. with other
springs lower down, keep it up from that point,
as a perennial stream, even during the drought
of summer. Thus during one part of the year
the source of the river may appear to be in Mount
Tabor, while during another part the source of the
diminished stream is at Ras el Kishon.
(2) Overthrow of Sisera. The scriptural ac-
count of the overthrow of Sisera's host mani-
festly shows that the stream crossed the plain,
and must have been of considerable size. The
above arguments, to show that it did so, and still
does so, notwithstanding Dr. Shaw's account,
were, in substance, given several years ago in
ihe Pictorial History of Palestine (Introd. p.
cxci.) ; and the writer has had the satisfaction
of seeing his view since confirmed by Dr. Robin-
son, who adds that 'not improbably, in ancient
times, when the country was perhaps more
wooded, there may have been permanent streams
throughout the whole plaii;.'
(3) Priests of Baal. The transaction of the
prophet Elijah, who, after his sacrifice on Car-
mel, commanded the priests of Baal to be slain
at the river Kishon (i Kings xviii:4o), requires
no explanation, seeing that it took place at the
perennial lower stream. This also explains, what
has sometimes been asked, whence, in that time of
drought, the water was obtained with which the
prophet inundated his altar and sacrifice.
The spot where the priests of Baal were slain
was near the foot of Mount Carmel. The loca-
tion has been almost certainly identified at the
east end of the mountain. The place still bears
the name El-Mahraka "the burning."
EISHUIIX (kIsh-u-Ira'),{Heb. ^'^'^7, iisA-sAoo-
eem'), is translated cucumbers in the A. V., and the
correctness of this rendering has been almost
universally admitted.
It first occurs in Num. xi :S, in the verse already
quoted in Abattachim, where the Israelites, when
in the desert, express their longings for the
melons and the kishuim or cucumbers of Egypt.
Reduced from the plural form, the word kisha is
so similar to the Arabic kissa, that there can be
very little doubt of their both meaning the same
Cucamber {Cucumis satfzmsY
thing. All travelers in the East notice the exten-
sive cultivation and consumption of cucumbers
and other vegetables of the same tribe, especially
where there is any moisture of soil, or the pos-
sibility of irrigation.
Thus e\en in the driest parts, the neighborhood
of a well is often occupied by a field of cucur-
bitaceous plants, generally with a man or boy set
to guard it from plunder, perched up on a tempo-
rary scatTolding, with a slight protection from the
sun, where he may himself be safe from the at-
tacks of the more powerful wild animals.
That such plants appear to have been similarly
cultivated among the Hebrews is evident from
Is. i :8, 'The daughter of Zion is left like a cot-
tage in a vineyard, like a lodge in a garden of
cucumbers;' as well as from Baruch vi:70, 'As
KISON
1032
KNEADING-TROUGHS
a scarecrow in a garden of cucumbers keepeth
nothing, so are their gods of wood.' (See Abat-
tachim; Cucumber.) J. F. R.
KISON (kl'son), an incorrect form of Kishon
(Ps. lxxxiii:9). (See Kishon).
KISS (kis), (Heb. V'^'i, naw-shak' ; Gr. ^fXTj^a
fil' ay-niali). Kissing the lips by way of affection-
ate salutation was customary among near relatives
of both sexes, both in patriarchal and in later
times (Gen. xxix:ll ; Cant. viii:l).
Originally the act of kissing had a symbolical
character, and, though this import may now be
lost sight of, yet it must be recognized the mo-
ment we attempt to understand or explain its
signification.
(1) Significance of Action. Acts speak no
less, sometimes far more forcibly than words. In
the early period of society, when the foundation
was laid of most even of our Western customs,
action constituted a large portion of what we may
term human language, or the means of intercom-
munication between man and man. Words were
then less numerous, books unknown, the entire
machinery of speaking being, in its rudimental and
elementary state, less developed and called into
play. The Oriental character inclined men to
general taciturnity, with occasional outbreaks of
fervid, abrupt, or copious eloquence. In this lan-
guage of action, a kiss was naturally the ex-
pression and the symbol of affection, regard, re-
spect, and reverence ; and if any deeper source of
its origin were sought for, it would, doubtless,
be found in the fondling and caresses with which
the mother expresses her tenderness for her babe.
(2) Biblical Allusions. That the custom is of
very early date appears from Gen. xxix;i3, where
we read — 'When Laban heard of the tidings of
Jacob, his sister's son, he ran to meet him, and
embraced him and kissed him, and brought him
to his house' : the practice was even then estab-
lished and recognized as a matter of course.
In Gen. xxvii :26, 27, a kiss is a sign of affection
between a parent and child. It was also, as with
some modern nations, a token of friendship and
regard bestowed when friends or relations met
or separated (Tobit vii:6; x:i2; Luke vii :4s ;
xv:2o; Acts xx 137 ; Matt. xxvi:48; 2 Sam. xx:9).
The church of Ephesus wept sore at Paul's
departure, and fell on his neck and kissed him.
When Orpah quitted Naomi and Ruth (Ruth i:
14), after the three had lifted up their voice and
wept, she 'kissed her mother-in-law, but Ruth
clave unto her.' It was usual to kiss the mouth
(Gen. xxxiii:4; Exod. iv:27; xviii 7 ; i Sam. xx;
41; Prov. xxiv:26) or the beard, which was then
taken hold of by the hand (2 Sam. xxig). Kiss-
ing of the feet was an expression of lowly and
tender regard (Luke vii:38).
(3) Idolatrous Usage. Kissing of the hand of
another appears to be a modern practice: the pas-
sage of Job xxxi :27, 'Or my mouth hath kissed
my hand,' is not in point, and refers to idolatrous
usages, namely, the adoration of the heavenly
bodies. It was the custom to throw kisses to-
wards the images of the gods, and towards the
sun and moon (i Kings xix:i8; Hosea xiii:2;
Minuc. Felix, ii. 5; Tac. Hist, iii, 24, 3; Lucian,
De Salt. c. 17; Plin. Hist. Nat. xxviii, 5)-
(4) Salutation of Princes. The kissing of
princes was a token of homage (Ps. ii:i2; I Sam.
x:i; Xenoph. Cyrop. vii, 5, 32). Xenophon says
(Agesil. V, 4) that it was a natural custom with
the Persians to kiss whomsoever they honored;
and a curious passage to this effect may be found
in the Cyropadia (i, 4, 27). Kissing the feet of
princes was a token of subjection and obedience;
which was sometimes carried so far that the print
of the foot received the kiss, so as to give the im-
pression that the very dust had become sacred by
the royal tread, or that the subject was not worthy
to salute even the prince's foot, but was content
to kiss the earth itself near or on which he trod
(Is. xlix:23; Micah vii;i7; Ps, lxxii:9; Dion
Cass, lix, 27; Seneca, De Bencf. ii, 12).
(5) Limited by the Rabbins. The Rabbins,
in the meddlesome, scrupulous, and falsely deli-
cate spirit which animated much of wliat they
wrote, did not permit more than three kinds of
kisses, the kiss of reverence, of reception, and of
dismissal (Breschith Rabba on Gen. .xxixrii),
(6) Custom of Primitive Church. The pecu-
liar tendency of the Christian religion to encour-
age honor toward all men, as men, to foster and
develop the softer affections, and, in the trying
condition of the early church, to make its mem-
bers intimately known one to another, and unite
them in the closest bonds, led to the observance of
kissing as an accompaniment of that social wor-
ship which took its origin in the very cradle of
our religion. Hence the exhortation — 'Salute each
other with a holy kiss' (Rom, .xvi:i6; see also
I Cor, xvi:2o; 2 Cor. xiii:i2; i Thess. v:26; in
I Pet, v:i4, it is termed 'a kiss of charity'). The
observance was continued in later days, and has
not yet wholly disappeared, though the peculiar
circumstances have vanished which gave propriety
and emphasis to such an expression of brotherly
love and Christian friendship,
(7) Literature. Pfanner, De Osculis Christi-
anor. Veter.; M, Kempius, De Osculis, Francof,
1680; Jac, Herrenschmidius, Osculogia, Viteb.
1630; P. Muller, De Osculo Sancto. 1674; Boberg,
Dc Osculis Hcbr. J. R. B,
KITE (kit). See Glede.
KITHLISH (kith'lish), (Ueh.'!^'')^'^,,kith-leesh',
wall of man), a city of Judah (Josh. xv:4o) in the
low country. It has not been identified. Called
Chillish in R. V.
KITBON (kit'ron), (Heb. I'lPp, kit-rone' , fig-
urative, knotty), a city of Zebulun, which that tribe
could not take from the Canaanites (Judg. i:30).
Kitron is Sippor, (Sepphoris,) says Bab. Megill.
(ful. 6, I,) a very strong place, and the largest city
in Galilee. It is noted in the Talmuds for being a
university; in which taught rabbi Judah the Holy,
who died here.
KITTIM (kit'tim), (Heb. '•"??, kit-tee' , "r?, kit-
tee-ee' , an islander), son of Javan, and grandson of
Noah (Gen, x:4). (See Chittim or Kittim,)
KNEAD (ngd), (Heb. ii"!!', loosh), the prepara-
tion of dough by working it into a mass witri the
hands. Kneading was generally performed by
women (Gen. xviii;6; I Sam. xxviii:24; 2 Sam. xiii:
8, etc.), but occasionally by men (Hos. vii:4). (See
Bread).
KNEADING-TROUGHS (ned-ing-trofs), (Heb.
f^'??^'2, mish-eh' reth). In the description of the
departure of the Israelites from Egypt, (Exod. xii:
j4) we read that "the people took their dough be-
ore it was leavened, their kneading-troughs being
bound up in their clothes, upon their shoulders."
Persons who knojv how cumbersome kneading
troughs were, and how much less important they
were than many other utensils, may wonder at this
statement, and find a difficulty in accounting for
it. But this wonder will cease, when it is under-
stood that the vessels which the Arabs make use
of, for kneading the unleavened cakes they pre-
I
KNEE
1033
KNOWLEDGE
pare for those who travel in the very desert
through which Israel passed, are only small
wooden bowls ; and that they seem to use no
other in their own tents for that purpose, or any
other ; these bowls being used by them for knead-
ing their bread, and serving up their provisions
when cooked. It will appear, that nothing could be
more convenient than kneading troughs of this
sort for the Israelites in their journey.
Besides, Dr. Pococke gives us a description of
a round leather cover, which the Arabs lay
on the ground, from which they eat. This piece
of furniture has, he says, rings round it by which
it is drawn together with a chain, that has a hook
to it, to hang it by. It is drawn together, and in
this manner they bring it full of bread, and when
the repast is over, carry it away at once, with all
that is left. Perhaps this utensil is rather to be
understood by the word translated kneading-
troughs, than the Arab wooden bowl. There is
nothing, in the other three places in which the
word occurs, to contradict this explanation. These
places are Exod. viii :3 ; Deut. xxviii :5 and 17;
in the last two of which places it is translated
store. (See Bread.)
KNEE (nc), (Hcb. and Chald. IT]?, beh'rek; Gr.
ftivi.gon-oo'Y, KNEEL (Heb. "Tl?, baw-rak ; Gr.
yovvweTiw, gon-00-pel-eh'o, to bend the knee).
Knee not only signifies that part of the body
so called, but the whole body, a part being put
for the whole ( Ps. cix:24). Also for persons;
so weak and feeble knees denote weak and dis-
consolate persons (Job iv:4; Heb. xii:i2; Is.
XXXV -.3). To bow the knee to one, imports adora-
tion of, or prayer to him (i Kings xix:l8; Eph.
iii:l4); or to reverence and be in subjection to
him (Gen. xli 143 : Phil. ii:io). To bring up, or
dandle on the knees, is affectionately to nourish,
as a mother does her own child (Gen. xxx:3 and
1:23; Is. Ixvi:i2). The smiling of the knees one
against another is expressive of extraordinary
terror and amazement (Dan. v:6).
Figurative. Knees are used symbolically
for persons (Job iv :4 ; Heb. xii;i2).
KNIFE (nif), (Heb. 3^n_ khee-reb' , sword).
(1) Uses. In their meals the Jews, like other
Orientals, made little use of knives, but they were
used largely in the preparation of meats and other
food, also in preparation of their sacrifices (Gen.
-xxii :6, 10 ; I Sam. ix:24; Jer. xxxvi:23; Ezek.
xxiv:4; Ezra i :9 ; Matt. xxvi:23). The razor
was used frequently for Nazaritic purposes (Num.
vi :s, 9, 19; Ezek. v:i; Is. vii:20; Jer. xxxvi:23;
Acts xviii :i8; xxi :24).
Pruning-hooks were probably curved knives
(Is. xviii :5), while the lancets of the priests of
Baal were doubtless pointed knives (I Kings
xviii :28).
(2) Material. Knives were generally made of
flint (Josh. V :2) and afterwards of iron and
steel. The Egyptians when embalming a corpse,
used a sharp stone knife for making an incision
in the body (Herod. ii:86). The Hebrew scribes
sharpened the stylus with a small knife (Jer.
x.xxvi:23). Herod the Great was accustomed to
use a knife for paring fruit, and attempted to kill
himself with it (Antiq. xvii, 7, i). These were
of metal construction.
KNOCK (n6k), (Heb. Wk, daw-fak' ; Gr. Kpoiui,
kroo'o ; Cant. v:2, Judg. xix:22, "beat;" Matt. vii7;
Rev. iii:20, etc.).
Missionaries in Oriental countries state that, as
in ancient times. Orientals never knock when
about to enter a room, but without warning or
ceremony walk in. For scriptural references to
knocking in the ordinary sense, sec Deut. xxiv:
10; Acts xii:i3, 16; Acts x:i7, 18.
Figurative. Jesus knocks at the door of
our hearts; l>y his word. Spirit, and providence,
he awakens, invites, and urges us to receive him-
self as the free gift of God, the Savior come to
seek and save that which is lost (Rev. iii:2o;
Cant. v:2). Our knoeking at his door of mercy,
is fervent and frequent prayer for his distin-
guished presence and favors (Matt, vii ;7, 8; Luke
xi:io). (Brown, flifr. Die/.)
KNOP (n6p), (Heb. "'^r?, kaf-tore, a chaplet),
that is knob, a word used to translate two terms
referring to some architectural object or ornament.
1. Kaf-tore' , (Heb. '^^X a chaplet), (Ex. xxv:
31, 36; xxxvii:i7, 22), where the knops are distin-
guished from the shaft, branches, bowls, and flow-
ers of the candlestick. In Amos ix;i,the same
word is translated "lintel," as also in Zeph. ii;i4.
2. Peh-kah'im. (Heb. ="!?*!, (1 Kings vi:i8; vii:
24). In the first passage it refers to the carvings
on the wainscot of the Temple; in the second, to
an ornament cast around the great reservoir of
Solomon. The word, no doubt, signifies some
round or oval shaped object used in ornamentation.
KNOW (no), (He.h.*'^'^,yaw-dah' ; Gr.iivw<TKt.i,
^hin-oce' ko, each having a great variety of mean-
ing). Both terms denote comine; to know, i. e.,
gaining a knowledge; and to know, \. e., to have
knowledge of. Ih.^ \trh yawdah signifies to /^•r-
ceive, discern, become aware of.
Know in general signifies: (i) To under-
stand; to perceive (Ruth iii:ii). (2) To have
the experience of (2 Cor. v:2i). (3) To ac-
knowledge, to take particular notice, to approve,
delight in, and show distinguished regard to (Is.
Iv :5 ; I Cor. viii:3; John x :27 ; Amos iii :2 ; Gen.
xxxix:6; I Thess. v:i2). (4) To make known,
and see discovered (i Cor. ii:2). (5) To have
carnal dealing with (Gen. iv:i and xix;5; Judg.
xix:22). I kno'ii' nothing by myself, means I am
not conscious of any allowed wickedness (2 Cor.
IV :4). We make known our requests unto God,
when directed by his Spirit, we express the desires
of our hearts in prayer to him (Phil. iv:6). He
that perverteth his way is known, when God ex-
poses him to shame and punishment on account of
it (Prov. X :9).
KNOWLEDGE (nol'Sj), (Heb. ™\ day-aw').
Tlie word denotes:
1. The infinite understanding of God, by which
he perfectly perceives and comprehends himself,
and all things possible or real (i Sam. ii:3).
2. A speculative knowledge, by which a man
has a merely rational perception of things natural
or Divine, without any faith in, or love to God
produced or strengthened by it (i Cor. viii:i;
Rom. i:28; Eccl. i:i8).
3. .\ spiritual reception of Divine things, by
which, through the instruction of God's word and
Spirit, we not only perceive, but are powerfully
and sweetly disposed to believe in and love God
in Christ as our God (2 Cor. vi:6; John xvii:3).
4. The supernatural gift of interpreting dreams,
explaining hard passages of Scripture, or fore-
seeing things to come (Dan. v:i2; I Cor.
xiii :2).
5- Spiritual prudence, and gracious experience
in the w.iys of God (Prov. xxviii :2),
6. The perfect and immediate views of the
glory of God in heaven; in this we know God,
KOA
1034
KOPHER OR COPHER
as we are known; apprehend his existence, and
glorious excellencies and work, without any mis-
take (i Cor. xiii:i2).
7. Instruction, whereby knowledge is communi-
cated (Prov. xxii:i7).
8. Faith is called "knowledge," as it is supposed
knowledge, and is an apprehending of things in-
visible, on the testimony of God (Is. liii:il), but
the text may also mean, that by Jesus' infinitely
skillful fulfillment of his work, he shall justify
many, (a) Saints are enriched with "all knowl-
edge;" they are made wise unto salvation, and
know everything important concerning it (Rom.
xv:i4; i Cor. i :5 ; i John ii:2o). (b) "Thi-ough
knowledge" the just shall be delivered; by the in-
finite wisdom of God, and by means of their faith,
spiritual knowledge, and prudence, shall they es-
cape trouble, or get out of it (Prov. xi :9).
KOA (ko'a), (Heb. T'P, ko'ah, perhaps cutting
off). Gesenius (Heb. Lex., s. v.) says that "Koa is
a he-camel, stallion, then figuratively a prince,
noble."
It occurs only in Ezek. xxiii :23 and is applied
to a people named between Babylonians and As-
syrians, located by Friedrich Delitzsch east of the
Tigris, south of the lower Zab. The passage
reads; "The Babylonians, and all the Chaldeans,
Pekod and Shoa, and Koa, and all the Assyrians
with them." In the last three words "there is
some obscurity, which the older theologians have
almost unanimously taken to be the names of dif-
ferent tribes in the Chaldean empire. Ewald also
adopts this view, but it is certainly incorrect"
(Keil, Com. in loc).
KOHATH (ko'hath), (Heb. "^I?, keh-hatvth' , al-
lied, assembly), the second son of Levi (Gen. xlvi:
II), and father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and
Uzziel (Num. iiiiig).
He went down to Egypt with Levi and Jacob
(Gen. xlviiii). His sister was Jochebed (Exod.
vi:2o). He lived to the age of one hundred and
thirty-three years (Exod. vi:i8). (B. C. about
2000.) At the first census in the wilderness, the
Kohathite males from a month old and upward
were 8.600 (Num. iii:28), and those from thirty
to fifty years old 2,750 (Num. iv:34-37). In the
subsequent allotment of cities to the family, the
priests, the descendants of Aaron, had shares with
the other Kohathites, the former obtaining thir-
teen cities out of the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and
Benjamin, and the latter ten cities out of the
tribes of Ephraim, Dan, and Manasseh (Josh, xxi :
4, S ; I Chron. vi :6i, 66-70). In the service of the
tabernacle, as settled in the wilderness, the Ko-
hathites had the distinguished charge of bearing
the ark and the sacred vessels (Exod. vi:i6; Num.
iv:4-6).
KOHATHITES (ko'hath-ites), (Heb. T^l^, kaw-
hawth'ee). Num. xxvi:57; I Chron. vi:54;ix:32; de-
scendants of KoHATH.
K0LAIAH(l(6ra-rah), (Heb. '"''^p, ko- law-yaw' ,
voice of Jehovah).
1. A Benjamite whose descendants lived in
Jerusalem after the return from the captivity
(Neh. xi:7). ( B. C. long before 445.)
2. Father of Ahab. who was burnt by the king
of Babylon (Jer. xxix:2l). (B. C. about 626.)
KOPH (kof).
The nineteenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
English Q comes from the same source ; but in
anglicized Hebrew names "c" or "k" represents
it, as in Cain and Korah. It heads the nineteenth
section of Ps. cxix., in which section each verse
of the original begins with this letter.
KOPHEB or COPHER (ko'pher), (Heb. "p.
kJ-fer), occurs twice in Canticles, and is in both
places translated camphire in the Authorized Ver-
sion.
(1) Camphor. Thus (i:i4), 'My beloved is
unto me as a cluster of camphire {kosher) in the
vineyards of En-gedi;' and in iv:i3, 'Thy plants
are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant
fruits, camphire (kopher) , with spikenard.' It
has been supposed to indicate a bunch of grapes
(Botrus kopher), also camphor. The word
camphire is the old mode of spelling camphor, but
this substance does not appear to have been
known to ancient commerce; at least we cannot
adduce any proof that it was so. The word
Kopher is certainly very like Kafoor, the Eastern
name for camphor, but it also closely resembles
the Greek Kvirpot, Cypres. Indeed, as has been
observed, it is the same word, with the Greek
pronunciation and termination. The Kvrpos of
the Greeks is, no doubt, the Lawsonia inermis
of botanists, and is described by Dioscorides (i,
125) and by Pliny (xii, 24). The Turks and
Camphor {Lawsonia inermis).
Moors cultivate these with great care and dili-
gence, because of their sweet-smelling flowers.
They also keep their leaves all winter, which
leaves they powder and mix with the juice of cit-
rons, and stain therewith on great holidays the
hair and nails of their children of a red color,
which color may perhaps be seen on the manes
and tails of Turkish horses.
(2) Henna. This custom of dyeing the nails
and the palms of the hands and soles of the feet,
of an iron-rust color, with henna, exists through-
out the East, from the Mediterranean to the
Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some
parts the practice is not confined to women and
children, but is also followed by men, especially
in Persia. In dyeing the beard, the hair is turned
to red by this application, which is then changed
to black by a preparation of indigo. In dyeing
the hair of children, and the tails and manes of
KORAH
1035
KORAHITE
horses and asses, the process is allowed to stop
at the red color which the henna produces.
Seeing, then, that the licnna is so universally ad-
mired in the East, both on account of the fra-
grance of its flowers and the dye yielded by its
leaves, and as there is no doubt that it is the
K6wpot of the Greeks, and as this word is so
similar to the kophcr of the Hebrews, there is
every probability of this last being the henna of
the Arabs, Lawsonia alba of botanists.
J. F. R.
KOBAH (ko'rah), (Heb. "-P. ko'rakk, ice).
/. A Levite, son of Izhar, the brother of Am-
ram, the father of Moses and Aaron, who were
therefore cousins to Korah (Exod. vi:2i).
(1) Jealousy. From this near relationship we
may conjecture that the source of the discontent
which led to the steps afterwards taken by this
unhappy man lay in his jealousy that the high
honors and privileges of the priesthood, to which
he, who remained a simple Levite, might, apart
from the Divine appointment, seem to have had
as good a claim, should have been exclusively ap-
propriated to the family of Aaron. When to this
was added the civil authority of Moses, the whole
power over the nation would seem to him to have
been engrossed by his cousins, the sons of Amram.
(2) Conspiracy. Under the influence of these
feelings he organized a conspiracy for the purpose
of redressing what appeared to him the evil and
injustice of this arrangement. Dathan, Abiram,
and On, the chief persons who joined him, were
of the tribe of Reuben; but he was also sup-
ported by many more from other tribes, making
up the number of two hundred and fifty, men of
name, rank, and influence, all who may be re-
garded as representing the families of which they
were the heads.
(3) Ostensible Object. The private object of
Korah was apparently his own aggrandizement,
hut his ostensible object was the general good of
the people; and it is perhaps from want of atten-
tion to this distinction that the transaction has not
been well understood. The design seems to have
been made acceptable to a large body of the na-
tion, on the ground that the firstborn of Israel
had been deprived of their sacerdotal birthright
in favor of the Levitcs, while the Levites them-
selves announced that the priesthood had been
conferred by Moses (as they considered) on his
own brother's family, in preference to those who
had equal claims; and it is easy to conceive that
the Reubenites may have considered the oppor-
tunity a favorable one for the recovery of their
birthright — the double portion and civil pre-emi-
nence— which had been forfeited by them and
given to Joseph.
(4) Complaint. The leading conspirators,
having organized their plans, repaired in a body
to Moses and Aaron, boldly charged them with
their usurpations, and required them to lay down
their ill-gotten power. Moses no sooner heard
this than he fell on his face, confounded at the
enormity of so outrageous a revolt against a sys-
tem framed so carefully for the benefit of the
nation. He left the matter in the Lord's hands,
and desired them to come on the morrow, pro-
vided with censers for incense, that the Lord him-
self, by some manifest token, might make known
his will in this great matter. As this order was
particularly addressed to the rebellious Levites,
the Reubenites left the place, and when after-
wards called back by Moses, returned a very in-
solent refusal, charging him with having brought
them out of the land of Egypt under false pre-
tences, 'to kill them in the wilderness.'
(5) Destruction. The next day Korah and his
company appeared before the tabernacle, attended
by a multitude of people out of the general body
of the tribes. Then the Shekinah, or symbol of
the Divine presence, which abode between the
cherubim, advanced to the entrance of the sacred
fabric, and a voice therefrom commanded Moses
and Aaron to stand apart, lest they should share
in the destruction which awaited the whole con-
gregation. On hearing these awful words the
brothers fell on their faces, and by strong inter-
cession, moved the Lord to confine his wrath to
the leaders in the rebellion, and spare their un-
happy dupes. The latter were then ordered to
separate themselves from their leaders and from
the tents in which they dwelt. The terrible men-
ace involved in this direction had its weight, and
the command was obeyed : and after Moses had
appealed to what was to happen as a proof of the
authority by which he acted, the earth opened
and received and closed over the tents of Korah,
Dathan, and Abiram (B. C. about 1190). The
Reubenite conspirators were in their tents, and
perished in them ; and at the same instant Korah
and his two hundred and fifty, who were offer-
ing incense at the door of the tabernacle, were
destroyed by a fire which 'came out from the
Lord;' that is, most probably, in this case, from
out of the cloud in which his presence dwelt.
(6) Sons of Korah. The censers which they
had used were afterwards made into plates, to
form an outer covering to the altar, and thus
became a standing monument of this awful trans-
action (Num. xvi.). On, although named in the
first instance along with Dathan ?nd Abiram, does
not further appear either in the rebellion or its
punishment. It is hence supposed that he re-
pented in time: and Abendana and other Rabbin-
ical writers allege that his wife prevailed upon
him to abandon the cause.
It might be supposed from the Scripture narra-
tive that the entire families of the conspirators
perished in the destruction of their tents. Doubt-
less all who were in the tents perished; but as the
descendants of Korah afterwards became eminent
in the Lcvitical service, it is clear that his sons
were spared. They were probably living in sepa-
rate tents, or were among those who sundered
themselves from the conspirators at the command
of Moses. There is no reason to suppose that
the sons of Korah were children when their father
perished. The Korahites were appointed by Da-
vid to the office of guarding the doors of the tem-
ple, and of singing praises. They, in fact, oc-
cupied a distinguished place in the choral service
of the temple, and several of the Psalms (xlii,
xliv. xlix, Ixxxiv, Ixxxv, Ixxxvii, Ixxxviii) are
inscribed to them. Heman, the master of song
under David, was of this family, and his geneal-
ogy is traced through Korah up to Levi (i Chron.
vi:3i-.38).
2. Third son of Esau by Aholibamah (Gen.
xxxvi :s, 14, 18; I Chron. i:35), horn before Esan
went to Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi 15-9). (B. C.
about 2100.)
3. A "Duke" of Edom, grandson of Esau (Gen.
xxxvi :l6).
4. A 'son of Hebron' (i Chron. ii:43), but
whether a man or city is meant by 'Hebron' is un-
certain. (B. C. long after ligi.)
KORAHITE (ko'rah-ite), that portion of the
Koli.itlihc Levites who were descended from Ko-
rah (1 Chron. ix:i9, 31). (See Kokah.)
KORATHITES
1036
KUSSEMETH
EOBATHITES (ko'rath-ites), (Num. xxvirjS).
See KoRAHiTE.
EOB£ (ko're), (Heb. ^1^7, ko-ray', crier, or a
partridge).
1. A Korahite, ancestor of Shalluin and Mesh-
elemiah, chief porters in the time of David (i
Chron. ix:i9; xxvi:i). (B. C. about 960.)
2. Son of Imnah, a Levite, appointed over the
freewill offerings, and gatekeeper of the western
side of the temple in the reign of Hezekiah (2
Chron. xxxi:i4). (B. C. 719.)
3. The "sons of Kore" (i Chron. xxviiig),
should probably be "the sons of the Korhite."
KOBHITE (kor'hite), (Ex. vi;24; i Chron. xii:6;
xxvi:i; 2 Chron. xxiig). See KoRAHlTE.
EOTZ (kotz). See Thorns and Thistles.
KOZ (koz), (Heb. yip. kotse, a thorn).
1. A descendant of Judah (i Chron. iv:8), the
father of Anub and others. He may have been
a son or brother of Ashur (verse 5). (B. C. be-
fore 1300.)
2. The head of the seventh division of priests
as arranged by David (l Chron. xxiviio), where
the name is translated Hak Koz. (B. C. about
960.) He is probably the same whose descend-
ants returned from Babylon (Ezra ii :6l ; Neh.
vii:63).
KRINON (kri'non). See Lily.
KTTSHAIAH (ku-sha'iah), (Heb. "'•"'"v'T, koo-
shaw-yaw hoo, the bow of Jah), the form of the
name of Kish or Kishi, father of Ethan (i Chron.
xv:i7). Ethan was appointed a chief assistant in
the temple music by David, (B. C. about 900). He
!£ called Kis/ti in i Chron. vi:44.
KXrSSEMETH (kus-se'meth), (Heb. J^??3_ ^oos-
seh'meth), occurs in three places of Scripture.
(1) Variously Rendered. In the Authorized
Version it is translated rye in Exod. ix :32 ; Is.
xxviii .25, and fitches in Ezek. iv :9 ; but its true
meaning still remains uncertain. It was one of
the cultivated grains both of Egypt and of Syria,
and one of those employed as an article of diet.
It was also sown along with wheat, or, at least,
its crop was in the same state of forwardness ;
for we learn from Exod. ix:32, that in the sev-
enth plague the hail-storm smote the barley which
was in the ear, and the flax which was boiled;
but that the wheat and the Kussemeth were not
smitten, for they were not grown up. Respecting
the wheat and the barley, we know that they are
often sown and come to maturity in different
months.
(2) Cultivated in Palestine. That kussemeth
was cultivated in Palestine we learn from Is.
xxviii :25, where it is mentioned along with ket-
zah (nigella) and cumin, wheat and barley; and
sown, according to some translators, 'on the ex-
treme border of the fields,' as a kind of fence for
other kinds of corn. This is quite an Oriental
practice, and may be seen in the case of flax and
other grains in India, at the present day. The
rye is a grain of cold climates, and is not culti-
vated even in the south of Europe. Korte de-
clares (Travels, p. 168) that no rye grows in
Egypt; and Shaw states (p. 351) that rye is little
known in Barbary and Egypt (Rosenmiiller, p. 76).
(3) Used in Making Bread. That the
kussemeth was employed for making bread by the
Hebrews we know from Ezek. iv 19, where the
prophet is directed to 'take wheat, and barley, and
beans, and lentiles, and millet, and kussemeth,
and put them in a vessel, and make bread thereof.'
Though it is very unlikely that kussemeth can
mean rye, it is not easy to say what cultivated
grain it denotes. The principal kinds of grain, it
is to be observed, are mentioned in the same pas-
sages with the kussemeth. Though some circum-
stances seem to point to the triticum spelta, or
spelt as the kussemeth of Scripture, the subject
is still susceptible of further investigation, and
can only be finally determined by first ascertaining
the modern agriculture of eastern countries, and
comparing it with the ancient accounts of the
agriculture of Syria and Egypt. (See Rye.)
J. F. R.
LAADAH
1037
LABAN
LAADAH (la'a-dah), (Heb. ^'^'l, lah-datv' ,
meaning uncertain |, the second sun of Shclah (son
of Judah), and "father" (founder) of Mareshah (I
Chron. iv:2l).
liAADAN (la'a-dSn), (Heb. W^-, lah-dawn\ as
above).
1. An Ephraimite.the son of Tahan, and grand-
father of Elishama, which latter was prince of his
tribe at the Exodus (i Chron. vii:26). (B. C.
before 1210.)
2. Son of Gershon (i Chron. xxiii7, 8, 9; xxvi:
21). Elsewhere and in the margin called Libni.
Keil (,Com. in he.) is led to believe that Laadan
was a later descendant of Gershon than Libni,
and that the Shimei of ver. 9 was a descendant of
Libni, not elsewhere mentioned.
T.AATTATT (la-an'ah). (Heb. ^t^^l, /a/t-an-aw').
translated wormwood, occurs in several passages
of Scripture, in most of which it is employed in a
figurative sense.
Thus, in Deut. xxix:i8, 'Lest there be among
you a root that beareth gall and wormwood' is
applied to such Israelites as should worship for-
eign gods. Prov. v :4, 'But her end is bitter as
wormwood.' Jer. ix:i5, 'Behold I will feed them,
even this people, with wormwood, and give them
gall to drink.' So in Jer. xxiii:i5, and in Lam.
iii:l5 and 19, 'Remember mine affliction and my
misery, the wormwood and gall,' where it is ap-
plied to public and private calamities, and in
Amos v:7. it is said of unrighteous judges 'Ye
who turn judgment to wormwood'; so in ver. 12,
but here the word laanah is translated hemlock.
That laanah was a plant of an extreme degree of
bitterness, is evident from the various passages in
which it occurs ; and it has hence, as Celsius ob-
serves, been adopted to indicate both the sins and
the punishments of men. (See Wormwood.)
J. F. R.
laABAN (la'ban), (Heb. 1?^, law-bawn' , white).
1. Son of Bethuel (Gen. xxviii:;), and grandson
of Nahor (Gen. xxix:5), brother of Rebekah (Gen.
xxiv ; 1 5, 29, 50 sq.), and father of Jacob's two wives,
Leah and Rachel.
(1) Dealings with Jacob. Dreading the ven-
geance of Esau his brother, Jacob was compelled
to flee from home. Before his departure Isaac
sent for Jacob, gave him his blessing, and charged
him to go to Padan-aram, and there marry one
of his uncle Laban's daughters (Gen. xxviii :2,
5). When Jacob had been with Laban about a
month, Laban proposed to give him wages. Jacob
oflfered seven years' service for Rachel his
younger, but most beautiful daughter; and with
great cheerfulness he fulfilled his engagement,
from the great love which he bare to her. When
the marriage night came, Ciod, in order to punish
Jacob for deceiving his dim-eyed father, permit-
ted Laban to conduct Leah, his elder daughter,
whose beauty was far inferior, to Jacob's bed, in-
stead of Rachel. This was easily done, as the
bride, when conducted to the bridegroom, was
closely veiled. Next morning the cheat was dis-
covered ; and Jacob warmly reproached his uncle
for it. He pretended that it was contrary to the
custom of their country to marry the younger
daughter first ; but told him he might have Rachel,
loo. for seven years' more service. This Jacob
agreed to (Gen. xxix:i5, 30).
Jacob's fourteen years' service for his two
wives being finished, he begged that Laban, his
father-in-law, would permit him to return to his
country, with his family along with him, that he
might provide for himself. Sensible of the ad-
vantage of his service, Laban offered him what
wages he pleased if he would stay. To mark his
dependence on the providence of God, Jacob
moved that all the spotted cattle and brown sheep
afterwards produced should be his hire. Laban,
expecting these could not be many, readily con-
sented. To prevent all disputes, and hinder as
much as possible the future product of spotted
cattle and brown sheep, all of these kinds were
removed to the distance of three days' journey,
and intrusted to the care of Laban's sons; and
the rest were committed to the oversight of Ja-
cob. Instigated by a vision, Jacob employed
means by which he increased his portion, and
that of the stronger and abler cattle (Gen. xxx:
37-43). so that the wealth of his uncle decreased
in proportion as his own was augmented. Laban,
therefore, frequently changed his hire; but what-
ever was allotted to Jacob exceedingly increased,
though he also caused Jacob to bear the loss of
whatever was missing of his flocks or herds. After
Jacob had served other six years, with great la-
bor and fidelity, Laban and his sons began to be-
have churlishly and rudely towards him, pretend-
ing, that he had made himself rich at their ex-
pense. Meanwhile. God, in a dream, ordered him
to return to Canaan. Resolving to do so. he, per-
haps when he was shearing his own sheep, at a
distance from those of Laban, acquainted his wives
that he saw their father's deportment towards him
changed, and that he intended to return to Ca-
naan. They, being sensible of their father's in-
jurious behavior, were glad to part with him. So
Jacob, his wives and children, and servants, and
flocks, moved towards Canaan, and Rachel car-
ried off some of her father's idols. On the third
day after, Laban, informed of their departure,
pursued them in no small fury ; but God, in a
dream, charged him to beware of giving Jacob
so much as an injurious word. On the seventh
day he overtook them on the mountain of Gilead.
Some sharp words were exchanged, and Laban
heavily complained that they had carried oflf his
gods. Jacob desired him to ransack all his store,
and if his gods were found with any. let the per-
son be .put to death. Laban searched with the ut-
most care; but Rachel, having taken the idols
and put them into the camel's furniture, sat upon
them, pretending that she was in circumstances
which prevented her from rising. Nothing of
Laban's being found, he and Jacob made a solemn
covenant of perpetual friendship, in testimony of
which they reared a heap of stones, which Jacob
called Galeed, or Gilead, and Laban, Jegar-saha-
dutha, lx)th of which designations signified the
heap of witness. After Jacob had offered sacrifice,
and given an entertainment to his fri(yids, Laban
and his company affectionately parted, and re-
turned to Padan-aram, while Jacob and his fara-
LABOR
1038
LACHISH, EXCAVATIONS AT
ily went forward to Canaan (Gen. xxix, xxx,
xxxi). (See Jacob.)
(2) Character. In their mistaken zeal to de-
fend Jacob. Christian writers have unduly depre-
ciated Laban.andeven the ready hospitality shown
by him to Abraham's servant, and the affectionate
reception of his nephew (Gen. xxiv 130, 31 ; xxix :
13 14) have been misconstrued into the acts ot a
selfish man, eager to embrace an opportunity of a
lucrative connection. No man, however, is wholly
selfish; and even Laban was capable of generous
impulses, however mean and unprincipled his gen-
eral conduct.
2. A city in the desert of Arabia, on the route
of the Israelites (Deut. i:i); perhaps identical
with their twenty-first halting place, Libnah
(Num. xxxiii:20).
LABOB (la'ber), (Heb. -^m. ab-o-daw'). is the
execution of a definite task.
(1) Not an Evil. In Gen. iii:i9. labor is set
forth as a part of the primeval curse, 'In the sweat
of thy face thou shall eat bread'; and doubtless
there is a view of labor which exhibits it in reality
as a heavy, sometimes a crushing burden. But
labor is by no means exclusively an evil, nor is
its prosecution a dishonor.
(2) Of Herdsman. The Hebrews, like other
primitive nations, appear to have been herdsmen
before they were agriculturists (Gen iv;2, 12,
17, 22) ; and the practice of keeping flocks and
herds continued in high esteem and constant ob-
servance as a regular employment and a social
condition (Judg. v:i6; Jer. xxxiii:i2; Luke 11:8).
The culture of the soil came in course of time,
introducing the discovery and exercise of the
practical arts of life, which eventually led to those
refinements, both as to processes and to applica-
tions, which precede, if they do not create the fine
arts (Gen. v:29; xxvi:i2; xxxiiiag).
(3) Agriculture. Agriculture, indeed, became
the chief employment of the Hebrew race after
their settlement in Canaan, lay at the very basis
of the constitution, both civil and religious, which
Moses gave them, was held in great honor, and
was carried on by the high as well as the humble
in position (Judg. vi:li; i Sam. xi:S; i Kings
xix;i9).
(4) Horticulture. No small care was be-
stowed on the culture of the vine, which grew
luxuriously on the hills of Palestine (Is. v:2, 5;
Matt. xxi:33; Num. xiii;24). The vintage was
a season of jubilee {Judg. ix:27; Jer. xxv:3o; Is.
xvi:io). The hills of Palestine were also adorned
with well cultured olive-gardens, which produced
fruit useful for food, for anointing, and for medi-
cine (Is. xvii:6; xxiv 113; Deut. xxiv:20; Ezek.
xxvii:i7; i Kings iv:25; Hos. xiv:6, 7). Atten-
tion was also given to the culture of the fig-tree
(2 Kings XX :7; I Chron. xxvii:28), as well as of
the date-palm (Lev. xxiii.40; Judg. i:i6; iv:5; in:
13- Deut. xxxiv:3), and also of balsam (Gen.
xTi'ii:ii; Ezek. xxvii.i?; Jer. viii;22). For the
rise and progress of various kinds of hand labor
among the people of Israel, see Handicraft.
J. R. B.
LACE (las), Heb. ^"P|,/aa/-/A^«/', from a verb
"to twist," translated thread in Judg. xvi:9, line in
Ezek. xl:3, wire (of gold) in Exod. xx.x\x:2, rMand
in Num. xv:38, and bracelets in Gen. xxxviii:l8, 25,
where it denotes the string by which the signet-ring
was hung about the neck. (See Exod. xxvui:28.)
LACHISH (la'kish), (Heb. "^Vl, law-kheesh' ;
Sept. Adxis, lachii), a city in the south of Judah, in
the plain between Adoraim and Azekah (Josh, x:
3, 5. 31; XV 139).
It was rebuilt and fortified by Rehoboam (2
Chron. xi:9), and seems after that time to have
been regarded as one of the strongest fortresses
of the kingdom of Judah, having for a time
braved the assaults of the Assyrian army under
Sennacherib (2 Kings xviii:i7; xix:8; 2 Chron.
xxxii:9). The site is found by Petrie at Tell el-
Hesy, sixteen miles east by north of Gaza and
eleven miles west-southwest of Beit Jibrin. Ex-
cavation has laid bare the wall of the ancient city,
as well as later constructions believed to belong
to the times of Rehoboam, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Uz-
ziah, Jotham, and Manasseh. The mound of Tell
el-Hesy rises sixteen miles to the east of Gaza.
It stands on a natural eminence about forty feet
in height, on the summit of which the ruins of
ten successive cities are piled sixty feet higher.
The lowest is called Amorite, and is reported to
be about a quarter of a mile square. It was
built on a bluff, about sixty feet above the stream
which flowed, on the east, and forty feet above
the level country on the north. Above the ruins
of the primitive Lachish are found fresh walls
raised upon those destroyed, and fresh buildings
constructed of the old stones. {Palestine Expl.,
1900.) ^ . . . o
Professor Sayce in Higher Cnhcistn, p. 289,
says : "In the time of Amenophis IV, or Khu-n-
Aten, Lachish had been the seat of an Egyptian
governor. More than one letter from him has
been found among the cuneiform tablets of Tell-
Amarna, and one of the dispatches of the vas-
sal king of Jerusalem states that Lachish, Ashke-
lon, and Gezer had furnished the garrison of his
city with food and oil." (See Lachish, Exca-
vations at; Lachish, Siege of.)
LACHISH, EXCAVATIONS AT.
The importance of the excavations at Lachish
is worthy of a separate article. Nearly four thou-
sand years after the founding of the first city the
tide of warfare and the passing centuries had
left only a great mound called a tell and which
the Arabs called Tell el-Hesy. The identifica-
tion of the locality was for a long time undecided,
but Major Conder claimed that this must be the
site of the original Lachish from the fact that the
situation commands the only springs of water in
the region except those which lie soipe three or
four miles away, and also because its position
corresponds with the account in the "Onomasti-
con" of the location of Lachish, which was in the
district of Daroma, seven miles from Eleuther-
opolis, or Beit Jibrin. Between April of 1890 and
January of 1893, the officers of the Palestine Ex-
ploration Fund excavated the great mound and
they succeeded in restoring to the original level,
a portion of it. The work was begun under the
able leadership of Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie
whose "ten years' digging in Egypt" together with
his profound scholarship had given him a wonder-
ful adaptability for the work. He was enabled to
largely reconstruct the history, and determine the
various periods, from remains which to the inex-
perienced eye would seem entirely without sig-
nificance. Later the work was pursued by Mr.
F. J. Bliss and a portion of the remains of one
city after another were slowly uncovered _ by
Arabian workmen, while the women of the tribes
carried away the dirt in baskets.
As layer after layer was removed the various
forms of pottery were discovered which enabled
the explorers to assign the age of each particular
city with more or less certainty. In one era the
decorations and ornaments indicated the luxurious
LACHISH, EXCAVATIONS AT
1039
LACHISH. EXCAVATIONS AT
days of Solomon, and the slabs bearing pilasters
in low relief probably date from his time. Much
of the pottery which was found belonged to the
period of the Jewish kings, and certain forms of
idolatrous worship seem to have originated here,
for we read that Lachish was "the beginning of
sin to the daughter of Zion ; for the transgres-
sions of Israel were found in thee" (Micah
i:i3).
The first city explored was necessarily the last
one built, and the scanty remains here found as-
signed its period to about 400 B. C. The city fol-
lowing this was No. X, and it was assigned to
about 500 B. C, on account of the prevalence of
polished Greek ware. City IX was assigned to
800 B. C, and VIII to the period between goo and
1000 B. C.
After all traces of No. VIII had been cleared
away they had again a smooth platform to ex-
plore, and below it in City VII was a fine range
of rooms, but into them the people who built the
town above them had dug pits for their
ovens, and hence they contained several of the pit
ovens which are still so common in Pales-
tine. Below this layer the workmen found a
vast amount of debris, and they dug almost ten
feet before they came to City VI. It was only
about four feet, however, below the foundations
of these buildings that they reached the top of
the walls of City V.
Still lower than this, in City IV, the walls of a
large building were traced by a bed of yellow sand
which lay directly under them, never extending
either into the rooms or into the streets. In City
III the ruins of the rooms were covered with a
great bed of ashes which still remain a mystery.
Petrie ascribed them to alkali-burners who may
have plied their trade on the then deserted hill,
while Bliss inclined to a different view based upon
the furnace which was found just below. This
ruined town lay about fifteen feet lower than the
one above it. and covered considerably more
ground ; indeed the general outline of the whole
Tell from this point upward was somewhat in the
shape of a peak, each city covering less space
than did its predecessor. This third city had evi-
dently been sacked as well as destroyed, and the
work here was almost barren of results except
the few objects which were found in the debris
outside of the rooms.
One of the most important of the finds here ob-
tained was a small clay tablet which is now in the
Imperial Museum of Constantinople. The finding
of this tablet established the fact which had long
been suspected by scholars that the pre-Israelitish
Canaan possessed their clay libraries as did Baby-
lonia and Assyria. "In size and shape," says Pro-
fessor Sayce, "it resembles the tablets sent from
the south of Canaan. The forms of the cunei-
form characters, moreover, which appear on it, are
those which we now know to have been used in
southern Canaan about 1400 B. C. Lastly, the
grammatical forms and formulae are identical with
those employed by the scribes of Southern Ca-
naan when writing to the Egyptian kings. We
find them in the tablets of Tell-Amarna as well as
in the tablet of Lachish.
"The fact that the original was not accessible
made the copying of the cuneiform text somewhat
difficult. Indeed, it is sometimes impossible to tell
from the impressions what exactly are the char-
acters at the edges of the tablet or where the
surface of the tablet is worn. Hence the lacunae
and indications of uncertainty which appear in my
copy of the inscription. A translation of the text
has been further rendered difficult by the exist-
ence in it of words which have not been met with
before and which are. therefore, of doubtful
meaning. Fortunately enough is clear to show
us what the letter — for such it is — is about, and
to what period it belongs.
"What makes this letter so particularly inter-
esting is that we already know something about
Zimrida, who is twice mentioned in it. Zimrida,
or Zimridi, as he is called, was governor of
Lachish in the reign of Khu-n-Atcn, and a letter
from the king of Jerusalem to the Egyptian Pha-
raoh informs us that he was murdered at Lachish
by servants of the Egyptian king. One of the dis-
patches discovered at Tell-Amarna was sent by
him to Egypt and runs thus: 'To the King, my
Lord, my God, my Sun-god,, the Sun-god who is
from heaven, thus (writes) Zimridi, the governor
of the city of Lachish, thy servant, the dust of thy
feet, at the feet of the King, my Lord, the Sun-
god from heaven, bows himself seven times seven.
I have very diligently listened to the words of the
messenger of the King, my Lord has sent to me
and now I have dispatched (a mission) according
to his message.' "
Thus the tablet found at Lachish may be part
of a correspondence pertaining to similar subjects
as that found at Tell-Amarna, or it may be a local
letter sent from one Syrian city to another. The
discovery of other portions of this correspond-
ence, which we no^v have a right to expect, would
be simply invaluable.
Below this level, in City II. Mr. Bliss made an-
other important discovery which he calls " a sam-
ple blast furnace." If his theories concerning it
are correct it proves that during the period rang-
ing about 1400 B. C. the hot air blast was used
instead of cold air. The hot air blast furnace
has been considered a modern improvement in
iron manufactures which was due to Neilson and
was patented in 1828.
The lowest city in the mound, and the one above
it, contained only one class of pottery which Pro-
fessor Petrie calls "Amorite," and which is plainly
distinguishable from the well-known types of
Phoenician pottery which begin to appear in City
II and continue through both III and IV.
"Amorite pottery" is a term which covers the
strongly marked types of pre-Israelitish ware, the
earliest use of which has not as yet been deter-
mined, but which went "out of fashion" as the
prevailing type as early as the sixteenth century
B. C, although specimens of it are found much
later.
Although the remains of a great tower are
found in the primitive city we have no direct his-
torical account of the fortification of Lachish un-
til it was done by Rehoboam, king of Judah, in
whose list of "fenced cities" it occurs. (See
REnonoAM.) After the Rehoboam period, there
was a thin wall built on the front edge of his
fortification to heighten and strengthen it. Hence
the older wall must by this time have been de-
cayed down to a height of only about six feet, and
this fact suggests the passage of considerable time.
If the wall had been destroyed by Shishak (2
Chron. xi:9: xii :2) in his subsequent invasion
(see Shishak) it would have been almost, if
not quite, overthrown. This refortification may
have been made under Jchoshaphat. who having
subdued the Philistines and Arabians (2 Chron.
xvii:ii. 12) needed a fortress here. And we
read that he garrisoned "all the fenced cities"
(ver. 2). Amaziah fled to Lachish about 810 B. C.
and was killed there (i Kings xiv:i9). When
Uzziah attacked the Philistines (2 Chron. xxvi :
11) he doubtless needed a fort at Lachish and prob-
LACHISH, EXCAVATIONS AT
1040
LACHISH, SIEGE OF
ably the fragment left inside the wall of Jehosha-
phat may have been his work, for it is said that
he built much (ver. lo) and that he raised many
cattle in Shephelah ; therefore a safe watering
place at Lachish would be invaluable.
After this the walls were razed probably by
Rezin and Pekah when they beleaguered Jerusa-
lem about 735 B. C. (2 Kings xvi:5).
But another wall was evidently built upon the
ruin of the other, and this may have been done
by Ahaz, whose passion for building is recorded
in Kings (2 Kings xvi:i7). Behind the wall of
Ahaz and on the north side of the town is the
foundation of a thicker wall which had evidently
been ruined soon after it was built. On the
south side there is a long fortification which is
some thirty feet in breadth formed of blocks of
stone bedded in the earth and faced with white
plaster. These and other details correspond with
what we might expect at the time of the siege by
Sennacherib. (See Lachish, Siege of, also Sen-
nacherib.)
chish, by W. M. Flinders Petrie. Also A Mound
of Many Cities, by F. J. Bliss, etc.)
LACHISH, SIEGE OF
In Old Testament times the besieging army in
attacking a fortified city sought first to drive
all of its defenders within the walls. They then
made choice of three methods of attack. They '
could either make a bold assault upon the most
vulnerable part of the wall, or prepare to invest
the city and starve out the defenders, or they
might prepare their engines of war for a long and
formal siege preparatory to Che final battle.
In ancient Nineveh there was an elaborate rep-
resentation of the siege of Lachish upon the walls
of the palace of Sennacherib, and similar bas-
reliefs show us the details of the siege of Susa,
or Shushan. the capital of Ahasuerus and Esther
(see Shushan) and othercities. It was during the
siege of Lachish that Sennacherib sent his tartan
or commander-in-chief to Jerusalem to demand
the submission of King Hezekiah as told in 2
Assyrian Sculpture Representing the Capture of Lachish by Sennacherib.
After the destruction of Lachish by Sennach-
erib there does not appear to have been more than
one refortifying of the site. This is the wall on
the north which is thin at the east end, but thicker
in the middle of the side. This can be traced
around the city, and is probably the work of Ma-
nasseh, who about 660 B. C. fortified Jerusalem
and put commanders in all the fenced cities of
Judah. If so these must have been the walls which
were besieged by Nebuchadnezzar about 590 B. C.
(See Jer. xxxiv:7.) After the siege of Nebu-
chadnezzar we have little or no data concerning
its occupation. Even after the return of the
Jews they made their principal settlement in the
vicinity of the later site of Umm Lakis, and since
the fourth century before Christ the site appears
to have been left desolate, or occupied only by
the desert tribes and their cattle.
More than twenty-three centuries have passed
away and the buried cities still occupy the one
great mound, the surface of which was planted
with barley and with beans when the spade of the
explorer broke the silence of the ages in this
tomb of many cities. (See Tell el-Hesy La-
Kings xviii. The besieging army consisted of the
chariot force which was made up from the mili-
tary aristocracy of Assyria and consisted largely
of men of rank and wealth. The cavalry and in-
fantry came next in importance and finally the
great host of common soldiers coming from the
tributary peoples.
At Lachish the king himself took command
and fought from a chariot, while behind him were
two chariots each of which carried a royal stand-
ard, the one being the figure of an archer riding
a bull, and the other the emblem of the supreme
god, Assur on two bulls. The chariots of the
king and his standard bearers were covered with
gold and silver, while bows, arrows, and battle
axes were fastened to the sides. In the rear of
each of these chariots was a rich red shield, while
above it was a spear from which streamers were
flying. The other chariots were similar in con-
struction and general design but they did not
bear the royal colors or other insignia of the
king.
The cavalry was armed with bows or javelins.
The armor of the men was made of scales and
LAD
1041
LAISH
consisted of a jacket and greaves. The horses were
also protected by a tliick leather armor which was
fastened around the neck and covered both back
and sides. Every cavalry man had a mounted at-
tendant who held the horse by the bridle while his
master was fighting.
It appears that the Assyrian infantry also fought
in pairs, each archer having a companion who
like Jonathan's armor-bearer protected his mas-
ter as far as possible by holding before him a
shield made of wicker work or leather, and in
some cases there was also a second armor-bearer
whose business it was to carry the arrows.
The higher rank of infantry carried spears and
large round shields ornamented with bands of
metal. If it was found that no sudden attack could
capture a city the besieging army established a
fortified camp just outside of bowshot, and if
there were danger of a desperate counter-attack
this camp would also be protected by a dike. The
commander in chief would then slowly move his
clumsy war machines forward toward the city
walls. This movement was retarded as far as pos-
sible by the defenders who threw arrows and
stones among the enemy, and also used torches
and balls of fire. The fortress was sometimes
on the top of a rocky hill as at Susa, and In
this case the attacking party must fill up the
ditches and raise banks upon which their crude
battering-rams could be placed. These rams were
made of a beam of wood either with or with-
out a metal covering for the head, and this was
carried by a number of men who struck it
with all possible force against some weak point
in the wall.
A more elaborate machine of the same sort was
a beam which was set upon a frame carried
upon wheels, and the frame had a covering which
protected the men who worked the beam. Upon
the highest point of this improved battering-ram
a little tower was sometimes built and filled with
archers who from this position were enabled to
pick oflf the defenders who stood upon the top
of the city wall. If the wall were built of heavy
stones and well protected by fighting men it might
for a long time defy the attacking party, espe-
cially when, as in the case of Tyre,the besieged city
had access to the seacoast, and therefore could
not be starved into submission. When at last
a city was taken the terrible work of slaughter
and cruelty really began. The victorious Assyrians
often impaled the principal men among their pris-
oners or skinned them alive. Great piles of the
heads of their victims were made at the gates
of the city while other prisoners including women
and children were driven off into Assyrian slav-
ery. If a prisoner of high degree were saved
to grace the triumph of the conqueror, the king
would often with his own hands pierce the eyes
of his victim with a spear, and lead him oack with
a thong which had been put through his lips.
King Zedckiah was one of these unfortunate
victims, and the Assyrian bas-reliefs give many il-
lustrations of this and other barbarities. (William
Hayes Ward, Horn. Rev., July, 1895.) (See War.)
liAD (lad), (Heb. '^'Sl, nah'ar). A general term
applied to :
1. An infant just born (Exod. ii:6; Judg. xiii :
5, 7; I Sam. iv:2i).
2. A boy not yet full grown (Gen. xxi:i6; xxii :
12; Is. vii :i6; viii :4).
3. A youth nearly twenty years of age (Gen.
xxxiv:i9; xli:l2; I Kings iii:7; 2 Sam. xviii :5,
29).
60
4. A girl, or maiden (Gen. xxiv:i4, 16; xxxiv:
3. 12; Deut. xxii:i5). The A. V. sometimes
translates the term "child."
LADAN (la'dan), A. V. See Laadan.
LADDER (lad'der), (Heb.^^P, sool-laivm', stair-
case), occurs in the account of Jacob's vision at
Bethel (Gen. xxviii:i2). That it was a contrivance
known from the earliest ages is shown by Egyptian
monuments.
In Jacob's dream the foot of the ladder stood
on the earth, and its top reached unto heaven ; the
angels of God ascended and descended on the
rounds of it. Above the top of it stood the
Lord God, and assured him he was the God
of his fathers, Abraham and Isaac, and would
give him and his seed the land of Canaan for
their inheritance, render them numerous as the
sand by the seashore, and render all nations
blessed in him and his seed. (See Jacob.)
Figurative. This ladder represented the
providence of God, administered by angels and
managed by God, as a God in covenant ;* and
Jesus Christ as the wonder and Lord of angels,
and the Mediator between God and man, and
the way of access to God, sprung of Jacob in
his humanity, but in his divine nature the Lord
from heaven, and the means of all blessings from
God to sinful men.
LADY (la'dy).
1. Ghcb-eh'reth (Heb. ^^^5^ , mistress), a term
applied to Babylon as the mistress of the nations
(Is. xlvii:5, 7), a m'stress in distinction from a
maidservant (Gen. xvi:4, 8, g; 2 Kings v 13; Prov.
xxx:23; Ps. cxxiii;2; Is. xxiv:2).
2. Saw-raw' (Heb. '^7'?), a noble female (Judg.
v:2C); Esth. i:i8).
3. Koo-ree'ah (Gr. Kvpla, feminine of master),
found only in 2 John i:i, and applied as an honor-
able epithet to a Christian woman.
LAEIi (la'el), (Heb. 'S?, law-ale' , consecrated
to God), father of Eliasaph, v. ho was a prince of
the Gershonites at the time of the Exodus (Num.
iii:24), B. C. before 1607.
T.ATTATt (la'had), (Heb. ""O^, lak'had), son of
iahath, of the family of Zerali, a descendant of
udali (I Chron. iv:2), B. C. after 1612.
LAHAI-BOI, THE WELL (la-hai'roi), (Gen.
xxiv;62). See Beer-lahai-roi.
LAHMAM (lah'mam), (Heb.=r"s''a,?-,«-waw»»'),
a town in the group with Lachish, in the plain of
Judah (Josh. xv:40), probably west of the High-
lands of Judaea. It is possibly Beit-Lehai, a little
northeast of Gaza (Robmson, iii, append., p. 118).
LAHm (lah'mi), (Heb. *'?"^, lakh-mee' , Beth-
lehemite), a brother of Goliath, the Gittite, slain by
Ellianan (I Chron. xx;5). The name is probably a
corruption for Beth-hal-lachmi, "the Bcthlehem-
itc," which occurs in the parallel passage (2 Sam.
xxi:l9).
LAISH (la'ish), (Heb. l*-^, lah'yhh, a lion).
1. A place in the north of Palestine (Judg.
xviii :7, 14), about four miles from Paneas, at
the head of the Jordan. It was taken by the
Danites and included within their territory. It is
called also Leshem and Dan (Josh. xix:47; Judg.
xviii 17, 29; Jer. viii: 16), now identified with Tell-
el-Kady, "the mound of the judge," to the north
of the waters of Merom (Josh. xi:5). (See
Dan.)
LAKE
1042
LAMECH
2. A place mentioned by tlie prophet in his
description of the Assyrian assault on Jerusalem;
from its association it lay north of the city (Is.
x:3o). The name here tran3lated "unto Laish,"
should probably be "Laishah." The passage would
then read, "listen Laishah," etc. It corresponds
to the modern El-isawiyeh, a village a mile and
a half northeast of Jerusalem (Robinson, Re-
searches, ii. io8).
3. A man of the town of Gallim, the father of
Phalti, or Phaltiel, to whom Saul gave Michal,
the wife of David (l Sam. xxv ;44 ; 2 Sam. iii:
15). (B. C. before 1062.)
LAKE (lak), (Gr. X(m>"?, lim'nay, a pool). The
term occurs only in the N. T. regarding the Lake
of Gennesaret (Luke v:l, 2; viii:22, 23, 33), and the
"lake of fire" (Rev. xix:2o; xx:io, 14, 15; xxi:8).
LAKUM (la'kura), (Heb. ^^fl, lak-koo?n', cas-
tle, defense), a place on the boundary of Naph-
tali, probably not far south of Lake Merom (Josh.
xix:33).
LAIIA (la'ma), (Gr. \aii6,, lam-ah' ; \o/x/ia, lam-
mah'), a term signifying why, quoted from Ps.
xxii:i by Jesus on the cross (Matt. xxvii:46; Mark
xv:34).
LASIB (lam), the translation of several Hebrew
and Greek words:
1. The most frequent are keh-bes' (Heb. '''??),
transposed form keh'seb (^??), and the feminines
kib-saw' ('"'???), kab-saw' ('^'f?3) and kis-baw'
,nD'i'3)_ and respectively denote a male and female
lamb from the first to the third year. In sacrifice
young rams of corresponding age were offered in
almost every sacrifice (Num. vi:l4; Lev. iv:32).
(See Sacrifice.)
2. The equivalent Chaldee form for the above is
im-mar' (Heb. "'^^, Ezra vi:9, 17; vii:i7).
3. Taw-leh'^^Leh.'^:}^, I Sam. viiig; Is. lxv:25),
a young sucking lamb; originally the young of any
animal.
4. Kar (Heb. ^5, plump), a fat ram, or more
probably "wether," as the word is generally em-
ployed in opposition to ayil, which strictly denotes
a "ram" (Deut. xxxii:i4; Is. xxxiv:6).
5. Tseh-one' (Heb. ]'^V, from unused root signi-
Tying to ?ntgrate), rendered "lamb" in Exod. xii:
21, is properly a collective term denoting a "flock"
of small cattle, sheep, and goats, in distinction
from herds of the larger animals (Eccles. ii;/;
Ezek. xlv:i5).
6. Seh (Heb. '^W), in opposition to the above
collective term, is applied to denote the individu-
als of a flock, whether sheep or goats (Gen. xxii:7,
8; Exod. xii:3, etc.).
7. In the New Testament we find ar-nee'on (Gr.
kfivlov, diminutive of dpijv, ar-ane' , which latter oc-
curs only in Luke x:3),a lambkin. (Mc. & Str. Bib.
Cyc.)
For all the principal sacrifices of ordinary oc-
casions a lamb might be used ; as a male lamb
for a burnt offering (Lev. ix:3; xxiii:i2, 18;
Num. vi :I4; vii :is), a ewe lamb for a sin offering
for others than the nation or rulers (Lev. iv :
32, 35; Num. vi:i4), and a male or female lamb
for a guilt offering (Lev. v :6 ; xiv:i2, 21; Num.
vi :i2) or for a peace offering (Lev. iii :6, 7 ; xxiii ;
19; Num. vii: 17). In every case the Iamb must
be without blemish.
Figurative, (i) All the sheep offered in
the ancient sacrifices represented Christ. He re-
sembled a lamb in his spotless purity (i Pet.
i; 19), and was typified by the paschal lamb. (2) He
was like a lamb also in his gentleness and in his
submission to unmerited suffering without mur-
mur or complaint (Is. liii :7 with Luke xxiii :25 ;
Acts viii:32; l Pet. ii;2i-23). (3) Finally, he,
like a lamb, was sacrificed for guilt not his own.
Hence he is called the Lamb of God, which taketh
away the sin of the world (John 1:29, 36), the
Lamb slain from the foundation of the world
(Rev. xiii:8), or simply the Lamb (Rev. v :6,
8, 12; vii:i4, 17; xiv:i, 4). (4) His people are
likened to sheep and lambs, to represent their
innocence, patience, harmlessness, usefulness, and
exposure to troubles and enemies (Is. liii:7; John
x:i-26, and xxi:is-i7). (s) Both in the Old
Testament and in the New Testament the term
lamb is at times used figuratively for child (Is.
xl;ii; John xxi:i5). (6) Men in general are
compared to sheep and lambs, to denote their
stupidity, their weakness, exposure to danger, and
need of government (i Kings xxii:i7; Hos. iv :
16; Is. xhii), or for their innocency and harm-
lessness as to a particular sin (2 Sam. xxiv:i2).
(7) Sinners are likened to sheep, to mark their
unthoughtfulness, their proneness to wander, their
exposure to ruin, their inability to defend or re-
cover themselves, and their need to be saved,
led, and nourished by Jesus the great Shepherd
(Ps. xlix:i4; Is. liii:6; i Pet, ii :2S ; Luke xv :
4-6). (8) The rams, goats, and lambs, denote
the various classes of people in a country; great
and powerful, or poor and weak, and less or more
innocent (Is. xxxiv:6, 7, and lx:7; Ezek. xxxiv:
17 and xx.xix :i8).
LAMB OF GOD (lam 6v god), (Gr. invb^ Oeoh,
a})i-nos' theh-00'), a title given to Christ Jesus our
Lord (John 1:29,36; comp. Acts viii:32; i Pet. i:ig).
As the lamb was the symbol of sacrifice, Jesus
Christ is called "the sacrifice of God!' or the divine
sacrifice (John i:2g; comp. Rev. v:i2; Is. liii:7, 28;
Rom. ix:5; 1 Cor. v:7; i Peter i:l9).
In the symbolic scenery of the Book of Revela-
tion John beheld "a lamb as it had been slain, hav-
ing seven horns and seven eyes, which are the
seven spirits of God sent forth into all the earth"
(Rev. v:6) ; i. e., invested with the attributes of
God, omnipotence and omniscience, and sharing
the universal empire and homage of the uni-
verse. (See Lamb.)
LAME (lam), denotes one maimed, or enfeebled
in the limbs (2 Sam. iv:4). Lameness disqualified
men for officiating in the priesthood, or animals
for being offered in sacrifice.
A person thus afflicted might, however, eat of
the sacrifices, like other priests (Lev. xxi:l7-
2i).
Figurative. In Jesus, our great Priest and
Sacrifice, there is no want of ability to perform
his work, and no predisposition to be turned out
of the way (Lev. xxi:i8; Deut. xv:2i). Per-
sons weak in body, or in their intellect and
grace, and halting between different opinions, are
called lame (Is, xxxiii:23; Heb. xii:i3).
LAMECH (la'mek), (Heb. '^P), leh'mek; Sept.
Ad/ifXi lamech).
1- Son of Methusael, and father of Jabal, Jubal,
Tubal-cain, and Naamah (Gen. iv:i8, 24, etc.).
(B. C. probably about 3700.) He is recorded to
have taken two wives, Adah and Zillah ; and
there appears no reason why the fact should have
been mentioned, unless to point him out as the
LAMENT
1043
LAMENTATIONS
author of the evil practice of polygamy. The
manner in which the sons of Lamcch distin-
guished themselves as the inventors of useful arts,
is mentioned under their several names. (Sec
Jab.^l; Jubal; and Tubal-cain.) The most re-
markable circumstance in connection with Lamech
is the poetical address which he is very abruptly
introduced as making to his wives. This is not
only remarkable in itself, but is the first and most
ancient piece of poetry in the Hebrew Scriptures;
and, indeed, the only example of Antediluvian
poetry extant :
' Adah and Zillah, hear my voice !
Wives of Lamech, receive my speech !
If I slew a man to my wounding,
And a young man — to my hurt :
If Cain was avenged seven times.
Then Lamech — seventy times seven.'
This exhibits the parallelism and other character-
istics of Hebrew poetry, the development of which
belongstoanotherarticle. (See Poetry, Hebrew.)
It has all the appearance of an extract from an
old poem, which we may suppose to have been
handed down by tradition to the time of Moses.
It is very difficult to discover to wliat it refers,
and the best explanation can be nothing more than
a conjecture. So far as we can make it out. it would
seem to be, as Bishop Lowth explains (Pralect.
iv:9l), an apology for committing homicide, in
his own defense, upon some man who had vio-
lently assaulted him, and. as it would seem, struck
and wounded him ; and he opposes a homicide of
this nature to the willful and inexcusable fratri-
cide of Cain. Under this view Lamech would
appear to have intended to comfort his wives by
the assurance that he was really exposed to no
danger from this act. and that any attempt upon
his life on the part of the friends of the deceased
would not fail to bring down upon them the
severest vengeance. Naamah 'the comely one' is
fancifully supposed to be perhaps the most ancient
Venus of the Pagans (Gen. iv: 18-24).
2. Son of Methuselah, and father of Noah
(Gen. v:2S-3i; i Chron. 1:3; Luke iii:36). (B. C.
3297-2520.)
LAMENT (la-menf). See Mourning.
LAMENTATIONS (lam'en-ta'shQns), this book
is called by the Hebrews '^?''^,<y-,f<jw','how,' from
the first word of the book; but sometimes they call
it ^^■''^V-,kee-noth' , tears, or 'lamentation,' in allusion
to the mournful character of the work, of which
one would conceive, says Bishop Lowth, 'that
every letter was written with a tear, every word
the sound of a broken heart." From this, or rather
from the translation of it in the Scptuagint, tears,
comes our title of Lamentations.
(1) Ascription. The ascription of theLamenta-
tions in the title is of no authority in itself, but
its correctness has never been doubted. The style
and manner of the book are those of Jeremiah,
and the circumstances alluded to, those by which
he is known to have been surrounded. This
reference of the Lamentations to Jeremiah occurs
in the introductory verse which is found in the
Septuagint : — 'And it came to pass, after Israel
had been carried away captive, and Jerusalem was
become desolate, that Jeremiah sat weeping, and
lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem,
and said.'
It is disputed whether or not this verse existed
in the Hebrew copies from which the translation
of the Seventy was made. We are certainly not
bound by its authority if disposed to question
the conclusion which it supports. But it at least
shows the opinion which prevailed as to the au-
thor, and the occasion of the book, at the time
the translation was made. That opinion, as re-
gards the author, has been admitted almost with-
out dispute. Funeral lamentations, composed by
Jeremiah upon the death of King Josiah, are men-
tioned in 2 Chron. xxxv :2s, and are there said to
have been perpetuated by an ordinance in Israel.
That the lamentations thus mentioned are those
which we now possess has been the opinion of
many scholars of great eminence. Josephus clear-
ly takes this view (Aniiq. x:s, i), as do Jerome
(Comment, in Zcch. iii:ii), Theodoret, and oth-
ers of the Fathers ; and in more modern times.
Archbishop Usher (De LXX Interpret.), Michae-
lis (Note on Lowth's Sue. Poet. Hebr. Prxlect.
x.xii), who afterwards changed his opinion, Datne
{Proph. Major, ed. l), and others. De Wette
(Einleit. sec. 273) is clearly of opinion that the
passage in 2 Chronicles refers to the existing book
of Lamentations, and that the author considered
the death of Josiah as its principal subject. Thie
daring writer uses so little ceremony with the
author of the book of Chronicles on other oc-
casions that his own opinion is not to be in-
ferred from this admission ; and we are not sur-
prised to find from what follows that he feels
at liberty to take a different view from the one
which he believes the writer of Chronicles to have
entertained.
(2) General View of Commentators. The re-
ceived opinion, namely, that in accordance with
the argument prefixed to the books in the Septua-
gint, is now quite generally accepted. It is
adopted by nearly all commentators who, as they
proceed through the book, find that they cannot
follow out the details on any other supposition.
Indeed, but for the reference suggested by the pas-
sage in Chronicles, no one would have been likely
to imagine that such expressions as are found in
ch. 1:17 could point to any other circumstances
than those which attended and followed the de-
struction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. Be-
sides the prophet speaks throughout the book of
the city of Jerusalem and the Temple as ruined,
profaned and desolated ; and this was not the case
during the reign of Josiah or at the time of his
death. We may, under this view, regard the first
two chapters as occupied chiefly with the circum-
stances of the siege and those immediately fol-
lowing that event. In the third the prophet
deplores the calamities and persecutions to which
he had himself been exposed; the fourth refers
to the ruin and desolation of the city, and the
unhappy lot of Zedekiah ; and the fifth and last
seems to be a sort of prayer in the name, or on
behalf, of the Jews in their dispersion and cap-
tivity. As Jeremiah himself was eventually com-
pelled to withdraw into Egypt much against his
will (Jer. xliii:6), it has been suggested that the
last chapter was possibly written there. Pareau
refers ch. i to Jer. xx.xvii :5, sq.; ch. iii to Jer.
xxxviii:2, sq.; ch. iv to Jer. xxxixii, sq., and 2
Kings XXV :i, sq.; ch. ii to the destruction of the
city and temple; ch. v is admitted to be the latest,
and to refer to the time after that event. Ewald
says that the situation is the same throughout, and
only the time different. In ch. i and ii we find
sorrow without consolation ; ch. iii consolation
for the poet himself; in ch. iv the lamentation is
renewed with greater violence ; but soon the whole
people, as if urged by their own spontaneous im-
pulse, fall to weeping and hoping.
Dr. Blayney, regarding both the date an^ oc-
LAMP
1044
LAMP
casion of the Lamentations as established by the
internal evidence, adds, 'Nor can we admire too
much the flow of that full and graceful pathetic
eloquence, in which the author pours out the
effusions of a patriotic heart, and piously weeps
over the ruins of his venerable country' (Jeremtah
p. 376). 'Never,' says an unquestionable judge of
these matters, 'was there a more rich and elegant
variety of beautiful images and adjuncts, arranged
together within so small a compass, nor more
happily chosen and applied (Lowth, De Sacra
Poesi Hebr. Praslect. xxii.).
In the ancient copies this book is supposed to
have occupied the place which is now assigned to
it, after Jeremiah. Indeed, from the manner in
which Josephus reckons up the books of the Old
Testament {Contra Apion. i:8), it has been sup-
posed that Jeremiah and Lamentations originally
formed but one book (Prideaux, Connection, 1.
332). In the Bible now used by the Jews, how-
ever, the book of Lamentations stands in the Ha-
giographa, and among the five Megilloth, or books
of Ruth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Solomon s Song.
They believe that it was not written by the gi« of
prophecy, but by the spirit of God (between which
they make a distinction), and give this as a rea-
son for not placing it among the prophets. It
is read in their synagogues on the ninth of the
month Ab, which is a fast for the destruction
of the holy city. (Henderson, Commen/ary.hondon,
1851); Noyes, Hebrew Prophets, Boston, 1866;
Deutsch, in Kitto's Cycl. of Bibl. Lit.)
LAMP (lamp), (Heb. "^"^ , lap-pee a ; whence,
perhaps, Gr. Xa/nTiis, lampas, " lamp ," the m being
introduced in place of the Hebrew E; Lat. lampas,
and our lamp).
(1) Oil Used. Lamps are very often men-
tioned in Scripture ; but there is nothing to give
any notion of their form. Almost the only fact
we can gather is, that vegetable oils were burnt
in them, and especially, if not exclusively, olive-
oil This, of the finest quality, was the oil used
markable, that while the golden candlestick, or
rather candelabrum, is so minutely described,
not a word is said of the shape, or even the ma-
terial, of the lamps (Exod. y.^\:Z7)- This was,
perhaps, because they were to be of the com-
mon forms, already familiarly known to the He-
brews, and the same probably which were used
in Egypt, which they had just quitted. They
were in this instance doubtless of gold, although
metal is scarcely the best substance for a lamp.
The golden candlestick may also suggest, that
lamps in ordinary use were placed on stands, and
where more than one was required, on stands
Egyptian Lamps.
in the seven lamps of the Tabernacle (Exod.
xxvii:20). .Although the lamp-oils of the He-
brews were exclusively vegetable, it is probable
that animal fat was used, as it is at present by
the Western Asiatics, by being placed in a kind
of lamp, and burnt by means of a wick inserted
in it. This we have often witnessed in districts
where oil-yielding plants are not common.
(2) Material and Form. It is somewhat re-
Ciassical Lamps.
with two or more branches. The modern Orientws,
who are satisfied with very little light in their
rooms, use stands of brass or wood, on which
to raise the lamps to a sufficient height above
the floor on which they sit. Such stands are
shaped not unlike a tall candlestick, spreading
out at the top. Sometimes the lamps are placed
on brackets against the wall, made for the pur-
pose, and often upon stools. Doubtless the same
contrivances were employed by the Hebrews.
From the fact that lamps were carried in the
pitchers of Gideon's soldiers, from which, at
the end of the march, they were taken out, and
borne in the hand (Judg. vii:l6, 20), we may with
certainty infer that they were not, like many
of the classical lamps, entirely open at top, but
so shaped that the oil could not easily be spilled.
This was remarkably the case in the Egyptian
specimens, and is not rare in the classical.
Gideon's lamps must also have had handles; but
that the Hebrew lamps were always furnished
with handles we are not bound to infer : in
Egypt we find lamps both with and without
handles. .
Cotton wicks are now used throughout Asia;
but the Hebrews, like the Egyptians, probably em-
ployed the outer and coarser fiber of flax (Pliny,
Hist. Nat. xix:l) ; and perhaps linen yarn, if the
Rabbins are correct in alleging that the linen
dresses of the priests were unraveled when old,
to furnish wicks for the sacred lamps. (See
Candlestick.)
(3) Use at Night. It seems that the Hebrews,
like the modern Orientals, were accustomed to
burn lamps overnight in their chambers; and
this practice may appear to give point to the
expression of 'outer darkness,' which repeatedly
occurs in the New Testament (Matt. viii:i2;
xxii: 13) : the force is greater, however, when the
LAMP
1045
LAND
contrast implied in the term 'outer' is viewed with
reference to the effect produced by sudden ex-
pulsion into the dartcness of night from a chamber
highly illuminated for an entertainment. This
custom of burning lamps at night, with the ef-
fect produced by their going out or being ex-
tinguished, supplies various figures to the sacred
writers (2 Sam. xxi:i7; Prov. xiii:9; xx:2o).
And, on the other hand, the keeping up of a
lamp's light is used as a symbol of enduring and
unbroken succession (i Kings xi:36; xv:4; Ps.
cxxxii :i7).
(4) Use at Marriage Ceremonies. It appears
from Matt. xxv:i, that the Jews used lamps and
torclics in their marriage ceremonies, or rather
when the bridegroom came to conduct home the
bride by night. This is still the custom in those
parts of the East where, on account of the heat of
the day, the bridal procession takes place in the
night time. The connection of lamps and torches
with marriage ceremonies, it may be observed, is
still preserved in Western Asia, even where it is
no longer usual to bring home the bride by night.
During two or three, or more nights preceding
the wedding, the street or quarter in which the
bridegroom lives is illuminated with chandeliers
and lanterns, or with lanterns and small lamps
suspended from cords drawn across from the
bridegroom's house and several others on each
side lo the houses opposite ; and several small
silk Hags, each of two colors, generally red and
green, are attached to other cords (Lane's Mod.
Egypt. i:20i). Lamps of this kind are sometimes
hung over doors. There is reason to suppose that
the Eg>'ptians had lamps of glass, and if so, there
is no reason why the Jews also might not have
had them, especially as this material is more
proper for lamps intended to be hung up, and
therefore to cast their light down from above.
The Jews certainly used lamps in other festivals
besides those of marriage. If this custom had
not been so general in the ancient and modern
East, it might have been supposed that the Jews
adopted it from the Egyptians, who, according
to Herodotus (ii:62), had a 'Feast of Lamps,'
which was celebrated at Sais, and, indeed, through-
out the country at a certain season of the year.
The description which the historian gives of the
lamps employed on this occasion, strictly applies
to those in modern use already described, and
the concurrence of both these sources of illus-
tration strengthens the probable analogy of Jew-
ish usage. He speaks of them as 'small vases
filled with salt and olive-oil, in which the wick
floated, and burnt during the whole night.' It
does not indeed appear of what materials these
vases were made; but we may reasonably suppose
them to have been of glass.
(5) Feast of Lamps. The later Jews had
even something like this feast among themselves.
A 'Feast of Lamps' was held every year on the
twenty-fifth of the month Chisleu. It was founded
by Judas Maccabseus in celebration of the restora-
tion of the temple worship (Joseph. Antiq. xii :7,
7), and has ever since been observed by the light-
ing up of lamps or candles on that day in all
the countries of their dispersion (Maimon. Mish.
Hashanah. fol. 8). Other Orientals have at this
day a similar feast, of which the 'Feast of
Lanterns' among the Chinese is, perhaps, the best
known (Davis' Chinese, p. 138).
Figurative, (i) God is likened to a lamp;
he enlightens, comforts, and honors his people
(2 Sam. xxii:29). (2) The sct>cn lamps of the
golden candlestick, figured out Jesus and his
church, as possessed of the fullness of the Holy
Ghost, and of Divine oracles and knowledge
(Exod. XXV .37). (3) The Holy Ghost is likened
to seven lamps of fire burning before God's throne,
to mark the instructive, comforting, heart-warm-
ing, and sin-destroying nature of his influence
(Rev. ivis). (4) The sei'en lamps of the golden
candlestick in Zechariah's vision, which received
their oil from the bow! or fountain by pipes are a
sufficient number of ministers, deriving their light,
comfort, gifts, and grace, from Jesus, by the pipes
of ordinances, reading the Scriptures, meditation,
prayer, and by faith (Zech. iv:2). (5) Christ's
eyes of infinite knowledge, and of discovered af-
fection or wrath, are as lamps of fire, most pene-
trating and pure, and yet how terrible to his ene-
mies (Dan. x:6). (6) The Word of God is a
lamp and light: it discovers manifold mysteries;
it directs men's course, and cotnforts their hearts
amidst the darkness of this world ( Ps. cxix:
105)- (7) The lamp ordained for God's anointed,
is either Jesus, who is the light of the world,
and the continued honor of David's family ; or it
is the gospel, which from age to age maintains
the fame and honor of our Redeemer in the world
(Ps. cxxxii :i7). (8) A profession of religion
is called a lamp, it renders men shining and use-
ful, and instructors of others (Matt, xxv .3, 4).
(9) Prosperity is a lamp; it renders men cheer-
ful, noted, and glorious (Prov. xiiiig; xx:20).
(10) The salvation of the church from her trou-
bles is likened to a "burning lamp"; it is bright
and visible, and its effects are instructive and com-
forting (Is. Ixii :i).
LANCE dans), (Heb. l'"'"?, kee-dohn'), Jer. 1:42;
elsewhere "spear." (See Ar.ms, Armor.)
LANCET (ISn'set), (Heb. ^"^^.ro' )nakh,\o hurl).
This word is found in i Kings xviii;28 only; else-
where "spear." (See Arm.s, Armor.)
LAND (land).
1- The whole continent of the earth, as distin-
guished from the sea (Matt, xxiiiilj).
2. A particular country, especially parts of it
which are fit to be plowed ( Matt, ix 126 ; Gen. xxvi :
12; Acts iv:37; Matt. xix:29).
3. The inhabitants of a country (Is. xxxvii:
11). (See Agriculture.)
Figurative. ( i ) Canaan is called Imiiian-
uel's land, or the Lord's land. It enjoyed the
peculiar care, protection, presence, and ordinances
of the Redeemer, and in it he long dwelt in our
nature (Is. viii:8). It was a land of promise, as
given by promise to Abraham and his seed (Heb.
xi:9). It was a land of uprightness; as there,
men having the oracles of God, ought to have
behaved uprightly towards God and man (Is.
xxvi :lo). It is called a land of unximlled villages,
as it .seems, the Jews, at their return, in the be-
ginning of the millennium, will not fortify their
cities (Ezek. xxxviii:ii). (2) Egypt is called
a land of trouble and anguish, because there the
Hebrews were exceedingly distressed, and it
had long been a scene of terrible calamities
(Is. XXX :6). (3) Babylon was a land of graven im-
ages; becau.se idolatry mightily prevailed in it
(Jer. 1:38). (4) The land of the living, is this
world, wherein men are before death, and the
heavenly state where no death ever enters (Ps.
cxvi :9, and xxvii:i3). (5) The grave is the land
of darkness and of the shadow of death (Job
x:2i, 22) ; and of forgetfulness. as men are soon
forgotten after they are buried (Ps. Ixxxviii :
12).
LANDMARK
1046
LAODICEANS, EPISTLE TO
XiANDffiCABK (land'mark), (Heb. '''2?, or '??.
^heb-ool'), a mark to designate the boundary of
land; a stone, stake, or other monument.
The Mosaic law prohibited the removal of
landmarks (Deut. xix:l4; xxvii:l7, Prov. xxii :
28; comp. Job xxiv:2). Landmarks were used
in Greece before the age of Homer (//i'arf xxi :
405). They were held so sacred among the Ro-
mans that removal was punished with death. They
are still used in Persia and in various parts of the
East.
LANE (Ian). The Greek word piM, hroo' may,
street, so rendered in Luke xiv:2i, means a narrow
alley (comp. Matt. vi:2; Acts ix:li; xii:io), called
in A. V. "street."
LANGUAGE (lan'gwaj).
1. Saw-fiiw' (Heb. ^?'?), sef-eth' (Pt^), a lip,
and consequently speech (Gen.xi;i,6, 7, g; 2 Kings
xviii:26, 28; Neb. xiii:24, etc.).
2. Law-shone' (Heb. 1"^"?), lesh-o-naw' ip'i^<.),
Ush-shawn' ("*?<), the tongue, and in consequence
language or speech (Esth. i:22; iii:l2; viii:9; Dan.
iii:29, etc.).
3. Law-az' (Heb. '^'-f), to speak in a foreign
tongue (Ps.cxiv:i); daiv-bawr' (^3v, Ps. xix:3).
4. Dee-al' ek-tos (Gr. SidXe/cTos), the language pe-
culiar to any people (Acts i:iQ; ii;6, 8; xxi:4o; xxii:
2; xxvi:i4). (See Tongues, Confusion of.)
LANTEK.N (lan'tern), (Gr. (/>aj'6s, fan-os' , shin-
ing, hence torch).
This word occurs only in John xviii 13, where
the party of men which went out of Jerusalem
to apprehend Jesus in the garden of Gethsemane
is described as being provided 'with lanterns and
torches.' In the article Lamp it has been shown
that the Jewish lantern, or, if we may so call it,
lamp-frame, was similar to that now in use among
the Orientals. As the streets of Eastern towns
are not lighted at night, and never were so,
lanterns are used to an extent not known among
us. Such, doubtless, was also formerly the case;
and it is therefore remarkable that the only trace
Night Watch Carrying Lantern.
of a lantern which the Egyptian monuments offer,
is that in which it seems to be borne by the night
watch, or civic guard, and is shaped like those in
common use among ourselves. A similar lantern is
at this day used in Persia, and perhaps does not
materially differ from those mentioned in Scrip-
ture. More common at present in Western Asia
is a large folding lantern of waxed cloth strained
over rings of wire, with a top and bottom of
tinned copper. It is usually about two feet long
by nine inches in diameter, and is carried by
servants before their masters, who often pay vis-
its to their friends at or after supper-time. In
many Eastern towns the municipal law forbids
any one to be in the streets after nightfall with-
out a lantern.
LAODICEA (la-6d-i-se'a), (Gr. AaoSi/ceio, lah-od-
ik'i-ah, justice of the people).
There were four places of this name, which
it may be well to distinguish, in order to prevent
them from being confounded with one another.
The first was in the western part of Phrygia,
on the borders of Lydia ; the second, in the east-
ern part of the same country, denominated
Laodicea Combusta ; the third, on the coast of
Syria, called Laodicea ad Mare, and serving as the
port of Aleppo ; and the fourth, in the same
country, called Laodicea ad Libanum, from its
proximity to that mountain. The thiid of these,
that on the coast of Syria, was destroyed by the
great earthquake of Aleppo in August, 1822, and
at the time of that event was supposed by many
to be the Laodicea of Scripture, although in fact
not less than four hundred miles from it. But
the first named, lying on the confines of Phrygia
and Lydia, about forty miles east of Ephesus,
is the only Laodicea mentioned in Scripture, and
is that one of the 'seven churches in Asia' to
which St. John was commissioned to deliver the
awful warning contained in Rev. iii:i4-i9. The
fulfilment of this warning is to be sought, as
we take it, in the history of the Christian church
which existed in that city, and not in the stone
and mortar of the city itself; for it is not the
city, but 'the church of the Laodiceans,' which is
denounced.
Laodicea was the capital of Greater Phrygia,
and a very considerable city at the time it was
named in Scripture (Strabo, p. 578); but the
frequency of earthquakes, to which this district
has always been liable, demolished, some ages
after, great part of the city, destroyed many of
the inhabitants, and eventually obliged the re-
mainder to abandon the spot altogether. Laodicea
is now a deserted place, called by the Turks
Eski-hissar {Old Castle). From its ruins,
Laodicea seems to have been situated upon six
or seven hills, taking up a large extent of ground.
To the north and north-east runs the river Lycus,
about a mile and a half distant; but nearer it is
watered by two small streams, the Asopus and
Caprus. the one to the west, and the other to
the south-east, both passing into the Lycus, which
last flows into the Maeander (Smith, p. 85).
Laodicea preserves great remains of its impor-
tance as the residence of the Roman governors of
Asia under the emperors ; namely, a stadium, in
uncommon preservation, three theaters, one of
which is 450 feet in diameter, and the ruins of
several other buildings (Antiq. of Ionia, pt. ii.
p. 32; Chandler's Asia Minor, c. 67).
LAODICEA, CHURCH AT (la-6d-i-se'a,
church).
From the passages, Coloss. iv:i6; Rev. iii:i4,
it appears that a Christian church was established
at Laodicea by the Apostles. From the epistle to
the Colossians iv:is, 16, it would seem that St.
Paul himself never visited the church.
LAODICEANS (Ia-6d'i-se-anz), inhabitants of
Laodicea (Col. iv:i6; Rev. iii:i4).
LAODICEANS, EPISTLE TO (la 6d-i-se'anz,
e-pis"l). In Ceil. iv:l6 Paul desires that the epistle
from Laodicea "be read at CoIossp" (See Col-
ossians, Epistle to the.)
LAP
1047
LASCIVIOUSXESS
liAP G^P). (Heb. "I??, *^/j V*/, 2 Kings iv:39, a
garment; p'n, khake, Prov. xvi:33, tlie bosom;
'^P, kko'tsen, bosom, Neh. v:i3; in Is. xli.\:22, the
Hebrew is translated armful). A fold o£ the gar-
ment used by Orientals as a pocket.
The psalmist offered the prayer, "render unto
our neighbors sevenfold into their bosom their re-
proach" (Ps. Ixxix:l2). The same allusion oc-
curs in the Savior's direction, "Give, and it shall
be given unto you; good measure, pressed down,
and shaken together, and running over, shall men
give into your bosom" (Luke vi:38). (See
Bosom; Dress.)
LAPIDOTH (lap'i-doth), (Heb.
niTEb
, lafi-pee-
doth' , torches). Husband of the prophetess Deb-
orah yudg. iv:4). (B. C. before 1120.)
vinous fawn color, and further embellished with a
beautiful fan-shaped crest of the same color,
tipped with white and black. Its appellations in
all languages appear to be either miitations of
the bird's voice or indications of its filthy habits;
which, however, modern ornithologists deny, or
do not notice. In Egypt these birds are numerous,
forming, probably, two species, the one permanent-
ly resident about human habitations, the other
migratory, and the same that visits Europe. The
latter wades in the mud when the Nile has sub-
sided, and seeks for worms and insects; and the
former is known to rear its young so much im-
mersed in the shards and fragments of beetles,
etc., as to cause a disagreeable smell about its
nest, which is always in holes or in hollow trees.
Though an unclean bird in the Hebrew law, the
common migratory hoopoe is eaten in Egypt, and
Laodicea.
LAPPED, LAPPETH (ISpt, ISp'Sth), (Heb. pp-^.
taw-kak' , to lick up as a dog, i Kings xxi:ig, etc.).
Lapping was the test of Gideon's men (Judg. vii:5,
6), and is still in the East supposedf to be an
evidence of promptitude for active service. (See
Gideon).
.''lAPWING (ISp'wIng), in our version, is used
for Heb. '^?.''?''''i doo-kee-fath' , a word which, oc-
curring only in Lev. xi:lg, Deut.xiv:i8, affords no
internal or collateral evidence to establish the
propriety of the translation.
It has been surmised to mean double-crest;
which is sufficiently correct when applied to the
hoopoe ; but less so when applied to the lapwing,
or the cock of the woods, Tetrao Urogallus.
The hoopoe is not uncommon in Palestine at this
day, and was from remote ages a bird of mystery.
The end of the augural rod is said to have
been carved in the form of a hoopoe's head ; and
one of the kind is still used by Indian gosseins,
and even Armenian bishops, attention being no
doubt drawn to the bird by its peculiarly ar-
ranged black and white bars upon a delicate
sometimes also in Italy; but the stationary species
is considered inedible. C. H. S.
liABGE (larj), (Heb. 2??, raw-k/tawb' , roving
in every direction). Assyria was a /«/;f^ or exten-
sive country, or place, (Is. xxii:i8; Hos. iv:l6).
David was set in a large place, or room, when
he had great liberty and comfort, and was ad-
vanced to extensive power and authority (Ps.
xviii:i9; xxxi:8, and cxviii:5).
Gr. UavlK, hik-an-os', (Matt. xxviii:l2), an ample
present of money. "They gave large money to
the soldiers."
LASCIVIOUSNESS (15s-sIv-I-us-nes), (Gr. iaik
ytta, as-e/if i-a, that which excites dis^si), un-
bridled lust, licentiousness, wantonness.
It includes everything tending to promote or
fulfill fleshly lusts; and to give over one's self to
it, is to delight in, and practice it, without shame
or remorse (Matt. xv:i9; Rom. xiii:i3; Gal.
v:i9; Eph. iviig). To turn the grace of God
into lasciviousness, is to use his kindness declared
in the gospel as an encouragement in impurity
(Jude 4).
LASEA
1048
LAW
LASEA (la-se'a), (Gr. Kaaala, las-ak'yah.) deri-
vation not known, a city of Crete near Fair Havens
(Acts xxvii:8). The name is still given to some
ruins a iew miles east of Fair Havens. (Smith,
Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, App. iii. pp.
262, 263). .
LASHA (la'sha), (Heb. ^??, leh'shah), a bound-
ary town of southeast Palestine (Gen. xiig), men-
tioned by Moses in describing the land of Canaan.
The Chaldee and Jerome take this to be the
place Callirrhce, east of the Dead Sea, where are
warm springs, but this cannot be confirmed. It
may even be the city of Lasha, Lusa, or Elusa, at
nearly an equal distance between the Dead Sea
and the Red Sea. Ptolemy mentions this city of
Lusa, as do Stephens the geographer, and Jo-
sephus. If identified with Callirrhce as above,
the stream from Callirrhce. now called the Zerka
Maein, enters the Dead Sea at the eastern side,
about eleven miles in a direct line from the
mouth of the Jordan. The springs are about three
miles up the stream.
LASHARON (la-sha'ron), (Heb. I^^F, lash-
shaw-rone' ,\\\t. plain of Sharon), a town of Canaan,
whose king Joshua killed (Josh. xii:i8); possibly
the same as Lasha (Gen. x:ig).
IiAST DAY. See Judgment.
LASTHENES (las'the-nez), (Gr. kaaSinfl, Las-
then' ace, I Mace. xi:32), an officer who stood high
in the favor of Demetrius II Nicator.
LAST TIME. See Eschatology.
LATCHET (latch'et), (Heb. "T^, ser-oke' , a
binding together), the fastening by which the sandal
was held to the foot (Is, v;27; Mark 17; Luke iii:
16; John 1:27).
Figurative. It is a proverbial expression
for anything of little value (Gen. xiv:23). It is
expressive of tightness and durability (Is. v:27).
The expression in Matt. iii:ii (comp. Mark
1:7; Luke iii: 16; John i:27) alludes to slaves who
were employed to loosen and carry their mas-
ters' shoes.
LATIN (lat'In), the vernacular language of the
ancient Romans, now a dead language, but in part
employed as a medium of learned intercourse
between the educated of civilized nations (John
xix:2o).
LATTICE (lat'tis), (Heb. ^J'fX esh-nawb'),\xseA
much in the East in windows to screen the inmates
and at the same time admit the air (Judg.v:28,
"casement;" Prov. vii:6; Cant, iiip; 2 Kings i:2),
(See House.)
LAUD (lad), (Gr. inaiviu, ep-ahee-neh' o), to
praise, extol (Rom. xv;ll).
LAUGHTER (laf'ter), (Heb. F"'V, tsekh-oke' ;
pO^, saiv-khak' ; Gr. vAws, ghel'oce). Laughter
in Scripture expresses as regards men:
1. Their rejoicing in the blessings promised to
or possessed by them, and in their divine security
from the calamities of famine, pestilence, etc. (Gen.
xvii:i7; xxi:6; Job v:22; Luke vi:2l).
2. Their sinful mirth, their doubt of God's ful-
fillment of his promise, or their derision and
mockery of other men (Gen. xviii:i2, 13; Luke
vi:25 ; Job xxix:24).
3. Conscious security (Job v:22).
4. When predicated of God it means that he dis-
regards their trouble and contemns their opposi-
tion (Job ix:23; Ps. ii :4, and xxxvii:i3; Prov.
1:26).
5. Mockery, folly (Prov. xiv:i3; Eccl. ii:2;
vii:6).
LAYER (la'ver), (Heb. 1^*? and 1'3 kee-yore',
something round, a basin; Sept. \ovTpbv, loo-tron'),
a basin to contain the water used by the priests in
their ablutions during their sacred ministrations.
Molten Sea or Great Laver.
(1) Tabernacle Laver. There was one of
brass (fabricated out of the metal mirrors which
the women brought from Egypt, Exod. xxxviii :
8). It had a 'foot' or base, which, from the man-
ner in which 'the laver and its foot' are men-
tioned, must have been a conspicuous feature, and
was perhaps separable from the basin itself for
the purpose of removal. We are not informed
of the size or shape of this laver ; but it ap-
pears to have been large. It stood between the
altar of burnt-offerings and the door of the taber-
nacle (Exod. xxx:i8-2i; xl:30-32). The water
of this laver seems to have served the double pur-
pose of washing the parts of the sacrifices, and
the hands and feet of the priests.
(2) Temple Lavers. But in the temple of
Solomon, when the number of both priests and
victims had greatly increased, ten lavers were
used for the sacrifices, and the molten sea for
the personal ablutions of the priests (2 Chron. iv:
6). These lavers are more minutely described
than that of the tabernacle. So far as can be
made out from the description, they consisted
of a square base or stand mounted upon rollers
or wheels, and adorned with figures of palm-frees,
cherubim, lions, and oxen. The stand doubt-
less formed a hollow basin for receiving the
water which fell from the laver itself, and which
appears to have been drawn from it by means of
cocks (i Kings vii:27-39).
(fl) Form and Capacity. The form of the
lavers is not mentioned ; but it is stated that each
of them contained forty bath.s, or, according to
the usual computation, about 300 English gallons.
(&) Brazen Sea. Solomon made a huge laver
supported by twelve brazen or copper oxen, with
their heads pointing three and three to the
four cardinal points; this was for the priests
to wash at, and was called the brazen sca{\ Kings
vii:22-44; 2 Chron. iv.). From the manner in
which the bases of the lavers are described, it is
evident that they were regarded as admirable
works of art ; but it is difficult to follow out the
details which are given. This is evinced by the
great discrepancy in the different figures, drawn
from the descriptions which are given by Lamy,
Calmet. and Villalpandus.
(3) Second Temple Laver. In the second
temple there appears to have been only one laver.
Of its size or shape we have no information, but
it was probably like those of Solomon's temple.
LAW (la), (Heb. ^':i'P^. to-raw' ; Gr. vbiwi, nom'-
os, custom, law), means a rule of conduct enforced
by an authority superior to that of the moral
beings to whom it is given.
LAW
1U49
LAW
1. Expressive of filoral Connection. The
word law is sometimes also employed in order to
express not only the moral connection between
free agents of an inferior and others of a superior
power, but also in order to express the nexus
causalis, the connection between cause and effect
in inanimate nature. However, the expression,
law of nature, lex naturcr, is improper and figura-
tive. In a wider sense the word vAmoi. 'law,'
is employed in order to express any guiding or
directing power, originating from the nature of
anything existing. The apostolic use of the word
has been well expressed by Claudius Guilliaud in
his work, In Omncs Pauli Epistolas Cullatio, p.
21. Law is a certain power restraining from sonte,
and impelling to other things or actions. What-
ever has such a power, and exercises any sway
over man, may be called law, in a metaphorical
sense.
2. filosaical Law. If, however, the word
v6iM>s,'\a\v,' alone is used, it is almost invariably
equivalent to tlic lazv of Moses. The law is espe-
cially embodied in the last four books of the Pen-
tateuch. In Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers there
is perceptible some arrangement of the various pre-
cepts, although they are not brought into a system.
In Deuteronomy the law or legislation contained in
the three preceding books is repeated with slight
modifications. The whole legislation has for its
manifest object, to found a theocratical hierarchy.
In the Mosaical hierarchy the aim is manifest,
viz. to make that which is really holy (t6 Upbv)
prevail. In the Mosaical legislation the priests
certainly e.xcrcise a considerable authority as ex-
ternal ministers of holiness; but we find nothing
to be compared with the sale of indulgences in the
Roman Catholic church.
(1) Taxation by Tithe. Almost the whole
amount of taxation was paid in the form of tithe,
which was employed in maintaining the priests
and Lcvites as the hierarchical office-bearers of
government, in supporting the poor, and in pro-
viding those things which were used in sacrifices
and sacrificial feasts.
The taxation by tithe, exclusive of almost all
other taxes, is certainly the most lenient and most
considerate which has ever anywhere been adopted
or proposed. It precludes the possibility of at-
tempting to extort from the people contributions
beyond their power, and it renders the taxation of
each individual proportionate to his possessions ;
and even this exceedingly mild taxation was ap-
parently left to the conscience of each person.
This we infer from there never occurring in the
Bible the slightest vestige either of persons having
been sued or goods distrained for tithes, and only
an indication of curses resting upon the neglect of
paying thein.
(2) Poll Tax. Besides the tithes there was a
small poll-tax, amounting to half a shekel for each
adult male. This tax was paid for the mainte-
nance of the sanctuary. In addition to this, the
first-fruits and the firstborn of men and cattle
augmented the revenue. The firstborn of men
and of unclean beasts were to be redeemed by
money. To this may be added some fines paid in
the shape of sin-ofTerings, and also the vows and
freewill offerings.
(3) Further Development. The Mosaical
legislation is the further development of the cove-
nant between Jehovah and Abraham. It is a po-
litico-religious institution given to a nation of
freeholders. The fundamental laws of this con-
stitution are:
(1) Jehovah alone is God, and the iniisiblc King
of the nation (comp. Josephus, Contra Apionem,
ii, i6).
(2) The nation is the peculiar property of Jeho-
vah, its King ; and it is therefore bound to avoid
all uncleanness, as well moral as physical defile-
ment, which must result from intermi.xture with
foreign nations who arc not subjects of the theoc-
racy. ,'\ confederacy with these nations is accord-
ingly forbidden (Exod. xxiii:32; xxxiv:i2).
(3) The whole territory of the state was to be
so distributed that each family should have a free-
hold, which was intended to remain permanently
the inheritance of this family, and which, even if
sold, was to return at stated periods to its orig-
inal owners. Since the whole population con-
sisted of families of freeholders, there were,
strictly speaking, neither citizens, nor a profane or
lay-nobility, nor lords temporal. We do not over-
look the fact that there were persons called heads,
elders, princes, dukes, or leaders among the Is-
raelites; that is, persons who by their intelligence,
character, wealth, and other circumstances, were
leading men among them, and from whom even
the seventy judges were chosen, who assisted
Moses in administering justice to the nation.
(4) Even the inhabitants of towns were free-
holders, and their e-xercise of trade seems to have
been combined with, or subordinate to, agricultural
pursuits. The only nobility was that of the tribe
of Levi, and all the lords were lords spiritual,
the descendants of Aaron. The priests and Le-
vites were ministers of public worship, that is,
ministers of Jehovah the King ; and as such, min-
isters of state, by whose instrumentality the leg-
islative as well as the judicial power was exer-
cised. The poor were mercifully considered, but
beggars are never mentioned. Hence it appears
that as, on the one hand, there was no lay no-
bility, so, on the other, there was no mendicity.
We learn from the Epistle of Paul to the He-
brews (i.x:l6, 17). that the Jews disposed of prop-
erty by wills; but it seems that in the times of
Moses, and for some period after him, all Israel-
ites died intestate. However, the word diadriKri,
as used in Matthew, Mark, Acts, Romans. Corin-
thians, Galatians, Ephesians, and repeatedly in the
Hebrews, implies rather a disposition, arrange-
ment, agreement between parties, than a will in
the legal acceptation of the term.
(5) There are no laws concerning guardians,
and none against lu.xurious living. The ineffi-
ciency of sumptuary laws is now generally recog-
nized, although renowned legislators in ancient
times, and in the middle ages, displayed on this
subject their wisdom falsely so called. Neither
are there any laws against suicide. Hence we in-
fer that suicide was rare, as we may well suppose
in a nation of small freeholders, and that the ineffi-
ciency of such laws was understood.
(6) The Mosaical legislation recognizes the hu-
man dignity of women and of slaves, and particu-
larly enjoins not to slander the deaf nor mislead
the blind.
(7) The laws of Moses against crimes are se-
vere, but not cruel. The agony of the death of
criminals was never artificially protracted.
(8) Moses expressly enjoined not to reap the
corners of fields, in consideration of the poor, of
persons of broken fortunes, and even of the beasts
of the field.
(9) Punishments were inflicted, in order spe-
cially to express the sacred indignation of the Di-
vine Lawgiver against willful transgression of his
commandments, and not for any purposes of hu-
man vengeance, or for the sake of frightening
other criminals.
LAW
1050
LAW
(10) In lawsuits very much was left to the dis-
cretion of the judges, whose position greatly re-
sembled that of a permanent jury, who had not
merely to decide whether a person was guilty,
but who frequently had also to award the amount
of punishment to be inflicted.
(11) In some instances the people at large were
appealed to, in order to inflict summary punish-
ment by stoning the criminal to death. This
was in fact the most' usual mode of execution.
Other modes of execution, also, such as burning,
were always public, and conducted with the co-
operation of the people.
(12) In the Old Testament we do not hear of a
learned profession of the law. Lawyers (voiukoI)
are mentioned only after the decline of the Mo-
saical institutions had considerably advanced.
As, however, certain laws concerning contagion
and purification were administered by the priests,
these miglit be called lawyers. They, however,
did not derive their maintenance from the ad-
ministration of these laws, but were supported
by glebe-lands, tithes, and portions of the sacri-
ficial offerings. It is, indeed, very remarkable,
that in a nation so entirely governed by law,
there were no lawyers forming a distinct profes-
sion, and that the nom-i-koi, lawyers, of a later
age were notsomuch remarkable for enforcing the
spirit of the law, as rather for ingeniously evad-
ing its injunctions, by leading the attention of the
people from its spirit to a most minute literal ful-
fillment of its letter.
(13) The present article is, of course, closely in-
terwoven with the contents of a number of others
which in this Encyclopaedia have preceded, or
which follow it in alphabetical order, such as
Adultery, Blood-revenge, Decalogue, Deuter-
onomy, Divorce, Exodus, Gospel^ Leviticus,
Marriage, Moses, Murder, Pentateuch, Rob-
bery, Sabbath, Sl.we, Theft, etc. It is, in-
deed, both unnecessary and impracticable to
exhaust in this place all that might with propriety
be brought under the head of Law. We therefore
make no such attempt, but refer our readers to
the cognate articles for further information. The
chief point here to be considered, is the authority
ascribed in the Bible itself to law in general, and
to Biblical law in particular. The misconceptions
on this subject prevalent in the religious world are
the more surprising, since many distinguished
ecclesiastical teachers of various periods, and
among these St. Augustine of the fourth and fifth,
and the Reformers of the sixteenth century, have
stated the Biblical doctrine respecting the law
with particular clearness.
3. Authority. Christ and the apostles ex-
press themselves respecting the authority of the
law so variously that in order to reconcile their
apparent contradictions the divines of various
Christian denominations have usually felt them-
selves compelled to distinguish between different
portions of the law, some of which, they assert,
were abolished by Christ, while they maintain
that others were established by him. Against this
convenient mode of overcoming the difficulty the
following observations may be adduced :
(1) Neither Christ nor the apostles ever distin-
guish between the moral, the ceremonial, and the
civil law. when they speak of its establishment or
its abolition.
(2) They even clearly indicate that the moral
law is by no means excepted when they speak of
the abolition of the law in general. Thus, for
instance. St. Paul, after having stated that the law
is not incumbent upon the righteous, guards us
against misunderstanding him, as if this referred
to the ceremonial law alone ; for he specifies va-
rious transgressors to whom the law is given, and
who are restrained by the same. The transgres-
sors mentioned by St. Paul are not those of the
ceremonial, but of the moral law (i Tim.
i:8-io).
(3) In order to reconcile the apparent contradic-
tions between the various dicta of the N.ew Testa-
ment concerning the authority of the law, we
must not commence, as is usually done, namely,
by distinguishing the matter of the law, but the
form of manner in which it is binding or obli-
gatory. He who said that not a jot nor a tittle of
the law should perish until all things were ful-
filled, certainly could not mean that more than
two-thirds of the law were abolished, but intended
forcibly to express the idea that, in a certain
sense, by his instrumentality, the whole law, with-
out any exception, had obtained an increased au-
thority. We, therefore, conceive that in order to
reconcile the apparent, but merely apparent, con-
tradictions of the New Testament, we must distin-
guish not so much the various materials, ritual,
civil, and moral, of which the law is composed,
as the various manners in which its modus obli-
gandi may exist.
(4) The authority which other beings may ex-
ercise upon us is twofold ; it is either nomothet-
ical or didactical. The nomothetical authority,
which a book, or the living voice of another
moral being may exercise upon us, is either such
that it precludes the exercise of our own judg-
ment, like that which Pythagoras is said to have
exercised upon his disciples, who were in the
habit of settling all their disputes, as by a finai
reason from which there was no appeal, by airbs
'l(t>a, he has said so; or the authority is such
as to excite the faculties of the listener, so that
he perceives the necessity of the truth communi-
cated. In this last case the authority exercised is
not nomothetical, but didactical.
(5) So it was also with the human race at large:
it was necessary that the law of Moses should ex-
ercise nomothetical authority by 'Cursed is he who
does not continue in the words of this law.' And
so it is now with a great portion of Christian re-
ligionists, who still require frightful curses and
opposite benedictions somewhat similar to those
formerly pronounced on the mountains Ebal and
Gerizim, in order to keep them in the right di-
rection. But the assertion of this nomothetical
authority was not the ultimate aim of Christ.
His most intimate disciple, whom he especially
loved, states strikingly, 'On 6 vbfioi Sii, Jiuriat (SbSti-
ij x^P*-^ '^^^ V d\i/i8ita dt&. 'ItjffoO Xpiarov iy^vero, For
the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth
ca?ne by Jesus Christ.
(6) It is a fact that Christ did not give new
laws, but only new motives for keeping the moral
precepts more or less clearly known to Jews and
Gentiles, by making it a prominent doctrine, that
love is due to God and to men in general, even
to our enemies, and that intentions are of greater
moral importance than outward acts.
(7) The characteristic of the doctrine of Christ
does not consist in new laws given, but rather in
the forgiveness ofifered for past transgressions,
and in the guidance of the Holy Spirit promised
to his true disciples. The authority of this Holy
Spirit is described in the Gospel of John, and in
the Epistle to the Romans, as superior to the let-
ter of the law. Whosoever is filled with this
Spirit is not under the law, although he fulfills
the holy aim and intention of the law. The true
disciple of Christ, if asked. Why did you not kill
such or such a person? cannot answer. Because
LAW
1051
LAWFUL
it is written, 'Thou shah do no tnurder.' Chris-
tians feel that they are filled with a spirit which
prevents them from desiring the commission of
crimes.
(8) It is very surprising that the clear percep-
tion of the true source of the law, which was
fulfilled even by its abrogation, could have been
so effectually obscured as is done by the doc-
trine current in the religious world concerning the
abolition of its civil and ceremonial, and the estab-
lishment of its moral precepts. The whole aim
and scope of the Mosaical legislation have been
established as much as the aim of temporary
police regulations, enacted in order to meet
the emergencies of a commonwealth during a
period of rebellion, is established and fulfilled by
him who restores perfect peace and public tran-
quillity, although the natural consequence of this
peace is, that those regulations cease to be in
force. On the other hand, although the Christian,
who is under the guidance of a spirit leading him
into all truth, cannot be led by this spirit to the
commission of any crime contrary to the moral
precepts of Moses, it cannot be said, that by not
committing murder and adultery, he obeys the
Mosaical law, any more than that he obeys the
injunctions of the Code Napoleon, in these par-
ticular instances.
4. Various Meanings Of. Some think
that by lan's, precepts, or commandments, in the
books of Moses, is meant the moral law ; by
statutes, the ceremonial, and that by judg-
ments the judicial laws are signified; but this
observation will not always hold. It is certain,
that by law, commandment, precept, statute, and
judgment, used in this signification, is often meant
one and the same thing. ( i ) Tlie name laiv, or
commandment, may denote a thing as the will of
a superior; statute, represents it as ordained and
established by high authority ; judgment repre-
sents it as full of wisdom, and as the standard
by which God will judge men. (2) Those pas-
sages of Scripture which require any good qual-
ity in us, or good work to be performed by us,
are the law in a strict sense (John 1:17). (3)
The ten commandments are called the law, or
commandment ; n3.y, sometimes the last six are
so called (James li.li; Rev. xxii:i4; Rom. ii:
25, and vii :7, 8, xiii;8). (4) The commandment
of loving one another, is old. as it was contained
in the mora! law ever since the creation ; and it is
new, as enjoined afresh by our Savior, as ex-
emplified in his life, and enforced with the new
motive of his dying love (John ii :/, 8, and xiii :
14). (5) The whole constitution o'f the covenant
between God and the Hebrews, and the rites of
worship thereto belonging are called a "lazv."
or "law of ordinances," and a "carnal command-
ment:" as, by the authority of God, so many
rites, especially relating to carnal sacrifices, wash-
ings, and the like, were therein required (Eph.
ii:i5; Heb. x:i; vii:i6). (6) The five books of
Moses are called "the law," as they abound with
the requirements and prohibitions of God (Mai.
iv:4; Matt. v:i7) ; and. for the same reason, the
Old Testament is called "a law" (John x:34; xv :
2J; I Cor. xiv:2i). (7) The whole word of
God is called "a law" "statutes" etc., as it is the
sole rule of our faith and practice (Ps. i:2; xix :
7, 8). (8) The doctrines of the gospel are called
"o laxu'' and the "law of faith:" they teach and
instruct men, and when believed by faith, they
strongly influence to holy obedience (Is. ii :3 ;
xlii:4; Rom. iii:27), and they are a "perfect laxu
of liberty." proclaim a perfect deliverance and
redemption to us through the blood of God's Son,
and prompt to a kindly and free obedience to
him ; or this perfect "la~o of liberty" m.ay be taken
for the law as a rule in the hand of Christ, which
is pleasant to his followers (James i :2S ; ii:i2;.
(9) The commandments and word of God are a
"law ordained to life," and arc "sitatutcs of life."
In believing and obeying these, we receive or pos-
sess life temporal and spiritual, and are prepared
for life eternal (Ezek. xxxiii;i5; Rom. vii:io).
(10) One is "without the law," when not under
the ceremonial law, or not bound by the law (l
Cor. i.x:2i); or when he is without the knowl-
edge of it, and destitute of the experience of its
convincing power on the conscience (Rom. ii:i2;
vii :8, 9) ; or when they have not the word of God
revealed to them (Rom. ii:i4). (11) Those "un-
der the law," are either Jews under the cere-
monial, or sinners under the broken covenant, or
saints under the law as a rule. (12) "The law is a
schoolmaster to bring us to Christ:" the cere-
monial law pointed him out, and led to him as the
end and antitype of all its rites (Gal. iii:24). "The
law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus makes
free from the law of sin and death," whether
death, spiritual, temporal, and eternal (Rom. viii :
2). (13) The principle of grace in the saints is
called the "law of their mind;" influenced by the
views of God in Christ, it reigns, and determines
the soul to obedience. (14) The principle of
corruption in men is called the "law of sin," as
it is altogether sinful ; and determines to sinful
thoughts, words, and actions ; and it is called "the
law in the members," as though dislodged from
its throne in the heart, it continues strongly to
actuate the powers of the soul, and members of
the body, to what is impure and wicked (Rom.
vii:23, 25). (15) The "law" may sometimes de-
note men's observance of God's commandments,
as that corresponds to the law imposed in the
Scripture, or impressed on the heart (Rom. iii :
21 ; Gal. iii :i I ; Phil, iii :6, 9).
5. Literature. Compare beside Johann
David Michaelis, Mosaisches Recht, translated by
Alexander Smith, under the title. Commentaries
on the Laws of Moses, by the late John David
Michaelis, London, 1814; Joscphus, Contra Apio-
ncm, ii, 16, sq.; Mosaicarum et Romanarum legum
collatio, referred usually to the fifth century; Jos.
Priestley, Comparison of the Lazv of Moses with
those of the Hindoos, etc.; Hugo Grotius, De
lure Belli et Pads.
LAW, CEREMONIAL (la ser'e-mo'nJ-al).
(1) The ceremonial law regulated the office and
conduct of Priests, Levites, Ncthinims, Nazarites,
and of circumcision, feasts, offerings, tabernacle,
temple, and utensils thereof, voxvs, purifications,
etc. (See the articles on the above subjects.)
(2) In respect of observance, this law was a
heavy yoke, and partition wall ; but in respect of
the signification of its ceremonies, it was an ob-
scure gospel (Gal. v:i; Eph. ii:i4; Col. ii:i7).
(See Law.)
LAWFUL (Gr. tletrn, ex'es-tee), agreeable to
law.
".Ml things are lawful, but all things are not
expedient ;" the apostle means that it is lawful,
simply considered, to eat any kind of provision;
but to eat of meat sacrificed to idols, might, in
special circumstances, be injurious to weak con-
sciences, and ought to be avoided (i Cor. vi:i2).
In his trance, Paul heard things which were not
"lawful to be uttered:" so mysterious and grand,
that it was not proper to declare them to men in
their embodied state, as they could not be profited
thereby, or more truly they were beyond the power
of earthly language to express (2 Cor. xii:4).
LAWGIVER
1052
LAYING ON OF HANDS
LAWGIVER (Heb. Pi-."^, meh-kho-kake' ; Gr.
voitoBirrii, nom-oth-ei' ace),owe. who prescribes laws.
God or Christ is a "Lawgiver ;" his sovereign will
is the infallible rule of our conduct ; and he has
prescribed laws to us in his word (Is. xxxiii:22;
James iv:i2); and he alone is the Lord of our
conscience, the simple expression of his will binds
it to obedience, and his laws are subject to no
examination, being absolutely supreme and in-
fallible. Moses was a "lawgiver;" by him God
gave his system of laws to the Hebrews; the law
is called his, and he is said to give its command-
ments (Num. xxi:i8; Deut. xxxiii:2l). David
and his successors in rule are called "lawgivers ;"
they had power of enacting laws for the civil gov-
ernment of the Hebrew nation (Gen. xlixiio;
Ps. lx:7).
LAW, JTJBICIAL.
(1) Regulations. The judicial law regulated
the affairs of their kings, judges, fields, marriages,
punishments, etc. Some laws relative to redeem-
ers, murders, adultery, cities of refuge, male-
factors, strangers, etc., seem to have been partly
ceremonial and partly judicial.
(2) Preservation of the Laws. Great care
was taken to preserve the knowledge of the di-
vine law. Besides the table of the ten command-
ments deposited in the ark, a copy of the books of
Moses was laid up somewhere in the side of the
ark. The Jews say that every tribe had a copy
of it. From this, other copies were taken. Every
king was obliged to transcribe one for himself.
The whole law was to be publicly read over at the
feast of tabernacles, in the year of release, be-
sides the reading of it on other public occasions.
Nay, they were required to have it written on
their hearts, and to teach it diligently unto their
children (Deut. xvii and xxxi:9-i9; vi and x).
To this day the Jews have the utmost regard for
llieir law, reading in the ancient manner so much
of it every Sabbath, in their synagogues. The
book of it publicly used, is written witli the great-
est exactness, and is carefully preserved from
everything tending to defile it. (See Law; Tra-
dition.) (W. Smith, The Pentateuch; Martensen,
Christian Ethics, i, vol. i; Hodge, Sys. Theol., vol.
iii.)
LAW OF MOSES (Heb. '""l?^ '^'^^, to-raw'
Mo-sheh'), signifies the whole body of Mosaic leg-
islation.
The moral law was most solemnly proclaimed
by C^od himself, after a terrible thunder, light-
ning, and earthquake, and from the midst of the
flames of fire ; and was divided into ten precepts,
written by God himself upon two tables of stone.
Four of these respect our duty to God, and were
written on the first, which, in sum require our
loving him as the Lord our God with all our
heart, soul, mind, and strength ; six were written
on the second, which in sum require our loving
our neighbor as ourselves (E.xod. xix, xx, xxxii
and xxxiv; Matt. xxii:37-39). (l) More partic-
ularly, the first commandment requires that God
alone should, both in heart and life, be acknowl-
edged, worshiped, and glorified, as the true God,
and our God ; and that all Atheism, profaneness,
and idolatry, be abstained from. (2) The second
requires that all the ordinances of worship insti-
tuted by God in his word, should be received,
observed, and kept pure and entire; and all car-
nal conceptions of God, all idolatry and super-
stition, and monuments, or occasions thereof be
detested. (3) The third requires that God's
names, titles, attributes, ordinances, words, and
works should be, under the severest penalties,
used only in a holy and reverent manner. (4)
The fourth requires that whatever times God has
appointed in his word, particularly one whole day
in seven, be carefully observed in spiritual exer-
cises, as holy to the Lord. (5) The fifth requires
the preservation of honor, and performance of
relative duties between parents and children, hus-
bands and wives, masters and servants, magis-
trates and subjects, ministers and people; and, in
fine, between superiors and inferiors, in age, sta-
tion, gifts, or grace: and between equals, one to
another. (6) The sixth requires that all lawful
endeavors shall be used to promote and preserve
the life of ourselves and others, temporal, spirit-
ual, or eternal ; and prohibits all malice, envy,
murder, angry words, drunkenness, and every thing
else tending to the hurt of soul or body. (7) The
seventh prohibits all kinds of whoredom, forni-
cation, adultery, incest, bestiality, self-defilement,
and other uncleanness, and every thing in heart
speech, or behavior, tending thereto. (8) The
eighth requires, that every thing lawful be done
to promote our own and our neighbor's outward
esi'ate; and all dishonesty, stealing, robbery, ex-
tortion, oppression, sacrilege, etc., be detested.
(9) The ninth requires that the utmost care be
taken to maintain and preserve truth, and our
own and our neighbor's good name ; and prohib-
its all falsehood, lying, dissimulation, flattery,
railing, or reproachful language. (10) The
tenth prohibits the very root of wickedness in the
heart, and first motions thereof, and all discon-
tentment, envy, and inordinate affection towards
our neighbor or anything that is his. (See Dec-
alogue; Law.)
LAWYER (la'yer), (Gr. to^ik^s, nom-ik-os' , ac-
cording to law), a term used to signify one who is
conversant with the law. An interpreter of the
law, a jurist, as in Tit. iii:i3.
When, therefore, one is called a lawyer, this
is understood with reference to the laws of the
land in which he lived, or to which he belonged.
Hence among the Jews a lawyer was one versed
in the laws of Moses, which he taught in the
schools and synagogues (Matt, xxii :35 ; Luke
x:2S; xi :4s ; xiv:3). The same person who is
called 'a lawyer' in these texts, is in the parallel
passage (Mark xii 128) called a scribe {gram-ma-
toos) ; whence it has been inferred that the func-
tions of the lawyers and the scribes were iden-
tical. The individual may have been both a lawyer
and a scribe ; but it does not thence follow that
all lawyers were scribes. Some suppose, how-
ever, that the 'scribes' were the public expound-
ers of the law, while the 'lawyers' were the pri-
vate expounders and teachers of it. But this is
a mere conjecture; and nothing more is really
known than that the 'lawyers' were expounders
of the law, whether publicly or privately, or both.
Among the Jews the lawyers were generally ene-
mies to our Savior in the days of his flesh, re-
jected the counsel of God against themselves, and
were condemned by him for binding heavier bur-
dens on others than they themselves chose to
bear.
LAY (la), (Heb, WV , seem).
1. (Job xli;26). "If one lay at him with the
sword," hence to lay at or to strike at; also to lay
out and to lay away.
2. (Josh.ii:!). "They came into the house . . .
and lay there," R. V., i. e., to lodge or dwell.
LAYING ON OF HANDS.
An act symbolizing dedication to a special pur-
pose. The Israelites placed their hands on the
LAZARUS
1053
LEANNOTH
heads of the Levites, dedicating them to the serv-
ice of the Lord at the tabernacle in the stead of the
firstborn of all the tribes. They pressed down their
hands upon the heads of the Levites, doubtless with
the intention of signifying thereby that with God's
permission and by his authority, they transferred
their own obligation to service to the Levites
(Num. viii:5-20). The Israelite, who brougnt an
animal to the sacrificial altar, placed his hands
upon the victim's head, thereby dedicating it to
God and making it his own representative and sub-
stitute (Lev. i :4 ; xvi:2l). The aged Jacob laid
his hands on the heads of Joseph's sons, giving
them a place among his own sons, and bestowing
upon them the covenant blessing, transferring it
from himself as its past possessor to them (Gen.
xlviii:s-20). The hands of presbytery were laid
upon the head of Timothy. The young man was
thereby set apart to official service and grace was
bestowed (i Tim. iv:i4). Imposition of the
hands of presbytery denoted not only commis-
sion, but also the bestowal, by those divinely au-
thorized, of official spiritual grace; or at least it
signified the authoritative recommendation of the
candidate to God as a recipient of grace. (Davis,
Bib. Diet.) (See Imposition of Hands; Pre.s-
byter; Presdytery.)
I<AZAKXTS (laz'a-riis), (Gr. Adfopos, ladzar-os),
an abridged form of the Hebrew name Eleazer.
!• An inhabitant of Bethany, brother of Mary
and Martha, who was honored with the friendship
of Jesus, by whom he was raised from the dead
after he had been four days in the tomb. This
great miracle is minutely described in John xi.
The credit which Christ obtained among the peo-
ple by this illustrious act, of which the life and
presence of Lazarus afforded a standing evidence,
induced the Sanhedrim, in plotting against Jesus,
to contemplate the destruction of Lazarus also
(John xii:io). Whether they accomplished this
object or not we are not informed: but the prob-
ability seems to be that when they had satiate-d
their malice on Christ they left Lazarus unmo-
lested. According to an old tradition in Epipha-
nius {Har., Ixvi :34, p. 652), Lazarus was thirty
years old when restored to life, and lived thirty
years after. (See EUicott, Life of Christ; Wat-
son, Lazarus of Bethany.)
2. A beggar represented in the parable of Dives
as abjectly poor (Luke xvi:2o-25).
LEAD (ISd), (Heb. ^W. o-feh'reth, a well-
known metal, the first Scriptural notice of which
occurs in the triumphal song in which Moses cele-
brates the overthrow of Pharaoh, whose host is
there said to have ' sunk like lead' in the waters
of the Red Sea (Exod. xv:io).
Before the use of quicksilver was known, lead
was used for the purpose of purifying silver, and
separating it from other mineral substances (Plin.
Hist. Nat. xxxii:3i). To this Jeremiah alludes
where he figuratively describes the corrupt condi-
tion of the people : 'In their fire the lead is con-
sumed (in the crucible) ; the smelting is in vain,
for the evil is not separated' (Jer. vi:29). Ezekiel
(xxii: 18-22) refers to the same fact, and for the
same purpose, but amplifies it with greater mi-
nuteness of detail. Compare also Mai. iii .2, 3.
Job (xix 123,24) expresses a wishthat his words
were engraven 'with an iron pen and lead.' These
words are commonly supposed to refer to en-
graving on a leaden tablet ; and it is undeniable
that such tablets were anciently used as a writ-
ing material (Pausan. ix:3i; Plin. Hist. Nat.
xiii:ii). But our authorized translators, by ren-
dering 'an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever,'
seem to have entertained the same view with
Rosenmiiller, who supposes that molten lead was
to be poured into letters sculptured on stone with
an iron chisel, in order to raise the inscription.
Although the Hebrew weights were usually of
stone, and are indeed called 'stones,'a leaden weight
denominated anach, which is the Arabic word for
lead, occurs in Amos vii -.y, 8. In Acts xxvii :28,
a plummet for taking soundings at sea is men-
tioned, and this was of course of lead.
The ancient uses of lead in the East seem to
have been very few, nor are they now numerous.
One may travel far in western Asia without dis-
covering any trace of this metal in any of the
numerous useful applications which it is made to
serve in European countries.
We are not aware that any trace of lead has
yet been found within the limits of Palestine.
But ancient lead-mines, in some of which the
ore has been exhausted by working, have been dis-
covered by Mr. Burton in the mountains between
the Red Sea and the Nile; and lead is also said
to exist at a place called Sheff, near Mount Sinai.
LEAF, LEAVES (lef. levz), (Heb. ^\>r, aw-
leh' , a coming up).
Figurative. This word is used either in
the singular or plural in three different senses
symbolically.
(1) Of Trees (Gen. viii:ii; Is. 1:30; vi:i3;
Matt, xxi.ig; Mark xi:i3; xiii :28, etc).
(2) Of Doors (Heb. ^)^.. tsay-law' , a side), (i
Kings vi:32,34), where the Hebrew means "beams,"
"ribs," "sides." In Ezek. xli 124 "leaves" no doubt
means that the doors folded, as in our folding door.
(3) Of a Book (Heb. H.^?, deh'leth), or more
properly of the page or column of a roll (Jer.
xxxvi:23).
LEAGUE flsg), (Heb. ^1""!?, ber-eeth'), a coven-
ant, or solemn agreement, for peace, protection or
assistance, or subjection between nations, or be-
tween princes and people (Josh. ix:ii, 16; 2 Sam.
v:3; I kings v:i2,and xv:i9).
After the league made with Antiochus Epiph-
anes, he wrought deceitfully; after a covenant
of friendship with Demetrius, his nephew,
the true heir, he deceitfully procured the
kingdom of Syria to himself; after a covenant of
friendship with his other nephew, Philomeier, king
of_ Egypt, he deceitfully invaded that country to
seize it for himself (Dan. xi:23). To be in
league with the stones of the field, fowls, or
beasts, is, by virtue of an interest in God's new
covenant of peace, to be secured by God their pro-
prietor and manager, from receiving any hurt
by them (Job v:23; Ezek. xxxiv:2S; Hos. ii:i8).
(See Covenant.)
LEAH (le'ah), (Heb. ^''^■, lay-aw' , weary), one
of the two daughters of Laban who became the
wives of Jacob (Gen. xxix:i6).
She was not so beautiful as her sister Rachel,
having weak eyes, which probably accounts for
Jacob's preference for the younger sister. Leah
bore Jacob six sons, Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah
(xxix:32-35), Issachar, and Zcbulun (xxxri;-
20), and a daughter, Dinah (verse 21). She ap-
pears to have died in Canaan, as she is not men-
tioned in the migration to Egypt (xlvi:6), and
was buried in Hebron (xlix:3i).
LEANNOTH (le-an'noth), (Heb. "'-??, le-an-
nolh' , for answering), a musical direction in the
title of I's. Ixxxviii, showing that it was to be
chanted in the manner indicated.
LEASING
1054
LEBANON
LEASING (lez'ing), (Heb. 2J5_ kaw-zawb' ,
"falsehood"), is retained in the A.V.of Ps. iv:2; v:6,
from the old English versions. The Hebrew word
is elsewhere almost uniformly translated "lies"
(Ps. xl:4; lviii:3, etc.).
LEATHER (leth'er), (Heb. 11^. Bre), 2 Kings
i;8; Matt. iii:4; in both these passages the refer-
ence is to a girdle. The word "skin" might be
translated leather in Lev. xi:32; Num. xxxi:20;
also "raiment" (Lev. xiii:48).
LEAVEN and FERMENT (lev'n and fer'-
ment).
In Hebrew we find two distinct words, both
translated leaven in the common version of the
Bible. This is unfortunate, for there is the same
distinction between Seh-ore', "'^''^ and khaw-
mates' , Y-?, in the Hebrew, as between leaven
aTid ferment in the English. Chemically speaking,
the 'ferment' or 'yeast' is the same substance in
both cases; but 'leaven' is more correctly applied
to solids, 'ferment' both to liquids and solids.
(1) Process of Fermentation. The organic
chemists define the process of fermentation, and
the substance which excites it, as follows : —
'Fermentation is nothing else but the putrefac-
tion of a substance containing no nitrogen. Fer-
ment, or yeast, is a substance in a state of putre-
faction, the atoms of which are in a continual
motion.' This definition is in strict accordance
with the views of the ancients, and gives point
and force to many passages of Sacred Writ (Exod.
xii:i5; Matt, xvi :6, ii, 12; Mark viii:i5; Luke
xii:i; xiii:2i; i Cor. v:s-8; Gal. v:9).
(2) Substances Prohibited. Leaven, and
fermented or even some readily fermentible sub-
stances (as honey), were prohibited in many of
the typical institutions both of the Jews and
Gentiles. Plutarch {Rom-Quast. cix. 6) assigns
as the reason why the priest of Jupiter was not
allowed to touch leaven, 'that it comes out of cor-
ruption, and corrupts that with which it is min-
gled.' See also Aul. Gellius, viii:is. All fer-
mented substances were prohibited in the Paschal
Feast of the Jews (Exod. xii:8, ig, 20) ; also dur-
ing the succeeding seven days, usually called 'The
Feast of Unleavened Bread,' though bread is not
in the original. God forbade either ferment or
honey to be offered to him in his temple (1. e.
in the symbolical rites), while they were permitted
in offerings designed to be consumed as food
(Num. xv:20, 21). On the same principle of
symbolism, God prescribes that salt shall always
constitute a part of the pblations to him (Lev.
ii:ii). Salt prevents corruption or decay, and
preserves flesh. Hence it is used as a symbol of
incorruption and perpetuity. Thus St. Paul (comp.
Col. iv:6; Mark ix :so) uses 'salt' as preserva-
tive from corruption, on the same principle which
leads him to employ that which is unfermented
(4fu/ttos) as an emblem of purity and uncorrupted-
ness.
'The usual leaven in the East is dough kept
till it becomes sour, and which is kept from one
day to another for the purpose of preserving
leaven in readiness. Thus, if there should be no
leaven in all the country for any length of time
as much as might be required could easily be
produced in twenty-four hours. Sour dough,
however, is not exclusively used for leaven in the
East, the lees of wine being in some parts em-
ployed as yeast' (Pictorial Bible, vol. i, p. 161).
F. R. L.
To commemorate Israel's hasty departure from
Egypt, without having time to leaven their dough,
they were prohibited to use any leaven at the
passover-feast, or to offer it on God's altar in
any of their meat-offerings (Exod. xii:i5-i9;
Lev. ii:ii).
Figurative. On account of the penetrat-
ing and diffusive nature of leaven it is used sym-
bolically of moral influence, good or bad :
(1) The gospel-church of God, which, from
small beginnings, gradually spreads in the world ;
the gospel of Christ, which gradually prevails to
reform and convert the nations of the world ; and
the work of inward grace, which gradually pre-
vails in, and assimilates the hearts of men to
its own likeness (Matt. xiii:33).
(2) The erroneous doctrines, corrupt glosses of
the Scripture, or vain traditions of the Pharisees,
Sadducees, and Herodians, and their corrupt exam-
ples, whereby many were infected (Matt, xvi:
6, 12).
(3) Scandal, and scandalous sinners, who infect
and cast a blot on the church (i Cor. v:6).
(4) Malice, hypocrisy, and like corruptions in
the heart, which exceedingly defile us, and render
us infectious to others (i Cor. v:7).
LEBANA (leb'a-na), (Neh. vii:48). See Leb-
ANAH.
LEBANAH(leb'a-nah), (Heb. ^it?, leb-aw-naw' ,
whiteness), one of the Nethinim whose descend-
ants were among those who returned from captiv-
ity under Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:45), B. C. before 536.
LEBANON (leb'a-non). (Heb. 1"?^, leb-aiu-
nohn' , white from the snow on its peaks), a famous
mountain in the south of Syria, and north of
Canaan. When taken at large, it is about three
hundred miles in circumference, and consists of
two large mountains, Lebanon or Libanus, and
Antilibanus. Hills of less elevation run from it
in every direction (Hos. xiv:5). Its streams ren-
dered the rich soil of the valleys extremely pro-
ductive. The lower zone was covered with vines
(verses 6, 7), but the mountains were most noted
for their forests of gigantic cedars. Fir trees or
cypresses also abounded (i Kings v:6-io; 2 Kings
xix:23 ; Is. xl :i6; Ix :I3; Zech. xi :i). Lions and
leopards roamed in the woods (2 Kings xiv:9;
Cant. iv:8).
Lebanon is remarkable for the grandeur and
beauty of its scenery, and supplied the sacred
writers with many expressive figures (Ps. Ixxii :
16; civ:i6-i8; Cant. iv:i5; Is. ii:i3; xxxv:2; Lx:
13; Hos. xiv:5). (See Libanus.)
Figurative. Lebanon is used to symbolize
that which is strong, great and beautiful,
(l) Jesus Christ, and his church, are likened to
Lebanon, for their spiritual comeliness and per-
petual flourish, and for their fragrancy and fruit-
fulness (Cant. v:is; Ps. Ixxii: 16; Is. .xxxv :2 and
lx:i3; Hos. xiv:5-7). (2) Jerusalem, and the
temple thereof, are called Lebanon, because much
built of the cedars of Lebanon; and the houses
of Jerusalem were so many and high as to re-
semble the forest of Lebanon (Hab. ii:i7; Zech.
.xi:i; Ezek. xvii:3; Jer. xxii:23). (3) Sennache-
rib's army, and the Assyrian empire, are called
Lebanon. How great was once their glory and
strength I but how cut down at last by the axe
of God's judgments! (Is. x:34; Ezek. xxxi :3, 15,
16). (4) "Lebanon shall be turned into a fruitful
field, and the fruitful field be esteemed a forest."
The Gentile nations shall become a flourishing
church, and the Jews shall be cast out, and live
without God, and without Christ, and without
hope in the world (Is. xxix:l7 and xxxii:i5). (5)
To ^o up to Lebanon and Bashan, or Mount
LEBAOTH
1056
LEG
Gilead. and cry, signifies, that the Jews would
have none to help them (Jer. xxii:23).
liEBAOTH (leb'a-oth). (Heb. "1X3^, leb-aw-
ot/t' , liiiiis), a place which formed one of the last
groups of southern cities possessed by the tribe of
Judali (Josh. xv:32); probably the same as Beth-
LEBAOTH (Josh. xix:6).
LEBBET78 or LEBBiETTS (leb-be'us or leb-
bae'us), (Gr. AefiPaiot, leb-bak'yos, courageous), a
surname of the Apostle Judas or Jude (Matt. x:3),
one of the twelve apostles. He was also called
Thaddaeus, which perhaps was his regular a/oi/o//r
name.
LEBONAH (le-bo'nah), "(Heb. ^r'^). leb-o-
naw' , frankincense).
A landmark north of Shiloh (Judg. xxi:i9).
It is no doubt the modern Lubban, a little south
LEES (lez), (Heb. "'^F. sheh'mer something
preserved), the dregs of wine that fall to tlie
bottom of the vessel m which it is retiiied.
These lees are preserved, and new wine poured
on them, and allowed to remain for a long time.
It is said this process communicates both strength
and flavor to the wine (Is. xxv:6).
Figurative. Men are " settled on their lees,"
when, through long prosperity, they have
arrived at much outward strength, and are fixed
in, and delighted with corrupt courses (Jer. xlviii:
II ; Zeph. i:i2). To drink the Ices of the cup of
wrath means to drain the cup, enduring the pun-
ishment to the utmost (Ps. Ixxv :8, rendered
dregs).
LEFT (left). (Heb. 7ll<)5to sem'ole, dark; Gr.
el/iifvijios, hew-o'noo-tiios, of good omen)
The Grand Range of Lebanon.
of Nablus, on the road to Jerusalem (Wilson, ii,
2g2, .j^.; Porter, p. 330; Robinson, Researches,
iii, 90).
LECAH (le'kah), (Heb. '^?^ lay-kaw' ,yiAV\w%,
course), a name occurring only in the genealogies
of Judah (I Chron. iv:2i), but whether of a place
founded by Er, or his son Lecah, the son of Shelah ;
or whether it is the descendant of Shelah himself
that is meant cannot be absolutely stated.
LEDGE (lej), (Heb. 2^lJ, shaw-lawb'), an orna-
ment covering the angles at the base of a pedestal,
or the angles themselves (i Kings vii:28, 29).
LEECH (lech). See Horse-leech.
LEEK (lek), (Heb. 1*V!?, khaw-tseer'], a bul-
bous vegetable like the onion, a particular species
of which has been cultivated in Egypt from a very
early period (Num. xi:5).
It is eaten raw with bread. In the passage
cited it is supposed that lettuce, salads, or savory
herbs generally may be intended, as the original
word in the Old Testament is twelve times ren-
dered "grass" and once "herb." (See Chatzir.)
The left hand was esteemed of ill omen, hence
the term sinister as equivalent to unfortunate.
This was especially the case among the Greeks
and Romans. That which came from the left in
the auguries was regarded as sinister; "the Greek
term was used euphemistically in taking auguries;
that is for something sinister for which a good
name was desired." (Grimm Lex.) Among
other Hebrew uses this indicated the north (Job
xxiii:9; Gen. xiv:is), the face being understood
to be turned to the cast.
LEFT-HANDED (ISffhind'ed), (Heb. '-'?!' ""!
"'jr^' , itter ydd yetiiino, shut, as to his right hand,
Judg. iii:is; xx:i6), denotes one who is unable
skillfully to use his right hand, and also, perhaps,
one who is ambidexter, i. c., who can use both
hands equally well, although this latter meaning
is a doubtful one. (See Hand.)
LEO, the limb of the body by which men and
other animals walk. Several Hebrew words in
the A, V. are translated by the term leg:
1. Kaw-raiv' (Heb. ^^?), the lower limb, the
shank (Exod. xiin;; xxix:i7;Lev. iig, 13; iv:ll,etc.)
LEGERDEMAIN
1056
LENTIL
2. Shake (Heb. p'i"), the shin, but used of the
whole limb, e. g., of a person (Deut. xxviii:35; Ps.
cxlvii:io; Prov. xxviry). It is also used of the
"thigh" (Is. xlvii:2) in the phrase "hip and thigh"
(Judg. xv:8). ^_^^
3. Reh'gel (Heb. •i'^, properly \\\e foot, i Sam.
xvii:6j.
4. Improperly io\ slww'bel {Weh. ■?", the train
or trailing dress of a woman. Is. xlvii;2), and of
tseh-au'-cia-j.!' (Heb. '^1^'V, an ornamental chain
for tlie ankle;.
The bones of the legs of persons crucified were
broken to hasten death (John xix:3i). (Mc. & Str.
Bib. Cyc.) (See Crucifixion.)
Figurative. ( i ) Men's "legs" are taken
for their strength (Ps. c.xlvii:lo), and are called
"strong men," who bow themselves on becoming
feeble in old age (Eccl. xii:3). (2) The "iron
legs" of Nebuchadnezzar's image, and its feet and
toes, partly of iron and clay, not rightly coalesc-
ing together, perhaps represented the strong Ro-
man empire, with two consuls at its head ; and,
after many ages, divided into the eastern and
western empires, and which at last was mingled
with Goths, Huns, and Vandals, ■ but did not
rightly incorporate with them, nor "retain its
strength, after they had well begun their inva-
sions; and which was divided at last into ten
kingdoms (Dan. ii:33). (See Daniel.) (3) A
parable in the mouth of fools, is like the "un-
equal legs of the lame" (Prov. xxvi:7).
LEGERDEMAIN (lej'er-ds-man). See Magi.
LEGION (le'jun), (Gr. Aeyeiiv, leg-ee-one' , a
Greek form of the Latin legio), a division of the
Roman army. It always comprised a large body
of men; but the number varied so much at differ-
ent times that there is considerable discrepancy
in the statements with reference to it.
The legion appears to have originally contained
about 3.000 men, and to have risen gradually to
twice that number, or even more. As all the divis-
ions of the Roman army are noticed in scripture,
we may add that each legion was divided into ten
cohorts or regiments, each cohort into three man-
iples or bands, and each maniple into three cen-
turies or companies of 100 each. This smaller
division into centuries or hundreds, from the form
in which it is exhibited as a constituent of the
larger divisions, clearly shows that 6.000 had be-
come at least the formal number of a legion.
The military standard of the Romans was at
first a bunch of straw attached to a pole. Later
an eagle and four other animals formed the stand-
ards of a legion, but after 104 B. C. the eagle
alone was employed (Pliny. Hist. Nat. x:4). It
was committed to the custody of the chief cen-
turion. In addition to the eagle, the standard
also commonly bore a small image of the em-
peror, and the introduction of these images into
Jerusalem by Pontius Pilate caused an insurrec-
tion of the Jews (Antiq. xviii :3, l; IVar ii ig. 2).
But while the great standard of the whole legion
was the eagle, each cohort and century had its
own standard, and these minor ensigns assumed
a variety of forms.
Figurative. The word legion came to be
used to express a great number or multitude
(Matt. .xxvi:S3). Thus, the unclean spirit (Mark
v:9), when asked his name, answers, 'My name is
Legion, for icr are many' (comp. verse 15). The
Rabbinical writers even apply it to inanimate ob-
jects, as when they speak of 'a legion of
olives,' etc.
LEHABIM (le'ha-bira), (Heb. ^"'^T}), leh-haw-
beem' , fiery, flaming), the third son of Mizraim
(Gen. x:i3; i Chron. i:ii). Some think that Leha-
bim denotes the Libyans, one of the most ancient
peoples in Africa.
In Nah. iii :9, and Dan. xi :43, we find mention
of the Lubim, which the Vulgate and LXX every
where render Libyans ; or, what comes to the
same in Nahum and Daniel, they render Nubians.
It is clear that this name describes colonies of
Egyptians (Calmet). They are undoubtedly the
Re Bu or Lc Bu of the Egyptian monuments and
are of Midianitish or kindred origin with the
Egyptians. "The Lehabim are the fair-haired,
blue-eyed Libyans, who as far back as the nine-
teenth and twentieth dynasties had been incor-
porated into the Egyptian army. .\\. one time
they occupied much the same place in Egyptian
history as was subsequently occupied by the Lyd-
ians, and it is probable that the twenty-second
dynasty, that of Shishak, was of Libyan extrac-
tion, and owed its rise to power to the influence
of the Libyan troops." (Sayce, Higher Crit. and
Mon. p. 135.)
LEHI (le'hi), (Heb. "■";, lekh'ee, meaning cheek
or jawbone). A place in Jiidah where Samson,
single-handed, conquered the Philistines with a
jawbone (Judg. xvig, 14, iq). It was probably on
the border of the Philistine country, but the exact
location has not yet been settled.
LEMUEL (lem'u-el), (Heb. ^>?'"3^, lem-oo-ale' ,
and '^"'^s le7n-o-ale').
The maxims written in Proverbs xxxi;i, ig, were
addressed to this unknown king by his mother.
Most interpreters understand Solomon to be
meant; but some, Hezekiah, Eichhorn, Ewald and
others consider Lemuel only a poetical appella-
tion of an imaginary king, through whom these
maxims were made applicable to all kings.
LEND. See Loan.
LENTIL (len-til), (Heb. -"?¥', aw-dawsh').
Lentil.
A cultivated plant, smaller than the garden pea,
but of the same family. In the markets of Pal-
estine red lentils are still sold as the best va-
riety, and from them a pottage is made which
Dr. Robinson and others who have eaten it affirm
would be a savory meal for a weary hunter (Gen.
LEOPARD
1057
LEPROSY
XXV :29, 34). The "piece of ground full of len-
tiles" (2 Sam. xxiii:ii), is still common in the
Holy Land, and the poor not infrequently make
lentiles into bread (Ezek. ivig). This pulse is
much used in Roman Catholic countries during
Lent, and from it the name of the season is said
to be derived. As a crop it is cut and thrashed
like wheat. (See Adashim.)
Egyptians Cooking Lentils.
liEOPABD (lep'erd), (Heb. 1??, naw-mare'.
Cant. iv:8; Is. xi:6; Jer. v:6, xiii:23; Hos. xiii:/;
Hab. i:8; Dan. vii:6; Rev. xiii:2; Ecclus. xxviii:23).
Though zoologists differ in opinion respecting
the identity of the leopard and the panther, and
dispute, supposing them to be distinct, how these
names should be respectively applied, and by what
marks the animals should be distinguished, never-
theless there can be no doubt that the nimr of the
Bible is that great spotted feline which anciently
infested the Syrian mountains, and even now oc-
curs in the wooded ranges of Libanus. The va-
riety of leopard, or rather panther, of Syria, is
considerably below the stature of a lioness, but
very heavy in proportion to its bulk. Its general
form is so well known as to require no descrip-
tion beyond stating, that the spots are rather more
irregular, and the color more mixed with whitish,
than in the other pantherine felidx, excepting the
Felis Uncia, or Felis Irbis, of High Asia, which is
shaggy and almost white. It is a nocturnal, cat-
like animal in habits, dangerous to all domestic
cattle, and sometimes even to man. In the Scrip-
tures it is constantly placed in juxtaposition with
the lion or the wolf; which last, if the hyena be
intended, forms a natural association. There is
in Asia Minor a species or variety of panther,
much larger than the Syrian, not unfrequent on
the borders of the snowy tracts even of Mount
Ida, above ancient Troy; and the group of these
spotted animals is spread over the whole of
southern Asia to Africa. From several names of
places, it appears that, in the earlier ages of Israel-
itish dominion, it was sufficiently numerous in
Palestine. Leopard skins were worn as a part of
ceremonial costume by the superiors of the Egyp-
tian priesthood, and by other personages in Nu-
bia; and the animal itself is represented in the
processions of tributary nations. (Wood, Bible
Animals, p. 29 sq.; Thomson, Land and Book,
ii. I56.s(/.) C. H. S.
Figurative, (i) God compares himself to
a "leopard " with what patience he waits for
the manifestation of his judgments (Hos. xiii :
7). (2) Wicked men are likened to "leopards:"
how spotted with corruptions in heart and life !
how fierce and untractable to what is good, till
God by his grace subdue them (Is. xi:6; Jer.
xiii:23). (.3) Nebuchadnezzar and his army are
likened to "leopards;" with what guileful cruelty,
and fierce rage, they watched over and besieged
the cities of Judah, and nations around, till they
took them, and murdered the inhabitants (Jer. v:
6; Hab. i:8). (4) The Grecian empire is likened
to a "leopard with four icings and four heads,"
it arose from small beginnings, and was founded
with much craft, rapidity, and bloodshed.
I4EPEII (lep'er), (Heb. ^T?, tsanu-rah', intran-
sitive, smitten). See Leprosy.
LEPROSY (lep'ro-sy), (Heb. ^"SZ^, isawrah'-
ath, a smiting ; Gr. \htpa, lep-rah, from Xeirlt, a
scale), is a name that was given by the Greek
pliysicians to a scaly disease of the skin.
A General Term. During the dark ages it
was indiscriminately applied to all chronic dis-
eases of the skin, and more particularly to ele-
phantiasis, to which latter, however, it does not
bear the slightest resemblance.
/. In Modern Times. The disease, as it
is known at the present day, commences by an
eruption of small reddish spots slightly raised
above the level of the skin, and grouped in a
circle. These spots are soon covered by a very
thin, semi-transparent scale or epidermis, of a
vifhitish color, and very smooth, which in a little
time falls off, and leaves the skin beneath red
and uneven. As the circles increase in diameter
the skin recovers its healthy appearance towards
the center ; fresh scales are formed, which are
now thicker, and superimposed one above the
other, especially at the edges, so that the center
of the scale appears to be depressed. The scales
are of grayish white color, and have something
of a micaceous or pearly luster. The circles are
generally of the size of a quarter or half dollar,
but they have been known to attain half a foot
in diameter. The disease generally affects the
knees and elbows, but sometimes it extends over
the whole body; in which case the circles become
confluent. Iv does not at all affect the general
health, and the only inconvenience it causes the
patient is a slight itching when the skin is heated;
or, in inveterate cases, when the skin about the
joints is much thickened, it may in some degree
impede the free motion of the limbs. It is com-
mon to both sexes, to almost all ages, and all
ranks of society. It is always difficult of treatment,
and in old persons, when it is of long standing
may be pronounced incurable. It is not uncom-
monly met with in England, in the United States
and in all parts of Europe.
2. In the Time of Moses. (1) Three
Species. Turning to the Mosaic account, we find
three species mentioned, which were all in-
cluded under the generic term of Ba/tJret, or
•bright spot.' The first is called RJhaq, which
signifies 'brightness,' but in a subordinate degree.
This species did not render a person unclean. The
second was called Baheret lebatidh, or a bright
white BalUret. The third was Bah/ret klhdh,
or dusky Bahcret,, spreading in the skin. These
last two were also called Tsor.iat ii. e., [jroperly,
'a stroke,' as if a chastisement), and rendered a
person unclean. The characteristic marks of
the Bahi'ret lebandh mentioned by Moses are a
glossy white and spreading scale upon an ele-
vated base, the elevation depressed in the mid-
dle, the hair on the patches participating in the
whiteness, and the patches themselves perpetually
increasing.
(2) Other Slight Affections. There are some
other slight affections mentioned by name in Le-
viticus, which the priest was required to distin-
guish from leprosy, such as Se.'t, Skaphil, Neteq,
Shechin, \. e. 'elevation,' 'depressed,' etc.
(3) Examination by the Priest. If a per-
son had any of the above diseases he was brought
LEPROSY
1058
LETTER
before the priest to be examined. If the priest
found the distinctive signs of a Tsoraat, or con-
tagious leprosy, the person was immediately de-
clared unclean. If the priest had any doubt on
the subject, the person was put under confine-
ment for seven days, when he was examined a
second time. If in the course of the preceding
week the eruption had made no advance, he was
shut up for another seven days; and if then the
disease was still stationary, and had none of the
distinctive signs above noticed, he was declared
clean (Lev. xiii).
(4) Exclusion. The leper was excluded from
the tabernacle and the camp, and when he was
healed his restoration to social intercourse with
his fel!ow-men was twofold, performed both in
the camp and in the tabernacle (Lev. xiv 13-32) .
A house for lepers was built outside Jerusalem
on the hill of Gareb— 1. e., " the hill of scraping"
(Jcr. xxxi :39, 40; Job ii:8).
(5) Leprosy of Houses and Clothes. With
respect to the leprosy of houses and of clothes
(Lev. xiv:55), the expression is only analogical,
referring to the spots and disfigurations which
appeared upon the walls and articles of clothing,
resembling the leprous spots, and originating from
a species of mold or mildew, indicating a great
degree of dampness, corrupting the air, injurious
to health, and often the occasion and precursor
of fatal diseases. The rites ordained for cleans-
ing and purifying this kind of "leprosy" are in
their symbolical bearing strictly analogous to the
laws concerning leprosy proper (Lev. xiii 147-59 ;
xiv:33-53)-
3. Elephantiasis. It may be useful here
to subjoin a description of elephantiasis, or the
leprosy of the middle ages, as this is the disease
from which most of the prevalent notions con-
cerning leprosy have been derived, and to which
the notices of lepers contained in modern books
of travels exclusively refer.
(1) Symptoms and Effects. Elephantiasis
first of all makes its appearance by spots of a
reddish, yellowish, or livid hue, irregularly dis-
seminated over the skin and slightly raised above
its surface. These spots are glossy, and appear
oily, or as if they were covered with varnish.
After they have remained in this way for a longer
or shorter time, they are succeeded by an erup-
tion of tubercles. These are soft, roundish tu-
mors, varying in size from that of a pea to that
of an olive, and are of a reddish or livid color.
They are principally developed on the face and
ears, but in the course of years extend over the
whole body. The face becomes frightfully de-
formed ; the forehead is traversed by deep lines
and covered with numerous tubercles; the eye-
brows become bald, swelled, furrowed h}f oblique
lines, and covered with nipple-like elevations ; the
eyelashes fall out, and the eyes assume a fixed
and staring look; the lips are enormously thick-
ened and shining; the beard falls out; the chin
and ears are enlarged and beset with tubercles;
the lobe and alx of the nose are frightfully eii-
larged and deformed ; the nostrils irregularly di-
lated, internally constricted, and excoriated ; the
voice is hoarse and nasal, and the breath intoler-
ably fetid. After some time, generally after some
years, many of the tubercles ulcerate, and the
matter which exudes from them dries to crusts of
a brownish or blackish color; but this process sel-
dom terminates in cicatrization. The extremities
are affected in the same way as the face. The
hollow of the foot is swelled out, so that the sole
becomes flat; the sensibility of the skin is greatly
impaired, and, in the hands and feet, often entirely
lost; the joints of the toes ulcerate and fall oft
one after the other ; insupportable fcEtor exhales
from the whole body. The patient's general health
is not affected for a considerable time, and his
sufferings are not always of the same intensity as
his external deformity. Often, however, his
nights are sleepless or disturbed by frightful
dreams ; he becomes morose and melancholy ; he
shuns the sight of the healthy, because he feels
what an object of disgust he is to them, and
life becomes a loathsome burden to him; or he
falls into a state of apathy, and after many years
of such an existence he sinks either from ex-
haustion, or from the supervention of internal dis-
ease. The Greeks gave the name of elephantiasis
10 this disease, because the skin of the person
affected with it was thought to resemble that of an
elephant, in dark color, ruggedness, and insensi-
bility, or, as some have thought, because the foot,
afterthe loss of the toes, when the hollow of the
sole is filled up and the ankle enlarged, resembles
the foot of an elephant.
(2) Contagious or Hereditary. About the
period of the Crusades elephantiasis spread it-
self like an epidemic over all Europe, even as
far north as the Faroe Islands, and henceforth,
owing to the above-named mistakes, every one
became familiar with leprosy under the form of
the terrible disease that has just been described.
Leper or lazar houses abounded everywhere; as
many as 2.000 are said to have existed in France
alone. The disease was considered to be con-
tagious possibly only on account of the belief that
was entertained respecting its identity with Jew-
ish leprosy, and the strictest regulations were en-
acted for secluding the diseased from society.
Towards the commencement of the seventeenth
century the disease gradually disappeared from
Europe, and is now confined to intertropical coun-
tries. It existed in Faroe as late as 1676, and
in the Shetland Islands in 1736, long after it had
ceased in the southern parts of Great Britain.
The best authors of the present day who have had
an opportunity of observing the disease do not
consider it to be contagious. There seems, how-
ever, to be little doubt as to its being hereditary.
(Good's Study of Med.,m, 421; Rayer, Mai. de h
Pcau, ii, 296; Simpson On the Lefcrs and Leper
Houses of Scotland and England.)
W. A. N.
LESHEM (le'shera), (Heb. =? i., leh'shetn, strong,
fortress), a variation of the name Laish, a city of
northern Palestine (Josh. xix:47),
liET (let), (Heb. "v^i, na^v'thati, to turn; Gr. kot-
ix<^t kat-ekh'd). The word is expressive, (i) Of
command. (Deut. v:i2). (2) Of entreaty. (2 Sam.
xiii:6). _ (3) Of permission. (Gen. xlix:2i). (4) Of
entrusting, or assigning by lease. (Cant. viii:ii).
To Jet, also signifies to hinder, keep back. (Is.
xliii;i3; 2 Thess. ii7).
LETHECH (le'thek), (Heb. '^\}\., leh'thek), a
Hebrew measure, half an omer; containing sixteen
pecks, or (our bushels (Hos. iii;2, marg.).
LETTER (let'ter).
1. \ mark of sound used in writing.
2. A missive or epistle sent by one person to
another (2 Sam. xi:i4).
3. Learning, knowledge of the mysterious sense
of God's word (John vii:i5).
Figurative. The outside of things; so cir-
cumcision of the flesh, is called circumcision of
the letter, as opposed to the spirit (Rom. ii:29;
vii:6; 2 Cor. iii:6. 7). The outward observance of
Moses' ceremonies, outward service of God, or
LETUSHIM
10.J9
LEVITES
walking according to our corrupt lusts, is called
till- oldncss of the Idler (Rom. vii:6).
LETtrSHIM (le-tu'shim), (Heb. =r'-^, /,-/-oo-
sheem' , have ground, sharpened).
The second son of Dedan ; grandson of Abra-
ham and Kcturah (Gen. xxv:3), and progenitor
of an .Arabian tribe, which has not been traced
out. (B. C. after 2024.)
LETTMMIM(le uni'mim), (Heb. ""??*?, leh-oom-
mcrm' , peoples).
One of the descendants of Dedan; grandson of
Abraham and Keturah (Gen. xxv;3),and founder
of an Arabian tribe, which Fresnel (Journal Asia!.
iii, serie, vi. 217) identifies with the L'mmeiyim,
a very ancient tribe. ( B. C. after 2024.)
IjEVI (le'vi), (Heb. "^7, lay-vee' , a joining; Sept.
Ktuil, Levi).
1. The third son of Jacob and Leah, bom in
Mesopotamia B.C. 1750 (Gen. xxi.x:34K
(1) Avenges Dinah. No circumstance is re-
corded of him save the part which he and his
full brother Simeon took in the massacre of the
Shechemites, to avenge the wrong done to their
sister Dinah (Gen. xxxiv:25, 26). This transac-
tion was to his last hour regarded by Jacob with
abhorrence, and he failed not to allude to it in
his dying declaration.
(2) Simeon and Levi. As Simeon and Levi
were united in that act, so the patriarch couples
them in his prophecy : 'Accursed be their anger,
for it was fierce ; and their wrath, for it was
cruel ! I will divide them in Jacob, and disperse
them in Israel.' And, accordingly, their descend-
ants were afterwards, in different ways, dispersed
among the other tribes; although, in the case of
Levi, this curse was eventually turned into a
benefit and blessing.
(3) Children. He had three sons, Gershon,
Kohath, and Merari, and a daughter called Joche-
bed ; and his three sons produced three different
families.
(4) Goes into Egypt. With these three sons
he went down into Kgypt (Gen. xlvi:ii) where
he was probably presented to Pharaoh (Gen.
xlvii -.2).
(5) Blessing and Death. By the zeal of his
descendants on occasion of the golden calf (Exod.
xxxii :26-29), the curse pronounced by Jacob was
transformed into a blessing. He died in Egypt
137 years old (Exod. vi:i6). (See Levites.)
2. Son of Simeon and father of Matthat, in
the genealogy of Christ between David and
Zerubbabcl (Luke iii:29). (B. C. after 876.)
3. Son of Melchi. and father of another
Matthat (Luke iii:24.) (B. C. before 22.)
4. Son of Alpheus, an apostle elsewhere called
Matthew (Mark ii:i4; Luke \:2T, 29). (See
Matthew.)
I-EVIATHAN (le vi'a-than), (Heb. I";!^, liv-
ya-ui-thawn'). Job iii:8; xli:i ; I's. Ixxiv:i4; civ:26;
Is. xxvii:i. (See Bkhemoth ; Crocooili: j
D«AGON).
Gesenius very justly remarks that this word,
which denotes any twisted animal, is especially ap-
plicable to every great tenant of the waters, such
as the great marine serpents and crocodiles, and.
It may be added, the colossal serpents and great
monsters of the desert. In general it points to
the crocodile, and Job xli is unequivocallv de-
scriptive of that saurian. Probably the Egvptian
crocodile is therein depicted in all'its magnitude,
ferocity, and indolence, such as it was in early
days, when as yet unconscious of the power of
man. and only individually tamed for the purposes
of an imposture, which had sufficient authority
tn intimidate the public and protect the species,
under the sanctified pretext that it was a tygc of
pure water, and an emblem of the importance of
irrigation ; though the people in general seem
ever to have been disposed to consider it a per-
sonification of the destructive principle. At a
later period the Egyptians, probably of such places
as Tentyris, where crocodiles were not held in
veneration, not only hunted and slew them, but
it appears from a statue that a sort of Bestiarii
could tame them sufficiently to perform certain
exhibitions mounted on their backs. The intense
musky odor of its flesh must have rendered the
crocodile, at all times, very unpalatable food, but
breast-armor was made of the horny and ridged
parts of its back. We have ourselves witnessed
a periodical abstinence in the great saurians. and
have known negro women, while bathing, play
with young alligators; which, they asserted, they
could do without danger, unless they hurt them
and tlicreby attracted the vengeance of the
mother; but _ the impunity most likely resulted
from the period of inactivity coinciding with the
then stale of the young animals, or from the ne-
gro women being many in the water at the same
time. The occurrence took place at Old Har-
bor, Jamaica.
liEVIKATE MARRIAGE (lev'I-rSt m5r'rij),
(from Lat. Lcz'ir, a Inishaiut' s brother).
.\ term applied to the practice among the He-
brews that when an Israelite died without leav-
ing male issue his nearest relative should marry
the widow, and continue the family of his de-
ceased brother through the firstborn son of such
union. The son thus became heir of the former
husband. If the brother did not choose to marry
the widow she could treat him with great con-
tempt and expose him to ignominy. (See AIak-
RIAGE.)
Levite.
LEVITES (le'vites), (Heb. 'l^ |3, bane lay-vee' ,
son of Levi, or simply U, Lay-vee' ; usually in the
plural and with the article ^'^. vI", sons of Z<"Z'/ •
Sept. Ktmrai, Levitaf), the descendants of Levi,
through his sons Gershon, Kohatli. and Merari,
whose descendants formed so many sub-tribes or
great families of the general body.
LEVITES
1060
LEVITES
In a narrower sense the term Levites designates
the great body of the tribe employed in the subor-
dinate offices of tlie hierarchy, to distinguish them
from that one family of their body — the family of
Aaron — in which the priestly functions were vested.
1. Appointment to Service. While the
Israelites were encamped before Mount Sinai
the tribe of Levi, to which Moses and Aaron be-,
longed, was, by special ordinance from the Lord,
set specially apart for sacerdotal services, in the
place of the firstborn of the different tribes and
families to whom such functions, according to an-
cient usage, belonged ; and which indeed had al-
ready been set apart as holy, in commemoration
of the firstborn of the Israelites having been
spared when the firstborn of the Egyptians were
destroyed (Num. iii;l2, 13, 40-51; Exod. xiii).
When it was determined to set apart a single tribe
of Levi for this service, the numbers of the first-
born in Israel and of the tribe selected were re-
spectively taken, when it was found that the for-
mer amounted to 22,273. and the latter to 22,000.
Those of the firstborn beyond the number of the
Levites were then redeemed at the rate of five
shekels, that is 12s. 6d.. or three dollars and twen-
ty-five cents each, and the money assigned to the
priests. At the same time the cattle which the
Levites then happened to possess were considered
as equivalent to all the firstlings of the cattle which
the Israelites had ; and, accordingly, the firstlings
were not required to be brought, as in subsequent
years, to the altar and to the priesthood (Num.
iii:4i-5i).
(1) Specific Service. In the wilderness the
office of the Levites was to carry the tabernacle
and its utensils and furniture from place to place,
after they had been packed up by the priests
(Num. iv:4-i5). In this service each of the three
Levitical families had its separate department;
the Gershonites carried the hangings and cords of
the Tabernacle, for which they were allowed two
wains, each drawn by four o.xen (Num. iii :2S, 26;
iv 124-28 ; vii:7). The Kohathites carried the ark,
the table of shew-bread, the candlestick, the two
altars, and such of the hangings as belonged to
the sanctuary ; for this they had no wains or
oxen, the whole being carried upon their shoul-
ders (Num. iii:3i; iv:4-i5; vii rg) ; the Merarites
had charge of the substantial parts of the taber-
nacle— the boards, pillars, bars, bases, etc., and
also all the ordinary vessels of service, for which
they were allowed four wains and eight oxen
(Num. iii .-36. 37; iv:3l, 32; vii:8). In this man-
ner they proceeded in all their journeys; and
when they settled in a place, and had erected the
Tabernacle, the different families pitched their
tents around it in the following manner: the
Gershonites behind it on the west (Num. iii:23),
the Kohathites on the south (iii:29), the Merar-
ites on the north (iii :3s), and the priests on the
east (iii:38). They all assisted Aaron and his
sons in taking care of, and attending on, the Tab-
ernacle, when it was pitched ; but they were al-
lowed to take no part in the services of the altar
(xviii :2-7).
(2) Duties Changed. This was the nature of
their service in the desert: but when they entered
the land of Canaan, and the Tabernacle ceased to
be migratory, the range of their service was con-
siderably altered. While part attended at the Tab-
ernacle, the rest were distributed through the
country in the several cities which were allotted to
them. These cities are commonly reckoned forty-
eight : but thirteen nf them were reserved for ilie
priests, so tliat only thirty-five belonged to the
Levites. The names of these cities, and the tribes
in which they were situated, are given in Josh.
xxi:20-42; i Chron. vi:64-8i. Of the forty-eight
cities six were cities of refuge for the uninten-
tional homicide, of which one, Hebron, was a
priestly city (Deut. iv:4i-43; Josh. xx:2-9).
(3) Further Change. In the time of David,
when the number of the priests and Levites had
much increased, a third and very important altera-
tion was effected, as much, or more, with refer-
ence to the Temple, for which he made every pos-
sible preparation, as for the existing service at the
Tabernacle. While the priests were divided into
twenty-four courses that they might attend the
Temple in rotation weekly, and only officiate about
two weeks in the year, the Levites were also di-
vided into twenty-four courses. In the book of
Chronicles we have four times twenty-four courses
of Levites mentioned but all their employments
are not distinctly stated (i Chron. xxiii:7-23;
xxiv:20-3l; xxv:i-3i; xxvi:i-i2).
(4) Classification and Offices. The most con-
spicuous classification is that of twenty-four
courses of porters and servitors, and twenty-four
of musicians.
The office of the porters was to open and shut
the doors and gates of the Temple-courts, at
which they also attended throughout the day to
prevent the entrance of any harmful or unclean
person or thing (i Chron. xxvi:l7, 18). They
had also the charge of the treasure-chambers in
their respective wards ; for we find four of the
chief porters holding this trust in I Chron. ix :26,
and their names and the articles in their charge
are given in i Chron. xxvi :20-29 ; 2 Chron. xxxi :
12-14.
Besides acting as porters and servants during
the day, we learn that they were also the guards
of the Temple. Without entering into specific
details, it may be remarked that the whole number
of guards to the Temple, at night, is stated to have
been twenty-four, of whom three were priests.
These are described as having been under an
overseer, called 'the man of the mountain of the
house.' He went his rounds to see that the guards
were at their posts : if he found any one seated
who should have been standing, he said 'Peace
be unto thee;' but if he found any one asleep, he
struck him, and sometimes set fire to his clothes.
(Mainion. Beth Habech. ch. viii.)
(5) Musicians. We have thus seen that one
division of the Levites was employed as porters
during the day, and another as guards during
the night; a third division served as musicians.
A catalogue of these is given in i Chron. xxi:i-9,
according to their employments: and another,
according to their courses, in i Chron. xxi:9-3i.
We shall have to speak of Music under that head,
and need only here state that on grand occasions,
when a full band was formed, the family of
Heman sang in the middle (l Chron. vi:33-38),
the family of Asaph on the right hand (vi:39-43),
and the family of Ethan on the left. The or-
dinary place for the musicians, vocal and instru-
mental, was at the east end of the court of the
priests, between the court of Israel and the altar.
It seems that the singers could never be under
twelve, because that number was particularly men-
tioned at their first appointment (i Chron. xxv:
9) ; but there was no objection to any larger num-
ber (Erachin. ut supra). The young sons of the
Levites were, on such occasions only, allowed to
enter the court of the priests with their fathers,
that their small voices might relieve the deep
bass of the men (Goiiar. tit. Succah, ch. v.) ; and
for this authority was supposed to be found in
Ezra iii .g.
LEVITES
1061
LEVITES
(6) No Sacerdotal Functions. The Levites
were not at liberty to exercise any properly sacer-
dotal functions; but on extraordinary occasions
they were permitted to assist in preparing the
sacrifices, witliout, however, in any way concern-
ing themselves with the blood (2 Chron. xxix:34;
XXX :l6, 17; XXXV :i).
(7) Age and Qualifications. In Num. iv :3
the Levites are described as commencing their
actual service at thirty years of age ; but in Num.
viii :24, 25, twenty-five is the age mentioned; and
in I Chron. xxiii 124, 25, and Ezra iii :8, twenty.
The reason of these apparent discrepancies is, that
from twenty-five to thirty they were in the state
of probationers, doing some things, but excluded
from others (Aben Ezra, on Num. viii). At
thirty they became qualified for every part of the
Levitical service. This was under the Tabernacle ;
but when the Temple was built, and bodily
strength was less required, the age was reduced
to twenty. After fifty they were no longer called
upon to serve as a matter of obligation, but they
might attend if they thought proper, and perform
any usual service which was not considered
burdensome. Thus, in the wilderness, they ceased
at that age to carry any part of the burdens when
the ark and Tabernacle were removed (Num.
viii :2S. 26).
(8) Consecration. When the Levitical body
was first set apart for its sacred duties, the exist-
ing members were consecrated in the manner par-
ticularly described in Num. viii :6, 22. They, and
in them their descendants, were thus inducted into
their particular office; and, in later times, when
any one became of age, it was sufficient for his
admission to prove that he belonged to a Levitical
family, and, probably, to offer some trifling sacri-
fice. It does not appear that the Levites, when at
home, had any particular dress to distinguish
them from their countrymen ; nor is there any
positive evidence that they had any distinctive
garb, even when on actual service at the taber-
nacle or temple. Josephus (Antiq. xx.g) relates,
that only six years before the destruction of the
Temple by the Romans, the Levites were allowed
by Agrippa to wear a linen tunic, like the priests
— an innovation with which the latter were high-
ly displeased. This shows that the dress of the
Levites. even when on duty, had not previously
been in any respect similar to that of the priests.
(9) Subsistence. The subsistence of the Le-
vites was provided for in a peculiar manner.
(/) One-Twelfth of the Land or Forty-
eight Cities. It consisted, first, of a compen-
sation for the abandonment of their right to
one-twelfth of the land of Canaan; and, sec-
ondly, of a remuneration for their services in
their official capacity as devoted to the services
of the sanctuary. The territorial compensation lay
in the forty-eight cities which were granted to the
whole tribe, including the priests. These cities
were scattered among the different tribes, as
centers of instruction, and had 1,000 square
cubits, equal to above 305 English acres, attached
to each of them, to serve for gardens, vineyards,
and pasturage. It is obvious, however, that this
alone could not have been an adequate compensa-
tion for the loss of one-twelfth of the soil, see-
ing that the produce of 305 acres could not in
any case have sufficed for the wants of the in-
habitants of these cities.
(p) The Tithe. The further provision, there-
fore, which was made for them must be regarded
as partly in compensation for their sacrifice of
territory, although \vc .nre disposed to look upon
it as primarily intended as a remuneration for
the dedication of their services to the public.
This provision consisted of the tithe, or tenth of
the produce of the grounds allotted to the other
tribes. The simplest view of this payment is to
regard it, first, as the produce of about as much
land as the Levites would have been entitled to if
placed on the same footing with regard to terri-
tory as the other tribes; and also as the produce
of so much more land, which the other tribes en-
joyed in consequence of its not having been as-
signed to the tribe of Levi.
In giving the produce of this land to the Le
vites the Israelites were therefore to be regarded
as simply releasing them from the cares of agri-
culture, to enable them to devote themselves to
the service of the sanctuary. The land which
produced the tithe was just so much land held
by the other tribes in their behalf; and the labor
of cultivating this land was the salary paid to
the Levites for their official services. The tenth
was paid to the whole tribe of Levi ; but as the
Levites had 10 give out of this one-tenth to the
priests, their own allowance was only nine-tenths
of the tenth. A more particular account of tithes
belongs to another head. (See Tithes.)
The Levites had also a certain interest in the
'second tithe,' being the portion which, after the
first tithe had been paid, the cultivator set apart
for hospitable feasts, which were held at the place
of the sanctuary in two out of three years, but
in the third year at home. This interest, how-
ever, extended no further than that the offerer
was particularly enjoined to invite the priests and
Levites to such feasts.
2. History. Etc. (1) Till Death of Solo-
mon. The earliest notice we have of the num-
bers of the Levites occurs at their first separation
in the desert, when there were 22.300, of a month
old and upwards ; of whom 8,580 were fit for
service, or between the ages of 30 and 50 (Num.
iii:22, 28, 34; iv:2, 34-49). Thirty-eight years
after, just before the Israelites entered Canaan,
they had increased to 23,000, not one of whom had
been born at the time of the former enumeration
(Num. xxvi:S7, 62-65). About 460 years after
the entry into Canaan (B. C. 1015) they were
again numbered by David, a little before his death,
and were found to have increased to 38,000 men
fit for Levitical service — of whom 24,000 were
'set over the work of the Lord,' 6,000 were officers
and judges, 4.000 were porters, and 4.000 were
musicians (i Chron. xxiii :3, 4, 5). If the same
proportion then existed between those come of
age and those a month old which existed when
the tribe quitted Egypt, the entire number of the
Levitical body, in the time of David, must have
been 06.433.
(2) After the Revolt of the Ten Tribes.
After the revolt of the ten tribes, those of the
Levites who resided in the territories of those
tribes, having resisted the request' of Jero-
boam to transfer their services to his idolatrous
establishments at Dan and Bethel, were obliged
to abandon their possessions and join their breth-
ren in Judah and Benjamin (2 Chron. xi:i2, 13,
14; xiii :9) ; and this concentration of theLevitical
body in the kingdom of Judah must have had
an important influence upon its condition and his-
tory. That kingdom thus actually consisted of
three tribes — Judah. Benjamin, and Levi, — of
which one was devoted to sacerdotal uses. This
altered position of the Levites — after they had
been deprived of most of their cities, and the tithes
from ten of the tribes were cut off — presents a
subject for much intcrcsling investigation, into
which we cannot enter. Their means must have
LEVITICAL CITIES
1062
LEVITICUS
been much reduced ; for it cannot be supposed that
Judah and Benjamin alone were able, even if will-
ing, to undertake the support of the whole
Levitical body on the same scale as when the dues
of all Israel flowed into its treasuries. In the
subsequent history of Judah the Levites appear
less frequently than might have been expected.
The chief public measure in which they were en-
gaged was the restoration of the house of David
in the person of young Joash (2 Chron. xxiii :
i-ii); which may be regarded as mainly the
work of the Levitical body, including the priests.
(3) After the Captivity. Under the edict of
Cyrus, only 341 Levites, according to Ezra (ii :
40-42), or 350, according to Nehemiah (vii:43-4S),
returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem. This is
less surprising than might at first sight appear;
for if, before the captivity, the great body of them
had been in straitened circumstances and without
fixed possessions in Judah, it was only consistent
with human prudence that those who had, in all
probability, comfortably settled themselves in
Babylon, should not be anxious to return in such
numbers to Palestine as were likely to produce
similar effects, A few more are mentioned in
Neh. xii :24-26. Those who did return seem to
have had no very correct notion of their obliga-
tions and duties; for there were many who
formed matrimonial alliances with the idolaters
of the land, and thereby corrupted both their
morals and genealogies. But they were prevailed
upon to reform this abuse, and, as a token of
oljedience, signed the national covenant with
Nehemiah, and abode at Jerusalem to influence
others by their authority and example (Neh. x:
9-13; xi:i5-i9).
(4) In New Testament. The Levites are not
mentioned in the Apocryphal books, and very
slightly in the New Testament (Luke x:32; John
i:i9; Acts iv:36) ; but the 's-criljes' and the 'law-
yers,' so often named in the gospels, are usually
supposed to have belonged to them.
3. General Summary. It would be tak-
ing a very narrow view of the duties of the
Levitical body if we regarded them as limited to
their services at the sanctuary. On the contrary
we see in their establishment a provision for the
religious and moral instruction of the great body
nf the people, which no ancient lawgiver except
Moses ever thought of attending to. But that this
was one principal object for which a twelfth of
the population — the tribe of Levi — was set
apart, is clearly intimated in Deut. xxxii :9. 10:
'They shall teach Jacob thy judgments and Israel
thy law ; they shall put incense before thee, and
whole burnt sacrifice upon thine altar.' They
were to read the volume of the law publicly every
seventh year at the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut.
xxxi:lo-i3). 'This public and solemn periodical
instruction.' observes Dean Graves (Lectures, p.
170), 'thougli eminently useful, was certainly not
the entire of their duty; they were bound from
the spirit of this ordinance to take care that at
all times the aged should be improved and the
children instructed in the knowledge and fear of
God, the adoration of his majesty, and the ob-
servance of his law ; and for this purpose the
peculiar situation and privileges of the tribe of
Levi, as regulated by the Divine appointment, ad-
mirably fitted them.' (Michaelis, Commentaries
on the Laivs of Moses, sec. 52, Eng. transl.)
LEVITICAL CITIES. See Levites.
LEVITICUS (le-vtt'r-kiis), in the Hebrew canon,
is called ^^15, kmti-raiv', the word with which it
begins; the third book ot IVloscs.
1. Contents, Leviticus contains the further
statement and development of the Sinaitic legisla-
tion, the beginnings of which are described in
Exodus. It exhibits the historical progress of
this legislation ; consequently we must not expect
to find the laws detailed in it in a systematic
form. There is, nevertheless, a certain order ob-
served, which arose from the nature of the sub-
ject, and of which the plan may easily be per-
ceived. The whole is intimately connected with
the contents of Exodus, at the conclusion of
which book that sanctuary is described with
which all external worship was connected (Exod.
xxxv-xl).
2. Authenticity. The arguments by which
the unity of Leviticus has been attacked are very
feeble. Some critics have strenuously endeavored
to prove that the laws contained in Leviticus orig-
inated in a period much later than is usually sup-
posed. But the following observations sufficiently
support their Mosaical origin, and show that the
whole of Leviticus is historically genuine.
(1) Mosaic Vestiges. The laws in ch. i-vii con-
tain manifest vestiges of the Mosaical period. Here,
as well as in Exodus, when the priests are men-
tioned, Aaron and his sons are named; as, for in-
stance, in ch. i:4, 7, 8, 11, etc. The tabernacle
is the sanctuary, and no other place of worship
is mentioned anywhere.
Expressions like the following constantly occur,
before the tabernacle of the congregation, or the
door of the tabernacle of the congregation (ch.
1:3; iii:8, 13, etc.). The Israelites are always de-
scribed as a congregation (ch. iv:i3, sq.), under
the command of the elders of the congregation
(ch. iv:l5), or of a ruler (ch. iv:22). Everything
has a reference to life in a camp, and that camp
commanded by Moses (ch. iv:i2, 21; vi:ii; xiv :
8; xvi :26, 28). A later writer could scarcely
have placed himself so entirely in the times, and
so completely adopted the modes of thinking
of the age, of Moses: especially if, as has
been asserted, these laws gradually sprung
from the usages of the people, and were written
down at a later period with tTie object of sanc-
tioning them by the authority of Moses. Tliey
so entirely befit the Mosaical age, that, in order
to adapt them to the requirements of any later
period, they must have undergone some modifica-
tion, accommodation, and a peculiar mode of in-
terpretation. This inconvenience would have been
avoided by a person who intended to forge laws
in favor of the later modes of Levitical wor-
ship. A forger would have endeavored to identify
the past as much as possible with the present.
(2) Law Against Slaughter. In ch. xvii oc-
curs the law which forbids the slaughter of any
beast except at the sanctuary. This law could not
be strictly kept in Palestine, and had therefore
to undergo some modification (Deut. xii). Our
opponents cannot show any rational inducement
for contriving such a fiction. The law (ch, xvii:
6, 7) is adapted to the nation only while emigrat-
ing from Egypt. It was the object of this law
to guard the Israelites from falling into the temp-
tation to imitate the Egyptian rites and sacrifices
offered to he-goats ; which word signifies also
demons represented under the form of he-goats,
and which were supposed to inhabit the desert
(Qtimp. Jablonski, Pantheon AZgvptiacuiii ,\,2y2, sg.)
(3) Concerning Food and' Purifications. The
laws concerning food and purifications appear
especially important if we remember that the peo-
ple emigrated from Egypt. The fundamental prin-
ciple of these laws is undoubtedly Mosaical. but
in the individual application of them there is much
LEVY
1063
LIBANUS OR LEBANON
which strongly reminds us of Egypt. This is also
the case in Lev. xviii, sq., where the lawgiver
has manifestly in view the two opposites, Canaan
and Egypt. That the lawgiver was intimately ac-
quainted with Egypt, is proved by such remarks as
those about the Egyptian marriages with sisters
(ch. xviii :3) ; a custom which stands as an excep-
tion among the prevailing habits of antiquity
(Diodorus Siculus, i, 27; Pausanias, Attica, i, 7).
3. A Prophetical Character. The book
of Leviticus has a prophetical character. The
lawgiver represents to himself the future his-
tory of his people. This prophetical character
is especially manifest in chapters xxv, xxvi, vvhere
the law appears in a truly sublime and Divine
attitude, and when its predictions refer to the
whole futurity of the nation. It is impossible
to say that these were vaticinia ex cvcntti. unless
we would assert that this book was written at
the close of Israelitish history. VVe must rather
grant that passages like this are the real basis on
which the authority of later prophets is chiefly
built. Such passages prove also, in a striking
manner, that the lawgiver had not merely an ex-
ternal aim, but that his law had a deeper purpose,
which was clearly understood by Moses himself.
That purpose was to regulate the national life in
all its bearings, and to consecrate the whole na-
tion to God. (See especially ch. xxv:l8, sq.) .
But this ideal tendency of the law does not
preclude its applicability to matters of fact. The
law had not merely an ideal, but also a real char-
acter, evidenced by its relation 10 the faithless-
ness and disobedience of the nation. The whole
future hirtory of the covenant people was regu-
lated by the law, which has manifested its eternal
power and truth in the history of the people of
Israel. Although this section has a general bear-
ing, it is nevertheless manifest that it originated
in the times of Moses. At a later period, for
instance, it would have been impracticable to
promulgate the law concerning the Sabbath and
the year of Jubilee : for it was soon sufficiently
proved how far the nation in reality remained
behind the ideal Israel of the law. The sab-
batical law bears the impress of a time when the
whole legislation, in its fullness and glory, was
directly communicated to the people, in such a
manner as to attract, penetrate, and command.
The principal works to be consulted with refer-
ence to Leviticus will be found under the article
Pentateuch. H. A. C. H,
LEVY (lev7), (Heb. D», „ias, tribute).
1. To raise, by taking a part from amoncr the
rest, as tribute is raised from the rest of the in-
comes of the nation.
2. An army, or number of workmen raised
in a nation (i Kings v:i3, 14). The workmen
were free Israelites, who to pay tribute (or tax)
worked four months in the year, felling trees
under the direction of subjects of Hiram. An-
other levy was of Canaanites, who were assigned
to tributary labor (ix:i5), in this case for the
erection of buildings.
LEWD (lud), (Gr. 'irovrfi>bi, pon-ay-ros'), in a moral
stnse mil, ■wicked, unprincipled {\<i\.% xvii:5).
LEWDNESS (lud'nes),(Gr.^?«ioi)p7wa, hrad-ee-
oorg" ay-tnah, WXtraWy doiiii; thiiti^s easily, or bold-
ly), a piece of knavery, rascality (Acts xviii:i4).
Elsewhere it is used in its proper sense of licen-
tiousness (Heb. '^^J, sam-maw'), etc., badness,
(Judg. xx:6; Jer. xi:!^; Ezek. xxiii:44; xxiv:i3;
Hos. viig); once(Hos. ii:lo) ihe piivale parts (Heb.
n^'?i, nab-looth').
LIBANTJS or LEBANON (llb'a-nus or leb'a-
non), (Heb. V"??, leb-atu-nohn; Gr. Xipam^,Libanus,
for the Heb. Lebanon'), the name of a long chain of
mountains on the northern border of Palestine.
(1) Name and Location. The term Libanus
is more convenient in use than the Hebrew form
Lebanon, as enabling us to distinguish the parallel
ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, which have
no such distinctive names in connection with the
Hebrew designation. Lebanon seems to be ap-
plied in scripture to either or both of these ranges;
and we shall also use it in this general sense: but
Libanus means distinctively the westernmost of
those ranges, which faces the Mediterranean, and
Anti-Libanus the eastern, facing the plain of Da-
mascus; in which sense these names will be used
in this article. The present inhabitants of the
country have found the convenience of distin-
guishing these parallel ranges; and give to Liban-
us the name of 'Western Mountain' (Jebel esh-
Sharki), and to Anti-Libanus that of 'Eastern
Mountain' (Jebel el-Gharbi) ; although Jebel Lib-
nan (the same name in fact as Lebanon) occurs
among the Arabs with special reference to the
eastern range.
These two great ranges, which together form
the Lebanon of Scripture, commence about the
parallel of Tripoli (lat. 34° 28'), run in a
general direction from northeast to southwest,
through about one degree of latitude, and form,
at their southern termination, the natural frontier
of Palestine. These parallel ranges enclose be-
tween them a fertile and well-watered valley,
averaging about fifteen miles in width, which is
the Coele-Syria (Hollow Syria) of the ancients,
but is called by the present inhabitants, by way
of preeminence, El-Bekaa, or 'the valley,' which
is watered through the greater portion of its
length by the river Litany, the ancient Leontes.
(2) Harmon. Nearly opposite Damascus the
Anti-Libanus separates into two ridges, which di-
verge somewhat, and enclose the fertile VVady et-
Teim. The easternmost of these two ridges, which
has already been pointed out as the Hermon of
Scripture (sec Hermon). Jebel esh-Sheikh, con-
tinues its southwest course, and is the proper
prolongation of Anti-Libanus. From the base of
the higher part of this ridge, a low broad spur
or mountainous tract runs off towards the south,
forming the high land which shuts in the basin
and Lake of cl-Hulch on the east. This tract
is called Jebel Hcish, the higher portion of which
terminates at Tel el-Faras. nearly three hours
north of Fiek. The other ridge of Anti-Libanus
takes a more westerly direction. It is long, low,
and level; and continues to border the lower part
of the great valley of Bekaa, until it seems to
unite with the higher bluffs and spurs of Lebanon,
and thus entirely to close that valley. In fact,
only a narrow gorge is here left between prec-
ipices, in some places of great height, through
which the Litany finds its way down to the sea,
north of Tyre. The chain of Lebanon, or at
least its higher ridges, may be said to terminate
at the point where it is thus broken through by
the Litany. But a broad and lower mountain-
ous tract continues towards the south, border-
ing the basin of the Huleh on the west. It rises
to its greatest elevation about Safed (Jebel
Safed) ; and at length ends abruptly in the moun-
tains of Nazareth, as the northern wall of tlie
plain of Esdraelon. This high tract may very
properly be regarded as a prolongation of Leb-
anon.
(3) rormation and Heig'ht. The mountains
of Lebanon arc ol hniesume rock, which is indeed
LIBATION
1064
LIBNAH
the general constituent of the mountains of Syria.
In Lebanon it has generally a whitish hue, and
from the aspect which the range thus bears in
the distance, in its cliffs and naked parts, the name
of Lebanon (which signifies 'white') has been
supposed to be derived; but others seek its origin
in the snows which rest long upon its summits,
and perpetually upon the highest of them.
Of the two ranges, that of Libanus is by far
the higher. Its uppermost ridge is marked by a
line, drawn at the distance of about two hours'
journey from the summit, above which all is
barren (Burckhardt, p. 4) ; but the slopes and
valleys below this line afford pasturage, and are
capable of cultivation, by reason of the numerous
springs which are met with in all directions.
The average height of the Libanus mountains,
from the top of which the snow entirely disap-
pears in summer, must be considerably below II,-
000 feet, probably about lo.ooo feet above the level
of the sea. But the higher points, particularly
the Sannin, which is the highest of all, must be
above that limit.
(4) Vegetation. Cultivation is, however, chiefly
found on the seaward slopes, where nu-
merous villages flourish, and every inch of
ground is turned to account by the indus-
trious natives, who, in the absence of natural
levels, construct artificial terraces in order
to prevent the earth from being swept away
by the winter rains, and at the same time to re-
tain the water requisite for the irrigation of the
crops (Burckhardt, pp. 19. 20, 23). When one
looks upward from below, the vegetation on these
terraces is not visible ; so that the whole moun-
tain appears as if composed only of immense
rugged masses of naked whitish rock, traversed
by deep, wild ravines, running down precipitously
to the plain. No one would suspect among these
rocks the existence of a vast multitude of thrifty
villages, and a numerous population of mountain-
eers, hardy, industrious, and brave (Robinson,
iii, 440). Here, amidst the crags of the rocks, are
to be seen the remains of the renowned cedars ;
but a much larger proportion of firs, oaks, bram-
bles, mulberry-trees, fig-trees, and vines (Volney,
i, 272). (Comp. Ezek. x.xvii:i8.) Its wines are
also noticed (Hos. xiv:7); and in Cant. iv:ii;
Hos. xiv :7, it is celebrated for various kinds of
fragrant plants.
It is not easy to determine, with certainty
what can be intended by the prophet Isaiah in the
phrase, "the glory of Lebanon" (chap. xxxv:2) ;
but very likely it refers to the verdure constantly
maintained on it, and to the stately trees which
cover it.
(5) Literature. \\ohmi,o\\, Bib/ical Researihes,
iii :344, 345. 439; Kitto. Pictorial History of Pales-
tine, Introd. pp. xxxii-xxxv, Iv; Rcland, PalcPS-
iina, i, 311; Rosenmiiller, Biblisch. Altcrthum. ii,
236; Raumer, Palnstina, pp. 29-35; D'Arvieux,
Mhnoircs, ii. 250; Volney, Voyage en Syrie, i,
243: Sect/en. in Zach's Monatl. Corresp.. June,
1806; Burckhardt, Travels in Syria, p. i. sq.: Rich-
ter. Wallfahrten. p. T02, etc.; Irby and Mangles,
Travels, pp. 206-220; Buckingham. Arab Tribes,
p. 468, sq.; Fisk, in Missionary^ Herald, 1824;
Elliot. Travels, ii. 276; Hogg. Visit to Alexandria,
Jerusalem, etc., i, 219, sq.; ii, 81, sq.; Addison,
Palmyra and Damaseus. ii, 43-82; Tristram, Land
of Israel. 1865; Reports of the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund.
lilBATION (It-ba'shiin), a word used in sacri-
ficial language to express an affusion of liquors,
poured upon victims to be sacrificed to the Lord.
The quantity of wine for a libation was the
fourth part of a bin ; rather more than two pints.
Among the Hebrews libations were poured on the
victim after it was killed, and the several pieces
of it laid on the altar, ready to be consumed by
the flames (Lev. vi:2o; viii :2s, 26; ix:4; xvi:i2,
20; xxiii:i3). They consisted in offerings of
bread, wine and salt. (See Offering.)
lilBEBAIj (hb'er-al). In Is. xxxii:5, 8, the
term naw-deeb' (Heb. 2"")^, voluntary) seems to
have been applied to persons of jtohle character or
birth. By an easy transition it means one noble in
heart and action.
A liberal person is one ready to give to the
poor and needy. Men stand by "liberal things,"
as showing kindness to the poor as an especial
means of procuring and establishing one's wealth
(Prov. xi:2S). Ciod giveih "liberally," with a
willing and bountiful heart, and in a large abun-
dance (James i :S).
lilBEBTINES (hb'er-tlns), (Gr. Ai/Seprrvos, lib-er-
tee'nos, a freedman).
This occurs but once in the New Testament :
"Certain of the synagogue, which is called (the
synagogue) of the Libertines, and Cyrenians, and
Alexandrians," etc., are mentioned in Acts vi :9.
There has been much diversity in the interpreta-
tion of this word.
The most probable opinion, and that which is
now generally entertained, is, that the Libertini
were Jews, whom the Romans had taken in war
and conveyed to Rome, but afterwards freed;
and that this synagogue had been built at their
expense. Libertini is, therefore, to be regarded
as a word of Roman origin, and to be explained
with reference to Roman customs. Further, we
know that there were in the time of Tiberius
many Libertini, or 'freed-men,' of the Jewish
religion at Rome (Tacit. Annal. ii, 85; comp.
Suet. Tib. 36; and Philo, p. 1014; see Bloom-
field, Kuinoel, Wetstein, etc., on Acts vi;9).
lilBEKTY (iTb'er-ty). (i) Freedom, to do or
forbear a particular action, as one pleases (i Cor.
vii:39; viiiig; x;2g). (2) Freedom from human
slavery or imprisonment (Lev xxv:lo; Heb. xiii:
23). (3) Freedom from the ceremonial and broken
covenant of works (Gal. v:l). (4) The happy state
of eternal glory, where one is delivered from all
misery and servitude (Rom. viii:2i).
LIBERTY, CHRISTIAN. "Where the Spirit
of the Lord is, there is liberty." that is, freedom
from the slavery of sin, Satan, and the broken law,
and now under the gospel, from the ceremonial
yoke, and great pleasure and boldness in fellow-
ship with God (2 Cor. iii: 17). It is wrong to use
Christian "liberty," to the hurt of our weak breth-
ren, or to cover a loose practice (Rom. xiv; I
Cor. viii ; i Pet. ii :i6).
LIBNAH (iTb'nah), (Heb. ^i}\ lib-naw\ trans-
parency; Sept. Ae/Sfd, Lebnd).
1. One of the royal cities of the Canaanites, taken
by Joshua immediately after Makkedah (Josh.x:20-
30). It lay within the territory assigned to Judah
(Josh. xv:42), and became one of the Levitical
towns in that tribe (Josh. xxi:i3; I Chron. vi :
57). It was a strongly fortified place. The As-
syrian king Sennacherib was detained some time
before it when he invaded Judsea in the time of
Hezekiah ; and it was before it that he sustained
that' dreadful stroke which constrained him to
withdraw to his own country (2 Kings xix:S;
Is. xxxvii:8). In the reign of King Jehoram,
Libnah is said to have revolted from him (2 Kings
viii:22; 2 Chron. xxi:io). Libnah existed as a
LIBNATH
1065
LICE
village in the time of Eusebius and Jerome, and
is placed by them in the district of Eleutheropolis.
2. A place in the desert between Rimmon-
parez and Rissah which marked the twenty-first
halting place of the Israelites (Num. xxxiii :20,
21 ) ; probably identical with Laban (Dent. i:i).
LIBNATH (lib'nath), (for the Heb. see the full
form Shihor-Libnath), a stream near Carmel on
the borders of Asher (Josh. xix:26). Michaelis con-
ceives this to be the 'glass-river,' i. e., the Belus,
from whose sands the first glass was made by the
Phoenicians.
LIBNEH (lib'neh), (Heb. •"•???, lib-neh'), occurs
in two places of Scripture, viz.. Gen., xxx:37; Hos.
iv:i3, and is supposed to indicate either the white
poplar or the storax tree.
The lihnch is first mentioned in Gen. xxx 137, as
one of the rods which Jacob placed in the water-
ing troughs of the sheep; the lutz (the almond)
and annon (the Oriental plane) being the two
others; he 'pilled white strakes in them, and
made the white appear which was in the rods.'
In Hos. iv:i3 reference is made to the shade of
trees and the burning of incense : — 'They sac-
rifice upon the top of the mountains, and burn in-
cense upon the hills, under oaks (allon, "terebinth
tree") and poplars (libnch), because the shadow
of them is good.' This poplar is said to be called
white, not on account of the whiteness of its
bark, but of that of the under surface of its leaves.
It may perhaps be so designated from the white-
ness of its hairy seeds, w'hich have a remarkable
appearance when the seed covering first bursts.
The poplar is certainly common in the countries
where the scenes are laid of the transactions re-
lated in the above passages of Scripture.
Others, however, have been of opinion that
libneh denotes the storax tree rather than the
white poplar. Thus, in Gen. xxx 137, the Sep-
tuagint has pd^dov aTvpaKlvriv, 'a rod of Sty-
rax ;' and the Greek translation of the Pentateuch,
according to Rosenmtiller, is more ancient and of
far greater authority than that of Hosea. From
the description of Dioscorides, and his compar-
ing the leaves of the styrax to those of the
quince, there is no doubt of the same tree be-
ing intended : especially as in early times, as at
the present day, it yielded a highly fragrant bal-
samic substance which was esteemed as a medi-
cine, and employed in fumigation. From the simi-
larity of the Hebrew name libnch to the Arabic
lubne, and from the Septuagint having in Genesis
translated the former by styrax, it seems most
probable that this was the tree intended. It is
capable of yielding white wands as well as the
poplar; and it is also well qualified to afTord
complete sh.ide under its ample foliage, as in the
passage of Hos. iv:i3. We may also suppose
it to have been more particularly alluded to, from
its being a tree yielding incense. 'They sacrifice
upon the tops of the mountains, and burn in-
cense upon the hills, under the terebinth and the
storax trees, because the shadow thereof is good.'
(See Poplar.) J. F. R.
LIBNI (llb'ni), (Heb. N??, lib-nee', white).
1- The eldest of the two sons of Gershon. son
of Levi (Exod. vi:i7; Num. iii:i8, 21; i Chron.
vi:i7); progenitor of the Libnites. Elsewhere
(l Chron. xxiii7; xxvi:2l) he is called Laadan.
(B. C. post 1856.)
2. The Libni of i Chron. vi 129, is in all prob-
ability the same man, who is by some error called
the son of Mahli and father of Shimei.
I-IBNITES (lib'nites), (Heb. '^?^ lib- nee' ,
white), descendants of Libni (Num. iii:2i; xxvi;s8).
LIBYA (llb'y-a), (Gr. \iPir,, lib-oo'ay). This
name in its largest acceptation, was used by the
Greeks to denote the whole of Africa. But Libya
Proper, which is the Libya of the New Testament
(Acts ii:io), and the country of the Lubim in the
Old, was a large tract, lying along the Mediterra-
nean, to the west of Egypt.
Libya is supposed to have been first peopled
by, and to have derived its name from, the
Lehabim or Lubim. (See Nations, Dispersion
OF.) These, its earliest inhabitants, appear, in
the time of the Old Testament, to have consisted
of wandering tribes, who were sometimes in al-
liance with Egypt, and at others with the Ethio-
pians, as they are said to have assisted both Shi-
shak, king of Egypt, and Zerah the Ethiopian in
their expeditions against Judsa (2 Chron. xii :
3; xvi:8; Nah. iii:9). They were eventually sub-
dued by the Carthaginians; and it was the policy
of that people to bring the nomade tribes of North-
ern Africa which they mastered, into the condition
of cultivators, that by the produce of their in-
dustry they might be able to raise and maintain
the numerous armies with which they made their
foreign conquests. But Herodotus assures us that
none of the Libyans beyond the Carthaginian
territory were tillers of the ground (Herod, iv:
186, 187; comp. Polybius, i:i6l, 167, 168, 177,
Ed. Schweighseuser). Since the time of the Car-
thaginian supremacy the country, with the rest
of the East, has successively passed into the hands
of the Greeks, Romans, Saracens, and Turks.
The name of Libya occurs in Acts ii:io, where
'the dwellers in the parts of Libya about Cyrene'
are mentioned among the stranger Jews who
came up to Jerusalem at the feast of Pentecost.
(See Lubim.)
LIBYANS (lifb'y-anz), (Heb. 0'?V, loo-beem').
The word thus rendered in Dan. xi:43 should be
Lubim; in Jer. xlvi:9 it is Libyans.
LICE (lie), (Heb. ^'r?, kin-eem'), occurs in
Exod. viii:i6, 17, 18; Ps. cv:3i; Vulg. muscos.
The name of the creature employed in the
third plague upon Egypt, miraculously produced
from the dust of the land. Its exact nature has
been much disputed. Those who reason from the
root of the word in the Hebrew text, and assume
it to be derived from the Hebrew word to fix,
settle, or establish, infer lice to be meant, from
their fixing themselves on mankind, animals, etc.
But since it is spoken of as an Egyptian insect,
the name for it may be purely Egyptian, and
may have no connection with any Hebrew root
(Michaelis, Suppl. ad Lex. n. 1174).
It is probable, however, that not lice but some
species of gnats is the proper rendering. It is
not a valid objection, that if this plague were
gnats, etc., the plague of flies would be anticipated,
since the latter most likely consisted of one par-
ticular species having a different destination (see
Fly) ; whereas this may have consisted of not
only mosquitoes or gnats, but of some other
species which also attack domestic cattle, as the
wstrus, or labanus. or cijiib (Bruce's Travels,
11:315, 8vo) ; on which supposition these two
plagues would be sufficiently distinct.
But since mosquitoes, gnats, etc., have ever
been one of the evils of Egypt, there must have
been some peculiarity attending them on this
occasion, which proved the plague to be 'the
finger of God.' From the next chapter (Ex. ix:3l)
it appears that the flax and the barley were smit-
ten by the hail ; that the former was beginning
to grow, and that the latter was in the ear— which,
according to Shaw, takes place in Egypt in March.
LIEUTENANTS
1066
LIGHT
Hence the kineetn would be sent about February,
i. e. before the increase of the Nile, which takes
place at the end of May, or beginning of June.
Since, then, the innumerable swarms of mos-
quitoes, gnats, etc., which every year afifect the
Egyptians, come, according to Hasselquist. at the
increase of the Nile, the appearance of them in
February would be as much a variation of the
course of nature as the appearance of the cestrus
in January would be in England. They were also
probably numerous and fierce beyond example on
this occasion ; and as the Egyptians would be
utterly unprepared for them (for it seems that
this plague was not announced), the effects would
be signally distressing.
For a description of the evils inflicted by these
insects upon man, see Kirby and Spence, Intro-
duction to Entotnology, Lond. 1828, i:ii5. etc.;
and for the annoyance ihey cause in Egypt, Mail-
let, Descriptio7i de I' Egypte par I'Abb^ Mascrier,
Paris, 1755, xc:37; Forskal, Descript. Animal, p. 85.
LIEUTENANTS (lQ-ten'«nts), (Heb.O"^?!"?'"!!'*?.
akh-ash-dar-pen-eein' ), the official title of viceroys
who governed the provinces of the Persian empire
(Esth.iii:i2; viii:g; ix:3; Ezraviii:36; called 'prince'
in Dan. iii;2; vi:l).
LIFE (lif), (Heb. 'Ci, khak'ee, life or lives; ■^'?^.
neh'fesh, breath; Gr. fu?), dzo-ay' , life activity;
^"X'i. psoo-khay' , breath). The word has several
significations in the Scriptures.
1. Physical or animal life (Gen. vi:i7; vii:is) ;
or a natural power of acting (Job iii:20; Eccl.
ii:i7).
2. Spiritual life, consisting in our being rein-
stated in the favor of God, quickened by his
Spirit, and conformed to his image ; in conse-
quence whereof, we by supernatural influence,
liye on God's fullness of grace, enjoy fellowship
with him, and act to his glory (Rom. viii:6; Col.
iii:3).
3. That eternal holiness and happiness which
the saints possess in heaven (Rom. v:i7).
4. It is said of Jesus Christ that he is "the
life" and "our life;" he is the source, and main-
tainerof life to all creatures: he purchased eternal
life for his people : he bestows it on them : he,
dwelling in their hearts, quickens them, comforts
them, and will raise them from the dead, and
give them eternal blessedness (John xi :25 ; xiv :
6; Col. iii:4; i John i:2). By "his life!' that is,
by his resurrection and intercession, we are saved,
in consequence of our reconcilement unto God
by his death (Rom. v:io). His "life is mani-
fested" in his people's cheerful enduring of suf-
fering for his sake : thereby are clearly evidenced
his eternal life in heaven, his intercession for
them, and his living in them, as their quickening
and comforting head (2 Cor. iv:io); his words
are "life," as they, through the Spirit, quicken
dead souls, and preserve and restore spiritual life
in the saints (John vi:63). And to possess Jesus,
the Wisdom of God, is to have the true fountain
of life in us (Prov. iv:i3; John xvii:3).
LIFT (lift), (Heb. i<^l naw-sam' : Gr. idpw.
ah'ee-ro).
1- To raise higher (Gen. vii:i7).
2. To render more honorable and conspicuous
(i Chron. xiv:2; i Sam. ii:7).
Figurative. (i) God li/ls i4p himself, or
lifts up his feet, when he hastens to deliver his
people (Ps. lxxiv:3) ; when he displays his power
and greatness, and overthrows his and his peo-
ple's enemies (Ps. xciv:2; Is. xxxiii :3, 10). (2)
Christ was lifted up, when he bung on the cross,
when exalted to heaven, and when publicly of-
fered in the gospel (John viii .■28. and xii:32, 34).
(3) He and his people lift up the head, when they
are filled with joy, glory, and honor (Luke xxi ;
28; Ps. ex 7). (4) Men lift up the eyes, when
they view carefully (Gen. xiii:2o; Is. xl 126) ; or
when they pray with expectation of a gracious
answer (Ps. cxxi:i). (5) The lifting up of the
hands, imports swearing (Deut. xxxii:40) ; threat-
ening (Ezek. xx:l5) ; threatening and oppression
(Job xxxi:2i) ; invitation (Is. xlix:22) ; blessing
of others (Lev. ix:22); prayer to God (Ps.
xxviii:2; applying earnestly to work (Ps. cxix :
48) ; rebelling against a sovereign (2 Sam. xviii:
28) ; or helping, encouraging, and comforting a
distressed and disconsolate neighbor (Heb. xii :
12). (6) The lifting up of the heart or soul to
God, imports solemn dedication to God, joy in
his service, and earnest prayer to him (2 Chron.
xvii:6; Lam. iii:4i; Ps. xxv:i).
LIGHT (lit), (Heb. TiS, ore), is represented in
the Scriptures as the immediate result and off-
spring of a divine command (Gen. i:3).
The earth was void and dark, when God said,
'Let light be, and light was.' This is represented
as having preceded the placing of 'lights in the
firmament of heaven, the greater light to rule the
day, and the lesser light to rule th« night: he
made the stars also' (Gen. i:i4, sq). Whatever
opinion may be entertained as to llie facility with
which these two separate acts may be reconciled,
it cannot be questioned that the origin of light,
as of every other part of the universe, is thus
referred to the exertion of the Divine will : as
little can_ it be denied that the narrative in the
original is so simple, yet at the same time so
majestic and impressive, both in thought and
diction, as to fill the heart with a lofty and pleas-
urable sentiment of awe and wonder.
The Divine origin of light made the subject
one of special interest to the Biblical nations —
the rather because light in the East has a clear-
ness, a brilliancy, is accompanied by an intensity
of heat, and is followed in its influence by a large-
ness of good, of which the inhabitants of less
genial climes can have no conception. Light
easily and naturally became, in consequence, witli
Orientals, a representative of the highest human
good. All the more joyous emotions of the mind,
all the pleasing sensations of the frame, all the
happy hours of domestic intercourse, were de-
scribed under imagery derived from light (i
Kings xi:36; Is. lviii:8; Esth. viii: 16; Ps. xcvii :
11). The transition was natural from earthly
to heavenly, from corporeal to spiritual things ;
and so light came to typify true religion and the
felicity which it imparts. But as light not only
came from God, but also makes man's way clear
before him, so it was employed to signify moral
truth, and preeminently that divine system of
truth which is set forth in the Bible, from its
earliest gleamings onward to the perfect day of
the Great Sun of Righteousness. The application
of the term to religious topics had the greater
propriety because the light in the world, being
accompanied by heat, purifies, quickens, enriches;
which effects it is the peculiar province of true re-
ligion to produce in the human soul. Hence its
symbolical use.
It is doubtless owing to the special providence
under which the divine lessons of the Bible were
delivered, that the views which the Hebrews took
on this subject, while they were high and worthy,
did not pass into superstition, and so cease to
be truly religious. Other Eastern nations beheld
the SUB when it shone, or the moon walking in
LIGHTEN
1067
LILY
brightness, and their hearts were secretly enticed,
and their mouth kissed their hand in token of
adoration (Job xxxi :26, 27). This 'iniquity' the
Hebrews not only avoided, but when they consid-
ered the heavens they recognized the work of
God's fingers, and learnt a lesson of humility as
well as of reverence (Ps. viii :3, sq.).
Figurative, (i) God is "light;" his na-
ture is infinitely pure and glorious ; he has all
wisdom, excellency and usefulness; and is the
author of all knowledge and comfort to his crea-
tures (Ps. xxvii:i; Is. x:i7; i John i;5). He is
"in the Hglit," possesses his own excellencies; is
jn Christ : and is clearly manifested in his word
and works (i John i:7). (2) Christ is "the
light;" he is the fountain of all light and knowl-
edge, natural, spiritual, and eternal; and in him we
discern everything important (Luke ii:32). (3)
The "light of God's countenance," or "light of
the Lord," is the instruction given by him; the
discoveries of his glory and love; the comforts of
his Spirit, and joy of his salvation (Ps. iv:6;
Is. ii:5). (4) God's judgments are "as the light
that gocth forth;" his laws are clear and plain,
and his sentences and punishments are righteous,
pure, speedy, and irresistible (Hos. vi:5). (5)
John the Baptist, and other insp.ired men, are
called "light," or "lights;" they are endowed with
the knowledge of divine things, and are delightful
means of instructing, directing, and comforting
others (Matt. v:i4; John v:35). (6) Saints are
compared to "light:" they have the saving knowl-
edge of divine things, and, by their instruction
and holy conversation, are agreeable means of
conveyingknowledge and comfort to others (Luke
xvi:8; Eph. v:8). (7) Good kings are called
"light," to denote their agreeable splendor, and
the counsel and comfort which their subjects re-
ceive from them (2 Sam. xxiii;4). (8) A son, or
successor, is called "light," as he honors, and
keeps his ancestors in view (i Kings xi:36). (9)
The word of God, particularly the gospel, is a
"light," or a "lamp;" it discovers to us things
divine and eternal, and guides us to glory and
happiness (Ps. cxix:i05; Matt. iv:i6). (10) The
saving knowledge produced by God's word in our
heart is "light ;" we thereby discern the most glo-
rious and eternal objects, and are wise unto sal-
vation. (11) Prosperity, joy, or comfort, is
called "light." How pleasant in itself, and it ren-
ders men conspicuous (Esth. viii:i6; Ps. xcvii :
II; Is. lviii:8). (12) The heavenly glory is
called "light," and "light of life." to represent its
excellency, purity, knowledge, and comfort (Col.
i:i2). Brown.
LIGHTEN (lit"n), (Or. diroitdXi/^ii, ap-ok-al' oop-
sis).
1. To give light to (Luke ii:32).
2. To make light by unloading (Acts xxvii:i8).
3. To make to see or shine ; or to fill with com-
fort (Ps. Ixxvii:i8 and xxxiv:5). (See En-
lighten.)
LIGHTNING (lit'ning), (Hcb. P^?, baw-rawk' ,
gleam; Gr. dtrTpajnJ, as-trap-ay'), flashes of fire that
attend thunder. The motion thereof is quick and
majestic ; and it is called Gocfs light, that is, as
it were, spread along the sky, as he forms it, and
it is grand and glorious (Job xxviii:26 and xxxvi:
30).
Figurative, (i) The terrors of the divine
wrath are often represented by thunder and
lightning; and thunder, on account of its awful
impression on the minds of mortals, is often
spoken of in Scripture as the voice of the Lord
(Exod. ix:28; Job xxviii:26; xxxvii :3, 5;
xxxviii:25; x1;q). (2) Divine judgments are
likened to lightning (Rev. viii :s ; xvi:i8 and xi:
19)- (3) Satan falls as lightning from heaven,
when his power and interest are suddenly ruined
(Luke xi:i8).
LIGN ALOES (lin' al'oz), (Heb 0'?'7^:, a-haw-
leetn' ; Gr. d\o^, al-c-ay'). This is doubtless the
lignum aloes of the ancients, the product of Aquil-
aria Agalloiha, and other trees of the same
genus growing in India and China according to
Roxburg. (See Ahalim; Aloes.)
LIGTJRE (Ilg'Qr), (Heb. 0?^. leh'shem), a
Erecious stone in the third row of the high-priest's
reastjilate (Ex. xxviiiiig; xxxix:l2). It has been
best identified with the Jacinth, a hyacinthine
stone, sometimes shading into yellow or brown,
and sometimes into imperfect pistachio green. It
is harder than the emerald ; but, notwithstanding,
the ancients used to engrave upon it.
LIKE (lik), (Hcb. ''^?, keni-o'), likely (Jer.
xxxviiiio). "He is like to die fur hunger in the
place where he is: for there is no more bread
m the city."
LIKHI (lik'hl). (Heb. Ti?^, lik-khee' , learned), a
Manassite, the third named of the sons of Shem-
ida, the son of Manasseh (I Chron. vii:iQ). He left
few, if any, descendants, (B. C. after 1950).
LIKING (lik'Ing), in the A. V. used both as a
noun, meaning condition, plight (Job xxxix:4),
"Their young ones arc in good liking ;" and as a
participle meaning "conditioned" (Dan. i:lo).
LILY (hl'y), (Gr. nptvov, kri'non). The lily is
frequently mentioned in the Authorized Version
of the Old Testament as the translation of 1?!^>^>
(shoo-shan').
This plant is mentioned in the well-known and
beautiful passage (Matt, vi :28) : "Consider the
lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil not,
neither do ihey spin, and yet I say unto you, that
even Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed
like one of these;' so also in Luke xii 127. Here
it is evident that the plant alluded to must have
been indigenous or grown wild, in the vicinity
of tlie sea of Galilee, must have been of an orna-
mental character, and from the Greek term
Kplvov being applied to it, of a lilaceous nature.
Travelers in Palestine mention that in the month
of January the fields and groves everywhere
abound with various species of lily, tulip, and
narcissus.
A species of lily (the Liliitm chalcedonicum of
botanists) is in flower at the season of the year
when the sermon on the Mount is supposed to
have been spoken, is indigenous in the very local-
ity, and is conspicuous, even in the garden, for
its remarkable showy flowers, there can now be
little doubt that it is the plant' alluded to by our
Savior. This is much more likely to be the
plant intended than some others which have been
adduced, as, for instance, the scarlet amaryltis,
having white flowers with bright purple streaks,
found by Salt at Adowa. Others have preferred
the Crotcn imperial, which is a native of Persia
and Cashmere. Most authors have united in con-
sidering the white lily, Lilium candidum. to be
the plant to which our Savior referred ; but it is
doubtful whether it has ever been found in a wild
state in Palestine. This opinion is confirmed by
a correspondent at Aleppo (Gardener's Chronicle,
iii. 429), who has resided long in Syria, but is ac-
quainted only with the botany of Aleppo and An-
LILY WORK
1068
LION
tioch : 'I never saw the white lily in a wild state,
nor have I heard of its being so in Syria. It is
cultivated here on the roofs of the houses in pots
as an exotic bulb, like the daffodil.' J. F. R.
LILY WORK (lll'j? wflrk), (Heb. W'^, shoo-
shan', lily; ■"'?^^, mah-as-eh' , work), part of the
ornamentation of the two pillars which were
erected (2 Chron. iii.15), before the temple (comp.
I Kings viiiig, 22). (See Temple.)
LIME (lira), (Heb. "'"'?, seed), a niaterial named
only three times in the Bible (Deut. xxvii:2, 4 ; Is.
xxxiii:i2; Amos ii:l). It is probable that the
Jews learned the use of the lime-kiln and lime
from the Egyptians.
LINE (lin). One Greek and several Hebrew
words are thus rendered. The term is used vari-
ously in the Scriptures. It denotes:
1. A cord or instrument to measure and adjust
things by (i Kings vii;is; Is. xxxiv:i7; 2 Sam.
viii:2).
2. A province or course of motion (Ps. xix:
4). Thus the apostles' line or voice went to the
ends of the earth (Rom. x:i8) ; and to boast in
another man's line, was to go where he had la-
bored, and pretend to have done the work accom-
plished by him (2 Cor. x:i6).
3. A portion, which is as it were measured out
by lines (Ps. xvi:6).
4. A short instruction, that might be as it were
written in one line (Is. xxviii:io).
Figurative. (1) The word of God is a
measuring line; as our whole conduct, and all the
forms and ordinances of the church, must be ad-
justed thereby (Ezek. xl:3). (2) In a prornise
the stretching out of the line upon a place, im-
ports the measuring of the ground to build houses
on it (Jer. xxxi;39; Zech. i:i6, and ii:i). (3)
But to stretch the line of confusion and stones
of emptiness on a place, is to render it altogether
waste (Is. xxxiv:ii, 17). (4) Judgments laid
on according to men's deserts, and which lay cities
razed on the ground, are called a line (Lam. ii:
8). (S) The line of Samaria, and plummet of
the house of Ahab, is such ruin as Samaria and
the family of Ahab met with (2 Kings xxi:i3).
(6) To lay judgment to the line, and righteous-
ness to the plummet, is to punish people according
to the due desert of their deeds (Is. xxviii:i7).
LINEN (lin'en). Several Hebrew and Greek
words are translated linen, among them the fol-
lowing :
1. Pish-teh' (Heb. ^•'v'?^?, carded) is ren-
dered "linen" in Lev. xiii :47, sq.; Deut. xxiirii;
Jer. xiii: I, etc.; and "flax" in Josh. ii:6; Judg.
xv:i4; Prov. xxxi:l3; Is. xix:9; Ezek. xl:3;
Hos. ii :s, g. It was used, like our "cotton," to de-
note not only flax (Judg. xv:i4). or raw material
from which the linen was made, but also the plant
itself (Josh. ii:6), and the manufacture from it.
It was used for nets (Is. xix:9), girdles (Jer.
xiii:l), measuring lines (Ezek. xl:3), as well as
for the dress of the priests (xliv:i7, 18). (See
Flax.)
2. Boots (Heb. Y^^' from root signifying
whiteness), always translated "fine linen," except
in 2 Chron. v:l2 ("white linen"), is apparently
a late word, and probably the same with the
Greek piaaot, boos'sns. It was used for the
dresses of the Levite choir in the temple (2
Chron. v:i2). It is spoken of as the finest and
most precious stuff woVn by kings (I Chron. xv:
27). The dress of the rich man in the parable
was purple and fine linen {l^<ia<io%, Luke xvi:
19). "Fine linen," with purple and silk, are
enumerated in Rev. xviii:i2 as among the mer-
chandise of the mystical Babylon. It is a matter
of dispute whether cotton or linen is meant by
this word.
3. Skaysh (Heb. t'li", bHached), an Egyp-
tian word referring chiefly to the Egyptian bys-
sus, which was brought to Tyre (Ezek. xxvii:/),
and was among the offerings brought out of
Egypt by the Israelites (Exod. xxv:4; xxxv:6).
The exact material of which shaysh was made is
difficult to determine, our translators hesitating
whether linen or silk should be used (Gen. xli :
42, marg. "silk" ; Prov. xxxi :22, "silk" in the
text).
4. Ay-ioon' (Heb. P'^??, twisted) occurs only
in Prov. vii:i6, and there in connection with
Egj'pt. It was probably a kind of thread, made
of Egyptian flax, and used for ornamenting the
coverings of beds with tapestry work.
5. Bad (Heb. "'3, perhaps from its separa-
tion for sacred uses) is a word emgloyed in de-
scribing the linen dresses worn in religious cere-
monies, and may refer to the cloth made from
the shaysh, or yarn. It occurs in Exod. xxviii :
42; xxxix:28; Lev. vi:io; xvi:4, 23, 32; i Sam.
ii:i8; xxii:i8; 2 Sam. vi:i4; i Chron. ■x.\:2y;
Ezek. ix:2, 3, 11; x:2, 6, 7; Dan. x:5; xii:6, 7.
Celsius is of the opinion that bad signifies the
finest and best Egyptian linen. For fuller discus-
sion of the whole subject see Byssus.
Figurative. Fine -white linen is in Scripture
the emblem of innocence or moral purity (Rev.
XV :6), though it is also mentioned as a mark of
luxury (Luke xvi:i9).
LINTEL .(lln'tel).
1. (Heb. T?*, ah'yil, a pilaster or pillar in
the wall), a beam forming the upper frame of a
door (I Kings vi:3i), elsewhere "post."
2. (Heb. "'^tS. kaf-tore'.a. chaplet), Amos ix:i;
Zeph. ii:l4. The rendering "knop" would be more
correct, which is found in all other passages.
3. (Heb. ITf^, mash-kofe' , a projecting cover),
Ex. xii:22, 23. The upper door post (Ex. xii:7),
which is undoubtedly the correct rendering.
LINUS (Ii'nus), (Gr. Aiws, lee'nos), one of the
Christians at Rome whose salutations Paul sent to
Timothy (2 Tim. iv:2i).
He is said to have been the first bishop of
Rome after the martyrdom of Peter and Paul
(Ircnaeu!!, Adv. Hceretis, iii. 3; Euseb. Hist. Eccl.
iii. 2, 4; V. 6). (A. D. 64.)
LION (li'iin), (Heb. 'TX, ar-ee').
The most powerful, daring, and impressive of
all carnivorous animals, the most magnificent in
aspect and awful in voice. Being very common
in Syria in early times, the lion naturally sup-
plied many forcible images to the poetical lan-
guage of Scripture, and not a few historical inci-
dents in its narratives. This is shown by the
great number of passages (about 130) where this
animal, in all the stages of existence — as the
whelp, the young adult, the fully mature, the lion-
ess— occurs under different names, exhibiting that
multiplicity of denominations which always re-
sults when some great image is constantly pres-
ent to the popular mind.
LION
1069
LION
(1) Different Names. Thus we have (i)
gor, "a suckling," a lion's whelp, a very young
lion (Gen. xlix:9; Deut. xxxiii:2o; Jer. 11:38;
Ezek. xix:2; Nahum ii :ii, 12, etc.). (2) Ke-phir',
"the shaggy," a young lion, when first leaving the
protection of the old pair to hunt independently
(Ezek. xix:2, 3; Ps. xci:i3; Prov. xix:i2, etc.).
(3) ar-ee', "the puller in pieces," an adult and vig-
orous lion, a lion having paired, vigilant and en-
terprising in search of prey (Nahum ii:i2; 2
Sam. xvii:io; Num. xxiii:24). This is the com-
mon name of the animal. (4) Sha'chal, "the
roarer," a mature lion in full strength; a black
lion (Job iv:io; x:i6; Ps. xci:i3; Prov. xxvi:
13; Hos. v:i4; xiii:7). This denomination may
very possibly refer to a distinct variety of lion,
and not to a black species or race, because neither
black nor white lions are recorded, excepting in
Oppian (De I'cnat. iii;43) ; but the term may be
safely referred to the color of the skin, not of
the fur ; for some lions have the former fair, and
even rosy, while in other rates it is perfectly
black. An Asiatic lioness, formerly at Exeter
Change, had the naked part of the nose, the roof
of the mouth, and the bare soles of all the feet
pure black, though the fur itself was very pale
buff. Yet albinism and melanism are not uncom-
mon in the felinae ; the former occurs in tigers,
and the latter is frequent in leopards, panthers,
and jaguars. (5) La'yish, "the strong," a fierce
lion, one in a state of fury (Job iv:ii; Prov. xxx:
30; Is. xxx:6). (6) Labi-all', "lowing," "roaring."
hence a lioness (Job iv:ii), where the lion's
whelps are denominated 'the sons of Labiah,' or
of the lioness.
(2) Size. The lion is the largest and most for-
midably armed of all carnassial animals, the In-
dian tiger alone claiming to be his equal. One
full grown, of Asiatic race, weighs above 450
pounds and those of Africa often above 500
pounds. The fall of a fore paw in striking has
been estimated to be equal to twenty-five pounds'
weight, and the grasp of the claws, cutting four
inches in depth, is sufficiently powerful to break
the vertebrae of an ox. The huge laniary teeth
and jagged molars worked by powerful jaws, and
the tongue entirely covered with horny papillae,
hard as a rasp, are all subservient to an im-
mensely strong muscular structure, capable of
prodigious exertion, and minister to the self-con-
fidence which these means of attack inspire. In
Asia the lion rarely measures more than nine feet
and a half from the nose to the end of the tail,
though a tiger-skin of which we took the dimen-
sions was but a trifle less than thirteen feet. In
Africa they are considerably larger, and supplied
with a much greater quantity of mane. Both
tiger and lion are furnished with a small horny
apex to the tail — a fact noticed by the ancients,
but only verified of late years, because this ob-
ject lies concealed in the hair of the tip and is
very liable to drop off. All the varieties of the
lion are spotted when whelps : but they become
gradually buff or pale yellow. One African variety,
very large in size, perhaps a distinct species, has a
peculiar and most ferocious physiognomy, a dense
black mane extending half way down the back,
and a black fringe along the abdomen and tip
of the tail ; while those of Southern Persia and
the Dekkan are nearly destitute of that defensive
ornament. The roaring voice of the species is
notorious to a proverb, but the warning cry of
attack is short, snappish, and sharp. Like all the
felinae. they are more or less nocturnal, and sel-
dom go abroad to pursue their prey till after
■unset. When not pressed by hunger, they arc
naturally indolent, and, from their habits of un-
controlled superiority, perhaps capricious, but
often less sanguinary and vindictive than is ex-
pected.
(3) Monogamous. Lions are monogamous,
the male living constantly with the lioness, both
hunting together, or for each other when there is
a litter of whelps ; and the mutual affection and
care for their offspring which they display arc
remarkable in animals by nature doomed to live
by blood and slaughter. It is while seeking prey
for their young that ihsy are most dangerous : at
other times they bear abstinence, and when
pressed by hunger will sometimes feed on car-
casses found dead. They live to more than fifty
years ; consequently, having annual litters of from
three to five cubs, they multiply rapidly when not
seriously opposed.
(4) Numerous. In ancient times, when the de-
vastations of Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Ro-
man armies passed over Palestine, there can be
little doubt that these destroyers made their ap-
pearance in great numbers. The fact, indeed, is
attested by the impression which their increase
made upon the mixed heathen population of Sa-
maria, when Israel was carried away into captiv-
ity (2 Kings xvii :25, 26).
(5) Scriptural Illustrations. The Scriptures
present many striking pictures of lions, touched
with wonderful force and fidelity : even where the
animal is a direct instrument of the Almighty,
while true to his mission, he still remains so to
his nature. Thus nothing can be more graphic
than the record of the man of God ( I Kings xiii :
28), disobedient to his charge, struck down from
his ass, and lying dead, while the lion stands by
him, without touching the lifeless body, or at-
tacking the living animal, usually a favorite prey.
See also Gen. xlixig; Job iv:io, ii; Nahum ii :
II, 12. Samson's adventure also with the young
lion (Judg. xiv.s, 6) and the picture of the young
lion coming up from the underwood cover on ibe
banks of the Jordan, all attest a perfect knowledge
of the animal and its habits. Finally, the lions
in the den with Daniel, miraculously leaving him
unmolested, still retain, in all other respects, the
real characteristics of their nature. C. H. S.
Figurative. (l) God is compared to"a/ion"
in his threatenings, judgments, and chastise-
ments (Hos. v:i4; Amos i:2; iii:8l. (2) Christ
is "the lion of the tribe of ludah," descend-
ing from Judah in respect of his nianliood : he is
the almighty Awakener and Conqueror of souls
(Rev. v:s). (3) The church is likened to a
"lion" strengthened of God : she overcomes, and
is terrible to all that oppose her ( Mic. v :8) ; her
minister!!, especially in the primitive ages, were
like "lions," bold, courageous, and active in their
work, and conquered multitudes for Christ (Rer.
iv:7). (4) The saints are represented as "lions,"
because of their boldness and activity in the cause
of God (Prov. xxviii:i). (5) The tribe of Ju-
dah is likened to "a lion." to denote its cour-
age, activity, bravery, and con(|uests; the tribe
of Judah had kings courageous and terrible,
who attacked and subdued their enemies. (6)
By Samson, the Danites as "lions," mightily
mauled their enemies the Philistines (Gen. xlix:
9: Deut. xxxiii:22). (7) The devil is a "roar-
ing lion"; he furiously goes about to terrify be-
lievers and destroy mankind (l Pet. v:8). (8)
Tyrants, oppressors, such as the Assyrian, Chal-
dean, and Persian conquerors, and the last four
kings of Judah are called "lions" (Is. xxi:8; Jer.
iv:7; v:6; Ezek. xix ; Amos iii:8; Nah. ii.12).
(9) Men full of wickedness, persecution, oppres-
LIP
1070
LIVER
sion, are compared to "lions," as they terrify,
tear and murder others around (Is. xi:7; Ezek.
xxii:25).
LTP (lip), (Heb. J^??, saw-faw', with tlie idea of
terminatioti).
Figurative. (l) To have the "i/iou/h" or
"lips covered," imports shame and grief (Lev.
xiii:4S; Ezek. xxiv:i7, 22; Mic. iii:7)- (2) To
"refrain the lips," is to speak little and season-
ably; as "the talk of the lips," vain and idle
speech, and empty boasting without practice, tends
only to poverty (Prov. x:i9; xiv;23;. (3) To
"open the mouth or lips -wide," is to talk rashly,
boastingly, reproachfully (Ps.xxxv:2i; Prov.xiii:
3) ;orto listen with the utmost attention, earnestly
desiring instruction (Job xxix:23); or earnestly
to desire satisfaction and blessings to our soul
(Ps. lxxxi:io). (4) "Uncircumcised of _ lips"
(Exod. vi:i2), i. e., not of ready speech, is the
same as "slow of speech" (iviio). (5) The
"fruit of the lip" (Heb. xiii:!^) is a raetaphor for
praise. (6) By a bolder hgure we have "the
calves of the lips" (Hos. .xiv:2) for a thank of-
fering. (7) To "shoot out the lip" (Ps. xxii:
7) has always been an expression of the utmost
.scorn and defiance. (8) Unclean tips are such as
are polluted with sinful words (Is. vi:5). (9)
Burning lips denote fine language, ardent protesta-
tions, or words apparently full of love (Prov.
xxvi :23).
LIQT70K or LiatTORS (llk'er), the translation
of three different Hebrew words. One denotes a
"tear" — i. e., the juice of the olive and grapes, (Ex.
xxii:29); the second denotes "maceration" — z. e.,
drink prepared by steeping grapes, (Num. vi:3);
the last, "mixture"—?, e., highly-flavored wine,
(Cant. vii:2). (See Wine.)
LIST (list), (Gr. WXw, thel'o), to please, like, will
(Matt. xvii:l2; Mark ix:i3; John iii:8).
lilTTEB (Itt'ter). The word translated litter,
in Is. lxvi:2o, is 2iJ, tsawb, and is the same which, in
Num. vii:3, denotes the wains or carts drawn by
oxen, in which the materials of the tabernacle
were removed from place to place.
The tsawh was not, therefore, a litter, which is
not drawn, but carried. This is the only place
in which the word occurs in the Authorized trans-
lation. We are not, however, to infer from this
that the Hebrews had no vehicles of the_ kind.
Litters, or palanquins, were, as we know, in use
among the ancient Egyptians. They were borne
upon the shoulders of men, and appear to have
been used for carrying persons of consideration
short distances on visits, like the sedan chairs of
a former day in England. We doubt if the He-
brews had this kind of litter, as it scarcely agrees
with their simple, unluxurious habit ; but that they
had litters borne by beasts, such as are still com-
mon in Western Asia, seems in the highest degree
probable.
In Cant, iii :9, we find the word aphiryon,
Sept. vopehv, carriage, Vulg., ferculum, which
occurs nowhere else in Scripture, and is applied
to a vehicle used by King Solomon. This word
is rendered 'chariot' in our Authorized Version,
although unlike any other word so rendered in
that version. It literally means a 7novirtg couch,
and is usually conceived to denote a kind of
sedan, litter, or rather palanquin, in which great
personages and women were borne from place to
place. The name, as well as the object, immedi-
ately suggests that it may have been nearly the
same thing as the tahht-ravan, the moving throne,
or seat, of the Persians. It consists of a light
frame fixed on two strong poles, like those of our
sedan chair. The frame is generally covered with
cloth, and has a door, sometimes of lattice work,
at each side. It is carried bv two mules, one be-
tween the poles before, the other behind. These
conveyances are used by great persons, when dis-
posed for retirement or ease during a journey,
or when sick or feeble from age. But they are
chiefly used by ladies of consideration in their
journeys.
The popular illustrators of Scripture do not
appear to have been acquainted with this and the
other litters of Western Asia; and have, there-
fore, resorted to India, and drawn their illustra-
tions from the palanquins borne by men, and from
the hoivdahs of elephants. This is unnecessary,
as Western Asia still supplies conveyances of this
description, more suitable and more likely to have
been anciently in use than any which the farther
East can produce. If the one already described
should seem too humble, there are other takht-
ravans of more imposing appearance. In Arabia,
or in the countries where Arabian usages prevail,
two camels are usually employed to bear the takht-
ravan, and sometimes two horses. When borne
by camels, the head of the hindmost of the ani-
mals is bent painfully down under the vehicle.
This is the most comfortable kind of litter, and
two light persons may travel in it.
The shibreeyeh is another kind of camel -lit-
ter, resembling the Indian hotvdah, by which
name (or rather luldaj) it is sometimes called.
It is composed of a small square platform wit'i a
canopy or arched covering. It accommodates but
one person, and is placed upon the back of a
camel, and rests upon two square camel-chests,
one on each side of the animal. It is very evi-
dent, not only from the text in view, but from
others, that the Hebrews had litters; and there
is little reason to doubt that they were the same
as those now employed in Palestine and the
neighboring countries, where there are still the
same circumstances of climate, the same domestic
animals, and essentially the same habits of life,
as in the Biblical period.
LITTLE OWr. (lit't'l oul). See Owl.
LIVELY (liv'ly), (Heb. 'T?, kkaw-yeh', lively),
Exod. 1:19, full of life, vigorous, strong; (Gr. fdu,
rtfea-4'o, living), Acts vii:38, etc. "This is he who
received the lively oracles to give unto us."
LIVER (liv'er), (Heb. "!.??, kaiu-bade' , meaning
to be heavy), occurs in Exod. xxix:i3, 22; Lev,
iii:4, 10, 15; iv:g; vii;4; viii:l6, 25; ix:io, ig;
Prov. vii:23; Lam. ii:ii; Ezek. xxi:2i; it is ap-
plied to the liver, the heaviest of the viscera, as
we in English use the word "lights" for lungs, the
lightest.
(l) In all the instances where the word occurs
in the Pentateuch, it forms part of the phrase
translated in the A. V. 'the caul that is above the
liver,' but which Gesenius understands to be the
great lobe of the liver itself, rather than the caul
over it. Jahn thinks the smaller lobe to be meant.
It appears from the same passages that it was
burnt upon the altar, and not eaten as sacrificial
food (Jahn, Bihlisches Archiiol. sec. 378, n. 7). The
liver was supposed by the ancient Jews, Greeks,
and Romans to be the seat of the passions, pride,
love, etc. Thus Gen. xlix :6, 'with their assembly
let not' (literally, my liver) 'be united.' (Sec Heb.
of Ps. xvi:Q; lvii:g; cviii:2; and Anacreon, Ode
iii at end; Theocritus, / dy !l x\:i6\ Yiora.ce., Carm.
i. 13, 4, 25, 15; iv. I, 12; and the Notes of the Del-
phin edition; comp. also Persius, Sal. v. 129; Ju-
venal. Sat. v, 647). (2) Wounds in the liver were
supposed to be mortal ; thus the expressions in
LIVING CREATURES
1071
LIZARD
Prov. vii .•23, 'a dart through his liver,' and Lam.
ii:ii. "my liver is poured out upon the earth.' are
each of them a periplirasis for death itself. (3)
The passage in Ezekicl contains an interesting
reference to the most ancient of all modes of div-
ination, by the inspection of the viscera of ani-
mals and even of mankind sacrificially slaugh-
tered for the purpose. It is there said that the
king of Babylon, among other modes of divina-
tion referred to in the same verse, 'looked upon
the liver.' The liver was always considered
the most important organ in the ancient art of
£xiispuium, or divinaUon by the entrails. Philos-
tratus felicitously describes it as 'the prophesying
tripod of all divination' (Life of Apollonius, viii,
7, 5). The rules by which the Greeks and Ro-
mans judged of it are amply detailed in Adam's
Roman Antiquities, p. 261, etc., London, 1834.
But divination is coeval and coextensive with
a belief in the divinity. We accept the argu-
ment of the Stoics, 'sunt Di : erg,o est Divinatw.'
We know that as early as the days of Cain and
Abel there were certain means of communication
between God and man, and that those means were
connected with the sacrifice of animals, and we
prefer to consider those means as the source of
divination in later ages, conceiving that when
the real tokens of the Divine interest with which
the primitive families of man were favored ceased,
in consequence of the multiplying of human trans-
gressions, their descendants endeavored to obtain
counsel and information by the same external ob-
servances. We believe that thus only will the
minute resemblances be accounted for which we
discover between the different methods of divina-
tion, utterly untraceable to reason, but which have
prevailed from unknown antiquity among the
most distant regions. It is further important to
remark that the first recorded instance of divina-
tion is that of the teraphim of Laban, a native of
Padan-aram (Gen. xxxi:iQ, 301, but by which tera-
phim both the Septuagint and Josephus understood
fjxap Tuv alyQy, 'the /iver of goats' (Aiitiq. vi:l i, 4).
J. F. D.
LIVING CBEATXJBES(liv'mgkre'tQrs),(Ezek.
cc. i, iii, x; Rev. iv:6-9, A. \ . "beasts," but should
always be translated as in R. V. "living crea-
tures"). They are identical with Cherubi.m
(see Cherub, Cherubim).
LIZAKD (Uz'erd), (Heb. ~?V?, let-aw-aiv' , hid-
ing), a family term, occurring in a list (Lev. xi:30)
of six, all of which are rendered in R.V. by names
denoting lizards.
Under this denomination the modern zoologist
places all the cold-blooded animals that have the
conformation of serpents with the addition of
four feet. Thus viewed as one great family they
constitute the Saurians, Lacertinae, and Lacer-
tidse of authors; embracing numerous generical
divisions, which commence with the largest, that
is, the crocodile group, and pass through sundry
others, a variety of species, formidable, disgust-
ing, or pleasing in appearance — some equally fre-
quenting the land and water, others absolutely
confined to the earth and to the most arid deserts;
and though in general harmless, there are a few
with disputed properties, some being held to poi-
son or corrode by means of the exudation of an
ichor, and others extolled as aphrodisiacs, or of
medical use in pharmacy ; but these properties in
most, if not in all, are undertermined or illusory.
Of some genera, such as the crocodile and cha-
meleon, we have already made mention. (See
Chameleon; Crocodile; Dragon; Leviathan.)
And therefore we shall confine attention to the liz-
ards that are inhabitants of Western Asia and
Egypt, and to those more particularly noticed in
the Bible.
(1) Of these, commentators indicate six or
seven species. Bochart refers tsah (Lev. xi 130)
to one of the group of Monitors or Varanus,
the Nilotic lizard, Laccrta Nilotica, Varanus
Niloticus, or [Varan of the Arabs. Like the other
of this form, it is possessed of a tail double the
length of the body, but is not so well known in
Palestine, where there is only one real river
(Jordan) which is not tenanted by this species.
The true crocodile frequented the shores and
marshes of the coast down to a comparatively
late period ; and therefore it may well have had
a more specific name than Leviathan — a word ap-
parently best suited to the dignified and lofty dic-
tion of tlie prophets, and clearly of more general
signification than the more colloquial designation.
Jerome was of this opinion ; and it is thus likely
that tsab was applied to both, as waran is now
considered only a variety of, or a young, crocodile.
There is a second of the same group, Lacerta
Scincus of Merrem (Varanus /Irfjianuj), Waran-
cl-hard. also reaching to six feet in length ; and a
third, not as yet clearly described, which appears
to be larger than either, growing to nine feet,
and covered with bright cupreous scales. This
last prefers rocky and stony situations. It is in
this section of the Saurians that most of the
gigantic fossil species, the real ben-nephilim,
'children of the giants,' are found to be located;
and of the existing species some are reported
to possess great strength. One of the last-men-
tioned pursues its prey on land with a rapid
bounding action, feeds on the larger insects, and
is said to attack game in a body, sometimes de-
stroying even sheep. The Arabs, in agreement
with the ancients, assert that this species will
do fierce and victorious battle with serpents.
(2) We come next to the group of lizards more
properly so called, which Hebrew commentators
take 10 be the letaah a name having some allusion
to poison and adhesiveness. The word occurs
only once (Lev. xi:3o), where Saurians alone
appear to be indicated. If the Hebrew root were
to guide the decision, tetatih would be another
name for the gecko or aiiakah, for there is but one
species which can be deemed venomous; and with
regard to the quality of adhesiveness, though the
geckos possess it most, numerous common lizards
run up and down perpendicular walls with great
facility. We, therefore, take cliomet, or the sand
lizard of Bochart, to be the true lizard, several
(probably many) species existing in myriads on
the rocks in sandy places, and in ruins in every
part of Palestine and the adjacent countries.
(3) We now come to the Slelliones, which have
been confounded with the noxious geckos. They
are best known by the bundles of starlike spines
on the body. Next we place the Gcckotians. among
which comes the anakah, in our version denomina-
ted ferret, but which is with more propriety trans-
ferred to the noisy and venomous abu-burs of the
Arabs. The particular species most probably
meant is the lacerta gecko of Hasselquist. the
c.ccko lobatus of Geofl^roy, distinguished by hav-
ing the soles of the feet dilated and striated like
open fans, from whence a poisonous ichor is said
to exude, inflaming the human skin, and infecting
food that may have been trodden upon by the ani-
mal. Hence the Arabic name of abu-burs, or
'father leprosy,' at Cairo. To these we add the
Chameleons, already described (see Chameleon) ;
and then follows the Scincus.
LOADEN
1072
LOAN
Of the species of Sefis. that is, viviparous ser-
pent-lizards, having the body of snakes, with
four weak limbs, a species with only three toes
on each foot, the laccrta chalcides of Linn., ap-
pears to extend to Syria. C. H. S.
LOADEN (lod'n), (Heb. ^''-^ , aw-mas'), made a
load, laden, burdened (Is. xlviii).
LOAF (I5f), (Heb. "'5?, kik-kawr' , circle; Gr.
4pTos, ar'tos ; occasionally ^Cv, lekh'em, bread), a
biscuit, or round or oval cake, the usual form of
bread among the orientals (Exod. xxix:23; Judg.
viii:5; I Sam. x:3; i Chron. xvi:3; Matt. xiv:l7;
Mark vi:38, etc.). (See BREAD.)
LO-AMMI (lo'am'mi), (Heb. "'2? ^, lo-am'-
mee, not my people), a name of symbolical signifi-
cance, given by Rosea (iig; ii:23) to his second son
to indicate that Israel had been rejected by Jeho-
vah, in allusion to the Babylonian Captivity (B. C.
725)-
LOAN (Ion), the Mosaic laws which relate to
the subject of borrowing, lending, and repaying,
are in substance as follows:
(1) Interest. If an Israelite became poor,
what he desired to borrow was to be freely lent
to him, and no interest, either of money or
produce, could be exacted from him; interest
might be taken of a foreigner, but not of an
Israelite by another Israelite (Exod. xxii:25;
Deut. xxiiiriQ, 20; Lev. xxv:3S-38). At the end
of every seven years a remission of debts was
ordained; every creditor was to remit what he
had lent : of a foreigner the loan might be ex-
acted, but not of a brother. If an Israelite wished
to borrow, he was not to be refused because the
year of remission was at hand (Deut. xv :i-ii).
(2) Fledges. Pledges might be taken, but not
as such the mill or the upper millstone, for that
would be to take a man's life in pledge. If the
pledge was raiment, it was to be given back
before sunset, as being needful for a covering
at night. The widow's garment could not be
taken in pledge (E.xod. xxii ;26, 27; Deut. xxiv :
6, 17).
(3) Biblical Point of View. These laws re-
lating to loans may wear a strange and somewhat
repulsive aspect to the mere modern reader, and
cannot be understood, either in their bearing or
their sanctions, unless considered from the Bibli-
cal point of view. The land of Canaan (as the
entire world) belonged to its Creator, but was
given of God to the descendants of Abraham un-
der certain conditions, of which this liberality to
the needy was one. The power of getting loans
therefore was a part of the poor man's inheri-
tance. It was a lien on the land (the source of
all property with ag^ricultural people), which was
as valid as the tenure of any given portion by the
tribe or family to whose lot it had fallen. This
is the light in which the Mosaic polity represents
the matter, and in this light, so long as that
polity retained its force, would it, as a matter
of course, be regarded by the owners of property.
Thus the execution of this particular law was
secured by the entire force with which the con-
stitution itself was recommended and sustained.
But as human selfishness might in time endanger
this particular set of laws, so Moses applied spe-
cial support to the possibly weak part. Hence the
emphasis with which he enjoins the duty of lend-
ing to the needy. Of this emphasis the very es-
sence is the sanction supplied by that special
providence which lay at the very basis of the
Mosaic commonwealth ; so that lending to the
destitute came to be enforced with all the power
derivable from the express will of God.
That the system of law regarding loans was
carried into effect there is no reason to doubt
It formed an essential part of the general con-
stitution, and therefore came recommended with
the entire sanction which that system had on
its own behalf ; nor were there any predominant
antagonistic principles at work which would pre-
vent this from proceeding step by step, in its
proper place and time, with the residue of the
Mosaic legislation. Nor do the passages of Scrip-
ture (Job xxii:6; xxiv:3; Matt. xviii:28; Prov.
xxviii:8; Ezek. xviii:8; Ps. xv :5 ; cix:il) which
give us reason to think that usury was practiced
and the poor debtor oppressed, show anything but
those breaches to which laws are always liable,
especially in a period when morals grow corrupt
and institutions in consequence decline.
(4) Justice of the Law. While, however, the
benign tendency of the laws in question is admitted,
may it not be questioned whether they were strict-
ly just? Such a doubt could arise only in a mind
which viewed the subject from the position of
our actual society. A modern might plead that
he had a right to do what he pleased with his
own ; that his property of every kind — land, food,
money — was his own; and that he was justified
to turn all and each part to account for his
own benefit. Apart from religious considera-
tions this position is impregnable. But such a
view of property finds no support in the Mosaic
institutions. In them property has a divine origin,
and its use is intrusted to man on certain condi-
tions, which conditions are as valid as is the
tenure of property itself. In one sense indeed,
the entire land — all property — was a great loan,
a loan lent of God to the people of Israel, who
might well therefore acquiesce in any arrange-
ment which required a portion — a small portion —
of this loan to be under certain circumstances
accessible to the destitute. This view receives
confirmation from the fact that interest might be
taken of persons who were not Hebrews and
therefore lay beyond the sphere embraced by
this special arrangement.
Had the Hebrews enjoyed a free intercourse
with other nations, the permission to take usury
of foreigners might have had the effect of im-
poverishing Palestine by affording a strong in-
ducement for employing capital abroad ; but, un-
der the actual restrictions of the Mosaic law, this
evil was impossible. Some not inconsiderable ad-
vantages must have ensued from the observance
of these laws. The entire alienation and loss
of the lent property were prevented by that pecu-
liar institution which restored to every man his
property at the great year of release. In the in-
terval between the jubilees the system under con-
sideration would tend to prevent those inequali-
ties of social condition which always arise rapid-
ly, and which have not seldom brought disaster
and ruin on states. The affluent were required to
part with a portion of their affluence to supply
the wants of the needy, without exacting that rec-
ompense which would only make the rich richer
and the poor more needy: thus superinducing a
state of things scarcely more injurious to the one
than to the other of these two parties. There was
also in this system a strongly conservative influ-
ence. Agriculture was the foundation of the con-
stitution. Had money-lending been a trade, mon-
ey-making would also have been eagerly pursued.
Capital would be withdrawn from the land; the
agriculturist would pass into the usurer; huge
LOAVES
W7^
LOCUST
inequalities would arise ; commerce would as-
sume predominance, and the entira commonwealth
be overturned — changes and evils which were pre-
vented, or. if not so, certainly retarded and abated,
by the code of laws regarding loans. As it was,
the gradually increasing wealth of the country
was in the main laid out on the soil, so as to
augment its productiveness and distribute its
bounties.
(5) Teaching of Christ. These views may pre-
pare the reader for considering the doctrine of
'the Great leacher' on the subject of loans. It
is found forcibly expressed in Luke's Gospel
( vi -34, .35) : 'If ye lend to them of whom ye hope
to receive, what ihank have ye? for sinners also
lend to sinners, to receive as much again : but
love ye your enemies, and do good, and lend,
hoping for nothing again ; and your reward shall
be great, and ye shall be the children of the
Highest ; for he is kind unto the unthankful and
to the evil.' But it can be justly maintamed that
Christ taught the justice of taking interest in
the parable of the Talents and of the Pounds.
T R B
LOAVES (lovz). See Bread.
LOCK (16k), (Heb. ^?t5, man-awr , lock of door).
The ancient Hebrews had fastenings of wood
or iron for the doors of towns, prisons, and
fortresses (Is. xlv:2), which were in the form
of bolts. The gates of Jerusalem erected by
Nehemiah had both bolts and locks (Judg. iii:
23, 24, 25; Neh. iii:3). These bolts, or bars,
were almost the only form of locks known. The
key was a pin of iron or bronze, or sometimes
of wood, to hold the bar in place.
LOCUST (lo'kiist), (Heb. "^T^, ar-beh'),%fafc'\c
term; order, Hemiptera ; species, Gryllus, Lin-
naeus.
It is an insect remarkable for numbers and
voracity, and hence one of the most dreadful
scourges of Eastern countries. Locusts, when
mature, can tly to a considerable height, and, oc-
casionally alighting for food and rest, they are
often borne by the wind hundreds of miles. The
locust is two inches or more in length. It is a
winged, creeping thing. Like other insects of the
order Orthopicra, it has four wings. Those of the
anterior pair are narrow, while those of the pos-
terior pair are broadet. folded up when not in
use, and transparent. It has six legs, on four
of which it walks, while the hindmost pair, which
are much longer than the others and equal to
Locust (^iEdifroda I'ifigratoria),
the body in length, it uses for springing (Lev.
xi:2l, 22). The mouth is furnished with cutting
jaws, by means of which it nips off leaves ana
blades of grass.
There are many species of these insects found
in the United States, but none precisely such
as live in the Orient. The locusts most de-
structive and doubtless ordinarily referred to by
the Bible are of two kinds, Acrydium pcregrinum
and CEdipoda miRratoria. In our English Bible
seven terms probably describe this insect or allied
species — viz., locust, bald locust, beetle, canker-
worm, caterpillar, grasshopper, palmer-worm.
68
These seven terms are made to translate nine
Hebrew names. The confusion of the entire sub-
ject may be seen by the fact that "locust" repre-
sents four original words, "grasshopper" two, and
"caterpillar" two, while two original words have
each a twofold translation. Doubtless the Jews
themselves applied some of these terms as loosely
and widely as we do such a word as "worm."
It is probable that several of the seven names
mentioned describe locusts in their immature state.
After leaving the egg this insect passes through
changes answering to those of the butterfly, but
is never dormant as a chrysalis. From first to
last it is voracious, but when it is mature and can
fly it lays its eggs and drifts away in vast
clouds, perhaps to perish in the ocean. The locusts
which the writer saw devastating portions of
Syria were fully three inches long when their
wings were closed (Lev. xi:22).
Van Lennep in writing of the destruction
caused by locusts says : "The ground over which
their devastating hordes have passed at once as-
sumes an appearance of sterility and dearth.
Well did the Romans call them 'the burners of the
land,' which is the literal meaning of our word
'locust.' On they move, covering the ground
so completely as to hide it from sight, and in
such numbers that it often takes three or four
days for the mighty host to pass by. When seen
at a distance this swarm of advancing locusts
resembles a cloud of dust or sand, reaching a
few feet above the ground as the myriads of
insects leap forward. The only thing that mo-
mentarily arrests their progress is a sudden change
of weather, for cold benumbs tlicm while it lasts.
They also keep quiet at night, swarming like
bees on the bushes and hedges until the morning
sun warms and revives them and enables them to
proceed on their devastating march (Nahuiu iii:
17). They 'have no king' nor leader, yet they
falter not, but press on in serried ranks, urged
in the same direction by an irresistible iiupulse,
and turn neither to the right hand nor to the
left for any sort of obstacle (Prov. xxx:27).
When a wall or a house lies in their way they
climb straight up, going over the roof to the other
side, and blindly rush in it the open doors and
windows (Exod. x:6; Joel ii:9). When they
come to water, be it a mere puddle or a river, a
lake or the open sea, they never attempt to go
round it, but unhesitatingly leap in and are
drowned; and their dead bodies, floating on the
surface, form a bridge for their coiupanions to
pass over. The scourge thus often comes to an
end, but it as often happens tliat the decomposi-
tion of millions of insects produces pestilence and
death (Joel ii:2o). History records a remark-
able instance which occurred in the year 125
before the Christian era. The insects were driven
by the wind into the sea in such vast numbers
that their bodies, being driven liack by the tide
upon the land, caused a stench, which produced a
fearful plague, whereby 80.000 persons perished
in Libya, Cyrene, and Egypt."
The passage in Lev. xi :22 describes four dis-
tinct insects of the locust order. "Beetle" is
plainly a mistranslation for some one of these
leapers. since whatever only crept or flew could be
used for food. The locustswere ceremonially clean.
John the Baptist ate them, and many others, par-
ticularly in Abyssinia. <Io so still ; and being salted
and fried, they taste like river cray fish (.see as
above. Lev. xi :22).
Figurative, The Assyrians were like lo-
custs, for their number and their destructive in-
fluence, in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah
LOD
1074
LONGEVITY
(Is. xxxiii:4, 5; Nah. iii:iS, I7) ! and they ruined
them, after they had been terribly mowed by tlie
Syrians (Amos vii:i; comp. Joel i :6, 7; ii:2-9)-
In the book of Revelation (1x7) we have a
literal description of the symbolical locust, which
gives us a terrific impression of their power, and
which is curiously illustrated by a passage from
an Eastern traveler. An Arab from Bagdad, he
says, compared the head of the locust to that
of the horse; its breast to that of the lion; its
feet to those of the camel; its body to
that of the serpent; its tail to that of
the scorpion; and so of other parts. In like man-
ner the Italians still call locusts little horses,
and the Germans call them hay-horses. (SchaiT,
Bib. Diet.)
liOD (lod), (Heb. "i""', /ode, 1 Chron. viii:l2; Ezra
ii:33; Neh. vii:37; xi:35), is doubtless the city of
Lydda (Acts ix:32, etc.). (See Lydda.)
LO-DEBAB(lo'-de'bar),(Heb."'?1 ^^ lo-deb-ar' ,
no pasture).
A town of Gilead, named with places east of
Jordan (2 Sam. xvii:27). It was ihe home of
Machir who entertained Mephibosheth and sent
food to David (2 Sam. ix:5).
LODGE, TO (loj).
1. This word in the A. V. represents the He-
brew verb ]lb, looti, or 'f') leeyi, which usually has
the force of "passing the night" (i Kings xix:9; I
Chron. ix:27; Is. x:29; Neh. iv;22; xiii:20, 21; Cant.
vii:li; Job xxiv:7; xxxi:32, etc.). The same
Hebrew word isotlierwise translated in the A. V.
by "lie all night" (2 Sam. xii:i6; Cant. i:i3; Job
xxix:lg); "tarry the night" (Gen. xix:2; Judg. xix-
10; Jer. xiv:8); "remain" (Ex. xxiii;i8).
2. In Josh. ii;i the word in the original rneans
"to lie," generally in allusion to sexual inter-
course.
LOFT (16ft), (Heb. ^'^?. al-ee-yaw' , lofty), the
upper room of a house (l Kings xvii:i9; Acts xx:
9), either over the gate (2 Sam. xviii:24) or
built on the roof (2 Kings xxiii:i2).
LOG (log), (Heb. i\ lohg), a liquid measure,
two-thirds of an imperial pint. (See Weights and
Measures.)
LOGOS (log'os), (Gr. A670S, logos, a word), as
used in John i:i it means the Word, symbolic-
ally referring to the creative law-giving, reveal-
ing activity of God.
(i) It designates especially the mediatorial char-
acter of our Redeemer, with special reference to
his revelation of the character and will of the
Father. It appears to be used as an abstract for
the concrete, just as we find this same writer
employing light for enlightener, life for life-giver,
etc.; so that it properly signifies the speaker or
interpreter, than which nothing can more ex-
actly accord wiih the statement made (John i :i8) :
"No man hath seen God at any time; the only-
begotten, who is in the bosom of the Father,
hath declared him," i. e. communicated to us the
true knowledge of his mind and character. (2)
That the term is merely expressive of a divine
attribute, a position which has been long and
variously maintained by Socinians. though aban-
doned as untenable by some of their best authori-
ties, is in total repugnance to all the circum-
stances of ihe context, which distinctly and ex-
pressly require personal subsistence in the subject
which it describes. (3) He whom John
styles the Logos, has the creation of all
things ascribed to him; is set forth as
possessing the country and people of the Jews;
as the only begotten (son) of the Father; as as-
suming the human nature, and displaying in it
the attributes of grace and truth, etc. Such things
could never, wiih the least degree of propriety,
be said of any mere attribute or quality. (4)
Nor is the hypothesis of a personification to be
reconciled with the universally admitted fact,
that the style of John is the most simply his-
torical and the furthest removed from that species
of composition to which such a figure of speech
properly belongs. To the Logos, the Apostle at-
tributes eternal existence, distinct personality, and
strict and proper Deity — characters which he also
ascribes to him in his first epistle — besides the
possession and exercise of perfections which ab-
solutely exclude the idea of derived or created
being.
LOIN (loin), (Heb. V^O. kha-rats'). the part of
the back and side between the ribs and hip.
The place of the girdle (Job xxxviii:3; xl:7;
Is. v:27; xxxii:ii): euphemistically for the seat
of generation (Gen. xxxviii; i Kings viii:i9;
2 Chron. vi:9). Being the pivotal part of the
body it was supposed to be most sensibly af-
fected by pain or terror (Deut. xxxiii:ii; Job
xl:i6; Ps. xxxviii:7; lxix:23; Is. xxi:3; Jer.
XXX ;6; Ezek. xxi:6).
Figurative. The dress of the Oriental na-
tions being loose, it was necessary, when they
were traveling or working, to gird up their gar-
ments and fasten them about their loins, hence,
"to gird up the loins" (i Kings xviii:46; Job
xxxviii:3; xl:7; Prov. xxxi:i7, etc.) is used as
a figure for vigorous effort. In i Pet. 1:13, it
is used to denote a state of mind in which the
soul is prepared to work and exert itself under
the influence of divine grace.
LOIS (lo'is), (Gr. Awfs, lo-ece' , perhaps agree-
able), the grandmother of Timothy, not by the side
of his father, who was a Greek, but by that of his
mother.
Hence the Syriac has 'thy mother's mother.'
She is commended by St. Paul for her faith
(2 Tim. i:5) ; for although she might not have
known that the Christ was come, and that Jesus
of Nazareth was he, she yet believed in the Mes-
siah to come, and died in that faith. (A. D.
69).
LONGEVITY (16n-jev'I-tj>). The lengthened
ages of some of the ante and postdiluvian fathers,
as given by Moses in the Hebrew text, are as fol-
lows:
Adam Gen.
Seth
Enos "
Cainan "
Mahalaleel "
Jared "
Enoch "
Methuselah "
Lamech "
Noah
Slum "
Arjjhaxad "
Salah
Eber "
Peleg
Reii
Serug "
Nahor
Terah "
Abraham "
Years.
''• 1
930
8
912
II
905
14
910
•7
89?
20
962
23
36s
27
969
31
777
IX : 29
950
xi;lo, II
600
12, 13
4.3«
14, 15
433
16, 17
464
18, 19
239
20,21
23«
22, 23
230
24,25
148
32
205
xxv: 7
175
LONGEVITY
1075
LONGEVITY
Infidelity has in various ages attacked revelation
because of the supposed absurdity of assigning to
any class of men this lenRthened term of exist-
ence. In reference to this Joscphus (Aniiq. lib.
iii.) remarks: — "Let no one upon comparing the
lives of the ancients with our lives, and with the
few years which we now live, think that what we
say of ihem is false; or make the shortness of
our lives at present an argument that neither
did they attain to so long a duration of life.'
When we consider the compensating process
which is going on, the marvel is that the human
frame should not last longer than it does. Some,
however, have supposed that the years above
named are lunar, consisting of about thirty days;
but this supposition, with a view to reduce the
lives of the antediluvians to our standard, is re-
plete with difficulties. At this rate the whole
time, from the creation of man to the Flood,
would not be more than about 140 years ; and
Methuselah himself would not have attained to
the age which many even now do, whilst many
must have had children when mere infants ! Be-
si-des, if we compute the age of the postdiluvians
by this mode of calculation — and why should we
not? — we shall find that Abraham, who is said to
have died in a good old age (Gen. xxv:8) could
not have been more than fifteen years old! Moses
must' therefore have meant solar, not lunar years
— not, however, exactly so long as ours, for the
ancients generally reckoned twelve months, of
thirty days each, to the year.
(1) St. Augustine's Rxplanation. But it is
asked, if Moses meant solar years, how came it
to pass that the patriarchs did not begin to be-
get children at an earlier period than they are
reported to have done? Seth was 105 years old,
on the lowest calculation, when he begat Enos;
and Methuselah 187 when Lamech was born ! St.
Augustine (i:i5) explains this difficulty in a two-
fold manner, by supposing:
(i) Either that the age of puberty was later in
proportion as the lives of the antediluvians were
longer than ours.
(2) Or that Moses does not record the firstborn
sons, but as the order of the genealogy required,
his object being to trace the succession from
Adam, through Seth, to Abraham.
(2) Josephus' Explanation. As to the prob-
able reason why God so prolonged the life of man
in the earlier ages of the world, and as to the sub-
ordinate means by which this might have been ac-
complished, Josephus says (Anliq. i, 3) : 'For
those ancients were beloved of God, and lately
made by God himself; and because their food was
then fitter for the prolongation of life, they might
well live so great a number of years; and because
God afforded them a longer time of life on account
of their virtue and the good use they iriade of life
in astronomical and geometrical discoveries, for
they would not have had the time for foretelling;
the periods of the stars unless they had lived
600 years ; for the great year is completed in
that interval.'
(3) Reasons Examined. In the above pas-
sage Josephus enumerates four causes of the
longevity of the earlier patriarchs. As to the
first, viz., their being dearer to God than other
men, it is plain that it cannot be maintained;
for the profligate descendants of Cain were equally
long-lived, as mentioned above, with others.
Neither can we agree in the second reason he
assigns ; because we find that Noah and others,
though born so long subsequently to the creation
of Adam, yet lived to as great an age, some of
them to a greater age than he d'd. If, again,
it were right to attribute longevity to the superior
quality of the food of the antediluvians, then
the sea.sons on which this depends must, about
Moses' time — for it was then that the term of hu-
man existence was reduced to its present stand-
ard— have assumed a fixed character. But no
change at that time took place in the revolution of
the heavenly bodies by which the seasons of heat,
cold, etc., are regulated ; hence we must not as-
sume that it was the nature of the fruits they ate
which caused longevity.
How far the antediluvians had advanced in
scientific research generally, and in astronomical
discovery particularly, we are not informed; nor
can we place any dependence upon what Josephus
says about the two inscribed pillars which re-
mained from the old world (see Antiq. i, 2, 9).
We are not, therefore, able to determine, with
any confidence, that God permitted the earlier gen-
erations of man to live so long in order that
they might arrive at a high degree of mental ex-
cellence. From the brief notices which the Scrip-
tures aflford of the character and habits of the
antediluvians, we should rather infer that they
had not advanced very far in discoveries in
natural and experimental philosophy. (See Ante-
diluvians.) We must suppose that they did not
reduce their language to alphabetical order; nor
was it necessary to do so at a time when human
life was so prolonged that the tradition of the
creation passed through only two hands to Noah.
It would seem that the book ascribed to Enoch
is a work of postdiluvian origin (see Jurieu,
Crit. Hist., i. 41). Possibly a want of mental
employment, together with the labor they endured
ere they were able to extract from the earth the
necessaries of life, might have been some of
the proximate causes of that degeneracy which
led God in judgment to destroy the old world.
If the antediluvians began to beget children at
the age on an average of 100, and if they ceased
to do so at 600 years (see Shuckford's Connect.,
i. 36), the world might then have been far more
densely populated than it is now. Supposing,
moreover, that the earth was no more productive
antecedentlythanit was subsequently to the Flood,
and that the antediluvian fathers were ignorant
of those mechanical arts which so much abridge
human labor now, we can easily understand how
diflScult they must have found it to secure for
themselves the common necessaries of life, and
this the more so if animal food was not allowed
them. The prolonged life, then, of the generations
before the Flood would seem to have been rather
an evil than a blessing, leading as it did to the too
rapid peopling of the earth. We can readily
conceive how this might conduce to that awful
state of things expressed in the words, 'And the
whole earth was filled with violence.' In the ab-
sence of any well regulated system of govern-
ment, we can imagine what evils must have
arisen : the unprincipled would oppress the weak,
the crafty would outwit the unsuspecting, and,
not having the fear of God before their eyes,
destruction and misery would be in their ways.
Still we admire the providence of God in the
longevity of man immediately after the Crea-
tion and the Flood. After the Creation, when
the world was to be peopled by one man and
one woman, the age of the greatest part of those
on record was 900 and upwards. But after the
Flood, when there were three couples to repeople
the earth, none of the patriarchs, except Shem,
reached the age of 500; and only the first three
of his line, viz., .Arphaxad, Salah, and Eber, who
came in the first century after the Flood, lived
LONG-SUFFERING
1076
LORD
nearly to that age. In the second century we do
not find that any attained the age of 240; and in
the third century (about the latter end of which
Abraham was born), none, except Terah, arrived
at 200; by which time the world was so well
peopled, that they had built cities, and were
formed into distinct nations under their respective
kings (see Gen. xv).
That the common age of man has been the sarne
in all times since the world was well peopled is
manifest from profane as well as sacred history.
Plato lived to the age of 81, and was accounted
an old man ; and those whom Pliny reckons up
(vii:48) as rare examples of long life may, for
the most part, be equaled in modern times. We
cannot, then, but see the hand of God in the
proportion that there is between births and
deaths ; for by this means the population of the
world is kept up. If the fixed standard of hu-
man life were that of Methuselah's age, or even
that of Abraham, the world would soon be over-
stocked ; or if the age of man were limited to
that of divers other animals, to 10, 20. or 30 years
only, the decay of mankind would then be too
fast. But on the present scale the balance is near-
ly even, and life and death keep an equal pace.
In thus maintaining throughout all ages and
places these proportions of mankind, and all other
creatures, God declares himself to be indeed the
ruler of the world. (See Chronology.)
J. W. D.
liONG-STJTFERING (long'suf'fer-Ing), (Heb.
C'5X '^)^,eh-reh' ap-pah-yeem' ,%\q\i \.o anger; Or.
fuiKpodvida, mak-roth-00-mee' ah).
God's "long-suffering," is his patient bearing
with manifold afifronls, while he forbears to ex-
ecute deserved wrath upon men, and waits to
be gracious to them (Exod. xxxiv:6; Num. xiv:
18; Ps. Ixxxvi:i5; Jer. xv:i5; Rom. ii:4; ix:22;
1 Tim. i:l6; I Pet. iii:20; 2 Pet. iii :9, 15). The
saints' "long-sufifering." is their unwearied firm-
ness of mind under manifold trouble, their con-
stant hope of the performance of God's promises,
and their paiient bearing with others to promote
their reformation (Col. iii: 12; comp. 2 Cor. vi :
6; Eph. iv:2; 2 Tim. iv:2).
LOOKED (lookt), (Gr. TrpoaSoKiu.pros-dok-ah'o),
to expect (Acts xxviii:6).
LOOKING-GLASS (look'rng glas'). 'What is
thus translated was in fact a plate of metal pol-
ished so highly as to produce a very good reflec-
tion of objects. Usually these mirrors were of a
round shape and provided with a handle (Ex,
xxxviii;8; Jobxxxvii:i8; Is. iii:23). (See Mirror.)
LOOP (loop), (Heb. '^???, loo-law-aw' , wind-
ing). The curtains of the tabernacle were fas-
tened by loops to their corresponding knobs.
They were probably made of goat's hair cord,
and were dyed blue (Exod. xxvi:4, j^.; xxxvi:ii).
(See Tabernacle).
LORD, a Saxon word signifying ruler or gov-
ernor.
In the A. V. the word Lord is used without much
discrimination for all the names applied to God;
which cannot be helped, as our language does not
afford the same number of distinguishing titles
as the Hebrew. When, however, the word repre-
sents the dread name of Jehovah, it is printed
in small capitals. Lord, and is by this contrivance
made a distinguishing term. As the Hebrew name
Jehovah is one never used with reference to any
but the Almighty, it is to be regretted that the
Septuagint, imitated by our own and other ver-
sions, has represented it by a word which is also
used for the Hebrew 'Adonai,' which is applied
not only to God, but, like our 'Lord,' to creatures
also, as to angels (Gen. xix:3; Dan. x:i6, 17),
to men in authority (Gen. xlii :30, 33), and to
proprietors, owners, masters (Gen. xlv:8). The
leading idea of the Hebrew, the Greek, and the
English words is that of an owner or proprietor,
whether God or man ; and it occurs in the in-
ferior application with great frequency in the New
Testament. This application is either literal or
complimentary : literal, when the party is really
an owner or master, as in Matt. x:24; xx:8;
xxi:4o; Acts xvi;i6, 19; Gal. iv:i, etc.; or when
he is so as having absolute authority over an-
other (Matt. ix:38; Luke x:2), or as being a
supreme lord or sovereign (Acts xxv:26); and
complimentary, when used as a title of address,
especially to superiors, like the English Master,
Sir; the French Sieur, Monsieur; the German
Herr, etc., as in Matt. xiii:27; xxi:20; Mark
vii :8 ; Luke ix .-54.
It cannot but be deemed desirable that, in-
stead of the extensive use of the word Lord
which we have described, discriminating terms
should be adopted in translation. Apart from
the Jewish superstitions which influenced the
Seventy in their translation, there can be no good
reason why the name Jehovah should not be re-
tained wherever it occurs in the Hebrew. Then
'Lord' might represent Adonai; or perhaps 'Sir,'
or 'Master,' might be used when that word is ap-
plied to creatures ; and God would very properly
represent' Elohim.
The different Hebrew words rendered for
"Lord," are given, as adapted from Mc. & Str.
Bib. Cyc., and Barnes' Bib. Cyc.
1. Yeh-ho-vaw' (Heb. "^"P"-., self-existent),
Jehovah, the proper name of the God of the He-
brews, and should have been retained in that
form by the translators instead of ' Lord.' (See
Jehovah.)
2. Aw-done' (Heb. 1'"'^), an early word
denoting absolute control. It is not properly a
divine title, being employed of the master of
slaves (Gen. xxiv:i4, 27; xxxix :2, 7; A. V.
"master") ; of kings as the lords of their subjects
(Is. xxvi:i3) ; of a husband as lord of the wife
(Gen. xviii:i2). It is applied to God as the
owner and governor of the whole earth (Exod.
xxiii:i7; Ps. cxiv:7). It is sometimes used as
a term of respect, like our sir ; but with a pro-
noun attached ("my lord"), and often occurs in
the plural.
3. Ad-o-nai' (Heb. '- -:, the lord; the tnas-
ter), regarded by some as plural of the foregoing.
It is chiefly used in the Pentateuch (Exod. iv:io,
13; Josh, vii :8) ; also when God is spoken of (i
Kings xiiirg; x.xii :6, etc.). The Jews, out of a
superstitious reverence for the name Jehovah, al-
ways, in reading, pronounce Adonai where Jeho-
vah is written. The similar form, ivith the sutfi.r,
is also used of men, as of Potiphar (Gen. xxxix :
2, sg.; A. V. "master"), and of Joseph (xlii:
30, 33)-
4. Koo'ree-os (Gr. Ktjpios, supreme), the one
who is supreme master whether royal or private
subject; "Lord of the vineyard" (Matt. xx:8;
xxi:40; Mark xii :9 ; Luke xx:i5); the "Lord of
the harvest" (Matt. ix:38; Luke x :2) ; the "mas-
ter of the house" (Markxiii :35) ;"Lord of the Sab
bath" (Matt. xii;8: Mark ii:28; Luke vi:5). This
title is given to God, the ruler of the universe,
both with the article 6 K.ipi.0% (Matt. i:22:
v:33; Mark v:i9; Luke i:6, sq.; Acts vii:33; 2
LORD'S DAY
1077
LORD'S DAY
Tim. i:i6, 18) and without the article (Matt.
xxi.g; xxvii:io; Mark xiii:2o; Luke ii:9; xiii :
25; Heb. vii:2i;. It is also a title of respect (Matt,
xiii :27, A. V. "sir"; Luke xiii:8; xiv:22, etc.);
used by a son in addressing his father (Matt.
xxi:30, A. V. "sir"); by citizens toward magis-
trates (Matt, x.xvii 163, A. V. "sir"); by anyone
wishing to honor a man of distinction (Matt, viii:
2, 6, 8; XV :27 ; Mark vii:28; Luke v:i2, etc.);
by the disciples in saluting Jesus their teacher
and master (Matt, viii :2s ; ,xvi:22; Luke ix:S4;
John xi:l2, etc.). It is a title applied to the ex-
alted and glorified Christ (Acts x:36; Rom. xiv:
8; I Cor. vii:22; viii:6; Phil, iirp-ii).
5. Baal (Heb. '^'S, bah'al, master), meaning
domination, applied only to heathen deities, or
to human relations, as husband, etc., or to one
who was specially skilled in a trade or profession.
(See Ba.-^l. )
6. Some other and less important words in
the original are translated "Lord" in the A. V.
They are: Shaw-leesh' (Heb. '"'?v', 2 Kings vii:2,
17), an officer of the third rank; rab (2^, Dan. ii:
10), a chief, or captain; maw'-ray (^■"'P, mas-
ter, Dan. ii:io), an official title; seh'ren (H?), a
Philistine term found in Joshua, Judges, and i Sam-
uel, where " the lords of the Philistines" are men-
tioned; rab-reb-awn' (1?1?-, tnagnate), used in
reference to certain Babylonish nobles (Dan. iv 136;
v;l, 9, 10, 23; vi:l7), and its Greek equivalent,
Rabboni (which see); .sar {"'?', a ^farf person), title
of nobility (Ezra viii:25). (Barnes, Peop. Bib. Cyc.)
LOBD'S DAY (16rd's da).
(1) The expression so rendered in the Author-
ized English Version (iv tJ /ci/pioKj Sm^P9, on the
Lonf s Day) occurs only once in the New Testa-
ment, viz., in Rev. i;io, and is there unaccom-
panied by any other words tending to explain its
meaning.
It is, however, well known that the same phrase
was, in after ages of the Christian church, used
to signify the first day of the week, on which
the resurrection of Christ was commemorated.
Hence it has been inferred that the same name
was given to that day during the time of the
Apostles, and was in the present instance used
by St. John in this sense as referring to an
institution well known, and therefore requiring
no explanation.
(2) Others, however, have held that it means
simply 'the day of the Lord,' the substantive be-
ing merely exchanged for the adjective, as in
I Cor. xi:20, 'the Lord's Supper,' which would
make it merely synonymous with 'the day of the
Lord' (l Thess. v:2). But upon the whole,
the former interpretation is perhaps the more
probable.
(3) We find that immediately after the Feast of
Pentecost the disciples met together daily for
prayer and communion (Acts ii:46); and this
practice has been supposed by some to be im-
plied, at a later period, in the expressions used
in 1 Cor. xi :2l.
But on one occasion afterwards we have it spe-
cially recorded that they 'came together on the
first day of the week to break bread' (Acts xx:
7), when 'Paul preached unto them, and con-
tinued his speech till midnight.' It has from
this last circumstance been inferred by some that
the assembly commenced after sunset on the Sab-
bath, at which hour the first day of the week
had commenced, according to the Jewish reckon-
ing (Jahn's bibl. Antiq. sec. 398), which would
hardly agree with the idea of a commemoration of
the resurrection. The regulation addressed to the
church of Corinth (i Cor. xvi:2) with respect to
charitable contributions 'on the first day of the
week.' is not connected with any mention of
public worship or assemblies on that day. Yet
this has been inferred : and the regulation has
been supposed to have a reference to the tenets
of the Jewish converts, who considered it unlaw-
ful to touch money on the Sabbath (Vitringa,
De Synagogd, translated by Bernard, pp. 75-167).
In consideration for them, therefore, the Apostle
directs the collection to be made on the following
day, on which secular business was lawful.
(4) Thus far we cannot say. that the evidence
for any particular observance of this day amounts
to much ; still less does it appear what purpose
or object was referred to. We find no mention
of any commemoration, whether of the resurrec-
tion or any other event in the Apostolic records.
On these points we have no distinct testimony
till a later period. The earliest, or Apostolic,
Fathers, make no mention whatever of such an
institution, unless we except one passage to which
we shall presently refer, but which is at most a
mere allusion.
(5) The well-known letter of Pliny to Trajan
(about A. D. 100) mentions the Christians as-
sembling together for worship on a stated day.
'They are accustomed to assemble on a stated day
before light, and sing a hymn to Christ as a God'
(Epist. X. 97).
But it is not till the time of Justin Martyr
(A. D. 140) that we find a distinct account of
the observance. His statement is clear and cir-
cumstantial, to the effect that the Christians were
in the practice of assembling for public worship
on the first day of the week, as being that on
which the work of Creation was commenced, and
on which Christ rose from the dead : — 'On Sun-
day we all assemble in common, since that is
the first day, on which God, having changed
darkness and chaos, made the world, and on
the same day our Savior Jesus Christ rose from
the dead' (Justin Man. Apol. i. 67).
(6) In the so-called Epistle of Barnabas, probably
a forgery of the second century (see Barnabas),
the first day of the week is spoken of as observed
with rejoicing in memory of the resurrect'on.
'We keep the eighth day with joy, on which also
Jesus rose from the dead' (Barnab. Ep. i. 15).
("7) The earliest authentic instance in which the
name of 'the Lord's day' is applied (after the
passage in the Apocalypse) is not till A. D. 200,
when Tertullian speaks of it as 'die Domini
resurrexionis' (De Orat. sec. 23) ; again, 'Domini
cum diem' (De Idol. 14) ; and Dionysius of Cor-
inth (probably somewhat later), as 'the Lord's
Day' (quoted by Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iv. 23).
Thus far, also, nothing has appeared relative
to any observance of the day beyond that of hold-
ing assemblies for religious worship, and a festal
commemoration of the resurrection and the be-
ginning of the creation.
(8) In the laws of Constantine (A. D. 300),
cessation from ordinary work on the Lord's day
was first enjoined, but with an express excep-
tion in favor of the labors of agriculture. (See
Jortin's Remarks on Eccles. Hist, iii, 236).
(9) Chrysostom (A. D. 360) concludes one of
his Homilies by dismissing his audience to their
respective ordinary occupations. The Council of
Laodicea (A. D. .364), however, enjoined Chris-
tians to rest on the Lord's day. To the same
LORD'S PRAYER
1078
LORD'S SUPPER. THE
effect is an injunction in the forgery called the
Apostolical Cotistitiilions (vii:24), and various
later enactments from A. D. 600 to A. D. IIOO,
though by no means extending to the prohibition
of all secular business. In fact, in these subse-
quent ages of the church we find the ceremonial
spirit rather displaying itself in the multiplica-
tion of religious festivals and solemnities than
in any increasing precision in the observance of
the Lord's day. This is exemplified in the prac-
tice of the unreformed church in modern times,
and retained by most of the reformed, with the
exception of those formed on the Puritanical
model, who have adopted a peculiar view of the
entire institution to which we shall refer in an-
other place. (See Sabbath.) We may add, also,
that as in the case of Constantine, so in some
modern states, where a church has been estab-
lished by law, the same policy has prevailed of
passing temporal enactments for the cessation of
business, and even public amusements, on the
Lord's day, especially in more recent times. To
those Christians who look to the ivrittcn word
as the sole authority for anything claiming Apos-
tolic or Divine sanction it becomes peculiarly
important to observe that the New Testament
evidence of the observance of the Lord's day
amounts nierely to the recorded fact that the
disciples did assemble on the first day of the
week, and the probable application of the designa-
tion 'the Lord's day' to that day. B. P.
LOKD'S PRAYER (lord's prar), the common
title given to the only form of prayer which our
Lord himself taught his disciples, and which is re-
corded in Matt. vi;9-l3; Luke xi:2-4.
"The Lord's Prayer is the Prayer of prayers,
as the Bible is the Book of books and the
Apostles' Creed the Creed of creeds. It is the
best and most beautiful, the simplest and yet the
deepest, the shortest and yet the most compre-
hensive, of all forms of devotion. Only from the
lips of the Son of God could such a perfect pat-
tern proceed. An ancient Father calls it a sum-
mary of Christianity or the gospel in a nutshell.
It embraces all kinds of prayer, petition, interces-
sion, and thanksgiving, all essential objects of
prayer, spiritual and temporal, divine and human,
in the most suitable and beautiful order, com-
mencing with the glory of God, gradually descend-
ing to man's needs, then rising to the final de-
liverance from all evil, and ending in thanksgiving
and praise, as all prayer must end at last, in
heaven, where all our wants shall be supplied.
It accompanies the Christian from the cradle to
the grave. It can never be superseded. If we
have exhausted the whole extent of our religious
wants and the whole vocabulary of devotion, we
gladly return to this model prayer as infinitely su-
prior to all our own effusions. It may, indeed,
be abused, like every gift of God, and become
a dead form — Luther called it in this respect 'the
greatest martyr on earth' — but this is no argu-
ment against its proper and frequent use. It is
not intended, of course, to supersede other forms
or extemporaneous prayers, but it should serve
as a general pattern and directory to all our de-
votions, and breathe into them the proper spirit."
Schaflf.
liORD'S SXrPPER, THE (lord's sup'per).
Four distinct accounts are given in the New
Testament of our Lord's institution of the Holy
Communion. Three of the Gospels contain the
narrative in nearly the same terms, while the
Apostle Paul, in the first Epistle to the Cor-
inthians, adds his detailed account, derived, as he
emphatically tells us, not from the testimony of
eyewitnesses, but from a special revelation made
to him. It would seem as if there were little room
for any controversy to arise as to the nature of
this sacrament, when its original establishment has
been so fully described. Nevertheless, the Lord's
Supper, designed to be the conservator of peace
and harmony, has been made a battle field of
polemics.
In studying these accounts, the reader is first
of all struck by the singular simplicity of the
Lord's Supper. Nothing could be in more com-
plete contrast to the gorgeous ceremonial with
which a later and less pure Christianity invested
this memorial rite. Not in a splendid sanctuary,
but in the upper chamber of a private house in
Jerusalem, was the Communion first celebrated.
Christ gave to his disciples no "manual of devo-
tion,' no elaborate directions as to postures, and
no instructions how to handle the bread and hold
the chalice.
It is supposable that some unusual things, dif-
ficult to obtain, might have been made the em-
blems of our Lord's sacrifice. On the contrary,
he chose as symbols of his atoning oblation of
himself bread and wine, both of which were
elements of the Passover, and therefore at the
moment on the table at which he gathered his
friends. It was an anticipation of St. Paul's lan-
guage, "Whether therefore, ye eat or drink, or
whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God."
It was a simple meal in commemoration of the
death of Clirist. There is not even a word to
indicate that a minister was necessary to its cele-
bration.
The language used by the Savior in the insti-
tution of this sacrament was such as makes it
clearly, in its primary significance, a commemora-
tive act. He broke the bread, and gave it to them
with the words, "Take, eat, this is my body."
Now, setting aside for the present the Romish
theory of a miraculous change by which the bread
was altered in substance into the literal body of
Christ, what could he have meant by such an
expression?
A simple illustration affords the clearest an-
swer. Passing through a great gallery of art,
some one points to a statue, and says, "That is
Washington." Or standing before a portrait he
says, "That is Lincoln." The language, accord-
ing to all the ordinary usages of speech, would
be perfectly accurate, and no one of intelligence
could mistake its significance. The marble or
bronze on the one hand, and the canvas and color
on the other, represent the two great statesmen.
In that upper chamber in Jerusalem, with his
human body visible to their eyes and tangible to
their hands, Christ takes a piece of bread, and
says. "This is my body." What possible meaning
could those words have had to the disciples, ex-
cept this, that the bread broken represented his
body so soon to be broken on the cross?
Such a view of the Supper of the Lord in no
way interferes with its efiicacy as a means of
grace. True, there is no incomprehensible "mys-
tery" about it. The Evangelical Christian does
not approach the Lord's table as if it were some
magic charm in which he is to find spiritual help,
as the Romanist expects to find it in touching a
relic of the saints, or the wood of "the true cross."
Its philosophy is as clear as the noonday. For
what can rekindle the glow of love in the heart
like the stirring of the memory? More than once
during our Civil War a man drafted for the army
was saved by a voluntary substitute, who took
his place and died on the field of battle. Could
that conscript, thus redeemed from death, ever
LO RUHAMAH
1079
LOT
behold the memento stained with the heart's blood
of his substitute and not have his gratitude and
love revived ?
With that memorial idea another is coupled.
The Lord's Supper is a visible Gospel. We can-
not see these emblems of the Christ's death with-
out their preaching of his atonement. Perhaps,
then, the question might be asked if we do not sat-
isfy all that the sacrament demands when we have
looked upon the consecrated symbols of liis dying
love. Why eat the bread? Why drink the wine?
Is not the pictorial representation of our Lord's
suffering all that is needed ? The answer is that
our bodily life is an emblem of our spiritual life.
As we sustain bodily existence by eating and
drinking, so by faith do we feed upon Christ.
Even the Old 'Testament foreshadowed this prin-
ciple when the prophet, turning from Mosaic rites,
cried from the watchtower of vision, "The just
shall live by faith." Christ echoed that truth when,
long before the night in which he was betrayed,
he solenuily declared, "E.xccpt ye eat the flesh of
the Son of man. and drink his blood, ye have no
life in you." That he did not here refer to Com-
munion is clear. He thus spoke at least a year before
he instituted the Lord's Supper. He was speak-
ing to an assembly of Jews, who could by no pos-
sibility know anything of the ordinance to be
established in the future. Moreover, when he
found that they gave to his words a gross and
unspiritual meaning, he corrected their misap-
prehension by telling them that in his body he
was to ascend to heaven, and that his figurative
allusion to his body and blood was only the
teaching that the spirit is the support of all
spiritual life, as food is the support of physical
existence. "What and if ye shall behold the Son
of man ascend up where be was before? It
is the spirit which quickeneth. The flesh profiteth
nothing. The words that I speak unto you, they
are spirit and they are life." Nothing seems
plainer than that the Communion was instituted
to keep ever in mind the fact that partaking of
food is not more necessary to the physical than
simple faith is to the spiritual existence.
In thus entering into fellowship with his suf-
fering Master, the believer also becomes a mem-
ber of the vast brotherhood, whatever be the
name they bear, who partake of Christ by faith,
" the blessed company of all faithful people." By
faith in Christ "they all eat the same sinritual
meat and drink the same spiritual drink.' That
loving fellowship they symbolize and picture forth
by this visible gathering around the same table,
and exhibit their common love and common in-
terest in each other by calling their memorial
feast "the Communion." C. E. C.
(For Lutheran View, see page 1757.)
LO-E.XJHAMAH do rirha-mah),(Heb. ^^1?? *<^.
lo-roo-khaw-maw' , not pitied, not favored), a
symbolical name given to the daughter of Rosea
the prophet (Hos. 1:6, 8). It was to indicate that
the Lord would not continue to show compassion
fow-ard the rebellious nation, as he hitherto bad
done under Jeroboam II (2 Kings xiii; 23). It is
rendered in Hos. ii:23 "her that had not obtained
mercy." When Cod restored his favor to the peo-
ple her name was changed to Kuhamah (which
see).
LOSS, LOSSES (16s, los'es). Under the law of
Moses, the following were the regulations respect-
ing losses: If two men strove together, and as a
result one should be disabled from work, the
other must pay for the lost time (Exod. xxi :
19) ; claims for losses from trespass, or for any lost
thing, were to be brought before the judges, and
adverse judgment was followed by the payment of
double to the other (Exod. xxii :9) ; a man find-
ing any lost thing, and denying it, was obliged,
when he wished to present a trespass offering, to
restore the lost thing with an added fifth to the
one to whom it belonged (Lev. vi :4, 5). The gen-
eral principle upon which these enactments were
based was that an Israelite's fellow-countrymen
were his brothers; and he was always to act the
brotherly part. Therefore, whenever he found
anything that was lost he was commanded to
care for it, and to make diligent search for its
owner with a view of restoration (Deut. xxii:3).
(Barnes' Bib. Diet.) (See Law of Moses.)
LOT(Heb. '>'t'\ ^o-raivf , a pebble; ^5^, M(?>5'-
bel, measuring line, portion; Gr. Xa7x<i>'ii», lang-
khan'o, to cast lots, Luke iig; K\f/pot, klay'ros, peb-
ble, bit of wood, to cast lots with (Acts i;26).
The use of lots among the ancients was very
general. It was supposed to be employed by the
gods themselves (Hom. //. xxii. 209; Cic. Ue
Div., i. .34; ii. 41). The Israelites sometimes had
recourse to lots as a means of ascertaining the
Divine will. The religious estimate of them may
be gathered from Prov. .xvi .a. The following are
historical or ritual instances :
(1) In the division of the Promised Land
among the tribes of Isreal the use of the lot was
expressly commanded by God himself, it being
understood that the extent of territory should be
proportioned to the population of each tribe
(Num. xxvi:ss).
(2) Choice of men for an invading force (Judg.
i:i-3; xx:9).
(3) So the selection of the scapegoat on the day
of atonement was to be determined by lot (Lev.
xvi:8).
(4) Property was divided in the same way (Ps.
xxii: 18; Matt. xxvii:35).
(5) The orders of the priests and their daily
service were also assigned by lot (i Chron. xxiv:
S).
(6) The lot was used in the detection of a
criminal (Josh. vii;i4, 18).
C?) In the choice of the Apostle Matthias (Acts
i :26) and in the cases of Saul and Jonathan, and
Jonah and his companions, to determine who had
offended God (i Sam. xiv :4i, 42; Jonah 1:7).
(See Urim and Tiiummim.)
(8) That which falls to one by lot, as a por-
tion or inhcritanec (Deut. xxxii:9: Josh, xv :
i; I Chron. xvi: 18; Ps. cv:ii; cxxv:3; Is. xvii:
14; lvii:6; Acts viii:2i; comp. Acts xiii:i9).
As to the manner of casting lots we have no
certain information. It is supposed by some that
the stones or marks which were used in de-
termining the lot were thrown together into the
lap or fold of a garment, or into an urn or
vase, and that the person holding them shook
them violently, so that there should be a perfect
mingling of the whole contents, to prevent all
preference by the hand of him who should draw;
so that the passage (Prov. xvi:33) is paraphrased
thus: "In a lot-vase the lots are shaken in all
directions; nevertheless, from the Lord is the
whole decision or judgment."
LOT (loi\ (Heb. M'h, lote, a covering).
/. Lot was the son of Haran and nephew of
Abraham, who by the earlv death of his father had
already come into possession of his property when
Abraham went into the land of Canaan (Gen.
xi:3i). Their united substance, consisting chiefly
in cattle, was not then too large to prevent them
from living together in one encampment.
LOT
1080
LOT
(1) Parting of Abraham and Lot. Event-
ually, however, their possessions were so greatly
increased that they were obliged to separate ; and
Abraham with rare generosity conceded the choice
of pasture-grounds to his nephew. Lot availed
himself of this liberality of his uncle, as he
deemed most for his own advantage, by fixing his
abode at Sodom, that his flocks might pasture in
and around that fertile and well-watered neigh-
borhood (Gen. xiii:s-l3). He had soon very
great reason to regret this choice ; for although
his flocks fed well, his soul was starved in that
vile place, the inhabitants of which were sin-
ners before the Lord exceedingly. There 'he
vexed his righteous soul from day to day with
the filthy conversation of the wicked' (2 Pet. ii :
7).
(2) Prisoner. About eight years after his
separation from Abraham, Lot was carried away
prisoner by Chedorlaomer, along with the other
inhabitants of Sodom, and was rescued and
brought back by Abraham (Gen. xiv.), as related
under other heads (see Abr.^ham ; Chedor-
l.\omer). This exploit procured for Abraham
much celebrity in Canaan ; and it ought to have
procured for Lot respect and gratitude from the
people of Sodom, who had been delivered from
hard slavery and restored to their homes on his
account. But this does not appear to have been
the result.
(3) Avenging Angels. At length the guilt of
'the cities of the plain' brought down the signal
judgments of Heaven. The avenging angels,
after having been entertained by Abraham, re-
paired to Sodom, where they were received and
entertained by Lot, who was sitting in the gate of
the town when they arrived. While they were
at supper the house was beset by a number of
men, who demanded that the strangers should
be given up to them, for the unnatural purposes
which have given a name of infamy to Sodom in
all generations. Lot resisted this demand, and
was loaded with abuse by the vile fellows outside
on that account. They had nearly forced the door,
when the angels, thus awfully by their own ex-
perience convinced of the righteousness of the
doom they came to execute, smote them with
instant blindness, by which their attempts were
rendered abortive, and they were constrained to
disperse. Towards morning the angels apprised
Lot of the doom which hung over the place, and
urged him to hasten thence with his family.
(4) Escape from Sodom. He was allowed to
e.xtend the benefit of this deliverance to the fami-
lies of his daughters who had married in Sodom;
but the warning was received by those families
with incredulity and insult, and he therefore left
Sodom accompanied only, by his wife and two
daughters.
(5) Lot's Wife. As they went, being hastened
by the angels, the wife, anxious for those who
had been left behind, or reluctant to remove from
the place which had long been her home, and
where much valuable property was necessarily
left behind, lingered behind the rest, and was
suddenly involved in the destruction, by which
— smothered and stiffened as she stood by saline
incrustations — she became 'a pillar of salt.' The
turning of Lot's wife into a pillar of salt has often
been regarded as one of the difficulties of the
Bible, but is not so necessarily. "We are not
to suppose that she was actually turned into one,
but having been killed by the fiery and sulphurous
vapor with which the air was filled, and afterward
incrustcd with salt, she resembled an actual statue
of salt" (K. and D., Com. in loco).
(6) Departure to Zoar. Lot and his daughters
then hastened on to Zoar, the smallest of the five
cities of the plain, which had been spared on
purpose to afford him a refuge : but, being fear-
ful, after what had passed, to remain among a
people so corrupted, he soon retired to a cavern
in the neighboring mountains, and there abode.
(7) Daughters' Sin. After some stay in this
place, the daughters of Lot became apprehensive
lest the family of their father should be lost for
want of descendants, than which no greater ca-
lamity was known or apprehended in those times;
and in the belief that, after what had passed in
Sodom, there was no hope of their obtaining suit-
able husbands, they, by a contrivance which has
in it the taint of Sodom, in which they were
brought up, made their father drunk with wine,
and in that state seduced him into an act which,
as they well knew, would in soberness have been
most abhorrent to him. They thus became the
mothers, and he the father, of two sons, named
Moab and Ammon, from whom sprang the Moab-
ites and Ammonites, so often mentioned in the
Hebrew history (Gen. .xix). This circumstance
is the last which the Scripture records of the his-
tory of Lot ; and the time and place of his death
are unknown.
(8) Palliation of Daughters' Offense. With
respect to Lot's daughters Whiston and others
are unable to see any wicked intention in them.
He admits that the incest was a horrid crime,
except under the unavoidable necessity which
apparently rendered it the only means of preserv-
ing the human race: and this justifying necessity
he holds to have existed in their minds, as they
appear to have believed that all the inhabitants
of the land had been destroyed except their
father and themselves. But it is incredible that
they could have entertained any such belief. The
city of Zoar had been spared, and they had been
there. The wine also with which they made their
father drunk must have been procured from men.
as we cannot suppose they had brought it with
them from Sodom. The fact would therefore seem
to be that, after the fate of their sisters, who
had married men of Sodom and perished with
them, they became alive to the danger and im-
propriety of marrying with the natives of the
land, and of the importance of preserving the
family connection. The force of this considera-
tion was afterwards seen in Abraham's sending
to the seat of his family in Mesopotamia for a
wife for Isaac. But Lot's daughters could not
go there to seek husbands ; and the only branch
of their own family within many hundred miles
was that of Abraham, whose only son, Ishmael,
was then a child. This, therefore, must have
appeared to them the only practicable mode in
which the house of their father could be pre-
served. Their making their father drunk, and
their solicitous concealment of what they did from
him, show that they despaired of persuading him
to an act which, under any circumstances, and
with every possible extenuation, must have been
very distressing to so good a man.
(9) Character. That Lot was a good man is
evinced by his deliverance from among the guilty,
and is affirmed by St. Peter (2 Pet. ii 7) ; his pres-
ervation is alluded to by our Savior (Luke
xvii:i8, etc.); and in Deut. \'\:g, ig, and Ps.
Ixxxiii -g, his name is used to designate the Moab-
ites and Ammonites, his descendants.
2, Lot (Heb. same as foregoing) is mentioned
in two passages of Scripture, m both of which it is
erroneously translated myrrh in the Authorized
Version.
LOTAN
1081
LOVE
In Gen. xxxvii:25, 'Behold a company of Ish-
maelites came from Gilcad with their camels bear-
ing spiccry (nccotli), and balm {tzeri), and
myrrh (tot), going to carry it down to Egypt.'
Again, in ch. xliii:ii. Jacob directs his sons to
take into Egypt 'of the best fruits in the land in
your vessels, and carry down the man a present,
a little balm (tccri), and a little honey, spices
(necoth), and myrrh (lot), nuts (botnim), and
almonds (sliakadiiii ).' In this enumeration, in
one case, of merchandise, and in the other, of
several articles intended for a present, and both
destined for Egypt, at that time a highly civilized
nation, it is evident that we are to look only
for such substances as were likely to be acceptable
in that country, and therefore not such as were
produced there, or as were more easily procura-
ble from elsewhere than from Syria, as was the
case with myrrh, which was never produced in
Syria, and could not have been an article of ex-
port from thence. This difficulty has been felt
by others, and various translations of lot have
been proposed, as lotus, chestnuts, mastiche, stacte,
balsam, turpentine, pistachio nuts. Junius and
Tremellius render it ladanum, which is suitable,
and appears to be correct.
Ladanum, or gum ladanum, as it is often called,
was known to the Greeks as early as the times
of Herodotus and Theophrastus, and bore the
names of Icdon and ladanon, which are very
closely allied to ladun, the Arabic name of the
same drug. It has been well observed by Rosen-
miiller, that the proper root and origin of these
names is led, but that the Hebrew has the hard
consonant t instead of the softer d.
Tournefort, in modern times, has given a de-
tailed description of the mode of obtaining
ladanum, and relates that it is now gathered by
means of a kind of rake with whip-like thongs,
which is passed over the plants. When these
thongs are loaded with the odoriferous
and sticky resin, they are scraped with a knife.
It consists of resin and volatile oil, and is highly
fragrant, and stimulant as a medicine, but is often
adulterated with sand in commerce. Ladanum
seems to have been produced in Judsea, according
to writers in the Talmud (Gels. /. c. p. 286.) It
is said by Pliny, as long before by Herodotus,
to be a produce of .•\rabia, though this has not
been proved to be the case in modern times.
Sufficient, however, has been adduced to show
thr't ladanum was known to, and esteemed by, the
ancients, and as its Greek and Arabic names are
similar to the Hebrew, and as it is stated to have
been a produce of Syria it was very likely
to have been sent to Egypt both as a present
and as merchandise. (See Myrrh.) J. F. R.
liOTAN (lo'tan), (Heb. !¥"• , /tJ-Zaww', covering),
eldest son of Scir, the Horite, and a prince of
Idumaca. Through his sister, Timna, he was
connected with Esau's eldest son (Gen. xxxvi:l2,
20, 22, 29; I Chron. 1:38, 39).
LOTS, FEAST OF (lots, fest 6v). See PuRlM.
LOVE (luv), (Heb. ■^?'^S, a-hab-aw' ; Gr. dTdiTTj,
ag-ah'pay).
Love may be regarded either as the internal
feeling of good-will and kindness which one in-
telligent being bears to another, cr the expression
of that benevolence in words and acts which
gratifies and benefits another ; but in its full and
proper sense, love is the union of these two — of
the internal emotion with the outward act: whence
it appears that neither doing good nor wishing
good to another can in strict propriety be denom-
inated love. The definition also shows that love
is restricted to intelligent beings, takes place only
between persons, and cannot be predicated of
things, being used in a merely derivative and sec-
ondary sense whenever we speak of loving aught
but rational beings. It also appears that the emo-
tion implies two intelligent existences ; indeed,
reciprocity seems an almost essential element in
the idea of love. Certainly all durable love is
mutual; and if love implies two, then, prior to
creation, God, however good he might be, could
hardly be said to love ; so that love is a con-
sequence of creation, a result of the relations in
which God was pleased to place himself in re-
gard to man ; and since these relations are best
declared, if they are not exclusively made known,
by the sacred Scriptures, love is a doctrine which
takes its source in revelation, where indeed, con-
sidered as existing between God and man, it finds
at once its highest sanctions and best supports.
(1) Love of God. The New Testament speaks
in its great bearings of the love of God towards
Christ and towards man. The Son of God, as the
most perfect image of the Heavenly Father, is
represented as the special object of the divine
love; as a consequence of which affection God
communicates to Christ all spiritual gifts needful
for the redemption of mankind: 'The Father
loveth the Son, and showeth him all things what-
soever he doeth' (John v:2o) ; 'therefore doth my
Father love me, because I lay down my life that
I might take it again' (John x:i7); 'for thou
lovedst me before the foundation of the world"
(John xvii:24), '(2od so loved the world that
he gave his only begotten Son, that whoever be-
lieveth in him should not perish, but have ever-
lasting life' (John iii:i6). And so, 'He that
spared not his only Son, but freely gave him up
for us all, how shall he not with him also freely
give us all things?' (Rom. viii :32) : accordingly
'the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts by
the Holy Ghost which is given unto us' (Rom.
v:s: see the following verses). The following
passages will aid the reader in pursuing this in-
teresting subject into its Scriptural particulars,
which want of space compels us to be content
with pointing out, namely: Rom. viii :35 ; 2
Cor. xiii:ii; Eph. ii :4 ; 2 Thess. iii:s; 1 John
iv; I Tim. i:i4, 15; Titus ii:lo; John xiii:35;
comp. xv:i7; Mark xii :30.
(2) Love to Christ. Love to Christ is repre-
sented in Scripture as a natural consequence of
Christ's love to man, and as a necessary concomi-
tant of the love of God, with which it is kindred
in nature, causes, operation, and effects. This
holy affection manifests itself not in idle reveries
nor warm protestations, but in meek and lowly
obedience to Jesus as the Mediator between God
and man: and has for its highest reward the love
which God displ.nys towards all those who honor
his son; which love, springing from God, fills and
sanctifies the heart of man (John viii:42; xiv:i5,
21, 23. 28; xvi:27).
(3) Love to Han. Love to man ensues from
the universal love of God, as the one Creator
and Father of all men. The measure and test
of love to others is the surrender of per.sonal am-
bition and the complete abandonment of self in our
devotion to others, conformable to the higher and
perfect model which Jesus has given in his own
life and death (Matt. xxii:39; Mark xii :3i ; John
xv:i2: comp. xiii:i5: i Peter ii :2i ; I John ii:6).
(4) Christian Love. This general good-will
and active beneficence may he enhanced and in-
vigorated by those nearer relations which take
place between kindred minds, men of 'like pre-
LOVE-FEASTS
1082
LUKE
cious faith,' whose hearts and aims are one, and
who have alike received the gracious and all-pre-
vailing influences of God's spirit ; so that Chris-
tianity not only places mankind in immediate con-
nection with God, and thus renders all equal and
all worthy of each other's love, but creates a
new, peculiar, and very intimate relation, making
all true disciples one with each other and with
the great Head of the church, and thus one, ulti-
mately, with God (John xiii:34, 35; xv:i2; Rom.
xiii :8, lo; i Cor. xiii). And it is this specific
Christian affection — the love of man as a brother,
purified and enlarged by the consciousness of be-
ing an object of Divine mercy and goodness so
as to become a properly Christian emotion — which
is to actuate the disciples of Christ in their benev-
olent efforts for the good of others, and specially
for their rescue from the evil that is in the world
that bringeth death (2 Cor. v:i4, ig, 20, 21 ; Acts
xx:24).
LOVE FEASTS (liiv fests). See Agape.
LOVING-KINDNESS (liiv'Ing-klnd'nes), (Heb.
~?D, kheh'sed), desire, ardor.
In a good sense khchscd is zeal toward any one,
kindness, love. Of God toward men, good-
ness, mercy, grace (Ps. xvii:7; xxvi:3;
xxxvi 7, 10, etc.). Figuratively, it is used of God
as a merciful benefactor (cxliv:2, "My good-
ness"). In the plural, mercies, benefits from God
(lxxxix:2, "mercy," ver. 49; xxv:6; Is. lxiii:7).
(Barnes' Peop. Bib. Ency.)
LOW, LOWER, LOWEST (lo, lo'er, lo'est),
(Heb. ''!\"???, takh-tee'). The lower parts of the
earth means :
(l) The earth itself, which is the lower region
of this world (Eph. ivig). (2) The valleys and
their inhabitants; or rather, the Gentile world (Is.
xliv:23). (3) The womb; in which the unborn
child is hid as in a deep pit (Ps. cxxxix:i5).
(4) The grave, or state of the dead (Ps. lxiii;9).
Figurative. To be /owfy is to be meek and
humble (Ps. cxxxviii;6; Zech. ix:9). Christ
was made for a little while, or in a little degree,
"lower than the angels," in his state of humilia-
tion (Ps. viii:s; Heb. ii;7, 9)- .
LTTBIM (lu'bim), (Heb. Q*?''s loo-beem. See
2 Chron. xii;3; xvi:8; Nah.iiiig; loob-beem', Dan.
xi:43, perhaps thirsty, thence inhabitants of a dry
land), the Libyans. (See Libya.)
LXrCAS (lu'cas), (Gr. Aoukqs, loo-kas'), the friend
and companion of St. Paul during his imprison-
ment at Rome (Philem. 24). He is the sanie as
Luke, the beloved physician, who is associated
with Demas in Col. iv;l4, and who remained faith-
ful to the Apostle when others forsook him (2 Tim.
ivii), on his first examination before the emperor
(A. D. 64).
LTTCrFEB (lu'si-fer), (Heb. ^.i"^., hay-lale').
A word that occurs once in the English Version
in the lines —
'How art thou fallen from heaven,
Lucifer, son of the morning!
How art thou felled to the ground,
Thai didst weaken the nations!'
(Is. xiv:i2).
The Hebrew seems to mean 'brilliant,' 'splen-
did,' 'illustrious,' or, as in the Septuagint, Vul-
gate, the Rabbinical commentators, Luther, and
others, 'brilliant star ;' and in this sense was
the proper name among the Hebrews of the morn-
ing star. Tertullian and Gregory the Great un-
derstood this passage of Isaiah in reference to
the fall of Satan; in consequence of which the
name Lucifer has since been applied to Satan ;
and this is now the usual acceptaiion of the word.
But Dr. Henderson, who in his Isaiah renders the
line, 'Illustrious son of the morning!' justly re-
marks in his annotation : 'The application of this
passage to Satan, and to the fall of the apostate
angels, is one of those gross perversions of Sa-
cred Writ which so extensively obtain, and which
are to be traced to a proneness to seek for more
in any given passage than it really contains, a
disposition to be influenced by sound rather than
sense, and an implicit faith in received interpre-
tations. The scope and connection show that
none but the king of Babylon is meant. In the
figurative language of the Hebrews a star signi-
fies an illustrious king or prince (Num. xxiv::/;
comp. Rev. ii:28; xxii:i6). The monarch here
referred to having surpassed all other kings in
royal splendor, is compared to the harbinger of
day, whose brilliancy surpasses that of the sur-
rounding stars. Falling from heaven denotes a
sudden political overthrow — a removal from the
position of high and conspicuous dignity formerly
occupied (comp. Rev. vi:i3; viii:io).
LTTCITJS (lu'si-us) of Cyrene, (Gr. Aoi)kios, loo'-
kee-os, illuminative, for Lat. Lucius surnamed the
"Cyrenian"), a person named along with Barnabas,
Saul, and others, as 'prophets and teachers' in the
church at Antioch (Acts xiii:i).
Lucius was probably one of 'the synagogue of
the Cyrenians,' and was without doubt one of the
men of Cyrene, who went abroad in consequence
of the persecution raised on the death of Stephen
(Acts vi:9; xi:2o). Some suppose that he was
one of the seventy disciples; and the tradition is,
that he was eventually bishop of Cyrene. This is
probably the same Lucius who is mentioned in
Rom. xvi:2i as Paul's kinsman; and he has been
supposed by some to be the same as Luke the
Evangelist. (A. D. 45.)
LTTD (lud), (Heb. "fh, load, Ezek. xxvii:lo; xxx:
5), the fourth son of Shem (Gen. x:22). For his
descendants, see Nations, DISPERSION OF (B.C.
after 2513).
LTJDIM (lu'dim), (Heb. D""!"^, loo-deem'), the
descendants of (Gen. x:i3), concerning whom, see
Nations, Dispersion of.
LUHITH (lu'hith), (HeKJ^'f^h loo-khoth'\ n'mb,
loo-kheeth' , floored).
A town in the land of Moab, between Ar and
Zoar, and ravaged by the Assyrians and Chaldeans
(Is. XV :5 ; Jer. xlviii:5). It is evident that it was
an elevated station, but whether a town on a hill,
or a place for prospect, does not appear. It
seems to be associated with other places which
we know to be towns.
LTTKE (lake). 1. She Evangelist. The name
KovKas, loo-kas', Lat. Lucantis, indicates that Luke
was descended from heathen ancestors, and that
he was either a slave or a freedman, libertus.
(1) A Physician. According to ecclesiastical
tradition, the author of the gospel is the same
Luke who is mentioned in Paul's Epistles
.(Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv:li; Col. iv:i4), and
who is called, in the last-mentioned passage, 'the
physician.' This tradition is confirmed by the
Acts of the Apostles, according to which the au-
thor of that work accompanied the Apostle Paul
in his journeys (Acts xvi:io, sq.; xx:s-l3). Luke
accompanied Paul also in his last journeys to Je-
rusalem and Rome (Acts xxi:i-i7; xxvii:28).
LUKE
1083
LUKE
The profession of a physician harmonizes also
with the condition of a freedman, indicated by the
form of the name. It harmonizes with this that
Paul (Col. iv:i4) distinguishes Luke from the
Christians of Jewish descent, whom, in yerses
II and 12, he styles 'being of the Circumcision.'
Eusebius (^Hist. Eccles. iii:4) states that An-
tioch in Syria was ihe native city of Luke. In
this city there was at an early period a congre-
gation of Christians convened from heathenism.
Since Luke was a physician, we must suppose that
he was a man of education.
(2) A Scholar. To those skeptics who excuse
their disbelief of the miracles recorded in the
gospels, by the assertion that their authors were
ill-informed Jews, greedy of the marvelous, it
must appear of some importance to meet in Luke
a well-informed Greek skilled even in the med-
ical sciences. The higher degree of his education
is further proved by the classical style in which
the prologue to his gospel, and the latter portion
of the Acts, are written ; and also by the explicit
and learned details which he gives in the Acts
on various antiquarian, historical, and geograph-
ical subjects. Tradition, since the time of Greg-
ory of Nazianzus, makes Luke a martyr ; yet not
unanimously, since accounts of a natural death
slip in. Where he died remains a question ; cer-
tainly not in Rome with Paul, for his writings
are far later.
2. The Gospel According to Lu1(.e.
(1) Written Documents Used. The classical,
connected, periodic, and sustained style of the in-
troduction to the gospel of St. Luke differs so
strikingly from the Hellenistic Greek of the his-
tory itself, that we clearly perceive that he made
use of written documents. The same difference
exists, although in a less striking degree, between
the portions of the Acts relating to transactions
of which Luke himself was not an eye-witness
and in which he bore no part, and those where
he speaks as a companion of Paul. He did not,
however, transcribe verbatim from the documents
before him nor did he merely write down verbal
traditions; for we find the same characteristic
phraseology which belongs to St. Luke's indi-
vidual style, both in the gospel and in the Acts.
Compare, for instance, the peculiar use of the
words KolaiThi, Luke i:l7, 22; ii :28, 5o;iii;23; iv:l5,
51; Acts ii;27; v:i,9, 51, etc.; i/tai-is, Luke vii:i2;
viii;27, 32; xx:^; Acts v:37; ix:23, 43; xi:24, etc.;
TTois Beou, Luke 1:54, 69; Acts iii:l3, 16; iv:25, 27, 30,
etc.
(2) Other Writers. It is important to notice
what he himself says, in his introduction, of the
relation borne by his writings to those of others.
It is evident that even then 'many,' had at-
tempted to compose a history of our Lord from
the statements of eye-witnesses and of the first
ministers of the word of God. Luke follows the
example of these authors with this difference, that
he writes, starting from earlier facts in the his-
tory of the Baptist and of the infancy of our
Lord, and continuing the narration in uninter-
rupted succession. Origen, Credner, and 01s-
hausen suppose that the "many," were heretical
authors ; but this is unlikely, since Luke does
not express any blame of them. But it is also
unsatisfactory to refer the word "many." merely
to Matthew and Mark, as Hug and De Wette
have done, especially since the "many" are distin-
guished from the eye-witnesses. We must there-
fore suppose that many Christians wrote brief ac-
counts of the life of Jesus, although they had not
been eye-witnesses. It is possible that Luke made
use of such writings.
(3) Relation to Gospel of Matthew. It ap-
pears to be doubtful whether Luke had the gospel
of Matthew before his eyes, since, had that been
the case, he would probably have been more care-
ful to avoid apparent contradictions, especially in
the history of the birth of Jesus, in which he
seems to have made use of documents referring
to the family of Mary, while the accounts given
by Matthew refer more 10 the family of Joseph.
This is also confirmed by the aphoristic mode in
which he reports the Sermon on tlie Mount. VVe
can scarcely imagine that he would have com-
municated a relation so unusually abrupt, if he
had seen the well-arranged and complete state-
ments of Matthew.
The Gospel of St. Luke contains exceedingly
valuable accounts, not extant in the books of the
other evangelists; for instance, those concerning
the childhood of Jesus, the admirable parables in
chapters xv and xvi, the narration respecting the
disciples at Emmaus, the section from chapter
ix :5I to xix :27, which contains particulars mostly
wanting in the other evangelists. It has been
usual, since the days of Schleiermacher, to con-
sider this portion as the report of a single jour-
ney to the feast at Jerusalem ; but it is evident
that it contains accounts belonging to several
journeys, undertaken at different periods.
Some critics of modern times, such as D.
Schulz, Schleiermacher. Sieffert, and Schnecken-
burger, were in the habit of ascribing to the re-
ports of Luke a greater historical accuracy than
to those of Matthew ; but of late, opinions on this
subject have changed, and Strauss, De Wette, and
Bruno Bauer find in the reports of St. Matthew
more of independent and original information
than in those of Luke. There is certainly in the
details of the historical account given by St. Luke,
more clearness; but many discourses of our Re-
deemer given by St. Matthew have more of the
impress of historical precision, especially the Ser-
mon on the Mount, and the Discourse against the
Pharisees in chapters xxiii and xxiv ; although it
seems that Matthew sometimes brings into con-
nection similar discourses, held at various periods,
concerning which we find in Luke inore accurately
stated the particular circumstances under which
they were delivered.
(4) Historical Credibility. The statement
of Luke himself, at the beginning of his gospel,
must dispose us favorably with regard to its his-
torical credibility. He states that he had ac-
curately investigated the truth of the accounts
communicated, and that following the example of
the iro\Xo(, he had made use of the statements
of eye-witnesses. Luke had frequent opportunity
of meeting these eye-witnesses when he traveled
with Paul. He himself reports, in Acts xxi:i8,
that he met James. He gives also, with greater
accuracy than the other evangelists, some chrono-
logical notices, such as those at the beginning of
chapters ii and iii, and in Acts vii :35, etc. Yet
these very dates have been quoted by Strauss and
De Wette as being quite incorrect, and as proofs
that Luke was destitute of accurate historical in-
formation.
This daring assertion has induced some modern
apologetical authors to examine the matter more
closely, who have triumphantly vindicated the his-
torical character of these statements of Luke.
(5) Date of the Gospel. As to the state-
ments of the ancients concerning the date or time
when the Gospel of St. Luke was written, we
find in Irensus (Adv. Har. iii:i) that Mark and
Luke wrote after Matthew. .According to Euse-
bius {Hist. Eccks. vi:28), Origen stated that
LUKE
1084
Luke wrote after Matthew and Mark; but
Clemens Alexandriniis, according to the same
writer {Hist. Eccles. vi:i4). asserted on the au-
thority of 'the tradition of the earlier elders,
that the gospels containing the genealogies were
written before the others. According to this
view, Mark was written after Luke. It is how-
ever likely that this statement arose from a desire
to explain why the genealogies were omitted by
Mark and John. Eusebius, at least (Hist. Eccles.
iii:24), in reference to the Gospel of John, says:
'John properly passed over in silence the geneal-
ogy according to the flesh, of our Savior, which
was detailed by Matthew and Luke.'
Since the extreme criticism of Strauss and De
Wette has been unable to produce even a plausi-
ble argument against theauthenticiiyof theGospel
of Luke, attempts have been made to prove at
least the very late date of this gospel. De Wette
(Introduction to the New Testament, 4th edi-
tion, p. 176) endeavors to infer from the definite-
ness with which the destruction of Jerusalem is
predicted, and from the circumstance that, accord-
ing to ch. xxi :25, some time was to intervene be-
tween the destruction of Jerusalem and the sec-
ond advent of Christ, that this gospel was writ-
ten some time after the destruction of the city
had taken place, and after it had become apparent
from facts that the second advent was not to be
immediately consequent upon that destruction.
We do not here enter into the question whether,
according to St. Matthew xxiv :29, it was expected
that the second advent should directly follow the
destruction of Jerusalem ; we merely observe that
a petitio princil^ii runs through the whole train
of this argument, since it sets out with assuming
the impossibility of detailed predictions.
3. The Acts of The Apostles. Besides the
gospel which bears his name, Luke wrote the Acts
of the Apostles. This work contains the history of
the foundation of the Christian church in two
great sections; the first embracing the spread of
Christianity among the Jews, chiefly by the .in-
strumentality of Peter (chapters i-xii) ; and the
second, its spread among the heathen, chiefly by
the instrumentality of Paul (chapters xm-xxviii)-
Schneckenburger has strongly endeavored, in his
work Ueber den Zweck der Apostelgeschichte
1841, to prove that the Acts had an apologetical
tendency, called forth by the particular circum-
stances of the times. He especially appeals to
the manner in which Paul refutes all objections
of the Judaizers, who were his enemies.
In those portions of the Acts in which Luke
speaks as the companion of Paul, and, conse-
quently, as an eye-witness, his Greek style is
more classical than in the rest of ibe work. This
circumstance supports the opinion that Luke fol-
lowed some written documents in the earlier part
of the Acts, as well as in the gospel.
(1) Relation to St. Paul. From the cir-
cumstance that the book of Acts leaves St. Paul
a captive, without relating the result of his cap-
tivity, most critics have, with considerable proba-
bility, inferred that Luke accompanied St. Paul
to Rome, that he employed his leisure while there
in composing the Acts, and that he left off writing
before the fate of Paul was decided. Now, since
the Gospel of St. Luke was written before the
Acts, it seems to follow that it was written a
considerable time before the destruction of Je-
rusalem. De Wette meets this argument merely
by his petitio principii, that from the detailed na-
ture of the predictions on that head in the gospel,
it would follow that they were written after the
LUMP
events to which they refer, and consequently after
the destruction of Jerusalem.
It is likely that Luke, during Paul's captivity
at Caesarea, employed his leisure in collecting the
accounts contained in his gospel in the localities
where the events to which they relate happened.
The most ancient testimonies in behalf of Luke's
Gospel are those of Marcion, at the beginning of
the second century, and of Irenaeus, in the latter
half of that century.
According to Meyer's opinion, Luke terminates
the Acts with Paul's captivity, because the later
events were well known to Theophilus, to whom
the Acts are dedicated. We do not know who
this Theophilus was. Hug, however, infers, from
the manner in which Luke mentions Italian lo-
calities, that they were well known to Theophilus,
and that consequently it was likely he resided in
Italy.
(2) Authentic Account. That the accounts
of Luke are authentic may be perceived more es-
pecially from a close examination of the inserted
discourses and letters. The characteristic marks
of authenticity in the oration of the Roman law-
yer Tertullus, in ch. xxiv, and in the official let-
ters in ch. xxiii:26, sq.; xv :23, sq.; can scarcely
be overlooked. The address of Paul to the elders
of the Ephesian church is characteristically
Pauline, and even so full of definite allusions and
of similarity to the Epistle to the Ephesians, that
it furnishes a confirmation of the authenticity of
that letter, which has lately been questioned.
Characteristic also are the discourses of Ste-
phen (ch. vii), and those of Peter, concerning
which compare Seyler's Abhandlungen titer die
Reden des Petrus, in the Studien und Kritiken,
1832, p. S3, sq. Even De Wette, in his Introduc-
tion, sec. 115 a, admits the appropriateness of these
discourses.
(3) Chronological Difficulties. It is, how-
ever, difficult to reconcile some of Luke's state-
ments with the chronological notices in the Epis-
tles of Paul. Very important investigations on
this subject are to be found in the work of Angar,
De teniporum in Actis Apostolorum ratione. As
for the testimonies in behalf of the authenticity of
the Acts, they are the same as for Luke's Gospel.
Clemens Alexandrinus. Irenaeus, and Tertullian,
expressly mention the Acts, and Eusebius reckons
them among the Homologoumena. However, the
book of Acts was not read and quoted so often in
the early church as other parts of Scripture.
Chrysostom, in his first homily In Actus Aposto-
lorum, says that many Christians in Asia knew
neither the book nor its author. The Manichees
rejected it for dogmatical reasons (Augustinus,
De utilitate credendi, ii:7). So also did the Sev-
eriani (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iv:2g). Since the
book of Acts was not much read, it is surprising
that its text is particularly corrupt. It does not,
however, by any means appear that these corrup-
tions arose from intentional alterations made for
dogmatical purposes (comp. Eichhorn's Einleit-
ung ills Neue Testament, ii, 154).
The most complete commentary on the Acts is
that of Kuinoel, 2d ed., 1827. There are also some
valuable manuals, as Meyer's Commentary, 1835,
and that of De Wette, 2nd ed., 1841. (See also
Lange, Com., and Alford. Com.)
■LTTHTP (liimp), (Heb. ^- i?!', deb-ee-lawh%
1. Bunch of dried figs; a round mass of any
kind closely pressed together, especially figs (2
Kings xx:7; Is. xxxviii:2i). It is rendered "cake"
(I Sam. xxv;i8; xxx:i2; i Chron. xii:40).
LUNATIC
1085 LUTHERAN CHURCH, EVANGELICAL
3. A mass of things mixed. In Rom. ix :2I, it
means "kneaded clay" for moulding; and in I
Cor. V :6, Gal. v -.g, "dough."
LUNATIC (lu'na-trk). See Demoniac.
LTTST (liist), was not used formerly in its pres-
ent restricted sense, but of any strong desire.
In the A. V. it is the translation of three
Hebrew and four Greek words. "To lust" ap-
pears six times in the A. V. Corruption of na-
ture is called "lust," as it strongly inclines us
to evil (Rom. vii 7 ; James i:i4. 15; 2 Pet. 1:4).
This general lust is distinguished (a) into the
"lust of the flesh," such as, unclean desire of car-
nal pleasure, intemperate desire of liquor or food
(Ps. Ixxviii:i8; Gal. v:i7; i Pet. ii:ii; 2 Pet.
ii:io) ; (b) and the "lusts of the mind," such as
pride, covetousness, unbelief, attachment to the
law of works (Eph. ii :.^ ; I Pet. iv:2).
LT7ST, GRAVES OF (liist, gravs 6v). See
KiBROTH-HATTAAVAH.
IiXrSTY (liist'y), (Judg. iii:29), an old word for
"stout."
LUTHERAN CHURCH, EVANGELICAL
(lu'ther-an church, e'van-jel'I-kal).
/. Name. In the Great Reformation of the six-
teenth century, the adherents of Luther were nick-
named "Lutherans" by the Romanist, Dr. Eck,
after the Leipzic Disputation in 1519, and so
spoken of by Pope Hadrian VI in 1522. They
were first termed "Protestants" at the Diet of
Spire in 1529. Luther strongly protested, and
disapproved of his name being borne by his fel-
low confessors ; in Europe they were and are
called "The Evangelical Church;" in this country
they are commonly known as "The Evangelical
Lutheran Church."
2. Sources and Growth. (1) Seventeenth
Century. The first Lutherans who made per-
manent homes in America came among the col-
onists from Holland, who settled (1612-1622) for
traffic with the Indians on Manhattan Island and
the Hudson river. Though brought by the spirit
of trade, they were the first in this country to
suffer persecution on account of their faith. En-
gland's supremacy in 1664 gave them religious
liberty. Whilst there are no Dutch Lutheran
congregations in the United States to-day, there
are a number of Dutch origin, mostly along the
Hudson.
Gustavus Adolphus, the king of Sweden, had
projected a colony to America, both for the re-
ligious welfare of the natives and for the glory
of his realm. The glorious victory at Luetzen m
1632, immortalized "The Lion of the North," and
left to his great premier, Oxenstiern, the further-
ing of the colony. In i6.'i8 two shiploads from the
Lutheran land of Sweden purchased lands of the
Indians and established themselves on the banks
of the Delaware. Others followed and all pros-
pered.
They built churches ; their pastor, Campanius,
translated Luther's catechism into the Delaware
dialect, and also gave religious instruction to
the Indians. For over forty years previous to the
arrival of William Penn they had lived and la-
bored among them in the greatest peace and
prosperity, and by their good name and offices
greatly promoted the success of Penn's famous
treaty with the Indians under the great elm at
Philadelphia in 1683. By the close of the fol-
lowing century, through political changes, but
mainly from lack of English-speaking Lutheran
pastors, these people with their church edifices
came into the hands of the Episcopalians.
(2) Eighteenth Century. Not being a sea-
going people, previous to the eighteenth century
few Germans came to America. During this cen-
tury, being compelled by persecution and suffer-
ing, or encouraged by the plans and prospects of
Penn's colony, many thousand German Lutherans
sought homes in the New World.
Impoverished by the Thirty Years' War, and
in constant dread of invasion, many of the
wretched inhabitants of the Rhenish Palatinate
sought refuge in England, whence aided by the
government and Queen Anne, they came as col-
onists to New York, Pennsylvania and North
Carolina (1707- 17 12).
Forced into exile in midwinter, 30,000 men,
women and children from the Austrian archbish-
opric of Salzburg went to Prussia, Holland, Swe-
den and England. The English, by parliamentary
aid and public contributions, assisted many of
the fellow believers of those who bound them-
selves in the "covenant of salt" to found the
Lutheran colony at Ebenezer, Georgia, under the
devoted pastors, Bolzen and Gronau (1731-
1734)-
Unscrupulous agents traversed Germany in the
interests of shipping companies, and by fabulous
tales of plenty, wealth, honor anil titles so easily
secured in the New World, lured the simple-
minded people from their homes. Pennsylvania
was the paradise generally sought. In the sum-
mer of 1749, 12,000 German immigrants landed at
Philadelphia, many of them Lutherans, and for
years the tide continued. Many died on the long
voyages in the poorly-supplied and overcrowded
vessels. On landing the captain advertised the
arrival of those too poor to pay the passage
charges, and at auction sold men, women and
children for three, six, ten or more years, who
were taken for service to New England, Penn-
sylvania and other colonies. Families were sepa-
ratednever again to meet. Whilstcharacterand in-
dustry often elevated these servants to the place
of masters, and maids betimes married their pur-
chasers, yet, despite the laws for their protection,
it was only to protracted slavery, with its wretch-
edness and abominations, that many of the "re-
demptorists" were doomed during their enforced
labor.
From Waldoboro, Maine, to Ebenezer, Georgia,
in 173s there were but eight pastors for the whole
Lutheran population. The people generally were
poor, their speech alien, themselves strangers in
a strange land. Some made use of dcotional
books brought from the Fatherland. Here and
there an earnest layman assembled his country-
men and read a sermon. Churches were few;
barns, mills and stable lofts, carpenter shops,
or their rude cabins, were the usual places
for worship; the services and ministrations of
the church were seldom enjoyed. Clerical im-
postors, base men, devastated and deceived the
congregations. The religious training of the
young was sadly neglected. Distressing in the
extreme was the general spiritual condition.
"The Patriarch of the Lutheran Church in
America," a graduate of the University of Goet-
tingen and sent from Halle, the Rev. Henry Mel-
chior Muhlenberg, in 1742, reached Philadelphia,
Pa. His apostolic life, his faithful, imtiring and
blessed labors, his piety, ability, taot and sagacity,
inspirited the people, reduced chaos to order and
laid solid foundations for the future of the
church. In 1748, Muhlenberg with five other pas-
tors and lay representatives from twenty pas-
toral districts, organized the Ministerium or
Synod of Pennsylvania and adjacent states. In
LUXHEKAN CHURCH, KVANGELICAL 1086 LUTHERAN CHURCH, EVANGELICAL
1/86 the second Synod, that of New York, was
urganized.
The French and Indian wars, and the War of
the Revolution, destroyed churches, devastated
communities and scattered congregations. In-
fidelity, deism and rationalism poisoned by their
evil influences. Throughout the colonies religion
reached a very low ebb. The German Lutheran
population greatly suffered in the general spiritual
degeneration and destitution. At the close of the
century the New York Synod had decreased in
its pastoral roll nearly one-half; in the Carolinas
six pastors remained ; there were less than sev-
enty in all the United States.
(3) Nineteenth Century. As for the Church
in general, so especially for the Lutheran Church
has the nineteenth century proved a period of be-
fore unheard of activity. It began in troublous
times. The wars of Continental Europe, as also
those of our own country, had killed the mis-
sionary life of the church to a great extent. What
there was left in New York State of the earlier
Dutch settlers had been served and appropriated
by Reformed pastors. The Swedes along the Del-
aware were shepherded by Episcopalians, and
they, too, ceased to be Lutherans. Many of their
young men studied in colleges of other denomi-
nations, which but built bridges for many of the
second and third generations of Lutherans to iden-
tify themselves with the more popular churches.
Yet there was a remnant left in those earlier
years. The work of Miihlenberg, Schaum, Brunn-
holz, Kurtz, Handschuh, Hartwick and others was
too well done to lose its identity amid the church
life of the new century. Already, in 1817. steps
were taken toward the founding of a theological
school, which is even now in successful opera-
tion as "Hartwick Seminary." In 1820 three of
the meanwhile organized synods founded the
"General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church," which established its schools, church
organs and mission agencies, adding districts and
losing some again, until it now comprises 24
synods, and has educational institutions at Gettys-
burg and Selinsgrove, Pa., Hartwick, N. Y.,
Springfield, Ohio, Carthage, 111., and Atchison,
Kan., with boards for church, mission and elee-
mosynary activity.
The second quarter of the nineteenth century
began with a decided tendency toward Ameri-
canization. But during the later thirties large
numbers from the Fatherland swelled the ranks
of Lutheranism immensely, settling mostly in
the middle and then far western states. Some
little pressure against Lutherans in Germany be-
cause of their refusal to accept the union of the
two Reformation churches, as decreed by King
Frederick \\'ilhelm III of Prussia, drove a col-
ony under Pastor Grabau to Buffalo, N. Y.,
where they founded churches and schools. A
still larger colony from Saxony, under the lead
of Pastor Stephan, followed by Pastor C. F. W.
Walther, settled in Missouri and established a
definite center of German influence at St. Louis,
organizing themselves into a synod at Chicago in
1847. A few pastors founded the Iowa Synod,
in 1854, at St. Sebald. la. Those immigrants, sent
out and cared for by a mission society of Ber-
lin and mainly settling in Canada and in the
states of Wisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota,
organized themselves successively as "State Syn-
ods" in 1850, '58. '60 and '6l_. The Swedes be-
gan to come during the forties, and they were
organized under the lead of Professor Esbjorn,
in i860, into what is known as the Augustana
Synod, with district conferences all over the
United States. The Norwegians have their old
synod of 1853, preceded by Range's of 1846, and
followed by the United Norwegian Church 'of
i8go and the Norwegian Free Church of 1891,
the German synods of Texas, Wartburg, Augs-
burg, Nebraska ; the Icelandic and Finnish are
creations of the latter part of the century.
In the year 1867, the conditions of the church
having changed by the vast additions from be-
yond the sea. tliere was organized the "General
Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church,"
which, after adding and again losing different
synodical members, now comprises ten synods,
among which are the oldest and several of the
largest of our name, three of them being Ger-
man, one Swedish, one mixed and five English.
This general body has educational institutions at
Allentown, Philadelphia. Rochester, Greenville,
Pa., Chicago, Rock Island, Red Wing, Lindsborg,
South Orange, N. J., and a well organized sys-
tem of church work for all the various demands
of local and general interests.
In 1872 the synods, withdrawn from the .re-
cently organized General Council, together with
others of a more European type, organized un-
der the lead of the German Missouri, the "Synod-
ical Conference," now composed of five districts
and owning educational institutions at Fort
Wayne, St. Louis, Milwaukee, St. Paul, New
Ulm, Springfield, 111., Winfield, Kan., Seward,
Neb., Addison, 111., and Neperan, N. Y. This
conference is numerically the strongest of our
general bodies. It carries on a vast mission vrork
among the Germans; also has missions among
the negroes and in India. Its confessional stand-
point is of the strictest cast, insisting on non-
fellowship with errorists, rigid congregational
discipline and parochial schools. One English
district synod, with 46 congregations, cooperates
with the Synodical Conference.
The eight Lutheran synods of the South,
alienated from their northern associations, are
organized since 1886 into the "United Synod,"
having in all but 400 churches, with institutions
at Salem, Va., Newberry and Charleston. S. C,
and Hickory, N. C. They have no negro and
but small foreign membership.
Of the seventeen individual or independent
synods, the Joint Synod of Ohio, dating its ori-
gin back to 1818; that of Iowa and the Nor-
wegian United Church, have each a number of
districts and are in the line of becoming "gen-
eral bodies ;" some of the smaller synods will be
absorbed by the more vigorous ones, and like
changes are going on continually in the Lutheran
Church of this country. It would not be correct
to speak of them as so many divisions, for all
of them, together with the general bodies, cling
to the historic name and subscribe to the Augs-
burg Confession of 1530; they use Luther's Small
Catechism in their instruction for church mein-
bership, whatever language they may speak, and
thus constitute one Evangelical Lutheran Church.
As to their nationalities, the statistics change
rapidly in favor of the new. At present there
are 4,000 German, 3,800 English, 1,950 Norwe-
gian, 930 Swedish. 295 Danish, 45 Finnish and
25 Icelandic Lutheran churches in North Amer-
ica. These together report 45 colleges, 24 theo-
logical seminaries, 40 academies. 7,043 ministers,
11.605 congregations, 4,034 parochial schools, and
1,711.000 coinmunicants. In 1830 the Lutherans
had one communicant to every 234 inhabitants;
in i8qo it was one to every 48, demonstrating a
rapid gain on the population of this country.
Their baptized membership may be estimated at
about eight millions, which gives them one to
every ten of population.
LUTHERAN CHURCH, EVANGELICAL 1087
LUTHER LEAGUE OF AMERICA
In Europe the cliurch is under the control of
the State, which has led to sroiiic confusion as
to its historic name. Prussia ignores the dif-
ference between Lutheran and Kef'.)rnied ofli-
cially and calls her state church "Evangelical,"
yet allowing individual freedom both as to name
and confession. In Austria, France and most
of the southeastern countries it is known as the
"Church of the Augsburg Confession." The
Lutherans of Southern Germany have generally
adhered to the name "Evangelical" as originally
adopted, the second part, "Lutheran," not hav-
ing been recognized in public documents until the
Westphalian Treaty of 1648. There is a body
of g22 ministers, with 1,152 congregations and 116
parochial school teachers in this country, calling
itself the "German Evangelical Synod of North
America." These are not counted in with the
Lutheran Church, because they reject the name
"Lutheran" and claim to continue the simple
evangelical status of the church in most parts of
Germany. They, however, adopt the Augs-
burg Confession and do not differ in their cult
and sympathies from others who have had the
same earlier training. Also the Swedish Mission
Friends, who number some 500 churches in the
United States, deserve recognition, as originally
and practically now a part of the Lutheran
Church. They have 22 congregations in the city
of Chicago.
3. Politjf and Organization, In its govern-
ment the Lutheran Church in the United States
is not Episcopalian, Congregational, Presbyterian
or Methodist, though it has certain terms and
usages which are akin to some existing in these
ecclesiastical organizations. It is somewhat like
the government of the United States.
Jesus Christ is the Supreme Head of the
Church. A congregation, consisting of the pastor
and his people, joined in organization, constitute
the unit. From the Supreme Head the congrega-
tion has power to maintain and administer in
their purity the Word of Christ and His Sacra-
ments. With the advice and counsel of the Synod,
when requested or needed, it manages its own
affairs.
Synods are organizations made up of congre-
gations, within the limits prescribed by their con-
stitutions, as agreed upon and subscribed, for the
furtherance of the duties and good of the church
at large, such as education, the training of pas-
tors, missions, home and foreign, providing books
for worship, etc. In the Synod, the congregation
is entitled, in addition to its pastor, to at least one
lay representative froiu each parish: in all synod-
ical transactions these laymen have a parity and
equal rights and privileges with the pastors. The
Synods plan, manage and promote what the sin-
gle congregation is unable to do, the educational,
eleemosynary, mission and general activities of
their churches; advise and counsel with them, as
constitutionally agreed uptm, in some Synods,
as with the Swiss referendum, the resolutions of
the Synod being in force only when approved by
the votes of their congregations. The Lutheran
church leads in home missionary activity ; she
initiated among the Protestants of America and
successfully promoted deaconess institutions and
hospitals, orphanages, homes for the aged, epilep-
tics, etc.
4. Doctrine and Life. The Evangelical Lu-
theran Church, as the first-born of the German
and Scandinavian Reformation, adheres more
and more faithfully to the Confession set forth
at Augsburg June 25, 15,^0. This includes an
acceptance of the ecumenical creeds of Christen-
dom and also a general consent to the later doc-
trinal developments as set forth in the Apology,
the Snialcald Articles, the Catechisms of Luther
and the Fornuila of Concord, which together
were published in the Botjk of Concord, 1580.
The writings of Luther, Melancthon, Chemnitz,
Uucnstcdt, Gerhard, Arndt, Spcncr, Luthardt,
Zoeckler, Rohnert, Krauth, Waltber and others,
ancient and modern, are held in high esteem, as
differing in non-essential phases of doctrine only.
The rationalism of the eighteenth century has
entirely disappeared; the Ritchlianism of Ger-
many is not affecting the Lutheran Church of
America. Here all accept the catwnical Scrip-
tures of the Old and New Testament as the
Word of God in the form and sense as originally
given, making it their rule of faith and life.
The Lutheran Church believes in the Trinity,
Father, Son and Holy Ghost, three Persons, one
God ; and in the divine and the human nature for-
ever united in the person of Jesus, the Christ.
She teaches, with utmost emphasis, that in Him
men are justified by faith alone, and demands
good works as fruit of true obedience. The Luth-
eran Church receives the sacratnent of the Holy
Supper and the Sacrament of Raptisin, and b*-
lieves that, in a way not defined, in the Holy
Supper the Lord Jesus gives His true Body and
His true Blood to the communicant; and that or-
dinarily Baptism is "necessary to salavation and
that by Baptism grace is offered." She confines
the rite of Baptism to no one form, and gladly
admits infants to this "washing of regeneration
and renewing of the Holy Ghost."
The Lutheran Church holds that the Holy
Spirit ordinarily reaches and acts upon the souls
of men through the Truth, and mediately,
through the Word of God and the Holy Sacra-
ments as the only and appointed means of grac...
She believes in the spiritual priesthood of all true
Christians: but insists that only they who have
been rightly called shall teach in her pulpits and
minister at her altars. The Lutheran Church in
her worship is liturgical ; but accords freedom,
and does not teach that the unity of the Church
depends upon a uniform ritual and service. The
Lutheran Church teaches that through the Fall
man's nature is changed and debased : that be-
cause of sin, mankind is under the sentence of
Divine condemnation and spiritually dead ; that
only through the means of grace, the Word and
the Sacraments, by the gracious help of the Holy
Spirit, is it possible for man to know and ac-
cept God's offered mercy, receive spiritual life,
perform acceptable service, and attain the glorious
resurrection of the body and eternal salvation.
H. W. R. and T. O. S.
LUTHER LEAGUE OF AMERICA (In'ther
leg 6v a-mer-T-kr7).
This organization is in connection with the
Evangelical Lutheran Church, whieb is the old-
est and largest ot Protestant conmumions in the
world. (See Lutiier.\n Church, Ev.\ngei.ical.)
1. Various Young People's Societies. With
the rise and spread of the "Endeavor" nxive-
ment very many of the English-speaking Luther-
an churches immediately followed their example,
while others adopted a somewhat similar meth-
od, called the "Lulher Alliance," and still others
continued their young people's societies. Those
organized on the line of "Christian Endeavor"
have since formed a national association that
meets in connection with the International Unit-
ed Society; those of the Synodical Conference
organized the "Walther League," which allows
male meinbership only; and a third class, notably
those of the larger German churches in New
York and Brooklyn, moved in the direction to-
LUTHER LEAGUE OF AMERICA
1088
LYCIA
ward a national association that should embrace
all the different young people's societies of Lu-
theran congregations that could at all affiliate on a
common platform.
2. Organisation of the Luther League of
America. Years passed on before an agreement
was attained. Neighboring societies and sections
of states had meanwhile organized themselves in-
to local associations, and during the year 1895 the
call for a general meeting at Pittsburg was cor-
dially responded to. On the thirty-first day of
October the delegates from eastern, western, cen-
tral and southern states met and effected an or-
ganization to be henceforth known as The Luther
League of America.
(1) Bond of Union. As to its faith Art. II
provides : "We acknowledge as the bond of our
union the Word of God as the only infallible
rule of faith and practice and the Unaltered Augs-
burg Confession as the correct exponent of that
Word."
(2) Objects. Article III specifies: The objects
of this League shall be to encourage the formation
of the Young People's Societies in all Lutheran
congregations in America, to urge their affiliation
with their respective State or Territorial Leagues,
and with this League to stimulate the various
Young People's Societies to greater Christian ac-
tivity and to foster the spirit of loyalty to the
Church.
(3) Membership. The membership is regu-
lated in the fourth article of its constitution thus :
Any society of whatever name, connected with a
Lutheran congregation or a Lutheran institution
of learning, and all District and State organiza-
tions, whose admission shall have been in con-
formity with Article II of this Constitution, and
recommended by the committee on credentials,
are entitled to membership.
Each society admitted to membership shall be
entitled to one delegate, each District Associa-
tion to three delegates, and each State or Terri-
torial organization to ten delegates in all conven-
tions.
(4) Oflacers. The officers elected under this
Constitution were: President, Mr. E. F. Eilert
of New York; general secretary, Mr. Leander
Trautman of Pittsburgh ; recording secretary, Mr.
W. C. Stoever of Philadelphia ; assistant record-
ing secretary, Miss Vesta E. Severinghaus of Chi-
cago ; treasurer, Mr. Cornelius Eckhardt of Wash-
ington, D. C.
(5) Meetings and Relations. The "Luther
League" meets biennially, and has thus far rnet
at Pittsburg, Chicago, New York and Cincin-
nati. It has not yet succeeded in absorbing all
the young people's societies of the Lutheran
church, partly because of its conservative char-
acter, which keeps many of the existing Endeavor
Societies from joining it, and partly because of
its Americanism which does not please the "^yal-
ther League." As to our synodical divisions
there are represented in it most numerously the
young people's societies of the General Council,
the General Synod.the Norwegian United Church,
the United Synod of the South, and the joint
Synod of Ohio. All these cooperate in the State
Leagues of New York, Pennsylvania, Kansas,
New Jersey, Illinois, Ohio. Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Indiana , Kentucky, North Carolina, Nebraska,
South Dakota; and the District Leagues of Cen-
tral Connecticut, South Carolina and South At-
lantic Region.
(6) Junior League. There is also a "Junior
League" provided for by a different constitution.
This is composed of the younger baptized mem-
bers, workers and friends of the Evangelical
Lutheran Cliurch. In name, faith, object, mem-
bership and general programme, it is similar to the
former. Meetings of the Junior League may, be
of a devotional, educational, social, moral, phys-
ical or varied character, according to the plans
adopted by the Supervising Committee.
(■f) Administrative Board, Etc. In addi-
tion 10 the official board there is an executive
committee which provides a course of topics for
the weekly meetings, a general reading course
and the necessary literature.
(8) Official Organ. The Luther League Re-
view, edited by the president, Mr. E. F. Eilert.
is the official organ of the Luther League of
America. There is a Luther League Hymnal, a
Luther League Handbook, Booklets, Pamphlets
and Badges. While it is largely managed by lay-
men and the younger ones of the church, its ex-
ecutive committee has six ministers out of the
ten members composing it, and in the list of
State Leagues, as quoted in the "Handbook," we
meet seven ministers who hold office, as also eight
women. D. J. S.
liXrZ (Wz), (Heb. Tl\ looz, almond-tree), the
ancient name of Bethel (Gen. xxviii:i9). (See
Bethel.) The word Gen. xxx:37 is translated
haacl in the A. V., and in some others it is ren-
dered by words equivalent to 'walnut' ; biY. 'al-
mond' appears to be its true meaning. (See Al-
mond.) It is also the name of several towns.
1. The spot to which the name of Bethel was
given appears, however, to have been at a little
distance in the environs of Luz, and they are ac-
cordingly distinguished in Josh, xvi .2, although
the name of Bethel was eventually extended to
that town.
2. A small place of the same name in the ter-
ritory of the Hiitites, founded by an inhabitant of
Luz of Canaan, who was spared when the place
was destroyed by the tribe of Benjamin. Not
identified ( Judg. i :26) ; probably the Lusa of
Mt. Gerizim. (Stanley, p. 231, sq.)
IjYCAONIA (lyk'a-6'ni-a), (Gr. KvKaovla, loo-kah-
on-ee'ah' , from the mythological Lycaon, or XiJ/cos
a wolf), a province of Asia Minor, having Cappa-
docia on the east,Galatia on the north, Phrygia on
the west, and Isauria and Cilicia on the south.
It extends in length about twenty geographical
miles from east to west, and about thirteen in
breadth. It was an undulating plain, involved
among mountains, which were noted for the con-
course of wild-asses. The soil was so strongly
impregnated with salt that few of the brooks sup-
plied drinkable water, so that good water was sold
for money. But sheep throve on the pasturage,
and were reared with great advantage (Strabo,
xii, p. 568; Pliny, Hist. Nat. viii:69). It was a
Roman province when visited by Paul (Acts
xiv:6), and its chief towns were Iconium, Lys-
tra, and Derbe, of which the first was the capi-
tal. 'The speech of Lycaonia' (Acts xiv:ii) is
supposed by some to have been the ancient As-
syrian language, also spoken by the Cappadocians
(Jablonski, Disquis. dc Lingua Lycaonica, Opusc.
iii, 3, sq.) ; but it is more usually conceived to
have been a corrupt Greek, intermingled with
many Syriac words.
LYCIA (ly'ci-a), (Gr. AukIo, loo-kee'ah, probably
from Xi5(fos, a wolf), a province in the southwest
of Asia Minor, having Pamphylia on the east,
Phrygia on the north, Caria on the west and the
Mediterranean on the south.
Great part of the country, however, consists
of a peninsula projecting south into the Mediter-
ranean. It is mountainous, ar l \z watered by nu-
LYDDA
1089
LYSTRA
meroiis small rivers whicli flow from the moun-
tains, lis inhabitants wore believed to be de-
scendants of Cretans who came thither under
Sarpedon. brother of Minos. Lycia is named in i
Mace. XV :2.3, as one of the countries lo which
the Roman senate sent its missive in favor of the
Jews. The victory of the Romans over Anti-
ochus (B. C. 189) gave Lycia rank as a free state,
which it retained till the lime of Claudius, when
it was made a province of the Roman empire
(Suet. Claud, 25; Vespas. 8). Lycia contained
many towns, two of which are mentioned in the
New Testament; Patara (Acts xxi:i, 2); Myra
(Acts xxvii:5); and one, Phaselis, in the Apoc-
rypha (i Mace. xv:23).
liYDDA (lyd'da), (Heb. n'^, /ot^ Gr. AiSSa, Itict-
dah).
A town within the limits of the tribe of Eph-
raim, nine miles east of Joppa, on the road be-
tween that port and Jerusalem.
It bore in Hebrew the name of Lod, and ap-
pears to have been first built by the Benjamitcs,
although it lay boyond the limits of their
territory; and we fmd it again inhabited by Ben-
jamitcs after the Exile (i Chron. viii:i2; Ezra
ii :33; Neh. xi:3s).
It is mentioned in tbe Apocrypha (i Mace.
xi:34), as having been taken from Samaria and
annexed to Judaea by Demetrius Nicator; and
at a later date its inhabitants are named among
those who were sold into slavery by Cassius,
when he inflicted the calamity of his presence
upon Palestine after the death of Julius Caesar
(Joseph. Antiq. xiv. II. 2; xii. 6). In the New
Testament the place is only noticed, under the
name of Lydda, as the scene of Peter's miracle
in healing Eneas (■'Xcts ix 132, 35). Some years
later the town was reduced to ashes by Cestius
Callus, in his march against Jerusalem (Joseph.
De Bell. Jud. ii, ig, l) ; but it must soon have
revived, for not long after we find it at the head
of one of the toparchies of the later Jud:ea, and
as such it surrendered to Vespasian (Joseph. Dc
Bell. Jud. iii :3, 5; iv:8). At that time it is de-
scribed by Josephus (Antiq. xx :6, 2) as a village
equal to a city ; and the Rabbins have much to say
of it as a seat of Jewish learning, of which
it was the most eminent in Judsa after Jab-
neh and Bether (Lightfoot, Farcrgon, sec. 8).
In the general change of names which took
place under the Roman dominion, Lydda be-
came Diospolis, and under this name it occurs in
coins of Severus and Caracalla, and is often
mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome. It was early
the seat of a bishopric, and at the different coun-
cils the bishops are found to have subscribed
their names variously, as of Lydda or Diospolis.
Lydda early became connected with the hom-
age paid to the celebrated saint and martyr St.
George, who was not less renowned in the east
than afterwards in the west. A cliurch was
erected there in honor of him by the Emperor Jus-
tinian. This church, which stood outside the
town, had just been leveled to the ground by
the Moslems when the Crusaders arrived at
Lydda ; but it was soon rebuilt by them, and
they established a bishopric of Lydda and Ramleh.
The church was destroyed by Saladin in ngi ;
and there is no evidence that it was ever rebuilt,
although there was in later centuries an un-
founded impression that the church the ruins of
which vyere then seen, and which still exist, had
been built by King Richard of England. It is now
known by the ancient name of Lud. (Robinson's
Bib. Researches, iii, 55; Pococke, Description, ii,
58; Volney, Voyage, i, 278.)
69
LYDIA (lyd'i-a), (Gr. XvSla, loo-dcc'ah, derived
from .\i'5iis its founder).
1. .\ |iioviiite in the west of Asia Minor, sup-
posed lo have derived its name from Lud, the
lourtli Son (•( Shem (Gen. x;22). (See Nations,
Dispersion of.)
It was bounded on the east by Greater Phrygia,
on the north by /t^olis or Mysia, on the west by
Ionia and the .I'.gean Sea, and on the south it
was separated from Caria by the Masander. The
country is for the most part level. Among the
mountains that of Tmolus was celebrated for its
saffron and re<l wine. In the palmy days of Lydia
its kings ruled from the shores of the yligean
to the river Halys ; and Crcesus, who was its king
in the time of Solon and of Cyrus, was reputed
the richest monarch in the world. He was able
to bring into the field an army of 420.000 foot
and 60.000 horse against Cyrus, by whom, how-
ever, he was defeated, and his kingdom annexed
to the Persian empire (Herod, i, 6). Lydia aft-
erwards formed part of the kingdom of the
Seleucidx; and it is related in i Mace, viii :3,
that Antiochus the Great was compelled by the
Romans to cede Lydia to king Eumcnes. In the
time of the travels of the Apostles it was a prov-
ince of the Roman empire. Its chief towns
were Sardis (the capital), Thyatira, and Phila-
delphia, all of which are mentioned in the New
Testament, although the name of the province
itself does noi occur. The manners of the Lydians
were corrupt even to a proverb (Herod. i:92).
2. A woman of Thyatira, 'a seller of purple,'
who dwelt in the city of Philippi in Macedonia
(Acts xvi:i4, 15). Lydia was not by birth a
Jewess, but a proselyte 'who worshiped God'
(ac^oiiivT) riv Oeiv). She was converted by
the preaching of Paul; and after she and her
household had been baptized, she pressed the use
of her house so earnestly upon him and his asso-
ciates that they were constrained to accept the
invitation. The Lydians were famous for the art
of dyeing purple vests, and Lydia, as 'a seller of
purple,' is supposed to have been a dealer in vests
so dyed, rather than in the dye itself. (See
Kuinocl on Acts xvi:i4). (A. D. 47.)
LTDIANS (lyd'i-anz), (Jer. xlviig). See Lud;
Ludim; Lydda.
LYSANIAS (ly-sa'ni-as), (Gr. Avtravlas, loo-san-
ee'as, ending sadness), tetrarch of Abilene, when
John commenced his ministry as the harbinger of
Christ (Luke iii:l), A. D. 25.
He is supposed to have been son or grandson
of another Lysanias, known in history, who was
put to death by Mark Antony, and part of his
territories given to Cleopatra. (See Abilene.)
LTSIAS (lis'i-as), (Gr. Awfas, /no-see' as), or
Clai'Dius Lysias, chiliarch and commandant of
the Roman troops who kept guard at the temple
of Jerusalem, by whom Paul was secured from the
fury of the Jews, and sent under guard to the pro-
curator Felix at Caesarea (Acts xxi:27-38; xxii:24-
30; xxiii;i7-3o; xxiv:7, 22), A. I). 25.
LYSTKA (lys'tra), (Gr. Marpa, hos' trah), ?i c\ly
of Lycaonia in Asia Minor, to which Paul and
Barnabas fled from the danger which threatened
them at Iconium (Acts xiv :6).
Here, Paul having miraculously cured a cripple,
they were both adored as gods; but afterwards,
at' the instigation of the Jews, Paul was stoned
and left for dead (Acts xiv:8-2i). Timothy was
a native qf Lystra (Acts xvi :l ; 2 Tim. iii:ll).
This city was east of Iconium, on the site of
the modern Khatyn Serai, as proven by an in-
scription i^W oUt's Expedition, 142; Ramsay, //lil;
Geog. 2i2). M.
MAACAH OR MAACHAH
1U90
MAASEIAH
M
MAACAH or MAACHAH (raa'a-kah), (Heb.
i^5^^, mah-ak-aw' , depression).
1. A city and region at the foot of Mount Her-
mon, not far from Geshur, a district of Syria
(Josh. xiii:i3; 2 Sam. x :6, 8; i Chron. xix:/).
Hence the adjacent portion of Syria is called
Aram-Maacah, or Syria of Maachah (i Chron.
xix:6). The Israelites seem to have considered
this territory as included in their grant, but were
never able to get possession of it (Josh. xiii:i3).
In the time of David the small state had a king
of its own, who contributed 1,000 men to the
grand alliance of the Syrian nations against the
Jewish monarch (2 Sam. x:6, 8). The lot of
the half-tribe of Manasseh beyond the Jordan ex-
tended to this country, as had previously the
dominion of Og, king of Bashan (Deut. iii:i4;
Josh. xii:5). The Gentile name is Maacathite,
which is also put for the people (Deut. iii:i4;
Josh. xii:5; xiii:n; 2 Kings xv:29). Near, or
within the ancient limits of Maacah, was the town
called for that reason Abel beth-Maacah. (See
Abel.)
2. The father of Achish, king of Gath (i Kings
ii:39). (B. C. before loio.)
3. The father of Hanan, one of David's worth-
ies (i Chron. xi:43). (B. C. before 1046.)
4. The father of Shephatiah, the military chief
of the Simeonites in the time of David (l Chron.
xxvii:i6). ( B. C. before 1014.)
5- A person whose sex does not appear ; one
of the offspring of Nahor's concubine Reumah
(Gen. xxii;24). (B. C. about 2046.)
6. A concubine of Caleb (i Chron. ii:48). (B.
C. before 1656.)
7. Granddaughter of Benjamin, who was mar-
ried to Machir, son of Manasseh (l Chron. vii:
16). (B. C. after 1856.)
8. Daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, wife of
David, and mother of Absalom (2 Sam. iii:3).
In I Sam. xxvii ;8 we read of David's invading
the land of the Geshurites, and the Jewish com-
mentators allege that he then took the daughter
of the king captive, and, in consequence of her
great beauty, married her, after she had been
made a proselyte according to the law in Deut.
xxi. But this is a gross mistake, for the Geshur
invaded by David was to the south of Judah,
whereas the Geshur over which Talmai ruled
was to the north, and was regarded as part of
Syria (2 Sam. xv:8). The fact appears to be
that David, having married the daughter of this
king, contracted an alliance with him, in order
to strengthen his interest against Ishbosheth in
those parts. (B. C. 1053.)
9. Daughter of Abishalom, wife of Rehoboam,
and mother of Abijam (i Kings xv:i, 2). In verse
10 we read that Asa's 'mother's name was
Maachah, the daughter of Abishalom.' It is evi-
dent that here 'mother' is used in a loose sense,
and means 'grandmother,' which the Maacah
named in verse one must have been to the Asa of
verse 10. It therefore appears to be a great error
to make two persons of them, as is done by
Calmet and others. The Abishalom who was the
father of this Maacah is called Absalom in 2
Chron, xi :20, 21, and is generally supposed by the
Jews to have been Absalom the son of David;
which seems not improbable, seeing that Reho-
boam's other two wives were of his father's fam-
ily (2 Chron. xi:i8). Asa commenced his reforms
by 'removing her from being queen, because she
had made an idol in a grove' (i Kings xv:i3;
2 Chron. xv:i6). B. C. 973-953.
10. Wife of Jehiel and ancestress of king Saul
(i Chron. viii:29; ix:35). B. C. about 1658.
MAACATH (ma'a-kath). See MAACAH, I.
MAACHATHI (ma-5k'a-thi), (Deut. iii:l4),
MAACHATHITES (ma-ak'a-thites), (Hebrew
singular with article, 'PJ^i^D, ham-mah-ak-a-w-
thee' , once, Josh. xiii:i3, '^?^;P. mah-ak-awth').
The inhabitants of the kingdom of Maacah, of
Syria, or of Beth-maacah in Naphtali (Josh, xii;
5; 2 Sam. xxiii:34). Individual Maachathites are
mentioned in 2 Sam. xxiii:34; Jer. xl:8; 2 Kings
XXV ;23; i Chron. iv:i9.
MAADAI (ma-ad'ai), (Heb. *!?^5, mak'ad-ah'-
ee, ornament of Jehovah).
One of the "sons" of Bani, induced by Ezra to
put away his foreign wife after ihe captivity
(Ezra x:34). (B. C. 459.)
MAADIAH (ma'a-di'ah), (Heb. ^;i>'5, mah-
ad-yaw', ornament of Jehovah).
A chief priest, or one of the families of priests,
who returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon
(Neh. xii:5, 7). Probably the same as Moadiah
(verse 17). (B. C. 536.)
MA AI (ma-a'i), (Heb.'^^, maw-ah'ee, compas-
sionate).
A priest, son of Asaph, and one of the mu-
sicians at the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem
(Neh. xii:36). (B. C. 446.)
MAALEH- ACRABBIM (ma-Sl'eh-a-krab ' bi m ),
(Heb. ^'^y^ D'3n;?2, mak-al-ay' ak-rab-beem' .
ascent of scorpions).
A mountain so called from the multitude of
scorpions that infested it, at the southern end of
the Salt Sea (Num. xxxiv:4; Josh. xv:3). Iden-
tified as the steep pass of Es Sufah.
MAARATH (ma'a-rath), (Heb. f^?^^, mah-ar-
awth' , naked place, desolation).
A town of Judah, in the mountain district north
of Hebron, near Halhul (Josh. xv:S9), probably.
It has not been identified.
MAASEIAH ( ma'a-se'ya ), (Heb. ^;to.
mah-as-ay-yaui' , or ^'''^???^, tnah-as-ay-yaw' hoo,
work of Jehovah).
!• A descendant of Jeshua, the priest, who
put away his foreign wife after the captivity
(Ezra x: 18). (B. C. 459.)
2. A priest, one of the "sons" of Harim, who
also divorced his foreign wife (Ezra x:2i); per-
haps the same as 11. (B. C. 459).
3. A priest, one of ihe "sons" of Pashur, who
divorced his wife after the return from Babylon
(Ezra x:22). (B. C. 459.)
4. A layman, one of the "sons" ofPahath-moab,
who put away his foreign wife after the cap-
tivity (Ezra x:3o). (B. C. 459.)
5. Father of that Azariah who assisted in re-
pairing the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:23). (B.
C. 446)
MAASEIAH
1091
MACCABEES
6. One of tlie chiefs of Israel who stood at
.he right h;iiul of Ezra when the law was read
to tlie people: perhaps he is identical with (8.)
(Neh. viii:4). (B. C. about 410.)
7. A priest who assisted the Levites in in-
striKling the people in the law as it was read
by Ezra (Neh. viii:?)- (B. C. about 410.)
8. One of the chiefs who signed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x:25). (B. C. about
410.)
9. Son of Baruch, a descendant of Judah (Neh.
xi:5). In I Chron. ix :s, he is apparently called
AsAiAH. (B. C. 536.)
10. Son of Ithiel, a Benjamite, one of whose
descendants lived in Jerusalem after the exile
(Neh. xi:;). (B. C. before 536.)
11. Two priests of this name were musicians
and participated in the celebration of the. re-
building of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. xii:4i,
42;. (B.C. 446.)
12. Father of Zephaniah, who was priest in
the time of Zedekiah (Jer. xxix:25). (B. C.
before 589.)
13. Father of the false prophet Zedekiah, who
was denounced by the prophet (Jer. xxix:2l).
(B. C. before 589.)
14. One of the Levites appointed by David as
gate keeper for the ark (i Chron. xv:l8, 20).
(B, C. 1043.)
15. Son of Adaiah ; one of the captains of
hundreds who helped Jehoiada to overthrow
Athaliah and place Joash on the throne (2 Chron.
xxiiiii). (B. C. 877.)
16. A military officer of the Levites, in the
time o.f Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi:ii). (B. C. 808.)
17. A prince of the royal house, — probably the
son of king Jotham. — who was killed in the in-
vasion of Judah by Zichri, of the tribe of Ephraim
(2 Chron. xxviii:7). (B. C. about 738.)
18. A governor of Jerusalem in the reign of
Josiah, sent by Josiah to repair the Temple (2
Chron. xxxiv:8). (B. C. 623.)
19. Son of Shallum ; a custodian of the Tem-
ple (Jer. XXXV :4). (B. C. 606.)
20. A priest, ancestor of Seraiah and Baruch,
sons of Neriah (Jer. xxxii:i2). (B. C. about
738.)
CHASHMON-
MAASIAI (ma-5si-ai), (Heb. "'W^. mah-as-
ah'ce, Jehovah's work).
A priest, son of Adiel, resident at Jerusalem
after the rctuni from captivity (i Chron. ix:i2).
He is apparently the saine as Am.\siiai (Neh. xi :
13). (B. C. S.36.)
mAATH (raa'ath). (Gr. Mods, 7iiij/i-ai/i'), aw an-
cestor of Jesus, who lived after the time of Zcrub-
babel (Luke iii:26). The name may l>c an inter-
polation of Mattiiat (ver. 24), as no such name as
Maalh occurs in tlie Old Testament.
MAAZ (ma'iz), (Heb. Y^'5, mah'ats, anger),
son of Ram, the firstborn of Jerahmeel of the de-
scendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii:27), B. C. after
1658.
TVTAAZTATT (raa'a-zi'ah), (\ieb.^Vi^^,tnah-az-
yaw' , Jehovah's consolation).
1. One of the priests who signed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x:8). (B. C. about 410.)
2. One of the descendants of Aaron, who was
head of the twenty-fourth course of priests, as
arranged by David (l Chron. xxiv:l8). (B. C.
1014.)
]yiACCABE£S (mak'ka-beez).
i. Name. The etymology of the name is very
uncertain. Some have claimed thai it was formed
from the combination of the initial letters of the
Hebrew sentence, "Who among the gods is like
unto thee, Jehovah" (Exod. xv:ii), which is sup-
posed to have been inscribed upon the banner of
the patriot's. Another derivation has been given
which may be considered as satisfactory : accord-
ing to this it is formed from the Heb. mak-kaw-
baw' , '^?Iv^, "a hammer," giving a sense not al-
together unlike that in which Charles Martcl de-
rived a surname from his favorite weapon. Al-
though the name Maccabees has gained the widest
currency, that of As7>ionceans, or Hasniona-aiis,
is the proper name of the family. This name
probably came from the great-grandfather of Mat-
tathias.
2. Pedigree. The connection of the several
members of the family will be seen from the sub-
joined table:
THE ASMON>EAN FAMILY.
Cbasmon ('of the sona of Joarib,' comp. 1 CbroD. iiiv:7).
Johanan ('ludcc?;;),
I
Simeon (2u/xe(^c, Simon. Comp. 2 Pet. i:i).
Mattathias (Matthias, Joseph. Ant, i. x, g 3).
B. C. 167.
I
Johanan (Johannes) Simon
(Gaddis), (Thassi),
("Joseph" in 2 Mace, viii :22), B. C. 135.
B. C. 161. 1
Judas Eleazar
(MaccabcBUs). (Avaran),
B. C. 161. B. C. 163.
xvi
Jonathan
(Apphus),
B. C. 143-
Judas, Johannes Hyrcanus 1,
B. C. 135- B. C. 106.
Mattathias. Daughter
B. C. 135. (■ Mace.
tolcmaeus
:il, 12).
Salome (Alexandra) _ Aristobulus I. Antigonus.
B. C. 105. B. C. 105.
Jannacus Alexander ^, Alexandra
B. C. 78. 1
Son. Son
1
Hyrcanus II,
B. C. 30.
1
Aristobulus 11,
B. C. 49-
1 1
Alexandra „ Alexander.
B. C. 28. 1 B. C. 49-
Ant
B.
1
igonus.
C.37-
Uariamne = Herod the Great
B. C. 09.
Aristobulus.
B. C. 35.
MACCABEES
1092
MACCABEES
3. Historic. As a family, the Maccabees com-
menced their career of patriotic and religious
heroism during the persecution of Antiochus
Epiphanes, about the year B. C. 167.
(1) Mattathias. At this time the aged Mat-
tathias, a descendant of the Asmonaeans, and his
five sons, inhabited the town of Modin, to which
place Antiochus sent certain of his officers with
instructions to erect an altar for heathen sacri-
fices, and to engage the inhabitants in the celebra-
tion of the most idolatrous and superstitious rites.
The venerable Mattathias openly declared his
resolution to oppose the orders of the tyrant, and
one of the recreant Jews approaching the altar
which had been set up, he rushed upon him, and
slew him with his own hand. His part thus
boldly taken, he called his sons and his friends
around him, and immediately Hed to the moun-
tains, inviting all to follow him who had any
zeal for God and the law. A small band of reso-
lute and devoted men was thus formed, and the
governor of the district saw reason to fear that
a general insurrection would be the consequence
of their proceeding. By a sudden attack directed
against them on the Sabbath, when he knew the
strictness of their principles would not allow
them to take measures for their defense, he threw
them into disorder, and slew about a thousand
of their number, consisting of men, women, and
children.
Warned by this event, and yielding to the
necessity of their present condition, Mattathias
and his sons determined that for the future they
would defend themselves on the Sabbath in the
same manner as on other days. The mountain-
hold of the little band was now guarded more
cautiously than before. Fresh adherents to the
holy cause were continually flocking in ; and in
a few months the party found itself sufficiently
strong to make attacks upon the towns and vil-
lages of the neighborhood, throwing down the
heathen altars, and punishing the reprobates who
had taken part with the enemies of God.
(2) Judas Slaccabseus. By the death of Mat-
I'athias, the leadership of the party devolved upon
his son Judas Maccabaeus, whose worth and
heroic courage pointed him out as most capable
of carrying on the enterprise thus nobly begun.
Judas lost no time in attacking the enemy. He
made himself master of several towns, which he
fortified and garrisoned. Apollonius, general of
the army in Samaria, hastened to stop the prog-
ress of the insurgents. Judas met him on the
way, joined battle with him, slew him. and routed
his army. The same success attended him in his
encounter with Seron, general of the Syrians ;
and it now became evident to Antiochus that the
Jewish nation would soon be delivered from his
yoke, unless he proceeded against them with a
more formidable force. While, therefore, he him-
self went into Persia to recruit his treasures,
Lysias, whom he left as regent at home, sent an
army into Judaea, composed of forty thousand
foot and seven thousand cavalry. This powerful
array was further increased by auxiliaries from
the provinces, and bv bands of Jews, who dreaded
nothing more than the triumph of those virtuous
men of their own nation, who were struggling
to save it from reprobation. So unequal did the
forces of Judas appear to an encounter with such
an army, that in addressing his followers he urged
those among them who had any especial reason to
love the present world to retire at once; while
to those who remained he pointed out' the prom-
ises of God as the best support of their courage
and fidelity. By a forced march he reached a por-
tion of the enemy encamped at Emmaus, while
utterly unprepared for his approach. Complete
success attended this bold proceeding. The sev-
eral parts of the hostile army were successively
put to flight, a splendid booty was secured, and
Judas gained a position which made even the
most powerful of his opponents tremble. Another
and more numerous army was sent against him
the following year, but with no better success.
At the head of ten thousand determined follow-
ers, Judas defeated the army of Lysias, consisting
of sixty thousand. A way was thereby opened for
his progress to Jerusalem, whither he immediately
hastened, with the devout purpose of purifying
the Temple and restoring it to its former glory.
The solemn religious rites having been performed
which were necessary to the cleansing of the
sacred edifice, the Festival of the Purification was
instituted, and added to the number of the other
national festivals of more ancient date.
Judas had full occupation for his courage and
ability in repelling the incursions of those numer-
ous foes who dreaded the restoration of order
and religion. But every day added to his suc-
cesses. Having overthrown the Syrian com-
manders sent against him, he occupied Samaria,
made himself master of the strong city of Hebron,
of Azotus, and other important places, taking sig-
nal vengeance on the people of Joppa and Jam-
nia, who had treacherously plotted the destruction
of numerous faithful Jews.
Antiochus Epiphanes was succeeded by Anti-
ochus Eupator. .-Vt first this prince acted towards
the Jews with moderation and tolerance. But he
soon afterwards invaded Judasa with a powerful
army, and was only induced to make peace with
Maccabaeus by the fears which he entertained of
a rival aspirant to the throne. His caution did
not save him. He was put to death by his Own
uncle, Demetrius, who, obtaining the throne of
Syria, made peace with Judas, but took posses-
sion of the citadel of Jerusalem, which was
occupied by his general Nicanor, and a body of
troops. This state of things was not allowed to
last long. Demetrius listened to the reports of
Nicanor's enemies, and threatened to deprive him
of his command unless he could disprove the ac-
cusation that he had entered into a league with
Judas, and was betraying the interests of his
sovereign. Nicanor immediately took measures
to satisfy Demetrius, and Judas saw it necessary
to escape from Jerusalem, and put himself in a
posture of defense. A battle took place in which
he defeated his enemy. Another was soon after
fought at Beth-horon. where he was again vic-
torious. Nicanor himself fell in this battle, and
his head and right hand were sent among the
spoils to Jerusalem. But the forces of Demetrius
were still numerous. Judas had retired to Laish
with about three thousand followers. He was
there attacked by overwhelming numbers. Only
eight hundred of his people remained faithful
to him on this occasion. Resolved not to flee,
he bravely encountered the enemy, and was
speedily slain, regarding his life as a fitting sacri-
fice to the cause in which he was engaged.
(3) Jonathan. After the death of Judas the
patriotic party seems to have been for a short
time wholly disorganized, and it was only by the
pressure of unparalleled sufferings that they were
driven to renew the conflict. For this purpose
they offered the command to Jonathan, surnamed
.-Xpphus (the zi'ary). the youngest son of Mat-
tathias. Jonathan proved himself a worthy suc-
cessor of his heroic brother, and skillfully evaded
the first attack of Bacchides, the Syrian gen-
MACCABEES
1093
MACCABEES. BOOKS OF
eral. For two years after this, the brotliers were
left in tranquillity, and they established them-
selves in a little fortress called Bethtasi, situated
among the rocks near Jericho. The skill and res-
olution with which they pursued their measures
rendered them formidable to the enemy ; and the
state of affairs in Syria some time after obliged
Demetrius to make Jonathan the general of his
forces in Judaea, and to invest him with the au-
thority of governor of Jerusalem. To this he
was compelled by the rivalry of Alexander Balas ;
but his policy was too late to secure the attach-
ment of his new ally. Jonathan received offers
from Alexander to support his interests among
the Jews, and the high-priesthood was the prof-
fered reward. The invitation was accepted; and
Jonathan became the first of the Asmonaean line
through which the high-priesthood was so long
transmitted. Alexander Balas left nothing un-
done which might tend to secure the fidelity of
Jonathan. He gave him a high rank among
the princes of his kingdom, and adorned him
with a purple robe. Jonathan continued to en-
joy his prosperity till the year B. C. 143, when
he fell a victim to the treachery of Trypho, who
aspired to the Syrian throne.
(4) Simon. As soon as Simon, the last re-
maining brother of the Maccabsean family,
heard of the detention of Jonathan in Ptole-
mais by Tryphon,he placed himself at the head of
the patriot party. His skill in war had been
proved in the lifetime of Judas (l Macc._v:i7-
23), and he had taken an active share in the
campaigns of Jonathan, when he was intrusted
with a distinct command (i Mace. xi:S9). Try-
phon, after carrying Jonathan about as a prisoner
for some little time, put him to death, and then,
having murdered Antiochus, seized the throne.
On this Simon made overtures to Demetrius II
(B. C. 143), which were favorably received, and
the independence of the Jews was at length for-
mally recognized. The long struggle was now
triumphantly ended, and it remained only to reap
the fruits of victory. This Simon hastened
to do. The prudence and wisdom for which
he was already distinguished at the time of his
father's death (i Mace. ii:6s) gained for the
Jews the active support of Rome (i Mace, xv:
16-21), in addition to the confirmation of earlier
treaties. After settling the external relations of
the new state upon a sure basis, Simon regulated
its internal administration to the great satisfac-
tion of his subjects.
(5) John Hyrcanus. He was succeeded by
his son the celebrated John Hyrcanus. ( B. C.
13s) At first he was hard pressed by Antiochus
Sidetes, and only able to preserve Jerusalem on
condition of dismantling the fortifications and
submitting to a tribute. (B. C. 133.) The for-
eign and civil wars of the Seleucidae gave him
afterwards abundant opportunities to retrieve his
losses. He reduced Idumaea (Joseph. Antiq. xiii:
9, sec. i), confirmed the alliance with Rome,
and at length succeeded in destroying Samaria,
the hated rival of Jerusalem. (B, C. 109.) The
external splendor of his government was marred
by the growth of internal divisions (Joseph.
Antiq. xii, 10, sees. S. 6) ; but John escaped the
fate of all the older members of his family, and
died in peace (B. C. lo6-.>;) after possessing the
supreme authority for thirty years.
(6) Aristobulus. He was succeeded by his
son, .-Kristobulus, who added Itur.ha — a district at
the base of the Anti-Libanus — to his dominions,
but died, after a short reign of one year, of re-
morse for the murder of his mother, Salome Alex-
andra, to whom the secular dominion had been be
ciueathcd by Hyrcanus, but whutn Aristobulus ha*"
cast into prison, and caused there to die of hunge)
(7) Alexander Jannaeus. The son who suc-
ceeded him was Alexander Jannaus. Constantly
fighting, and generally beaten, this king yet,
strange to say, contrived to enlarge liis territories;
restless and enterprising as he was cruel and san-
guinary, he gave his opponents no rest, and his
opponents were all his neighbors in turn, ex-
cepting Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Attached to
the Sadducees (which see), like his father, and
probably sometliing nf a pagan, he was disliked by
the mass of his counlrynien, and a civil war of six
years' duration ensued. After a brief period of
peace, he died (B. C. 78).
(8) Hyrcanus II followed Alexander. He
did not long retain authority, for Alexander, when
dying, had recommended his wife, Alexandra, to
throw herself into the arms of the very party who
had thwarted him all his life, the Pharisees, as
the best way of retaining her authority. This she
did; and governed, on the whole, prudently for
nine years. The Pharisaic party, however, abused
the power which fell into their hands, and a re-
action took place. Aristobulus, youngest son of
the queen, and a prince of great spirit, placed
himself at the head of the movement, marched to
Jerusalem, took possession of the city, and ejected
his elder brother, Hyrcanus II, from the sov-
ereignty. Afterwards, however, the latter, at the
instigation of Antipater, the Idumean, and father
of Herod the Great, fled to Aretas, king of north-
ern Arabia, who was induced, by the promise
of a cession of the territory which had been
acquired by Alexander Jannaeus, to take up
arms on his behalf. This led to the interference
of the Romans, who were then fighting both in
Syria and Armenia. After several vicissitudes,
Jerusalem was captured (B. C. 63) by Pompey,
who had decided in favor of Hyrcanus, and Judaea
made dependent on the Roman province nf Syria,
and Hyrcanus, appointed ethnarch and high-
priest'. Aristobulus, however, with his two sons,
Alexander and Antigonus, and two daughters,
were carried captive to Rome. Antigontis was
put to death by the common executioner (B. C.
3,7). Thus ended the Maccabsean dynasty. (Smith,
Bib. Diet.; Ewald, Hist, of Israel.) (See Mac-
cabees, Books of.) H. S.
MACCABEES, BOOKS OF (mak'ka-beej,
books 6v). See Apocrypha.
/. Number of "Boolis. The books of Mac-
cabees are the titles of certain Jewish histories
containing principally the details of the heroic
exploits referred to in the preceding article. There
were in all four books (to which some add a
fifth) known io the ancients, of which three are
still read in the eastern, and two in the western
church. Of these the third is the first in order of
time. We shall, however, to avoid confusion,
speak of them in the order in which they arc
commonly enumerated.
(1) The First Book of Maccabees contains a
lucid and authentic history of the undertakings
of Antiochus Epiphanes against the Jews, from
the year B. C. 175 to the death of Simon Macca-
baeus, B. C. 135. This history is confessedly of
great value. Although its brevity, observes De
Wette (see l Mace. i:6; viii:7; xii), renders it
in some instances unsatisfactory, defective, and
uncritical, and occasionally extravagant, it is
upon the whole entitled to credit, chronologically
accurate, and advantageously distinguished above
all other historical productions of this period. It
is the second book in order of time.
MACCABEES, BOOKS OF
1094
MACCABEES, BOOKS OF
(a) Language. There is little question that
(his book was written in Hebrew, although the
original is now lost. The Greek version abounds
in Hebraisms and errors of translation.
(b) Author and Age. Of the author nothing
is known; but he must have been a Palestinian
Jew, who wrote some considerable time after the
death of Simon Maccabsus, and even of Hyr-
canus, and made use of several written, although
chiefly of traditionary, sources of information. At
the same time it is not impossible thai the author
was present at several of the events which he
so graphically describes.
(2) The Second Book of Maccabees (the
third in order of time) is a work of very inferior
character to the first. It is an abridgment of a
more ancient work, written by a ]ev/ named Ja-
son, who lived at Gyrene in Africa, comprising
the principal transactions of the Jews which oc-
curred during the reigns of Seleucus IV, An-
tiochus Epiphanes, and Antiochus Eupator. It
partly goes over the same ground with the first
book, but commences ten or twelve years earlier,
and embraces in all a period of fifteen years. It
does not appear that the author of either saw the
other's work. The second book of Maccabees is
divided into two unconnected parts. It com-
mences with a letter from the citizens of Jerusa-
lem and Judaea to the Greek Jews in Egypt, writ-
ten B. C. 123 (which refers to a former letter
written to the same, B. C. 143, acquainting them
of their sufferings), and informs them that their
worship was now restored, and that they were
celebrating the Feast of Dedication. The second
part (ii:i8) contains a still more ancient letter,
written B. C. 159, to the priest Aristobulus, the
tutor of king Ptolemy, recounting, besides some
curious matter, the death of Antiochus Epiphanes.
The third part contains the preface, in which the
author states that he is about to epitomize the
five books of Jason. The work commences with
the attack of Heliodorus on the Temple, and closes
with the death of Nicanor, a period of fifteen
years. The history supplies some blanks in the
first book; but the letters prefixed to it contra-
dict some of the facts recorded in the body
of the work, and are consequently supposed to
have been added by another hand. Neither are
the letters themselves considered genuine, and
they were probablv written long after the death
of Nicanor, and even of John Hyrcanus. This
book gives a different account of the place and
manner of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes
from that contained in the first book.
The narrative abounds in miraculous adven-
tures, historical and chronological errors, extra-
ordinary and arbitrary embellishments, affected
descriptions, and moralizing reflections.
(a) Author and Age. We are not aware when
either Jason himself or his epitomizer lived.
Jahn refers the age of the epitomizer to some
tiine previous to the middle of the last century
before the birth of Christ, and De Wette main-
tains that Jason must have written a considerable
lime after the year B. C. 161.
(b) Language and Versions. Jerome (Prolog.
Galcat.) observes that the phraseology of this
book evinces a Greek original. The elegance and
purity of the style have misled some persons into
the supposition that its author was Josephus.
(3) The Third Book of Maccabees, still
read in the Greek church, and contained in the
Alexandrian and Vatican MSS. (A. & B.) is.
as has been already observed, the first in order of
time. It contains an account of the persecution
of the Egyptian Jews by Ptolemy Philopator, who
is said to have proceeded to Jerusalem after
his victory at Raphia over Antiochus the Great.
B. C. 217, and after sacrificing in the Temple, to
have attempted to force his way into the Holy of
Holies, when he was prostrated and rendered
motionless by an invisible hand. Upon his re-
turn to Egypt, he revenged himself by shutting
up the Jews in the Hippodrome, and exposing
them to be crushed beneath the feet of elephants.
This book contains an account of their deliver-
ance by Divine interposition. It is anterior in
point of date to the Maccabaean period, and has
received its designation from a general resem-
blance to the first two books in the heroic char-
acter of the actions which it describes. Calmet
(Commentary) observes that this book is rejected
as apocryphal in the Latin church ; not, however,
as not containing a true history, but as not being
inspired, as he considers the first two books to be.
It is nevertheless regarded by De Wette as a
tasteless fable, and notwithstanding the relation
which it contains of an annual festival, con-
sidered by him as most probably destitute of any
historical foundation. Dr. Milman (Hist, of the
Jews) describes it as a 'romantic story.'
Author, Age, and Versions. The author is un-
known. Dr. Allix (Judgment of the Jewish
Church) considers it to have been written B. C.
200, and by the author of Ecclesiasticus. There
is a Syriac version in the Polyglots, but no an-
cient Latin translation has come down to us.
(4) The Fourth Book of Maccabees, which
is also found in the Alexandrian and Vatican
manuscripts, is generally supposed to be the same
as the Supremacy of Reason, attributed to Jo-
sephus, with which it for ihe most part accords.
It consists of an infl3ted amplification of the
history of the martyrdom of Eleazar, and of the
seven brothers, whose torments and death, with
that of their mother, form the subject of 2 Mace,
chapters vi, vii.
Calmet (Preface to the Fourth Book of Mac-
cabees) has pointed out several contradictions
between this and the second book, as well as the
books of Moses, together with some opinions
derived from the Stoics, such as the equality of
crimes; which, he supposes, together with its
tedious descriptions, have consigned it to the
rank of an Apocryphal book.
(5) Fifth Book of Maccabees. What has been
called the Fifth Book of Maccabees is now extant
only in the Arabic and Syriac languages.
Author, Age, and Siipject. It is impossible
to ascertain the author, who could scarcely have
been Josephus, as he disagrees in many things
with that historian (Calmet's Preface).
The work consists of a history of Jewish af-
fairs, commencing with the attempt on the treas-
ury at Jerusalem by Heliodorus. and ending with
the tragic fate of the last of the Asmonaean
princes, and with the inhuman execution by He-
rod of his noble and virtuous wife Mariamne,
and of his two sons. This history thus fills up
the chasm to the birth of Christ.
Dr. Cotton has pointed out among the 're-
markable peculiarities' found in this book the
phraces, 'Peace be unto thee.' and 'God be merci-
ful to them.' showing that the practice of prayer
for the dead was at this time prevalent. But
Jhe most remarkable passage in reference to this
subject is 2 Mace, xii 140-45. where Judas for-
wards to Jerusalem 2,000, or according to the
Syriac 3.000. and according to the Vulgate 12.-
000, drachmas of silver, to make a sin-offering
for the Jews slain in action on whose persons
were found things consecrated to idols, which
MACEDONIA
1095
MACHBANAI
they had sacrilegiously plundered in violation of
the law of Moses (Deut. vii :2S, 26). The author
of the book remarks that it was a holy and good
thought to pray for the dead, which, he observes,
would have been superfluous had there been no
resurrection. Calmct observes that, according to
the notions of the Jews and some of the Christian
Fathers, the pains of hell for those who died in
mortal sin (as appears to have been the case of
these Jews) were alleviated by the prayers and
alms of the living (Augustine, De Fide, Spe, et
Charitatc, ch. no), if not entirely removed; and
cites a passage from a very ancient Christian
liturgy to the same effect. This learned com-
mentator supposes that the ancient and Catholic
practice of prayer for the dead had its origin in
this usage of the Jews, although he admits it to
be a distinct thing from the doctrine of purgatory
as held in the Roman Church.
2. Church Authority. The first two books
of Maccabees have often been treated with
a very high degree of respect in the Chris-
tian Church. Origen {apud Euscbium), profes-
sing to give a catalogue of the twenty-two ca-
nonical books, of which, however, he actually
enumerates only twenty-one, adds, 'besides, there
are the Maccabees.' This has given rise to the
notion that he intended to include these books in
the Canon, while others have observed that he
has omitted the minor prophets from his cata-
logue. In his preface to the Psalms he excludes
the two books of Maccabees from the books of
Holy Scripture, but in his Princip. (ii, i), and in
his Comment, ad Rom. ch. v, he speaks of them
as inspired, and as of equal authority with the
other books. St. Jerome says that the Church
does not acknowledge them as canonical, although
he elsewhere cites them as Holy Scripture {Com.
ad Isa. xxiii ; ad Eccl. vii, -x ; ad Dan. viii).
Bellarmine (De Verbo Dei) acknowledges that
these, with the other deutero-canonical books, are
rejected by Jerome, as they had not been then de-
termined by any general council. The first councils
which included them in the canonical scriptures
were those of Hippo and Carthage. They were
received with the other books by the Council of
Trent. Basnage, cited by Lardncr (Credibility),
thinks that the word 'Canonical' may be sup-
posed to be used here (by the councils of Hippo
and Carthage) loosely, so as to comprehend not
only those books which are admitted as a rule
of faith, but those which are esteemed useful, and
may be publicly read for the edification of the
people, in contradistinction to such books as were
entirely rejected. This is also the opinion of the
Roman Catholic Professor Jahn (Introd. sec. 29),
who expresses himself in nearly the same words.
Dr. Lardner conceives that Augustine also, unless
he would contradict himself, must be understood
to have used the word in the same sense. (See
Cotton, The Five Books of the Maccabees.)
W. W.
KACESONIA (mac'edo'ni-a), (Gr. MaKeSo^fa,
mak-cd-on-cc' ah, from the mythical founder Mace-
don). A country lying to the north of Greece
Proper, having on the east Thrace and the
yEgasan Sea, on the west the Adriatic and Illyria,
on the north Dardania and Maesia, and on the
south Thessaly and Epirus.
The country is supposed to have been first peo-
pled by Chittim or Kittim. a son of Javan (Gen.
x:4), (see Nations, Dispersion of) ; and in that
case it is probable that the Macedonians are some-
times intended when the word Chittim occurs in
the Old Testament. Macedonia was the orig-
inal kingdom of Philip and Alexander, by
means of whose victories the name of the Mac\
donians became celebrated throughout' the East,
and is often used for the Greeks in Asia gener-
ally (Esth. Apoc. xviii:io, 14; 2 Mace. viii:2o).
The rise of the great enioire formed by Alex-
ander is described by the prophet Daniel under
the emblem of a goat with one horn ( Dan. viii :
3-8). As the horn was a general symbol of
power, and as the oneness of the horn im-
plies merely the unity of that power, we
are not prepared to go the lengths of some
over-zealous illustrators of scripture, who ar-
gue that if a one-horned goat were not a recog-
nized symbol of Macedonia we should not be en-
titled to conclude that Macedonia was intended.
We hold that there could l>e no mistake in the
matter, whatever may have been the usual sym-
bol of Macedonia. It is, however, curious and
interesting to know that Daniel did describe Mac-
edonia under its usual symbol, as coins still ex-
ist in which that country is represented under
the figure of a one-horned goat. There has
been much discussion on this subject — more curi-
ous than valuable — but the kernel of it lies in
this fact.
(1) Subdued and Divided. When subdued
by the Romans under Paulus /Emilius (B. C.
168), Macedonia was divided into four provinces;
but afterwards (B. C. 142) the whole of Greece
was divided into two great provinces, Mace-
donia and Achaia. (See Greece; Achaia.)
Macedonia therefore constituted a Roman prov-
ince, governed by a proconsul (provincia pro-
consularis; Tacit. Aiiiial. i, 76; Suet. Claus 26),
in the time of Christ and his apostles.
(2) Paul's Mission. The Apostle Paul be-
ing summoned in a vision while at Troas, to
preach the gospel in Macedonia, proceeded thither,
and founded the churches of Thessalonica and
Philippi (Acts xvi:q), A. D. SS. This occasions
repeated mention of the name, either alone (Acts
xviii :s ; xix :2i ; Rom. xv:26; 2 Cor. i:i6; xi:9;
Phil. iv:i5), or along with Achaia (2 Cor. ix:
2; I Thess. i:8). The principal cities of Mace-
donia were Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella. and
Pelagonia (Liv. xlv:2o) : the towns of the prov-
ince named in the New Testament, and noticed in
the present work, are Amphipolis, Thessalonica,
Neapolis, Apollonia, and Berea. (See Paul.)
MACEDONIAN (mas'e-do'ni-an), an inhabitant
of Macedonia (Acts xxvii:2); elsewhere rendered
Macedonia.
MACaffiRTTS (mak-e'rus), (Gr. Moxaipous, the
Black Fortress).
This name is not mentioned in the Bible, but
is supposed to be the castle in which John the
Baptist was imprisoned and beheaded (Mark vi :
21-29). It was built by Alexander Jannajus as a
check against Arab marauders (Josephus, Wars,
vii, 6, 2), demolished by Gabinius when he made
war against Aristobulus, and rebuilt by Herod.
It was situated in the gorge of Callirhoe, one of
the valleys east of the Dead Sea, three thousand
eight hundred and sixtv feet above this sea and
two thousand five hundred and forty-six feet
above the Mediterranean, nine miles east of the
Dead Sea. "Its ruins, now called M'khaur. are
still visible on the northern end of Jebel At-
tariis." (See John the Baptist.)
MACHBANAI (m5k'ba-nai), (Heb. 'iS?9. mak-
han-nah'ee, one fat, thick).
A Gadite warrior who came to David at Zik-
lag (i Chron. xii:i.^). (B. C. about 1061.)
MACHBENAH
1096
MAGBISH
MACHBEIfAH (raak'be 'nah), (Heb. *<i5?'?>
vtak-bay-naw' , hillock, hump).
Probably a town of Judah founded by a per-
son of the same name, son of Sheva (i Chron.
ii:49). It is supposed to be the same as Cab-
bon (Josh XV :4o).
MACHI (ma'kl), (Heb. *??, maw-kee', pining).
The father of Geuel, the Gadite representative
sent to explore the land of Canaan (Num. xiii :
15). (B. C. before 1657.)
KACHIK (ma kir), (Heb. """"P?, tnaw-keer' ,
sold, acquired).
1. The eldest son of Manasseh (Gen. 1:23;
Josh, xviiti) by an Aramitess mother (i Chron.
vii:i4). He was the founder of the Machirites,
who subjugated Gilead, and received their ter-
ritory as an inheritance (Num. xxxii :39, 40;
Josh. xvii:i). Machir was a name at one time
applied to the whole tribe of Manasseh (Judg.
v:i4). (B. C. 1802.)
8. A descendant of Machir 1, and son of Am-
miel, of Lo-debar (2 Sam. i.x :4, 5). He sup-
ported the lame son of Jonathan, until he was
provided for by David, and furnished David him-
self with provisions while a fugitive during Ab-
salom's rebellion (2 Sam. xvii:27). (B. C. 1037-
1023.)
MACHIRITES (raa-kir-ites), (Heb. '1'??'^,
hant-maw-kee-ree' , "the Machirite," only in Num.
xxvi:2Q), descendants of Machir, I, who was son of
Manasseh by an Aramite concubine.
His wife and children are named in I Chron.
vii:i6, 17; but the statement in verse 17, "These
are the sons of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son
of Manasseh," with the declaration that "Machir
begat Gilead" would add Gilead to the list of
Machir's sons. (See Machir.)
MACHNADEBAI(mak'na-de'bai),(Heb.'?li?^'
mak-vad-bah'ee, gift of the noble, what is like the
liberal?), one of the sons of Bani who divorced his
foreign wife at Ezra's command after the exile
(Ezra x:40). B. C. 459.
MACHPELAH (mak-pe'lah),(Heb. ^J'.r?^, mak-
pay-la-w' , twofold, double).
The name of the plot of ground containing the
cave which Abraham bought of Ephron the Hit-
tite for a family sepulcher (Gen. xxiii :9, 17, 19).
(See Hebron.) Here were buried Abraham
(Gen. XXV :9, 10), Isaac, Rebekah, and Leah (Gen.
XXXV :29; xlvii:28-3i; xlix:29-33; l:i2, 13). It is
no doubt, the cave beneath the great mosque at
Hebron. (Stanley, Jewish Ch.; Osborn, Pales-
tine, Past and Present.)
HAD. See Madness.
MADAI (mad'a-r), (Heb. 'l^, ?naii'-dah' ee).
A people descended from Japhet. The name is
probably Ethnic rather than personal and is only
intended to indicate that the Medes were de-
scendants of Japhet. (See Gog; Nations, Dis-
persion OF.)
MADIAN (ma'di-an), (Gr. MoSidK, tnad-ee-an' ,
Acts vii:29). See Midian.
MADMANNAH (mad-man'nah), (Heb. i^^^l^.
mad'Vian-naiv' , dunghill).
A city of Simeon (Josh. xv:3l), very far south
towards Gaza (i Chron. ii:49), which in the
first distribution of lands had been assigned to
Judah. Eusebius and Jerome identify it with
a town of their time, called Menois, near the
city of Gaza (Onomast. p. 89). The parallel pas-
sage (Josh. xix:5) has Beth-marcaboth, with
which it is, perhaps, identical. Van de Velde
identifies this with Mikrib, southwest of the Dead
Sea. (Travels, ii. 1.30.)
MADMEN (mad'men), (Heb. 1?"!^, mad-mane',
dunghill).
A place in Moab named in Jer. xlviii .2, as
threatened with destruction by the Babylonians.
Not identified.
MADMENAH (mad-me'nah), (Heb. ^i^lj^,
wad-may-na'o/' , dunghill).
A town a little north of Jerusalem, on the line
of march of the invading Assyrians (Is. x:3i).
It doubtless stxDod between Gibrah and Nob, but
has not yet been identified.
MADNESS (mad'nes), (Heb. V'^'M shig-gaij-
cme' , raving). The epithet mad is applied to sev-
eral descriptions of persons in Scripture.
1. To one deprived of reason (Acts xxvi:24; I
Cor. xiv:23).
2. To one whose reason is depraved, and over-
ruled by the fury of his angry passions (Acts
xxvi :ii).
3. To one whose mind is perplexed and bewil-
dered, so disturbed that he acts in an uncertain,
extravagant, irregular manner (Deut. xxviii:34;
Eccl. vii:7).
4. To one who is infatuated by the vehemence
of his desires after idols and vanities (Jer. I :
38), folly, deceit and falsehood (Hos. ix:7).
5. To one disturbed by sudden and startling in-
telligence (Acts xiiris).
6. To utterances of false prophets (Is. xliv:
25; Hos. ix:7).
■J". To the effects of inebriety (Jer. xxv:i6;
H:7).
8. To derision, with reference to the ecstatic
utterances of the prophets when in a state of holy
exaltation (2 Kings i.x:n; Jer. xxix:26).
9. To idolatrous hallucination (Jer. 1:38), or
wicked and extravagant mirth (Eccl. ii:2).
10. To a reckless stale of mind (Eccl. x:i3),
bordering on delirium (Zech. xii:4).
11. To overstrained mental effort (Eccl. 1:17;
ii:i2), blind rage (Luke vi:ii), or depraved tem-
pers (Eccl. vii:2S; ix:3; 2 Pet. ii:i6).
It is well known that among oriental, as among
most semi-civilized nations, madmen were looked
upon with a kind of reverence, as possessed of a
quasi-sacred character. This arises partly no
doubt from the feeling that one on whom God's
hand is laid heavily should be safe from all other
harm; but partly also from the belief that the loss
of reason and self-control opened the mind to
supernatural influence, and gave it therefore a su-
pernatural sacrcdness. An illustration of it may
be seen in the record of David's pretended mad-
ness at the court of Achish (i Sam. x.xi:l3-i5,
which shows it to be not inconsistent with a kind
of contemptuous forbearance, such as is often
manifested now, especially by the Turks, towards
real or supposed madmen.
David's madness, however, says Calmet, is by
many supposed not to have been feigned, but a
real epilepsy or falling sickness.
MADON (ma'don), (Heb. 1"'^?, r?iaw-dohn' ,con-
tention, strife).
.'\. city of northern Canaan (Josh xi:i; xii:i9),
captured by Joshua from its king. Jobab, who was
in the confederacy with Hazor. Its site is pos-
sibly Madiii, a little northwest of Tiberias.
MAGBISH (mag'bish), (Heb. 'i^'??^, mag-beesh',
stiffening, gathering).
MAGDALA
1097
MAGI
Probably the name of a place (Ezra ii :3o)j as
all the names from Ezra ii :2o lo .34, except Elam
and Harim, are names of places. It is not in the
corresponding list in Neh. vii. The place was
doubtless .n the territory of Benjamin.
MAODALA (mSg'da-la), (Gr. Ma7Ja\d, mag-dal-
rt/i', Magdala), a town mentioned in Matt. xv:39,
and the probable birthplace of Mary Magdalene,
i. e., Mary of Magdala.
It must have taken its name from a tower or
castle, as the name signifies. It was situated
on the lake Gennesaret, but it has usually been
placed on the cast side of the lake, although a
careful consideration of the route of Christ be-
f'^re he came to, and after he left, Magdala, would
show that it must have been on its Zkicstcrn shore.
This is confirmed by the Jerusalem Talmud
(compiled at Tiberias), which several times
speaks of Magdala as being adjacent to Tiberias
and Hamath, or the hot-springs (Lightfoot, Cho-
log. Cent. ch. Ixxvi) It was a seat of Jewleh
learning after the destruction of Jerusalem, and
the Rabbins of Magdala are often mentioned in
the Talmud (Lightfoot, /. c). A small Moslem
village, bearing the name of Mejdel, is now fou.id
on the shore of the lake about three miles north-
west of Tiberias ; and although there are no an-
cient ruins, the name and situation are very
strongly in favor of the conclusion that it repre-
sents the Magdala of Scripture. This was prob-
ably also the Migdal-el, in the tribe of Naphtali,
mentioned in Josh, xix :38 (Burckhardt, Syria, p.
559; Seetzen in Monat. Corrcsp. xviii, 349; Fisk,
l^'fe, p. 316; Robinson, Researches, iii, 279).
MAGDAXENE (mag'da-le'ne), (Gr. Mo7Sa\r;nJ,
niag-dah-tay-nay') , a fern. adj. form of Magdala.
A surname, indicative of the place of residence,
or nativity, of one of the Marys of the New
Testament, used for the sake of distinction (Matt.
xxvii 156, 61 ; xxviii :i ; Mark xv:40, 47; xvi-i, 9;
Luke viii:2; xxiv:lo; John xix :25 ; xx:l, 18).
MAODLEIi (mag'di-el), (Heb. ''><'??5, mag-dee-
ale', God is renown).
A descendant of Esau (Gen.xxxvi :43; i Chron.
i:S4), and chief among the Edomites in Mount
Seir. (B. C. before 1619.)
MAOI (ma'ji), (Heb ^5, mag , Gr. /i(i7o<. mag'oy,
A. V. "wise men " in Matt, ii I, 7, 16; "sorcerer '
in Acts xiii:6, 8).
The Magi were originally one of the sfx tribes
(Herod i:ioi; Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 29) into which
the nation of the Medes was divided, who, like
the Levites under the Mosaic institutions, were
intrusted with the care of religion : an office which
was held in the highest honor, gave the greatest
influence, and which they probably acquired for ,
themselves only after a long time, as well as many
worthy efforts to serve their country, and when
they had proved themselves superior to the rest
of their brethren. As among other ancient na-
tions, as the Egyptians, and Hebrews, for in-
stance, so among the Medes, the priestly caste had
not only religion, but the arts and all the higher
culture, in their charge. Their name points im-
mediately to their sacerdotal character (from Mag
or Mog, which in the Pehlevi denotes 'priest'),
either because religion was the chief object of
their attention, or more probably because, at the
first, religion and art were so allied as to be
scarcely more than different expressions of the
.same idea.
Little in detail is known of the Magi during
the independent existence of the Median govern-
ment ; they appear in their greatest glory after
the Medes were united with the Persians. This
doubtless is owing to the general imperfection of
the historical materials which relate to the earlier
periods. So great, however, was the influence
which the Magi attained under the united empire,
that the Medes were not ill compensated for their
loss of national independence. Under the Medo-
Persian sway the Magi formed a sacred caste or
college, which was very famous in the ancient
world (Xenoph. Cyrop. viii, I, 23; Ammian. Mar-
cell. xxiii:6; Heeren, Idcen, i, 451; Schlosser,
Universal Uebers, i, 278).
(1) Divination. According to Strabo (torn, ii,
p. 1084, ed. Falcon.) the Magi practiced dif-
ferent sorts of divination — (1) by evoking the
dead; (2) by cups or dishes (Joseph's divining
cup (Gen. xliv:5); (3) by means of water. By
the employment of these means the Magi affected
to disclose the future, to influence the present,
and to call the past to their aid. Even the visions
of the night they were accustomed to interpret,
not empirically, but :cordine to such established
and systematic rules as a learned priesthood
might be expected to employ (Strabo, xvi, p.
762; Cic. De Divin. i, 41; j?£lian, K. H. ii, 17).
The success, however, of their efforts over the in-
visible world, as well as the holy office which
they exercised, demanded in themselves peculiar
cleanliness of body, a due regard to which and
to the general principles of their caste would
naturally be followed by professional prosperity,
which in its turn conspired with prevailing super-
stition to give the Magi great social considera-
tion, and make them of high importance before
kings and princes (Diog. Laert. ix, 7, 2) — an in-
fluence which they appear to have sometimes
abused, when, descending from the peculiar duties
of their high ofiice, they took part in the strife
and competitions of politics, and found them-
selves sufficiently powerful even to overturn
thrones (Herod, iii, 61, sq.).
Abuses bring reform ; and the Magian religion,
which had lost much of its original character, and
been debased by some of the lowest elements of
earthly passions, loudly called for a renovation,
when Zoroaster appeared to bring about the need-
ful change. As to the time of his appearance, and
in general the particulars of his history, differ-
ences of opinion prevail, after all the critical la-
bor that has been expended on the subject.
Winer (Real-wort.) says he lived in the second
half of the seventh century before Christ. He
was not the founder of a new system, but the
renovator of an old and corrupt one, being, as he
himself intimates (Zendavesta, i, 43), the re-
storer of the word which Ormuzd had formerly
revealed, but which the influence of Dews had
degraded into a false and deceptive magic.
(2) Zoroaster. To destroy this, and restore
the pure law of Ormuzd. was Zoroaster's mission.
After much and long-continued opposition on the
part of the adherents and defenders of existing
corruptions, he succeeded in his virtuous pur-
poses, and caused his system eventually to prevail.
The Magi, as a caste, did not escape from his
reforming hand. He appears to have remodeled
their institute, dividing it into three great classes:
(l) Herbeds, or learners; (2) Mobeds, or mas-
,ters; (3) Destur Mobeds. or perfect scholars
Zcndav. ii, 171, 261). The Magi alone he al-
lowed to perform the religious rites; they pos-
sessed ilie forms of prayer and worship ; they
knew the ceremonies which availed to conciliate
Ormuzd, and were obligatory in the public offer-
ings (Herod, i. 132). They accordingly became
the sole medium of communication between the
Deity and his creatures, and through them alone
MAGI
1098
MAGIC
Ormuzd made his will known ; none but them
could see into the future, and they disclosed their
knowledge to those only who were so fortunate as
to conciliate their good will. Hence the power
which the Magian priesthood possessed. The gen-
eral belief in the trustworthiness of their predic-
tions, especially when founded on astrological cal-
culations, the all but universal custom of con-
sulting the will of the divinity before entering
on any important undertaking, and the blind faith
which was reposed in all that the Magi did, re-
ported, or commanded, combined to create for
that sacerdotal caste a power, both in public and
in private concerns, which has probably never
been exceeded.
(3) Extent of Functions. Neither the func-
tions nor the influence of this sacred caste were
reserved for peculiar, rare, and extraordinary oc-
casions, but ran through the web of human life.
At the break of day they had to chant the di-
vine hymns. This office being performed, then
came the daily sacrifice to be offered, not indis-
criminately, but to the divinities whose day in
each case it was — an office therefore which none
but the initiated could fulfill. As an illustration
of the high estimation in which the Magi were
held, it may be mentioned that it was consid-
ered a necessary part of a princely education to
have been instructed in the peculiar learning of
their sacred order, which was an honor conceded
to no other but royal personages, except in very
rare and very peculiar instances (Cicero, De
Diviii. i, 23; Plutarch, Themist.). This Magian
learning embraced everything which regarded the
higher culture of the nation, being known in his-
tory under the designation of the law of the
Medes and Persians. It comprised the knowl-
edge of all the sacred rites, customs, usages, and
observances, which related not merely to the wor-
ship of the gods, but to the whole private life of
every worshiper of Ormuzd — the duties which,
as such, he had to observe, and the punishments
which followed the neglect of these obligations ;
whence may be learnt how necessary the act of
the priest on all occasions was. Under the veil
of religion the priest had bound himself up with
the entire of public and domestic life. The judi-
cial office, too, appears to have been in the time
of Cambyses, in the hands of the Magi ; for from
them was chosen the college or bench of royal
judges, which makes its appearance in the history
of that monarch (Herod. iv:.^i; vii:i94; Esther
i:i3). Men who held these offices possessed this
learning, and exerted this influence with the peo-
ple, may have proved a check to Oriental despot-
ism, no less powerful than constitutional, though
they were sometimes unable to guarantee their
own lives against the wrath of the monarch
(Herod. vii:i94; Dan. ii:l2). If we turn to the
books of scripture we find the import of what
has been said confirmed, especially in the book of
Daniel, where the great influence of the Magi is
well illustrated.
(4) In Various Lands. The Magi were not
confined to the Medes and Persians. Since they
are mentioned by Herodotus as one of the orig-
inal tribes of the Medes, they may have been
primitively a Median priesthood. If so, they ex-
tended themselves into other lands. Possibly
Magi may have been at first not the name of a
particular tribe or priestly caste, but a general
designation for priests or learned men ; as Pha-
raoh denoted not an individual, but generally king
or ruler. However this may be, the Chaldxans
also had an organized order of Magi, a caste of
sacerdotal scholars, which bore the name of 'wise
men' (Jer. 1:35); 'the wise men of Babylon'
(Dan. ii:i2), among whom Daniel is classed (ii:
18, 24). Among the Greeks and Romans they
wereknown under the name of Chaldaeans (Strabo,
xvi, p. 762; Diog. Laert. Prcem. \) , and also of
Magi (Diog. Laert. viii, I, 3). They lived scat-
tered over the land in different places (Dan. ii :
14; Strabo, xvi. p. 739), and had possessions of
their own. The temple of Belus was employed
by them for astronomical observations ; but their
astronomy was connected with the worship of the
heavenly bodies practiced by the Babylonians
(Diod. Sic. ii, 31 ; Ephraem Syr. Op. ii, 488; con-
sult Ideler, in the Transactions of the Berlin
Academy for 1824-5), and was specially directed
to vain attempts to foretell the future, predict
the fate of individuals or of communities, and
sway the present, in alliance with augury, in-
cantation, and magic (Is. xlvii :9, 13; Dan. ii).
It is easy to understand how the lofty science
(so called) of these Magi — lofty while its schol-
ars surpassed the rest of the world in knowledge,
and were the associates, the advisers, the friends,
and the monitors of great and flourishing mon-
archs, of indeed successively the rulers of the
world — might, could indeed hardly fail, as resting
on no basis of fact or reality, in process of time,
to sink into its own native insignificance, and be-
come either a mere bugbear to frighten the ig-
norant, or an instrument to aid the fraudulent :
thus hastening on to the contempt into which all
falsities are sure sooner or later to fall. The
decline was indeed gradual ; ages passed ere it
was completed ; but as soon as it ceased to have
the support afforded bv the mighty and splendid
thrones of Asia, it began to lose its authority,
which the progress of knowledge and the advent
of Christ prevented it from ever regaining.
(5) In New Testament Times. The estima-
tion, however, in which Simon Magus was evi-
dently held, as recorded in the Acts ('some great
one,' etc.), gives reason to think that Magianism
still retained a large share of its influence at
the commencement of our era. It seems, in-
deed, to have held a sort of middle position, half
way between its ancient splendor and its coming
degradation : whence we may understand the pro-
priety of the visit paid bv the Magi to the new-
born King of the Jews (Matt, ii, 'star in the
East'). For if the system had been then sunk
so low as to correspond in any degree with our
conception of these pretended arts, it is difficult
to assign, at least to the unbeliever, a sufficient
reason why the visit was made, or at any rate
why it was recorded ; but its credibility is mate-
rially furthered if the circumstances of the case
are such as to allow us to regard that visit as a
homage paid by the representatives of the highest
existing influences to the rising Star of a New
Day, in the fuller light of which they were speed-
ily to vanish. (See Star.) (Trench, Star of the
Wise Men; Rawlinson, Ancient Monarch, iii, 125-
136, 218, sq.; iv, 391-395) J- R- B.
MAGIC (mag'ik), (from Heb. '^^C, kheh'ret. to
engrave, and so to draw magical lines or circles).
(1) Definition. Magic was the art of influ-
encing future events and changing their course
by dark and secret means. The magician was be-
lieved to stand in connection with demons, and
even with the gods themselves, and to be able
to compel them to act according to his will. Of
the religion of the Egyptians, Chaldseans, Persians,
etc., magic formed an essential element, and of
MAGICIANS
1099
MAHALALEEL
the Egyptian magicians, in their conflict with
Moses and Aaron, Exodus gives a vivid account
(vii:il, 12, 22; viii:7). Of the religion of the
Jews magic did not only not form a part, but
the law forbade the consulting of magicians, un-
der penalty of death (Lev. xix:3i; xx:6). Nev-
ertheless, from their neighbors magic crept in
among the Israelites too, and there were those
among the people who believed in it and resorted
to it.
(2) Sacrificing Children. It is remarkable
that the offering of children should be mentioned
in connection with magical arts. The passage in
Micah, which has been supposed to preserve a
question of Balak and an answer of Balaam,
when the soothsayer was sent for to curse Israel,
should be here noticed, for the questioner asks,
after speaking of sacrifices of usual kinds, "Shall
I give my firstborn [for] my transgression, the
fruit of my body [for] the sin of my soul" (Micah
vi:5-8). Perhaps, however, child-sacrifice is speci-
fied on account of its atrocity, which would con-
nect it with secret arts, which we know were fre-
quently in later times the causes of cruelty.
(3) Saul and the Witch of Endor. The ac-
count of Saul's consulting the witch of Endor is
foremost among those in Scripture which re-
fer to magic (i Sam. xxviii :3-2o). The super-
natural terror with which it is full cannot how-
ever be proved to be due to litis art, for it has
always been held by sober critics that the ap-
pearing of Samuel was permitted for the pur-
pose of declaring the doom of Saul, and not that
it was caused by the incantations of a sorceress.
As, however, the narrative is allowed to be very
difficult, we may look for a moment at the evi-
dence of its authenticity. The details are strictly
in accordance with the age : there is a simplicity
in the manners described that is foreign to a
later time. The circumstances are agreeable with
the rest of the history, and especially with all we
know of Saul's character. Here, as ever, he is
seen resolved to gain his ends without caring
what wrong he does; he wishes to consult a
prophet, and asks a witch to call up his shade.
Most of all, the vigor of the narrative, show-
ing us the scene in a few words, proves its antiq-
uity and genuineness. We can see no reason
whatever for supposing that it is an interpolation.
In the New Testament we find it' mentioned
(Acts viii:9). (See Divination; Magi; Saul.)
MAGICIANS (ma-jish'ans). See Magi.
MAGISTRATE (maj'ts-trat). (Heb. ^^V.s/teA-
fat' , a judge, magistrate).
The word magistrate is used to express gen-
eral Hebrew and Greek words, relating to a pub-
lic civil officer. It had a much broader significa-
tion among the Hebrews, Greeks and Romans
than with us.
1, In Old Testament.
1. In Judg. xviii 7, magistrate means governor.
2. A better translation of Ezra vii :25 would
be "judges and rulers," instead of "magistrates
and judges."
2. In New Testament.
1. It is used in the sense of rulers, civil officers,
in Luke xii ;i i ; Tit. iii :i (as in the above citation
from Ezra).
2. In Acts xvi :20 and following verses it refers
to a civic officer or commander who may be called
prefect, proctor, or consul. (See Proconsul.)
3. Ar'khone (Gr. 'dpxw, first), translated magis-
trate (Li.ke xii:58), signifies one Jirst in power.
Similar in derivation and meaning is ar-khay' (Qx.
ipxv, Luke xii:ii, "/nagistrates ;" Tit. iii:l, "prin-
cipalities"); ipxwK is used of Moses as judge and
leader of the Israelites. It is also used of the
Messiah as supreme king (Rev. i:5).
4. It is used of magistrates of any kind, e. g.,
the high priest (Acts xxiii:s); of civil judges
(Acts xvi:i9) ; a ruler of the synagogue (Matt.
ix:i8, 23; Mark v:22; Ltike viii:4i) ; persons of
influence among the sects at Jerusalem, who were
also members of the Sanhcdrin (Luke xiv:i;
xviii: 18; xxiii:i3, 35; xxiv:20, etc.).
5. Satan the prince of the fallen angels (Matt.
ix:34; Mark iii:22; Luke xi:i5; John xii;3i;
Eph. ii:2, etc.).
MAGNIFICAI< (mag'nif'i-kal), (Heb. ■"^'^.gaw
dal , to make great), magnificent, applied to Solo-
mon's Temple (i Chron. xxii:S).
MAGNIFICAT (mag-nif'i-kat), (Lat. doth mag-
nify), the poem of the Virgin Mary (Luke 1:46-55).
It is called by this name because "Magnificat" is,
in the Vulgate, the first word.
MAGNIFY (mag'm-fi), (Heb. '"5?, gaw-dal),
to make great, or declare to be great.
(i) God "magnifies" his own mercy or name,
when, by the fulfillment or powerful application
of his word, he discovers the unbounded nature
of his mercy and other perfections (Gen. xix:
19; Acts xix:i7). (2) He "magnifies his word
above all his name," when he clearly discovers
his mercy and faithfulness therein contained and
pledged (Ps. cxxxviii:2). (3) God "magnifies"
men when he renders them honorable, wealthy,
or powerful (Josh. iii:7; iv:i4; i Chron. xxix:
25; 2 Chron. xxxii:23), or even when, by afflict-
ing them, he shows that he takes much notice of
them (Job vii:l7). (4) Men "magnify" God or
his work when they publish and declare his great-
ness and glory (Job xxxvi:24; Ps. xxxiv:3).
MAGOG (ma'gog), (Heb. ^"?, maw-gogue' , Ma-
gog), son of Japhet (Gen. x:2).
In Ezekiel (xxxviii:2; xxxix:6 it occurs as
the name of a nation, coupled with Gog, and is
supposed to represent certain Scythian or Tartar
tribes descended from the son of Japhet. (See
Nations, Dispersion of.)
Gog and Magog have in a manner passed into
a proverb, to express a multitude of powerful,
cruel, barbarous and implacable enemies to God
and his worship. (See (jOG.)
MAGOR-MISSABIB (ma'gor-mls'sa-bifb), (Heb.
3*355 TiJ)}^ maw-gore' mis-saw-beeb' , "a terror on
every side"), a name given to Pashur, who abused
Jeremiah (Jer. xx:3).
MAGPIASH (mag'pi-ash), (Heb. 'i'?''?^, mag-
pee-awsh' , moth-killer).
Oneof the chiefs of the peoplewhojoined in the
sacred covenant' with Nehemiah (Nch. x:20).
(B. C. about 410.)
TWATTAT-ATT (ma-ha'lab or ma'ha-lah), (Heb.
'"1+05, tnakh-law', sickness, I Chron. vii; 18). Sec
Mahlah, I. 1^
TWATTAT.AT.-F.-RT. (ma-ha'la-le'el), (Heb. 'Sr-HS.
mah-hal-al-aW , praise of God).
1. Son of Canaan; fourth in descent from
Adam, according to the Sethite genealom; (Gen.
V12, 13, IS-17; I Chron. i:2). (B. C. mi-
2881.)
2. A man of Judah. of the family of Pharez;
he was father of Shephatiah and resided in Jeru-
salem after the captivity. (B. C. before 536.)
MAHALATH
1100
MAIL, COAT OF
MAHALATH (ma'ha-lath), (Heb. ^'^OP, makh
ai-ath' , harp, lyre).
1. A daughter of Ishmael and a wife of Esau
(Gen. xxviii:9); also called Bashemath (Gen.
xxxvi:3).
2. Daughter of Jerimoth, granddaughter of
David, and probably the first of the eighteen
wives of king Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi;i8). (B.
C. 934)
3. The title of Psalms liii and Ixxxviii indicat-
ing, perhaps, the manner in which it was to be
sung.
MAHALI (ma'ha-li), (Heb. ^'?^, makh-lee,
sick, infirm, Ex. viiig). See Mahli.
MAHANAIM (ma'ha-na'im),(Heb. ^"a^I^ ,makh-
an-ah'yiiii, two hosts).
A place beyond the Jordan, north of the river
Jabbok, which derived its name from Jacob's
having been there met by the angels on his return
from Padan-aram (Gen. xxxii:2).
The name was eventually extended to the town
ivhich then existed, or which afterwards arose
in the neighborhood. This town was in the terri-
tory of the tribe of Gad (Josh. xiii:26, 30), and
was a city of the Levites (Josh. xxi:38). It was
in this city that Ish-bosheth, the son of Saul,
reigned (2 Sam. ii:8), probably because he found
the influence of David's name less strong on the
east than on the west of the Jordan. The choice,
at least, seems to show that Mahanaim was then
an important and strong place. Hence, many
years after, David himself repaired to Mahanaim
when he sought refuge beyond the Jordan from
his son Absalom (2 Sam. xvii :24, 27; I Kings
ii:8). We only read of Mahanaim again as the
station of one of the twelve officers who had
charge, in monthly rotation, of raising the pro-
visions for the royal establishments under Solo-
mon (i Kings iv:i4). The site has not yet been
identified.
MAHANEH - DAN (ma'ha - neh -dan), (Heb.
T^"'"'.^^!?, makh-aii-ay' dawn).
A place west of Kirjath-jearim where the Dan-
ite warriors encamped before they captured Laish
(Judg. xviii :i2).
MAHABAI (ma-har'a-i), (Heb. '^^^i^, mah-har-
ah' ee, hasty, swift).
A Netophathite, one of David's captains from
the tribe of Judah (2 Sam. xxiii:28; i Chron. xi:3o;
xxvii:i3), B. C. 1014.
MAHATH (ma'hath), (Heb. !^!^^, makh'ath,
fire-pan, censer).
1. A Kohailiite, son of Amasai (i Chron. vi :
35); apparently the same as Ahimoth (i Chron.
vi:2S). (B. C. about 1375.)
2. Another Kohathite Levite in the time of
He/ekiah (2Chron.xxix ;I2 ; xxxi:i3). He looked
after the tithes and offerings (2 Chron, xxxi :
13). (B. C. 726.)
MAHAVITE, THE (raa'ha-vite), (Heb. ="^05.
»iakh-av-eevi' , "the Machavites"), a designation of
unknown import applied to one of King David's
guard, probably Eliel. The plural is no doubt a
corruption (i Chron. xi:46).
MAHAZIOTH (ma-ha'zioth), (Heb. J^'^'Il^^,
makh-az-ee-oth' , visions), the fourteenth son of
Homan, and a Levite musician in the Temple, hav-
ing charge of the twenty-third division (i Chron.
XXV.4, 30). B. C. 1014.
MAHEKSHALALHASHBAZ (ma'her-shal'al-
hash'baz), (Heb. '3 2?n h\t -.Htt^ mah-hare shaiu-
lawt khaiush-baz).
Words prognostic of the sudden attack of the
Assyrian army ('he hasteth to the spoil'), which
the prophet Isaiah was first commanded to write
in large characters upon a tablet, and afterwards
to give as a symbolical name to a son that was
to be born to him (Is. viii:i, 3). It is, as Dr.
Henderson remarks, the longest of any of the
scripture names, but has its parallels in this re-
spect in other languages, especially in the English
language during the time of Cromwell. Maher-
shalalhashbaz lived B. C. 739.
MAHLAH (mah'lah), (Heb. ^^^ .makh-law').
1. A child of Hamoleketh. a female descendant
of Manasseh (i Chron. vii:i8). (B. C. about
1658.) (See Mahalah.)
2. The first named of the daughters of Zelophe-
had, of Manasseh (Num. xxvi 133 ; xxvii:i;
xxxvi:ii; Josh. xvii:3). (B. C. 1618.)
MAHLI (mah'll), (Heb. *^'^^, makh-lee' , sickly,
pining).
1. A Levite, son of Merari (Num. iii:2o; i
Chron. vi:l9, 29; xxiii:2l; xxiv :26 ; Ezra viii :
r8), called Mahali (Exod. vi:i9).
2. A Levite, son of Mushi, of the family of
Merari; nephew of 1 (l Chron. vi:47; x.xiii:
23; xxiv:3o). (B. C. before 1210.)
MAHLITES, THE (raah'lites), (Heb. "^'?^.
makh-lee' , descendants of Mahli, Num. iii:33;
xxvi;58).
MAHLON (mah'lon), (Heb. r^Hi?, makh-lone' ,
pining).
One of the two sons of Elimelech and Naomi,
and first husband of Ruth the Moabitess (Ruth
i :2, sq.). (See Ruth.) (B. C. about 1360.)
MAHOL (ma'hol), (Heb. ^■"'?, maw-khole', a
dance).
Father of the four men of fame next to Solo-
mon for wisdom, viz. : — Ethan, Heman, Chalcol,
and Darda (i Kings iv:3i). If, however, these
are the same as the sons of Zera (l Chron. ii :
6) the word probably denotes only their pursuit
of musical composition.
MAID, MAIDEN (mad, mad"n), the rendering
of several Hebrew and Greek words, differing in
meaning beyond the mere matter of sex:
1. Nek-ay-baw' (Heb. '^■^..i, Lev. xii:5 only,
a maid child), a female from the sexual form.
Similar in meaning is nah-ar-aw' (Heb. '0^;-'
2 Kings v:2, 4; Ezra ii:4, 9, 13; Prov. ix:3), cor-
responding to pahee-dis' kay (Gr. vaiSiaKrj, Mark
xiv;66; Luke xxii:56), a ^;>/ from infancy to ado-
lescence.
2. Beth-oo-laiv' (Htb. "r*"'-?, Exod. xxii:
16; Judg. xix:24; Job xxxi:i; Ps. lxxviii:63;
Jer. ii:32; li:22), a virgin, from the idea of sepa-
ration. Similarly almaw' (Heb. t? -. veiled,
kept oni of sight, Exod. ii:8).
3. Aw-maw' (Heb. '"'r?. Gen. xxx:3; Exod.
xxi:2o; Lev. xxv :6, etc.); shif-khaw' (Heb.
iinCL^ Gen. xxx:7, sg.; Ps. cxxiii:2; Is. xxiv:
2), a maidservant. {Birnes Bid. Diet.). See Vir-
gin.
MAIL, COAT or. See Arms, Armor.
MAIMED
1101
MALACHI
MAIMED (mamd), (from Hell. \"^^, khaw'rats,
t>i 7i<ouni/, Lev. xxii:22; Gr. kuWos, kool-lo$ , rocking
ahdiit, Matt. xv:30, 31 ; xviii;8; Mark ix;43; dviinipo!,
aii-a/>'ay-ros, crippled, Luke xiv;i3, 21), wanting
.some member of the body or incapacitated from
its use by injury.
MAINSAIL (man-sal), (Acts xxvii:40.) See
.Ship.
MAKAZ (ma'kaz), (Heb. Vp.'?, maw-kais', end).
A district of Ben-Dekar, a purveyor of Solo-
mon, whence he obtained supplies ( I Kings iv :
9). It was probably in Dan; but otherwise un-
located.
MAKE (mak), (Heb. "??, baw-natv' , to build,
build up), has the sense of "do," "be occupied
with," — "What ?nakest thou in this place" (Judg.
xviii:3). The use also of "make" as signifying
"pretend," "feign" (Josh. viii:i5; ix:4; 2 Sam. xiii:
6; Luke xxiv:28).
!• In general to cause a thing to be that did
not before exist ; so God at first made all things
(Gen. i:3i).
2. To put persons or things into such a iorm^
office, or condition as they were not in before
(Is. xlv:c)).
MAKER (mak'er), (Heb. ^'^'^ , a-w-saw' ,io make
in the widest sense; once only, in Job xxxvi:3, '¥?>
paw-al' , to do and so make ; also '^''■„ yaw-tsar' , to
molif), a term generally applied to God as creator
(Job iv:i7; xxxvi:^; Ps. xcv:6; Prov. xxii:2; Is.
xvii:7, etc.; Hos. viii:i4). It is used of »/<!« in I.^
xxii:ii and Hab. ii:l8.
MAKHELOTH (mak-he'loth), (Heb. ii/i.i|^(,
7nak-hay-loth'), the twenty-sixth desert encamp-
ment of the Israelites, of which the site is unknown
(Num. xxxiii:25).
MAKKEDAH (mak-ke'dah), (Heb. ^'W^, mak-
kay-daw' , herdsman's place).
A royal city of the ancient Canaaniies (Josh.
xii:i6), in the neighborhood of which was the
cave in which the five kings who confederated
against Israel took refuge after their defeat (Josh.
x:io-29). It afterwards belonged to Judah (Josh.
xv:4i). Makkedah is placed by Eusebius and
Jerome 8 Roman miles to the east of Eleuther-
opolis (Ono)iiast. s. v. Maceda).
MAKTESH (mak'tesh), (Heb. 2''??^, mak-taysh'\
depression).
The name of a quarter or district in or near
Jerusalem, perhaps one of the adjacent valleys
Zeph. i:ii), either Kidron or the one separating
the Temple from the city.
MALACHI (raai'a-ki), (Heb. '??)'?, mal-aw-kee';
Sept. MaXox'as, tnal-ah-kee' as).
The last of the minor prophets, and conse-
quently the latest writer in the canon of the Old
Testament. Nothing is known of his person or
history. It appears that he lived after Zechariah,
since in his time the second temple was already
built (ch. iii:lo^ ; and it is probable that he was
contemporary with Nehemiah (comp. ch. ii:ii,
with Neh. xiii :23-27, and ch. iii :8, with Neh.
xiii. 10).
(1) Meaning of Name. The name Malachi
means, as some understand it, my angel; but it
seems more correct to regard it as a contracted
form of the Hebrew, angel of Jehovah. As the
word translated 'angel,' however, means also a
'messenger,' angels being, in fact, the messengers
of God ; and as the prophets are often styled
angels or messengers of Jehovah, it is supposed
that 'Malachi' is merely a general title descriptive
of this character, and not a proper name. It
has been very generally supposed that it denotes
Ezra, but the weight of opinion is against this.
(2) Date of Prophecy. .Mthough it is well
agreed that Malachi was the last of the prophets,
the date of his prophecy has been variously deter-
mined. Usher makes him contemporary with
Nehemiah, in B. C. 416; and the general opinion
that this prophet was contemporary with, or im-
mediately followed, Nehemiah, makes most of
the proposed alternatives range within a few
years of that date.
(3) Character of Prophecy. He censures the
same offenses which e.xcited the indignation of
Nehemiah, and which that governor had not been
able entirely to reform. Speaking of God's grea'er
kindness to the Israelites than to the Edumites,
he begins with declaiming against the priests for
their profane and mercenary conduct, and against
the people for their multiplied divorces and in-
termarriages with idolatrous nations; he threatens
them with punishment and rejection, declaring
that God would 'make his name great among the
Gentiles' (ch. i:ii), for that he was wearied with
the impiety of Israel (ch. i, ii). From this the
prophet takes occasion solemnly to proclaim that
the Lord whom they sought should suddenly
come to his temple, preceded by that messenger
who, like a harbinger, should prepare his way :
that the Lord when he should appear would
purify the sons of Levi from their unrighteous-
ness, and refine them as metal from the dross (ch.
iii:i-3); that then 'the olTering of Judah,' the
spiritual sacrifice of the heart, 'should be pleas-
ant to the Lord,' as was that of the patriarchs and
their uncorrupted ancestors (ch. iii :4) ; and that
the Lord would quickly exterminate the cor-
ruptions and adulteries which prevailed. The
prophet then proceeds with an earnest ex'hortation
to repentance ; promising high rewards and re-
membrance to the righteous in that last day
when the Lord shall make up his peculiar treas-
ures, and finally establish a distinction of doom
and condition between the righteous and the
wicked (ch. iii:i6-i8), Malachi then concludes
with an impressive assurance of approaching sal-
vation to those who feared God's name from that
'Sun of Righteousness,' who should arise with
healing in hiswings,and render them triumphant;
enjoining in the solemn close of his exhortation,
when uttering as it were the last admonition of
the Jewish prophets, an observance of the law
of Moses, till the advent of Elijah the prophet
(ch. iv:S, or John the Baptist, who came in the
spirit and power of Elias, Mark ix:i2; Luke i:
17), who before the coming of that 'great and
dreadful day of the Lord, should turn the hearts
of the fathers to the children, and the heart of
the children to their fathers' (ch. iv.). Thus Mal-
achi sealed up the volume of prophecy with the
description of that personage at whose appear-
ance the Evangelists begin their gospel history.
(4) Canonicity. The claim of the book of
Malachi to its place in the canon of the Old Tes-
tament has never been disputed; and its authority
is established by the references to it in the New
Testament (Matt. xi:lo; xvii:l2; Mark i:2; ix :
II, 12; Luke i:i7; Rom. ix:i3).
(5) Style. The manner of Malachi offers few,
if any, distinguishing characteristics. The style,
rhythm, and imagery of his writings are sub-
stantially those of the old prophets, but they
MALCHAM
1102
MALLOTHI
possess no remarkable vigor or beauty. This is
accounted for by his living during that decline
of Hebrew poetry, which we trace more or less
in all the sacred writings posterior to the Cap-
tivity.
The principal separate works on the subject
are : Chytraeus, Explicat. Malach. Prophet. Rost.
1568; Grynseus, Hypotnncmata in Malach. Frcf.
1652; Stock, Commentary upon the whole Prophe-
sye of Malachy, Lond. 1641 ; Schlater, A Brief
and Plain Commentary upon the whole Propkecie
of Malachy, Lond. 1650; Ursinus, Comment, in
Malach. Frcf. 1652; Sal. van Til, Malach. illus-
tratus, Lug. Bat. 1701 ; Wesselius, Malachias
enucleatus, Lubeck, 1729; Malachia Propheta e.
Turgum Jonathis ct Radaki Rascliii ac Aben-
Eircc Comment, el Interpret. J. C. Hebenstreit,
Lips. 1746; Venenia, Comment, in Malach. Leo-
vard. 1759; Bahrdt, Comment, in Malachiam, c.
examine verss. vett. ct lectt. variant Houbigantii,
Lips. 1768; J. M. Faber, Comment, in Malachiam,
Onold. 1779; J. F. Fischer, Observatt. Crit. in
Malachiam, Lips. 1759; j. M. Faber, Ab-
weischungen der alten Uehersetzer d. Propheten
Malachias, in Eichhorn's Repert. vi, 104-124;
Moore, Commentary, N. Y., 1865; J. Pye Smith,
Scripture Testimony to the Messiah; Noyes,
Comment.; Cowles, Comment.
MALCHAM (mal'kara), (Heb.D?r5, vial-kawm' ,
thinking), fourth of the seven sons of Shaharaim,
by Hodesh (i Chron. viiiig). B. C. 1612.
MALCHIAH (mal-ki'ah), (Heb. ''''?^5, tnal-
khee-yaw' , Jehovah's king, i. e., inaugurated by
him).
!• A Levite, son of Ethni ; one of the an-
cestors of Asaph, the minstrel (l Chron. vi:4o).
(B. C. before 1014.)
2. Two residents, or sons, of Parosh, who di-
vorced their Gentile wives after the exile (Ezra
x:25). (B. C. 4S9-)
3. A resident or son of Harim who assisted
in the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh.
iii:ii), and obeyed Ezra in divorcing his for-
eign wife (Ezra x:3i). (B. C. 459.)
4. Son of Rechab, who assisted in repairing the
Dung-gate of Jerusalem after the exile (Neh.
iii :I4). (B. C. 446.)
5. One of those who assisted Nehemiah in re-
building the wall of Jerusalem. He was called
"the goldsmith's son" (Neh. iii:3i). (B. C.
446.)
6. One of those who stood on Ezra's left while
he read the law to the people (Neh. viii 14) ;
probably the same as the priest of that name who
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x:3).
(B. C. about 410.)
7. A priest', father of Pashur (Neh. xi:i2;
Jer. xxxviii::). The form is Melchiah (Jer.
xxi:i); elsewhere Malchijah (which see).
8. Son of Ham-melech (Jer. xxxviii :6). Ham-
melech is translated 'king's son' (2 Chron. xxviii:
7; I Kings xxii:26), which often means simply
an officer of some sort. (B. C. 589.) Perhaps
he is identical with Malchijah, i.
MAIiCHIEL (mai'ki'el), (Heb. ^TV:^, mat-
kee-ale' , God's king, i. e., appointed by him).
The son of Beriah, son of Ashur (Gen. xlvi :
17). He became the "father," or founder of
Birzavith (i Chron. vii:3i), and a tribal family
(Num. xxvi:45). (B.C. 1856.)
MALCHIELITE (mal'ki-el-ite), (Heb. *^?<'2)5_
mal-kee-ay-lee"), a descendant of Malchiel (Num.
xxvi:45).
MALCHIJAH (mal-kl'jah), (Heb. '"1'??^, mat-
kee-yaw' , Jehovah's king).
1. Father of Pashur (l Chron. ix:i2); the
same as Malchiah, 7. (B. C. before 589.)
2. A priest, who had charge of the fifth course
as appointed by David (i Chron. xxivig). (B.
C. 1014.)
3. An Israelite layman of Parosh who divorced
his Gentile wife (Ezra x:25). (B. C. 459.)
4. (Neh. iiirii). See Malchiah, 3.
5. (Neh. x:3). See Malchiah, 6.
6. A priest among the musicians appointed to
assist in the ceremonies in celebration of the
completion of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. xii :
42). (B. C. 446.)
MALCHIBAM (raal-kl'ram), (Heb. 07??^'
mal-kee-rawm' , kiag of exaltation).
A son of Jeconiah or Jehoiachim (l Chron.
iii: 18). (B. C. after SPS.)
MALCHISHUA (mal'ki-shu'a), (Heb. S""!'^'""?^?,
mal-kee-shoo' ah, king of help).
A son of king Saul (i Chron. viii:33: ix:39;
I Sam. xiv:49), killed in the battle of Gilboa (l
Sam. xxxi:2; I Chron. x:2). (B. C. 1053.)
MALCHTTS (raal'kus), (Gr. MdXxos, inal' khos).
The servant of the high-priest Caiaphas, whose
right ear was cut off by Peter in the garden of
Gethsemane (John xviii:io). The name is from
the Hebrew melech, and corresponds to our title
'king,' or mallauch, 'counsellor.'
MALE (mal), (Heb. "'?!, zaw-kauur' , remem-
bered. Gen. i:27; viiig; xxxiv:25), applied to the
male of either man or beast.
MALEFACTOR (mal'g-fak'ter), the translation
of two Greek words (KaKo?roi6s, kak-op-oy-os' , John
yivixx-.-p; evildoers m \ Peter ii;l2, 14; iii:l6; iv:l5;
and )coKoi>7os, kak-oor' gos, Luke y^^nv.y., sq. ; evil-
doer in 2 Tim. iiig). By the term malefactor is not
meant, strictly speaking, thieves or robbers, but
insurgents or rebels, (bee Thief, Penitent, on
THE Cross.)
MALELEEL (ma-le'le-el), (Gr. MaXeXe^X, mal-el-
e-ale', Luke iii:37). See Mahalaleel.
MALICE (mal'is), (Gr. (ta/cfa, kak-ee'ah, badness,
I Cor. v:8; xiv:2o; Eph. iv:3i; Col. iii:8; Tit. 3:3;
I Peter iii; maliciousness, Rom. i:29; l Peter ii:l6;
malicious, from Gr. Tofiipds, pon-ay-ros' , hurtful,
3 John 10), "wicked works."
It denotes in general violent hatred, disposing
us to render evil for good, and embraces both
Malevolence and Malignity. The three may be
discriminated as follows : Malevolence has a deep
root in the heart, and is a settled part of the
character; we denominate the person malevolent,
to designate the ruling temper of his mind :
maliciousness may be applied as an epithet to
particular parts of a man's character or conduct ;
one may have a malicious joy or pleasure in see-
ing the distresses of another : malignity is not so
often employed to characterize the person as the
thing; the malignity of a design is estimated by
the degree of mischief which was intended to be
done. (Crabbe's Synonyms.)
MALIGNITY (ma-lig'ni-ty), (Gr. xaicoiifleio, kak-
6-ay' thi-ah\ bad character, depravity of heart;used
in Rom. i:29 for malignant subtlety, malicious
craftiness. (See Malice.)
MALLOTHI (mal'lo-thl), (Heb. T'^!?, mal-lo'-
thee, Jah is speaking or splendid).
One of the fourteen sons of Heman (i Chron.
XXV :4); head of the nineteenth course of mu-
MALLOWS
1103
MAN
sicians, as arranged by David (i Chron. xxv:26).
(B. C. 1014.)
MALLOWS (mai'loz), (Hch. m'^li, mal-loo'akn,
saltwort; Gr. aXiMo, salted, Job xxx:4 only).
Bochart contends {Micro::, part i, t. iii, c. 16)
that the word malluach denotes a saltish plant
called ah-lee-mos' by the Greeks, and which with
good reason is supposed to be the AtripUx
Halimus of botanists, or tall shrubby Orache.
There is no doubt thai' species of Orache were
used as articles of diet in ancient times, and,
probably, still are so in the countries where they
are indigenous ; but there are many other plants,
similar in nature, that is, soft and succulent, and
usually very saline, such as the Salsolas, Sali-
cornias, etc., which, like the species of Atriplex,
belong to the same natural fauuly of Chcnopodcw,
and which from their saline nature have received
their respective names. Some of these are
shrubby, but most of them are herbaceous, and
extremely common in all the dry, desert, and
saline soils which extend from the south of Eu-
rope to the north of India. Most of them are
saline and bitter, but some are milder in taste
and mucilaginous, and are therefore employed
as articles of diet, as spinach is in Europe. Salsola
indica, for instance, which is common on the
coasts of the Peninsula of India, Dr. Roxburgh
states, saved the lives of many thousands of the
poor natives of India during the famine of 1791-
2-3 ; for while the plant lasted, most of the poorer
classes who lived near the sea had little else to
eat; and indeed its green leaves ordinarily form
an essential article of the food of those natives
who inhabit the maritime districts. J. F. R.
MALLtrCH (rasriuk), (Heb. 5]lVtt mal-luke',
ruler or counselor).
!• A Levite of Merari, son of Hashabiah (i
Chron. vi:44). (B. C. before 1014.)
2. A descendant', or resident of Bani, who di-
vorced his Gentile wife after the exile (Ezra x:
29). (B. C. 459.)
3. A descendant, or son, of Harim, who also
put away his foreign wife (Ezra x:32). (B. C.
459)
4. A priest who returned from the captivity
with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii:2), and perhaps iden-
tical with the one who signed the covenant in
Nehemiah's reign (Neh. x:4). (B. C. between
536 and 410.)
5. One of the chief Israelites who signed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x:27). ( B. C.
4-45)
6. One of the families of priests who returned
from captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii:2), B.
C. 536. Perhaps identical with (4),
MAMMON (ra5m'raun), (Gr. iiamiuvat, mam-mo-
nas').
A Chaldee word signifying 'wealth' or 'riches,'
and bearing that sense in Luke xvi :9, 11; but
also used by our Savior (Matt, vi :24 ; Luke xvi:
13) as a personification of the god of riches: 'Ye
cannot serve God and Mammon." "Make to
yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteous-
ness, that, when these riches fail, they may receive
you into everlasting habitations:" that is. spend
worldly riches, which so many get unjustly, and
use as instruments of dishonesty and wickedness,
in a pious and charitable manner, that the poor
saints, benefited thereby, may be stirred up to pray
for you ; and that when your riches are no more
retained by you, ye may obtain the gracious re-
ward of your charity in heaven ; and those poor
saints whom you have supported, may with pleas-
ure welcome you into the celestial abodes (LtiIcc
xvi:i3). (Brown's Bib. Diet.)
MAMBE (mSm're), (Heb K"l»tt, mam -ray,
fatness.)
1- An Amoritish chief, who, with his broth-
ers Aner and Eshcol, was in alliance with Abra-
ham (Gen. xiv:i3, 24). (B. C. about 2250.)
2. In the A. V. 'The oaks of Mamre,' 'plain of
Mamre' (Gen. xiii:i8; xviii:i), or simplj
'Mamre' (xxiii:i7, 19; xxxv:27;, a grove in the
neighborhood of Hebron.
Here Abraham dwelt after separating from
Lot (Gen. xiii:i8), and near by was the cave of
Macphelah (Gen. xxiii:i7; 19; xxv:9). The spot
is still marked by the remains of a building which
once, it is said, inclosed the trunk of 'Abraham's
tree.' It is about a mile northwest of Hebron.
(See Porter, Handbook, i, 70.)
MAN (m5n). Four Hebrew words are thus trans-
lated in the English 'Version: ^~¥, aw-dawm' ,• "^""*?.
ecsh ,• *^""?'i, en-os/ie' -^"^^.gheh'ter.
1. The proper name of the first man, though
Gcsenius thinks that when so applied it has the
force rather of an appellative, and that, accord-
ingly, in a translation, it would be better to ren-
der it the man. It seems, however, to be used by
St. Luke as a proper name in the genealogy (iii:
38) ; by St. Paul (Rom. v:i4; i Tim. ii:i3, 14) ;
and by Jude (14). St. Paul's use of it in i Cor.
xv:45 is remarkably clear: 'the first man, Adam.'
This derivation is as old as Josephus, who says
tliat 'the first man was called Adam, because he
was formed from the red earth,' and adds, 'for
the true virgin earth is of this color' (Aiitiq. i,
I, sec. 2).
The trtjer origin of the word in Gen. i:26;
V : I, is likeness, because man was made in the
likeness of God.
2. It is the generic name of the human race
as originally created, and afterwards, like the
English word man, person, whether man or
woman, equivalent to the Latin Iiotno, and Gr.
an-thro-pos, ivBpuTos, (Gen. 1:26, 27; v 'z ; viii:
21; Deut. viii:3; Matt. v:i3, :'^; i Cor. vii:26),
and even without regard to age (John xvi:2i).
It is applied to women only, 'the human persons
or women' (Num. xxxi:35).
3. It denotes man in opposition towoman (Gen.
iii:i2; Matt. xix:io), though, more properly, the
husband in opposition to the wife (comp. i Cor.
vii:i).
4. It is used, though very rarely, for those who
maintain the dignity of human nature, a man,
as we say, meaning one that deserves the name,
like the Latin ?'/> and Greek <in)p, an' are, licro.
'One man in a thousand have I found, but a
woman,' etc. (Eccles. vii:28.) Perhaps the word
here glances at the original uprightness of man.
5. It is frequently used to denote the more
degenerate and wicked portion of mankind : an
instance of which occurs very early, 'The sons,
or worshipers, of God married the daughters of
men, or the irreligious' (Gen. vi:2).
6. Tlie word is used to denote other men, in
opposition to those already named, as, 'both upon
Israel and other men' (Jer. xxxii:20), i. e. the
Egyptians. "Like other men' (Ps. lxxiii:5) i. e.,
common men. in opposition to better men (Ps.
Ixxxii :7) ; men of inferior rank, as opposed to
men of higher rank. (See Heb. Is. ii:9; v:is;
Ps. xlix:3; lxii:io; Prov. viii;4).
t- The phrase 'son of man,' in the Old Testa-
ment, denotes man as frail and unworthy (Nuin.
MAM
1104
MAN
xxiiitig; Job xxv :6 ; Ezek. ii:i, 3); as applied
to the prophet, so often, it has the force of 'oh
mortal !' Ecsh is a man in the distinguished sense,
like the Latin vir, and Greek dnjp, 'an heroic
man.'
8. It is used in all the several senses of the
Latin 7iV, and denotes a man as distinguished
froin a woman (i Sam. xvii:33; Matt. xiv:2i);
as a husband (Gen. iii:i6; Hos. ii:i6); and in
reference 10 excellent mental qualities. A beauti-
ful instance of the latter class occurs in Jer. v:i.
9- It is also used to designate the superior
classes (Prov. viii:4; Ps. cxli :4, etc.), a courtier
(Jer. xxxviii7), the male of animals (Gen. vii :
2). Sometimes it means men in general (Exod.
xvi:29; Mark vi:44).
10. Enoshc denotes mortals, as transient, per-
ishable, liable to sickness, etc. : 'Let no man
[margin, 'mortal man'] prevail against thee' (2
Chron. xiv:ii). 'Write with the pen of the com-
mon man' (Is. viii:i), i. e. in a common, legible
character (Job xv:i4; Ps. viii:4; ixtig, 20; Is.
li:7; Ps. ciii:is). It is applied to women (Josh.
vi»i :2s) ; gheh-ber', vir, man, in regard to strength,
etc.
11. It is applied to man as distinguished from
woman : 'A man shall not put on a woman's
garment" (Deut. xxii:5), like dvBpunoi (??iale),
in Matt. viii:g; John i:6; to men as distin-
guished from children (Exod. xii :37) ; to a male
child, in opposition to a female (Job iii:3; Sept.
liptTfv, male child). It is much used in poetry:
'Happy is the man* (Ps. xxxiv:8; xl:4; Hi 19;
xciv:i2). Sometimes it denotes the species at
large (Job iviiyf xiv:io, 14).
12. Thus man is also the rendering of the Gr.
liriSeli (may-dice' , not o)!e,V\.di\.\..\\\.20\ xviirg, Luke
\:\,e\.c.',olov5eU,oo-dice', none, nobody. Matt xi.-
27; Mark iii:27; Luke viii:5i, etc.; oi tIs, its, some
one or any. Matt xxiv:4; Johniii:5; Acts x:47, etc.);
and in an inclusive sense iras, (pas, all, Rom. ii:io).
(See Adam.)
Common Origin of Man. Scientists are di-
.vided into two schools on this subject, namely,
Polygenists, or those who say there are more than
one species, and monogenists, or those who con-
tend for the unity of the human species. Men of
nnquestioi.ed scientific repute and ability are found
on both s^des of the question. Among Polygenists
such scholars as Kant, Buffon, Desmoulins, Haec-
kel, Friedrich Miiller, Louis Agassiz, and Pes-
chal : and among monogenists are Blumenbach,
Prichard, De Quatrefages, Cuvier, Max Miiller,
Prof. Owen and CTiarles Darwin.
The weight of evidence seems clearly to be on
the side of the monogenists.
This view is contended for in this article.
To be plain it is very important that the def-
inition of the word species should be understood —
for the solution of the whole problem hinges on
the meaning of that word.
M. A. de Quatrefages gives the most concise and
satisfactory definition of the word "species," as
the word is used in reference to vegetables and
animals, when he says "The species includes all
more or less similar individuals which descend,
or may be supposed to descend from a single
ancestral pair in unbroken succession" (Unite
de I'Espice Humaine, p. 54). This definition
when applied to a consideration of men allows
room for those variations among them resulting
in what are called the races of Caucasians, Mon-
golians, Red Men. Malays and Negroes.
With "species" defined we are prepared to con-
sider briefly the arguments in favor of all men
of all races having descended from one ancestral
pair.
(1) The first argument is rooted in the facts
concerning the habitat of men.
It would militate asrainst the unity of human
species were it true that one race of men could
live only on a certain section of the globe.
The fact is if the transition is not made too
suddenly, and proper precautions are taken, men
of any nation can live in the region inhabited
by any other nation.
The Chinese illustrate this, for they live on the
border of Siberia and are also found on the Island
of Singapore almost on the Equator.
(2) The unity of the languages of men in their
primitive condition as exhibited in the identity
of ihe roots of many words still in use among the
scattered nations.
Max Miiller shows by the phenomena of the
three great classes of language that it is highly
probable that they were originally one. Such
eminent philologists as Bopp, Grimm, Klaproth,
and Herder agree in this main proposition.
(3) Community of traditions among different
and widely separated peoples, such as The Crea-
tion of Man ; The Garden of Eden or its counter-
part; man's temptation and fall; the division of
time into weeks ; the destruction of man by a del-
uge; and similar traditions are found to be cur-
rent among people as widely separated in color,
location, and everything else as the Dyaks of
Borneo and the North American tribes of In-
dians.
(4) Another argument quite similar to traditions
is that of a community of customs, such as sac-
rifices to supernatural beings — known to have
been offered in all parts of the earth and by all
people. Serpent worship in Asia, Africa, Eu-
rope and America. Peschal (Races of Man, p. 21,
sq.) ca'iis attention to the following customs: Al-
most all nations have arrived at a single and dou-
ble decimal system in piathematics ; skin paint-
ing, and tattooing; filing the teeth to a point oc-
curs not only in western Africa but in Brazil.
The skulls of children have been pressed between
boards not only on the steppes of southern Rus-
sia but also by the aborigines of South Amer-
ica, by the Tsliinuks of British Columbia and by
the Flathead tribe of Indians in North America.
Many nations have practiced circumcision — the
Egyptians, Ethiopians, Hebrews, Phoenicians and
tribes of Indians in South America. Greeting by
rubbing noses by Eskimos and by aboriginal
Australians.
Another custom has extended all over the world
— namely, the building of cairns or piles of
stones which grow by having additional stones
thrown on them by every passer-by. They may be
seen in India. Burmah, Borneo, Thibet, the Sina-
itic Peninsula, Switzerland and Venezuela.
(5) All men have the same number and kind of
bodily organs. The natural position of man is
erect. All the nerves, muscles, bones, veins and
arteries found in any man of any race are found
in every other man of every race regardless of
the color of complexion, the character of the hair
or the degree of intelligence or culture.
The physical evidence of unity of human specie;
which is most interesting and significant is the
prevalence among men of that general law, which
runs through the whole of both the vegetable and
animal kingdoms, namely, the infertility of hy-
brids or members of different species, and the
fecundity of members of the same species.
Applying this law to the case of men, observa-
tion and experiment show that the intermarriage
MANAEN
1105
MANASSEH
of individuals of different races of men does not
reveal sterility but the opposite.
No two races of men exist who cannot inter-
marry. This would not be true if the different
races of men were different species of beings.
(6) The similarity of mental and moral fac-
ulties and habits is marked. Intellect, emotion
and will, the mental nature of every Caucasian.
The same is true of every Mongolian, every
Ethiopian, every Malay and every red man. All
men have conscience whereby they are sensible of
right or wrong.
There are to sum up, then, varieties of men,
but all men belong to one species of beings.
If all men are of the same species of being
then the brotherhood of man follows. When that
is appreciated slavery is not to be thought of.
Yet again if all men belong to one species and
not to many, then the voice of science harmonizes
with that of religion, which proclaims (^Gen. iii :
20), "Adam called his wife's name Eve; because
she was the mother of all living;" and Mars Hill
caiches up the proclamation, as Paul stands and
says more confidently than science can yet say :
"God . . . hath made of one blood all nations
of men for to dwell on all the face of tlie earth"
(Acts xvii:24-26). (See Common Origin of Man
bv Rev. Edward M. Deems, A. M., in Christian
Tlwuglit. April 1892, p. 378.)
MANAEN (man'a-en), (Or. Mayo^f, ma/i-a/i-
ane').
A Christian teacher at Antioch (A. D. 44),
who had been foster-brother of Herod Antipas
(.^cts xiii:i). He is supposed to have been one
of the seventy disciples, but this is uncertain, as
no particulars of his life are known.
MANAHATH (man'a-hath), (Heb. f'!^^'?, maw-
nakh'ath).
1. A place named in connection with the geneal-
ogies of Benjamin (i Chron. viii:6), whither the
Benjamites of Geba, descendants of Ehud, seem
to have migrated. The posterity of Salma. of
Judah, probably made up half the population (i
Chron. ii :54).
2. Second of the five sons of Shobal, a de-
scendant of Seir, the Horite (Gen. xxxvi :23 ; I
Chron. i:4o). (B. C. about 1850.)
MANAHETHITES, THE (ma-na'heth-rtes),
(Heb. •'^"'^^t-, hain-men-oo-khoth' , and T'^'i^Ll.
ham-matv-nakh-tee' , Manahathites).
The inhabitants of a place, half of whom were
descended from Sclma, founder of Bethlehem,
and half from Sliobal, father of Kirjath-jearim
(I Chron. ii :52, 54).
MANASSEH (ma-nas'seh), (Heb. '"'^i^, me7t-
ask-s/ie/i' , wlio makes forget, see Gen. xli:5i).
/. The Patriarch. The elder of the two
sons of Joseph, born in Egypt (Gen. xli:5i ; xlvi :
20) whom Jacob adopted as his own (xlviii:i)
— by which act each became the head of a tribe
in Israel. The act of adoption was, however, ac-
companied by a clear intimation from Jacob,
that the descendants of Manasseh, although the
elder, would be far less numerous and powerful
than those of the younger Ephraim. The result
corresponded remarkably with this intimation.
(See Ephraim.)
2. The Fourteenth King of Judah. son and
successor of Hezekiah, who began to reign in
B. C. 699. at the early age of twelve years, and
reigned fifty-five years.
(1) Re-established Idolatry. It appears that
the secret enemies of the vigorous reforms of
70
Hezekiah reappeared, and managed to gain much
influence at court during the youth of Manasseh;
and he was prevailed upon to rccstabli-ih all the
idolatries and abominations which il had taken
his excellent father so much pains to subvert.
This bent having been unhappily given to the
mind of one old enough to listen to evil coun-
sels, but too young to see their danger, the king
followed it wiih all the reckless ardor of youth,
and without any of the pruaent reservations which
older sovereigns, morediscree' m evincing the same
inclinations, had maintained. Idolatry in its worst
forms, and all the abominations connected with
its observances, were practiced without stint and
without shame, not only in the face of the Temple,
but in its very courts, where altars to the heav-
enly bodies were set up, and rites of idolatrous
worship performed. Under this altered state of
things, the Judahites, with the sanction of the
king's example, rushed into all the more odious
observances of Syrian idolatry, with all the ardor
which usually attends the outbreak of a restrained
propensity, till tliey became far 'worse than the
heathen, whom the Lord destroyed before the
children of Israel.' In vain did the prophets raise
their voice against these iniquities, and threaten
Manasseh and his kingdom with awful tokens of
Divine indignation. Instead of profiling by these
warnings, the king vented his rage against those
by whom they were uttered, and in this, and
other ways, filled Jerusalem with innocent blood
beyond any king who reigned before him (2
Kings xxi:i-i6; 2 Chron. xxxiii :i-io).
(2) Retribution. At length the wrath of God
burst over the guilty king and nation. At this
time there was constant war between Assyria and
Egypt, and it would seem that Manasseh adhered
to the policy of his father in making common
cause with the latter power. This, or some
other cause not stated by the sacred historian,
brought into Judaea an Assyrian army, under the
generals of Esar-haddon, which carried all be-
fore it. The miserable king attempted flight, Liit
was discovered in a thorn-brake in which he had
hidden himself, was laden wiih chains, and sent
away as a captive to Babylon, which was then
subject to the Assyrians, where he was cast into
prison ( B. C. 677). Here, at last, Manasseh had
ample opportunity and leisure for cool reflection;
and the hard lessons of adversity were not lost
upon him. He saw and deplored the evils of his
reign, he became as a new man, he humbly be-
sought pardon from God, and implored that he
might be enabled to evince the sincerity of his
contrition, by being restored to a position for
undoing all that it had been the business of his
life to effect. His prayer was heard. His cap-
tivity is supposed to have lasted a year, and he
was then restored to his kingdom under certain
obligations of tribute and allegiance to the king
of Assyria, which, ahhough not expressed in the
account of this transaction, are alluded to in
the history of his successors (2 Chron. xxxiii:
II-I3)-
(3) Reformation. On his return to Jerusa-
lem. Manasseh exerted himself to the utmost in
correcting the errors of his early reign, and in
establishing the worship of Jehovah in its former
purity and splendor. The good conduct of his
latter reign was rewarded with such prosperity
as enabled him to do much for the improvement
and strengthening of his capital and kingdom.
He thoroughly repaired the old walls of Jerusa-
lem, and added a new wall on the side towards
Gihon ; he surrounded and fortified by a separate
wall the hill or ridge on the east of Zion, which
MANASSEH. TRIBE OF
1106
MANNA OR MAN
bore the name oibZV, Opliel, and he strength-
ened, garrisoned, and provisioned 'the fenced cit-
ies of Judah' (2 Chron. xxxiii :I3-I7)-
(4) Death. He died in peace (B. C. about
664), at the age of sixty-eight, after having
reigned longer than any other king of Judah, and
was buried in a sepulcher which he had prepared
for himself in his own garden (xxxiii :20).
3. In Judg. xviii:30, Manasseh is given as the
father of Gershon, the father of Jonathan, the
priest of the Danites at Laish. _The readmg is
probably a corruption of "Moses."
4. An Israelite, descendant or resident of Pa-
hath-moab, who divorced his foreign wife at the
instance of Ezra (Ezra x:3o). (B. C. 459.)
5. A man of Hashum, who also put away his
Gentile wife (Ezra x:33)- (B. C. 4S9-)
MANASSEH, TRIBE OF (ma-nas'seh).
When the tribe of Manasseh quitted Egypt, it
numbered 32.200 adult males (Num. i:34. 35). be-
ing 8,300 less than the tribe of Ephraim, the
younger son of Joseph. This was the lowest
number of adult males in any tribe at that pe-
riod; but if we add the two together, the tribe of
Joseph, composed of these two tribes, reached to
72,700, which was more than any other tribe con-
tained, except Judah. During the sojourn in the
wilderness, the tribe of Manasseh rose to 52,-
700 (Num. xxvi:34), being an increase of 20,-
500. This gave it rank in point of population as
the sixth of the tribes, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon,
Dan, and Asher only being more numerous. In
the same period Ephraim had declined to nearly
the same position which Manasseh had previously
occupied, its numbers being reduced to 32,500.
Yet the prophecy of Jacob was fulfilled,_ and, when
settled in Canaan, Ephraim became superior in
wealth, power and population, noi only to Ma-
nasseh, but to all the tribes except Judah. One
circumstance tending to weaken Manasseh may
have been the division which took place in it on
entering Palestine. The pastoral half of the tribe
was allowed to establish itself with Reuben and
Gad, on the east of the Jordan, where it occu-
pied the northernmost portion, consisting of Ar-
gob and Bashan, from ihe Jabbok to Mount Her-
mon(Num.xxxii:39; xxxiv:l4; Deut.iii:l3; Josh.
xii:6; xiii 7 ; I Chron. vi:6l), while the other
half was provided for with the rest of the tribes
in Canaan proper, west of the Jordan, where it
had a fine tract of country extending from that
river to the Mediterranean, with the kindred tribe
of Ephraim on the south, and Issachar on the
north (Josh. xvi:9; xvii:7-li). The half-tribe
west of the river was not, however, for some time
able to expel the former inhabitants of the ter-
ritory, so as to obtain the exclusive possession of
it (Josh. xvii:i2; Judg. i:27). The tribe of Ma-
nasseh makes no figure in the history of the He-
brews. (See Palestine.)
MANASSES (ma-nis'sez), (Gr. Movacrcr^s, man-
as-sace' , Manasses).
1. The Greek form of Manasseh which is
found in Rev. vii :6.
2. The form of Manasseh, 2, found in Matt.
i:io, and in the "Prayer of Manasses."
MANASSES, PBAYEB OF (ma-n5s'sez,
prayer 6v). See APOCRYPHA.
This pseudepigraphal work has come down
to us in the MSS. ot the Latin Vnlgate, and is
found in the early printed editions of that ver-
sion. Du Pin firmly asserts that the Latin fath-
ers have often cited this jirayer; hut tlie earliest
reference to it which we know of is in the Apos-
tolical Constitutions (sec. 12), attributed to Clem-
ens Romanus, but which are generally believed
to be a work of the fourth century ._ In this work
(ii;22) the prayer is cited as if it were an in-
tegral portion of the book of Chronicles, together
with some traditionary accounts of the nature ot
his imprisonment in shackles of iron, and of his
miraculous release: which are also alluded to in
the Targum on Chronicles.
It is entitled 'The Prayer of Manasses, king
of Judah, when he was holden captive in Baby-
lon,' and had doubtless its origin from 2 Chron.
xxxiii :I2, 13.
This prayer, however, not being found in the
Hebrew, and not being cited by the more emi-
nent fathers, nor contained in any of the cata-
logues of ancient councils, has not been received
in the church as genuine or canonical. It is
classed in the Sixth Article of the Church of En-
gland among the 'other books read by the church
for example of life and instruction of manners;'
but the church of Rome classes it with 3d and
4th Esdras (see Esdras), removing it to the end
of the Bible, and rejecting it from the deutero-
canonical, as well as from the proto-canonical
books.
MANASSITES (ma-nas'sites), (Heb. '"'fi?.
men-ash-sheh' , in Judg. xii:4; elsewhere ¥i^p.
ham-men-ash-shee'), descendants of Manasseh, the
eldest son of Joseph, or some members of the tribe
of Manasseh (Deut. iv:43; xxix;8; 2 Kings x:33;
I Chron. xxvi:32).
MANDRAKE (man'drak), {Yieo.'''^'^,doo-dah' ■
ee, love apples). Modern Bible scholars apply
this name to a member of the potato family (Man-
dragora officinalis).
This is a stemless plant with a disk of leaves
almost as long, but not nearly as broad, as those
of the garden rhubarb, which it somewhat re-
sembles, except in its blossoms. These are of a
rich purple, and, appearing among the leaves very
early, are followed about wheat-harvest by a
round yellow pulpy fruit of the size of a large
plum and of a sweet and agreeable flavor. The
odor of the plant seems to be enjoyed by Ori-
entals (Cant. vii:i3), and by some Occidentals.
Many strange superstitions are connected with
this plant, and the idea of Rachel's time still pre-
vails that conception is ensured by eating the fruit
of this plant (Gen. xxx:i4-l5). For full dis-
cussion of the subject see Dudaim.
MANEH (ma'neh), (Heb. '^^5, maw-neh'), a
weight 6^ of a talent. See Weights and Meas-
ures.
MANGER (raan'jer), (Gr. ^drvij, fat' nay, crib,
Luke ii:7, 12, 16).
In Luke xiii:i5 it is translated "stall." While
this is the classical meaning of the word, it has
been pretty clearly demonstrated that in the New
Testament it means the open courtyard of the
inn or khan, which was inclosed by a fence of
some kind where the cattle were shut up for the
night. Mangers in our sense of the word are
hardly known in the East.
MANNA (man'na) or MAN, (Heb. V?, maw 11,
signifying what?).
(1) Substance. The name given to the mirac-
ulous food upon which the Israelites were fed
for forty years, during their wanderings in the
desert. The same name has in later ages been
applied to some natural productions, chiefly found
in warm, dry countries, but which have little or
MANNA OR MAN
1107
MANNA OR MAN
no resemblance to the original manna. This is
first mentioned in Exod. xvi. It is there de-
scribed as being first produced aficr the eighth
encampment in the desert of Sin, as white like hoar
frost (or of the color of bdellium, Num. xi:7),
round, and of the bigness of coriander seed
(gad). It fell with the dew every morning, and
when the dew was exhaled by the heat of the
sun, the manna appeared alone, lying upon the
ground or the rocks round the encampment of the
Israelites. 'When the children of Israel saw it,
they said one to another, IV hat is it? for they
knew not what' it was' (Exod. xvi:is). In the
authorized, and some other versions, this passage
is inaccurately translated — which indeed is ap-
parent from the two parts of the sentence con-
tradicting each other. In the Septuagint the sub-
stance is almost always called manna instead of
man. Josephus {Antiq. iii, i, sec. lo), as quoted
by Dr. Harris, says : 'The Hebrews call this food
manna, for the particle man in our language is
the asking of a question', What is this? (man-hti).
Moses answered this question by telling them,
'This is the bread which the Lord hath given you
to eat.' We are further informed that the manna
fell every day, except on the Sabbath. Every sixth
day, thai is on Friday, there fell a double qtian-
tity of it.
(2) How Gathered. Every man was directed
to gather an omer (about three quarts) for
each member of his family ; and the whole
seems afterwards to have been measured out at
the rate of an omer to each person : 'He who
gathered much had nothing over, and he who
gathered little had no lack.' That which remained
ungathered dissolved in the heat of the sun, and
was lost. The quantity collected was intended
for the food of the current day only; for if any
were kept till next morning, it corrupted and
bred worms. Yet it was directed that a double
quantity should be gathered on the sixth day for
consumption on the Sabbath. And it was found
that the manna kept for the Sabbath remained
sweet and wholesome, notwithstanding that it
corrupted at other times, if kept for more than
one day. In the same manner as they would
have treated grain, they reduced it to meal,
kneaded it into dough, and baked it into cakes,
and the taste of it was like that of wafers made
with honey, or of fresh oil. In Num. xi :6-9,
where the description of the manna is repeated,
an omer of it is directed to be preserved as a
memorial to future generations, that they may
see the bread wherewith I have fed you in the
wilderness;' and in Joshua v:i2 we learn that'
after the Israelites had encamped at Gilgal, and
'did eat of the old corn of the land, the manna
ceased on the morrow after, neither had the chil-
dren of Israel manna any more.'
(3) Supposed Existence Now. This miracle
is referred to in Deut. viii :3 ; Neh. ix:2o; Ps.
lxxviii:24; John vi :3l, 49, 58; Heb. ix 14. Though
the manna of Scripture was so evidently miracu-
lous, both in the mode and in the quantities in
which it was produced, and though its properties
were so different from anything with which we
are acquainted, yet, because its taste is in Exo-
dus said to be like that of wafers made with
honey, many writers have thought that they rec-
ognized the manna of Scripture in a sweetish ex-
udation which is found on several plants in
Arabia and Persia. The name man, or matina,
is applied to this substance by the Arab writers,
and was probably so applied even before their
lime. But the term is now almost entirely ap-
propriated to the sweetish exudation of the ash
treesof Sicily and ha\y(Ornus Eitropaa :\n6 Fra.v-
inns rolundifolia). These, however, have no re-
lation to the supposed manna of Scripture. Of
this, one kind is known to the Arabs by the name
of gucunjbccn, being the produce of a plant
called gus, and which i-s ascertained to be a spe-
cies of tamarisk. The same species seems also
to be called toorfa, and is common along different
parts of the coast of Arabia. It is also found in
the neighborhood of Mount Sinai. In the month
of June it drops from the thorns of the tam-
arisk upon the fallen twigs, leaves and thorns,
which always cover the ground beneath the tree
in the natural state. The Arabs use it as they do
honey, to pour over their unleavened bread, or to
dip their bread into; its taste is agreeable, some-
what aromatic, and as sweet as honey. If eaten
in any quantity it is said to be highly purgative.
When Lieut'. Wellsted visited this place in the
month of September, he found the extremities of
the twigs and branches retaining the peculiar
sweetness and flavor which characterize the
manna. The Bedouins collect it early in the
morning, and, after straining it' through a cloth,
place it either in skins or gourds; a considerable
quantity is consumed by themselves ; a portion is
sent to Cairo ; and some is also disposed of to the
monks at Mount Sinai. The latter retail it to
the Russian pilgrims. 'The Bedouins assured
me that the whole quantity collected throughout
the Peninsula, in the most fruitful season, did
not exceed 150 wogas (about 700 pounds) ; and
that it was usually disposed of at the rate of 60
dollars the woga' {Travels in Arabia, vol. i, p.
Sii).
(4) Another Kind. Another kind of manna,
which has been supposed to be that of Scripture,
is yielded by a thorny plant very common from
the north of India to Syria, and which, by the
Arabs, is called Al-haj ; whence botanists have
constructed the name Alhagi. The Alhagi mauro-
rum is remarkable for the exudation of a sweet-
ish juice, which concretes into small granular
masses, and which is usually distinguished by
the name of Persian manna. The climates of Per-
sia and Bokhara seem also well suited to the
secretion of this manna, which in the latter coun-
try is employed as a substitute for sugar, and
is imported into India for medicinal use through
Caubul and Khorassan. These two, from the
localities in which they are produced, have alom-
been thought to be the manna of Scripture. But
besides these, there are several oilier kinds of
manna. Burckhardt, during his journey through
El-Ghor, in the valley of the Jordan, heard of
the Beiruk honey. This is described as a sub-
stance obtained from the leaves and branches of a
tree called Charb or Garrab, of the size of an
olive-tree, and with leaves like those of the pop-
lar. When fresh this grayish colored exudation
is sweet in taste, but in a few days it becomes
sour. The Arabs eat it like honey.
(5) Not the Manna of Scripture. One kind,
called Shecr-khisht, is said to be produced in the
country of the Uzbecs. A Caubul merchant in-
formed the author of this article, that it was pro-
duced by a tree called Gundeleh, which grows in
Candahar, and is about twelve feet high, with
jointed stems. A fifth kind is produced on Calo-
tropis frocera, or the plant called Ashur. The
sweet exudation is by Arab authors ranked with
sugars, and called Shukur-al-ashur. It is de-
.scribed under this name by Avicenna, and in the
Latin translation it is called Zuccarum-al-husar.
A sixth kind, called Bcd-khisht, is described in
Persian works on Materia Medica, as being pro-
MANOAH
1108
MANUSCRIPTS, BIBLICAL
duced on a species of willow in Persian Khoras-
san. Another kind would appear to be produced
on a species of oak, for Niebuhr says, 'At Mer-
din, in Mesopotamia, it appears like a kind ©f
pollen, on the leaves of the tree called Ballot and
Afs (or, according to the Aleppo pronunciation.
As), which I take to be of the oak family. All
are agreed, that between Merdin and Diarbekir
manna is obtained, and principally from those
trees which yield gall-nuts.' Besides these, there
is a sweetish exudation found on the larch, which
is called Manna brigantiaca, as there is also one
kind found on the cedar of Lebanon. Indeed a
sweetish secretion is found on the leaves of many
other plants, produced sometimes by the plant it-
self, at others by the punctures of insects. It
has been supposed, also, that these sweetish ex-
udations being evaporated during the heat of the
day in still weather, may afterwards become de-
posited, with the dew, on the ground, and on
the leaves of plants; and thus explain some of
the phenomena which have been observed by
travelers and others. But none of these mannas
explain, nor can it be expected that they should
explain, the miracle of Scripture, by which
abundance is stated to have been produced for
millions, where hundreds cannot now be sub-
sisted. (See Tristram, Nat. Hist, of the Bible,
p. 362; Robinson, Researches, i, 470, 550; and
other Oriental travelers.) J. F. R.
Figurative. Manna is called the "corn of
heaven" and "angels' food" (Ps. lxxviii:34, 25),
perhaps in allusion to the mode by which it
was supplied.
The phrase "hidden manna" (Rev. ii:i7), fig-
uratively describes the support which Christ fur-
nishes to the true believer, of which the world
does not and cannot partake. (Comp. John vi :
49, 51).
KANOAH (ma-no'ah), (Heb. '^"^, maw-no' akh,
rest).
A native of the town of Zorah, in the tribe of
Dan, and the father of Samson, whose birth is
recorded in Judg. xiii:i-23. Manoah is again
mentioned (Judg. xiv:2-4) at the occasion of
Samson's marriage, but seems to have died be-
fore the son, whose body was brought up from
Gaza by his brethren, not, as Milton has it, by his
father (Judg. xvi:3i). (See Samson.)
MAN OF SIN. See Antichrist.
MAN OF WAR. And Herod with his men of
■war set him at nought (Luke xxiii:ll).
Man-of-war, with us, means a ship of war; but
as here used it signifies just what the composition
of the word denotes, — namely, a warrior, a sol-
dier. This sense of the word is common in old
English literature.
What stir
Keeps good old York there with his men of warf
Shakespeare.
MANSERVANT (rain'serv'ant). See Slave.
MANSIONS (Gr.MO'-ai, abodes, John xiv:2). The
word is used in its primary meaning of "dwelling-
places," "rooms."
MANSLAYEB (m5n'sla'er), (Heb. "^T , raw-
tsakli' , to kill; Gr. avSpocpbvo's, an-drof-on' os), one
who strikes another so as to kill.
The manslayer was one who was guilty of
homicide, having accidentally and without malice
slain another. According to the custom of the
East, the right and indeed the obligation of re-
venge lay with the kinsmen of the person slain.
The aveneer of blood did not require to con-
sider whether the slaughter had been intentional
or not. He was entitled wherever he found the
slayer to take vengeance upon him, blood for
blood. An important amelioration of this custom
was introduced into the Jewish law by the ap-
pointment of six Cities of Refuge, in convenient
central positions, so that in all parts of the land
there might be one within reach. If one had ac-
cidentally slain another, he was required to hasten
to the nearest City of Refuge and remain there
till the death of the high-priest, after which he
might return with safety to his home. It was en-
acted 'hat the roads leading to those cities must
be kept in good repair, and absolute security was
guaranteed to the refugee. (See Blood-Re-
venge.)
MAN, SON OF (Gr. 6 TI6s roi dvepiiTrou).
This title was evidently taken from Dan. viii :
17, where everlasting dominion is ascribed to the
Messiah under that title. It was assumed by Christ
himself, and though occurring sixty-one times in
the Gospels, is only used by Christ himself. It
occurs once in the Acts (vii 156), and is employed
by Stephen. It is clear that from the corre-
sponding term, "the Son of God," this title be-
longs to Christ by virtue of superiority ; and that
hoUl taken together decidedly prove that Christ,
in some manner unknown to us, united in his per-
son both the human and the Divine nature. "In
this name there surely lies above everything actual
humanity. Jesus knew himself to be a perfect per-
sonal man, and would not have been able to call
himself Son of man if he only knew himself to be
a manifest action of God. . . . The phrase
must also signify, especially with the definite ar-
ticle, the opposite to imperfection and defacerqent,
the truth of man, i. e., the realization of his idea.
If he only meant to express by the name that
he was a real man like others, the definite article
would be inexplicable. The definite article points
in that direction, that he was also conscious of his
humanity not as a merely ordinary or faulty hu-
manity, but as the perfect manifestation of its
truth as well as of its realization" (Dorner,
Christ. Doct., iii, 169, sq.; also Weiss, Bib. Theol.
of A^ew Testament, 144 ; Miley, Sys. Theol., ii p.
23, sq.; Bloomfield, Greek Test., Matt. viii:20;
Barnes, Bib. Diet.)
MANTLE (man't'l). The word employed in
the A. V. to translate four Hebrew terms:
1. '''?*'?^, sem-ee-kaw'. This word occurs in
Judg. iv:i8, where it denotes tke cloth with
which Jael covered Sisera, and which, from all
that can be gathered, was a tent-carpet.
2. ''^'p, meh-eel' , rendered "mantle" (i
Sam. xv:27; xxviii:i4; Ezra ix:3, 5; Job i:2o;
ii:i2; and Ps. cix:29) ;thisword in other passages
of the A. V. is rendered "coat," "cloak," and
"robe."
3. '''?¥^:?, ma-at-aw-fawh' , (Is. iii:22 only).
Apparently an article of female apparel, perhaps
an exterior tunic, longer and fuller than the in-
ternal one, ajid provided with sleeves.
4. ^T:— , ad-deh-reth' (i Kings xix:i3, 19;
2 Kings ii :8, 13, 14); elsewhere "garment" and
"robe." It denotes the cape or wrapper which,
with a strip of skin or leather round his loins,
formed the only garments of the prophet Elijah.
MANXrSCBIPTS, BIBLICAL (raan'a-skrtpts,
bib'll-kal). These are either Hebrew or Greek.
MANUSCRIPTS, BIBLICAL
1109
MANUSCRIPTS. BIBLICAL
/. JebJish Manuscripts. Jewisli MSS. are
divided into (a) Synaoogue rolls or sacred copies ;
and {b) Private or comtnon copies.
(a) The synagogue rolls contain the Penta-
teuch, the appointed sections of the prophets, or
the book of Esther, which last is used only at
the Feast of Purim. The three are never put to-
gether ; but are written on separate rolls. They
are in the Chaldee or square Hebrew character,
without vowels and accents, accompanied with the
functa cxtraordinaria, and having the unusual
forms of certain consonants. The great beauty
of penmanship exhibited in these synagogue cop-
ies has been always admired. They are taken
from authentic exemplars, without the slightest
deviation or correction. They seldom fall into
the hands of Christians, since, as soon as ihey
cease to be employed in the synagogue, they are
either buried or carefully laid aside, lest they
should be profaned by coming into the possession
of Gentiles.
(b) Private MSS. are written partly in the
square or Chaldee character, partly in the Rab-
binical. They are held in far less esteem than
the synagogue rolls, and are wont to be denomi-
nated [irofanc (pesulim). Their form is entirely
arbitrary. They are in folio, quarto, octavo, and
duodecimo. Of those written in the square char-
acter, the greater number are on parchment, some
on paper. The ink of the letters is always black,
but the vowel points are usually written with ink
of a different color from that of the consonants.
Initial words and letters are frequently decorated
with gold and silver colors. The prose parts are
arranged in columns, the poetic in parallel mem-
bers. Some copies are without columns. The
columns are not always occupied with the He-
brew text alone; for a version is frequently added
which is either written in the text after the man-
ner of verses or in a column by itself, or in the
margin in a smaller character. The number of
lines is not prescribed by the Talmud. The up-
per and lower margins are filled with the Great
Masora, and sometimes with a Rabbinical com-
mentary ; as also with prayers, psalms, and the
like. The external margin is for corrections,
scholia, variations, notices of the haphtaroth (sec-
tions from the prophets), parashoth (sections
from the law), the commentaries of the Rabbins,
etc. The inner margin, or that between the col-
umns, is occupied with the little Masora. The
single books of the Old Testament are separated
from one another by spaces, except the books of
Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah,
which are written continuously. The sections of
the law and prophets are generally marked. In
the MSS. of different countries the books are
differently arranged. These copies generally pass
through various hands before they are finished.
The consonants proceed from the sophcr or scribe.
When the same person writes both consonants
and vowels, as is frequently the case, he never
makes them at the same time : the former are fin-
ished before he begins to append the latter. The
K'ris in the margin uniformly proceed from the
vowel-writer. It is probable that these copies were
in no instance made by Christians.
Although the square character be employed in
all the MSS. of which we have spoken, yet it has
varieties. The Jews themselves distinguish in the
synagogue rolls, (i) the Tarn letter, with sharp
corners and perpendicular coronulje. used among
the German and Polish Jews; (2) the Velshe
letter, more modern than the Tarn, and rounder,
with coronuh-e, particularly found in the sacred
copies of the Spanish and Oriental Jews.
The age of Hebrew MSS. is not easily deter-
mined. It is true that they often contain sub-
scriptions giving an account of the time when
they were written, and the name of the scribe, or
also of the possessor. But these accounts are
often ambiguous and occasionally incorrect.
Where they are altogether wanting, it is still more
difficult to discover the age. In the latter case,
the character of the writing, the color of the ink,
the quality and yellowness of the parchment, the
absence of the Masora, of the vowel-points, of the
unusual letters, etc., have been chiefly rested upon.
Still, however, such particulars are uncertain
marks of age.
The oldest Hebrew MS. at present known be-
longs to A. D. 1106 (No. IS4 of Kennicott). It
is true that some others are supposed to be older,
but simply by conjecture. As far as certainty is
concerned, this is certainly the oldest. Loehnis
{Grundziige tier Biblischeii Hermeneutik und
Kritik, Giessen, 1839) affirms that some reach
as far back as the eighth century, an assertion
grounded merely on the conjecture of De Rossi
and Kennicott. So much uncertainty attaches to
the internal marks adopted by these two Hebra-
ists, that the ages to which they assign several
Hebrew MSS. are quite gratuitous. No Hebrew
MS. possessing an indubitably accurate register
of its antiquity, goes farther back than the twelfth
century (see the third section of Tychsen's Tcnta-
men dc variis Codicum Hcbraicorum Vet. Test.
MSS. generibus, etc., Rostock, 1772, 8vo, in which
the learned writer examines the marks of antiquity
assumed by Simon, Jablonski, Wolf, Houbigant,
Kennicott, and Lilienthal, and shows that the
Masora alone is a certain index for determining
the age and goodness of Hebrew MSS).
Private MSS. written in the Rabbinical char-
acter are much more recent than the preced-
ing; none of them being older than 500 years.
They are on cotton or linen paper, in a cursiz'e
character, without vowel-points or the Masora,
and with many abbreviations.
The MSS. found among the Chinese Jews are
partly synagogue rolls, partly private copies,
whose text does not dififer from the Masoretic.
The Pentateuch of the Malabar Jews brought
from India to England by the late Dr. Buchanan,
and described by Mr. Yates, resembles on the
whole the usual synagogue rolls of the Jews, ex-
cept tliat it is written on red skin. Its text is
the Masoretic, with a few unimportant devia-
tions.
Eight exemplars are celebrated among the
Jews for their correctness and value. They are
now lost, but extracts from them are still pre-
served. From Jewish writings, and from the
margin of some MSS., where a reference is made
to them, we learn that they were highly prized
for their singular accuracy. They formed the
basis of subsequent copies. They are : ( i ) The
codex of Hillel; (2) the Babylonian codex; (3)
the codex of Israel; (4) an Egyptian codex; (5)
codex Sinai; (6) the Pentateuch of Jericho; (7)
codex Sanbuki; (8) the book Taggin. For a
more copious account of Hebrew MSS. we refer
to Eichhorn's Einlcitung (Introduction), vol. ii. ;
Kennicott's Disscrtatio generalis; Walton's Pro-
legomena to the Polyglott, which have been sepa-
rately edited by Dathe and Wrangham ; Tychsen's
Tentamen; De Rossi's Variw Lcctiones Vet.
Test. etc. ; and his Scholia critica in V. T. libros,
etc. ; De Wette, Lehrbuch der Historisch-Krit-
ischen Einleilung; and Davidson's Lectures on
Biblical Criticism, in which last the best books are
pointed out.
MANUSCRIPTS, BIBLICAL
1110
MANUSCRIPTS, BIBLICAL
2. Manuscripts of the Greek Testament.
Those that have descended to our time are
either on vellum or paper. The oldest mate-
rial was the Egyptian papyrus ; but even so
early as the fourth century, the New Testament
was, written on the skins of animals. This writ-
ing material continued in use till the eleventh
century, when paper began to be employed. Till
the tenth century, MSS. were usually written in
capital or uncial letters; then the cursive charac-
ter came into use. The most ancient copies have
no divisions of words, being written in a con-
tinued series of lines. Accents, breathings, and
iota subscript are also wanting.
The whole New Testament is contained in
very few MSS. Transcribers generally divided
it into three parts; the first containing the four
gospels; the second, the Acts of the Apostles
and the Epistles; the third, the Apocalypse of
St. John. The greatest number of MSS. are
those which have the four gospels, because they
were most frequently read in the churches. Those
containing the Acts and epistles are also nu-
merous. Such as have the book of Revelation
alone are extremely few, because it was seldorn
read in public.
A. Codex Alexandrintis, presented by Cyril
Lucar, patriarch of Alexandria, and afterwards of
Constantinople, to Charles I, now in the British
Museum. It contains the whole Bible, the Sep-
tuagint version of the Old Testament in three
folios, and the New Testament in one. It has
various chasms. A facsimile of the New Tes-
tament portion was published by Dr. Woide, in
a folio volume, London, 1786. Mr. Baber of the
British Museum executed the Old Testament in
the same manner, in four folio volumes, London,
1819. This MS. was probably written at Alex-
andria, and belongs to the fifth century.
B. Codex Vaticanus, 1209, in the Vatican Li-
brary at Rome, containing the Old and New Tes-
taments. It is defective in several places ; and
portions have been supplied by a modern hand.
Hug has proved that it belongs to the middle of
the fourth century. In regard to the internal
value of its readings, it is probably superior 10
the Codex Alexandrinus.
C. Codex Regius, or Ephraemi. — This is a
rescript or palimpsest MS., i. c. the ancient writ-
ing has been erased to make room for some other.
The works of Ephrem the Syrian were over the
original. In endeavoring to ascertain the charac-
ter of what was first written on the parchment,
and washing off the latter letters, it was found
that the MS. contained originally the Old and
New Testaments in Greek. In many places it
is so faded as to be illegible. There are numerous
chasms in it. Several forms of words seem to in-
dicate that it was written in Egypt : it probably
belongs to the sixth century, and is now in the
Royal Library at Paris, where it is marked 9.
D. Codex Cantabrigiensis, or Bezic. — This MS.
was presented, in 1581, to the University of Cam-
bridge, by Theodore Beza. It is a Greek-Latin
1\IS. of the four gospels, and the Acts of the
Apostles, with a single fragment of the Catholic
epistles. Its age is probably the seventh cen-
tury, though many have assigned it to the fifth.
Kipling. Hug, and Scholz think that it was writ-
ten in Egypt ; but Scholz has given some reasons
for assigning it to the south of France, which
are not without weight. Credner assents to the
latter opinion, as far as the MS. is concerned,
while he thinks that the text is of Jewish-Chris-
tian origin, and attributes it to Palestine. Great
diversity of opinion has prevailed respecting the
quality of its readings. Bishop Middleton, at the
end of his work on the Greek article, depre-
ciated it. Matthsei had done so before. Both
have unduly lessened its value. Dr. Kipling pub-
lished a facsimile of it at Cambridge, 1793, 2 vols,
folio.
D. Claromontanus, or Regius, 107, a Greek-
Latin copy of Paul's epistles, marked with the
same letter of the alphabet as the preceding, but
containing a different part of the New Testa-
ment. It is at present in the Royal Library at
Paris : it probably belongs to the eighth cen-
tury.
E. Codex Basilcensis. — This MS. has many
chasms, and several parts of it have been written
by a more recent hand than the rest. It contains
the gospels, and belongs to the ninth century.
E. Laudianus, having once belonged to Arch-
bishop Laud, and now in the Bodleian Library.
It contains the Acts of the Apostles, with a Latin
version, and wants from xxvi 129 to xxviii :26.
This MS. belongs to the seventh or eighth cen-
tury, and was published by Thomas Hearne at
Oxford in 1715, octavo.
E. Sangermancnsis. — This is aCreek-Latin MS.
of Paul's epistles, but a copy of the Claro-
montanus, with various corrections. It belongs
to the eleventh century.
F. Codex Boreeli, containing the four gospels.
It has been collated no farther than Luke x.
F. Coislinianus, a MS. containing part of the
Old Testament and Acts ix 124, 25. It belongs
to the seventh century.
F. Augiensis. — This is a Greek-Latin MS. of
Paul's epistles,_ now in the library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. It belongs to the tenth cen-
tury.
G. Harleianus, in British Museum. This is
a MS. of the four Gospels, but with many chasms.
It belongs to the eleventh century.
G. Angelicus. — A MS. containing the Acts of
the Apostles, with the Pauline and Catholic epis-
tles, belonging to the Angelican Library at Rome.
It is as old as the ninth century. In the Pauline
epistles it is marked I.
G. Bocrnerianus, a Greek MS. of Paul's Epis-
tles, with an interlinear Latin version, now in
the Electoral Library at Dresden. It wants the
Epistle to the Hebrews, and probably belongs to
the ninth century. The characters show an ap-
proach to the cursive.
H. Woim B, a MS. of the four gospels, with
many chasms. It belongs to the eleventh cen-
tury.
H. Mutinensis. — This MS. contains the Acts
of the Apostles written in the ninth century;
but chapters i:i — v :28, were added in the fif-
teenth century, and xxvii:i to the end, in the
eleventh century. With the Catholic epistles, it
contains the Pauline, written in cursive letters
(179), and belongs to the twelfth century.
H. Coislinianus. — This MS. contains fragments
of the Pauline epistles, which have been printed
by Montfaucon in the Bibliothcca Coisliniana.
According to Hug it belongs to the sixth cen-
tury.
J. Cottonianus. — This codex contains frag-
ments of Matthew's and John's gospels. It be-
longs to the seventh or eighth century.
K. Codex Cyprius, formerly Colbertinus, 5149,
now Regitis. 63, a MS. containing the gospels.
It belongs to the eighth or ninth century, prob-
ably the latter, and has been fully collated and
described by Scholz at the end of his Curcp
Critictr, 4to, Heidelberg, 1820. See, however,
Scholz in the prolegomena to Griesbach, vol. i.
MANUSCRIPTS, BIBLICAL
1111
MANUSCRIPTS, BIBLICAL
L. Regius, 62. — This MS. contains the four
gospels, with several mutilations. It is of Egyp-
tian origin, as Griesbach has proved; and be-
longs to the ninth century.
M. Regius, 48, containing the gospels, and be-
longing to the tenth century.
N. Vindobonensis Casareiis. — This fragmen-
tary MS. contains only Luke xxiv:i3-2i and 39-
49. It belongs to the seventh century.
O. Montefalconii, a MS. containing Luke
xviii.
P. Guelpherbytanus, a codex rescriptus, con-
taining fragments of the four gospels, and be-
longing to the sixth century.
Q. Guelpherbytanus, also a rescript MS. con-
taining fragments of the gospels of Luke and
John, and belonging to the sixth century. These
two MSS. were published and described by Knit-
tel in 1763.
R. Tubingensis. — This fragment', containing
John i :38-50, has been published by Reuss. It
belongs to the seventh century.
S. Vaticanus, 354. — This MS. contains the gos-
pels, and belongs to the tenth century.
T. The Borgian fragment, part of a Coptic-
Greek MS. brought from Egypt. It contains
John vi:28-67; vii :6 — viii:3i. It was printed by
George in 1789, and belongs to the fourth or
more probably the fifth century.
U. A MS. of the gospels, in St. Mark's Library,
Venice. It belongs to the tenth century.
V. Mosqucnsis, a MS. of the four gospels, be-
longing to the library of the Holy Synod at
Moscow. It wants some parts of Matthew, and
from John vii 139 is written in cursive characters
of the thirteenth century ; the first part belongs to
the ninth century.
W. Regius, a fragment containing Luke ix :
36-47; x: 12-22; and belonging to the eighth cen-
tury.
X. Landshutensis. — This MS. contains the four
gospels, but with numerous chasms and some
supplements. It belongs most probably to the
tenth century.
Y. Barberinus, a fragment in the library of
Cardinal Barberini at Rome, containing John xvi :
4 — xix :28. It belongs to the ninth century.
Z. Dublincnsis, a rescript, exhibiting the gospel
of Matthew, but in a very imperfect state. It
was published in facsimile by Dr. Barrett (Dub-
lin. 1801, 4to), and belongs to the sixth century.
r. Vatieanus. — This fragment contains Mat-
thew xix:6-i3; xx:6-22; xx 129 — xxi:i9. It be-
longs to the seventh century.
A. Sangallensis. — This is a Greek-Latin MS.
of the gospels, made by the monks in the mon-
astery of St. Gallen. It was published by Ret-
ligus at Turin, in 1836, and belongs to the ninth
century.
Such are the uncial MSS. hitherto collated.
Those written in the cursive character are de-
scribed in the large critical editions of Wetstein,
Griesbach, and Scholz ; and in the Introduction
of Michaelis, up to the period when it was pub-
lished. The other Introductions contain descrip-
tions of several, but not all the MSS.
Three Cursive MSS. deserve mention, from
their connection with the much-disputed passage
I John v 7, which they are usually quoted as
containing. As they are written in cursive let-
ters they are not older than the tenth century.
(l) The Codex Montfortianus, or Dublincnsis,
belonging to the library of Trinity College, Dub-
lin. It was quoted by Erasmus, under the title
of Codex Britannicus. It is written on paper
in i2mo size, and could not have been made
earlier than the fifteenth century. It follows the
Vulgate very closely, not only in the insertion
of the much-disputed verse, but in other passages
of a remarkable character.
(2) The Codex Ravianus, or Berolinensis. — This
MS. is generally supposed to be a forgery copied
in the greater part of it from the Greek text of
the Complutcnsian Polyglott, and the third edi-
tion of Stephens. It has even their typographical
errors. It was written in the sixteenth century,
and has no critical value (see Pappelbaum's Un-
tersuchung der Ravischen Griechischen Hand-
schrift des N'euen Testaments, Berlin, 1785, 8vo;
and his subsequent treatise, entitled, Codicis
\[anuscripti Novi Testamenti Grceci Raviani in
Biblioth. Reg. Berol. publica asservati examen,
quo ostcnditur, alteram ejus partem majorem ex
editione Complutensi, alteram minorem ex cdi-
tione Rob. Stephani tertia esse descriptam, Ber-
lin, 1796, 8vo).
(3) Codex Ottobonianus, 298. preserved in the
Vatican. This MS. contains the Acts and epis-
tles, with a Latin version. Scholz ascribes it to
the fifteenth century. It has no critical value, be-
cause it has been altered in many cases 10 cor-
respond with the Vulgate. In it the disputed
text is found in a different form from the com-
mon reading. Instead of in heaven, it has from
heaven; and instead of on earth, it has from the
earth. (See Davidson, Biblical Criticism.)
S. D.
3. Recent Discoveries. The following most
important discoveries may be mentioned, all made
within a half a century;
1- The Sinaitic manuscript of the New Testa-
ment, discovered thirty-five years ago. This is a
complete manuscript of the New Testament, and
belongs to the fourth century. It is a witness
of the very first importance for the history of the
New Testament text.
2. Fragments of very early versions of the
New Testament, as the Curetonian Syriac, the
earliest Syriac known, and portions of Coptic
versions.
3. The "Philosophumena," or "Against all
Heresies" of Hippolytus, who was martyred in
the year 235. This very important work gives
an account of the heretical sects of the first and
second centuries, and is very valuable for the
quotations it makes from such heretics as Valen-
tinus and Basilides, who flourished A. D. 125,
and from whom are given quotations from John's
gospel.
4. The "Diatessaron" of Tatian. This Syrian
Christian father died before A. D. 172. His fa-
mous work, discovered and brought to the knowl-
edge of the world not less than twenty years ago,
is a harmony of the four gospels, and begins
with the first words of John's gospel, and uses
that gospel, as well as others, very freely. It is
a conclusive proof of the unquestioned acceptance
of the gospel as early as the year 170.
5. The Epistle of Barnabas. A complete Greek
copy of this epistle, which goes back nearly if
not quite, to the beginning of the second century,
was discovered in 1859 by Tischendorf. This
quotes Matthew under the formula, "It is writ-
ten." It is of very great value, and was early re-
garded as itself canonical.
6. The "Shepherd" of Hcrmas. The Greek
text of the most of this important series of
Visions and Mandates, which date from as early
as the middle of the second century, is also one
of tlie discoveries of the last forty years. It casts
much light on the condition of the early church,
MAOCH
1112
MARAH
though the long work does not quote the New
Testament.
7. The Epistle of Clement of Rome, proba-
bly written A. D. 97. A second copy of this was
found by Bryennios, and published several years
ago. Such a manuscript cannot but be of the first
importance. It gives quotations from Paul.
8. The last of these discoveries, belonging to
the last two or three years, is the very important
"Teaching of the Apostles," a work which proba-
bly goes back to the early years of the second
century, and very likely to the last part of the
first century, and which gives us the first church
manual ever written, on which the so-called
Syrian or Coptic Constitutions and the better
known Greek Apostolic Constitutions were in
considerable part founded. This work, so remark-
ably preserved and discovered, casts a clearer
light than any other on the origin of the offi-
cers in the church, and the early character of its
services and teachings. It quotes considerable
portions of the Sermon on the Mount.
These great discoveries of this century, with
others of less importance that might be men-
tioned, have thrown a full beam of light on the
dark imerval which separated the day of the
Apostles from the days of Irenaeus and Clement
of Alexandria. They answer most satisfactorily
questions of critical doubt raised by skeptical
scholars. They remove many difficulties and car-
ry the gospel of John, as well as other portions
of the New Testament, back 10 the very days
of the Apostle John, before he died in Ephesus.
The condition of the argument is much altered
since Norton wrote on the genuineness of the
gospels. Every discovery has only confirmed tlie
faith of the church in its accepted Scriptures.
To doubt that they are the products of the
years to which they assign themselves or have
been assigned by the Church, now appears to
betray willful skepticism.
HAOCH (ma'ok), (Heb. T^?, tnaw-oke' , poor, a
poor one, a breast band).
The father of Achish, king of Gath, to whom
David fled for safely (i Sam. xxvii:2). (B. C.
before 1000.)
MAON' {ma'on), (Heb. T^''?, viaw-ohn').
1. A town in the tribe of Judah (Josh, xv:
55), which gave name to a wilderness where Da-
vid hid himself from Saul, and around which the
churlish Nabal had great possessions {\ Sam.
x.xiii :24, 25; xxv:2). Jerome places it 10 the
east of t)aroma (Onomast. s. v. Maon). The name
does not occur in modern times, and Dr. Robin-
son regards it as one of the sites first identified
by himself. Irby and Mangles were in the neigh-
borhood in 1818, but did not detect this and other
ancient names. Robinson finds it in the present
Tell Main, which is about seven miles south by
east from Hebron. Here there is a conical hill
about 200 feet high, on the top of which are some
ruins of no great extent, consisting of foundations
of hewn stone, a square enclosure, the remains
probably of a tower or castle, and several cisterns.
The view from the summit is extensive. This is
Tell MaSn. The traveler found here a band of
peasants keeping their flocks, and dwelling in
caves amid the ruins. (Bibl. Researches, ii. 190-
196.)
2. Son of Shammai, of the tribe of Judah, and
founder of Rcth-zur (i Chron. ii:45). Perhaps
the name is here used collectively for the inhab-
itants of the town of Maon.
MAONTTES (ma'on-ites), (Heb. V^^, maw-
ohn'), a tribe mentioned (Judg. x:l2) along with
the Amalekites, Zidonians, Philistines, etc. In 2
Chron. xxvi:7, they are called Mehuiiims, and are
mentioned along with the Arabians.
There is still a city Maan with a castle in
Arabia Petrsa, south of the Dead Sea and near
Wady Mousa. Burckhardt's Travels in Syria,
etc., p. 437). (See Mehunims, The.)
MARA (ma'ra), (Heb. *'^^, maw-raw' , bitter),
the name chosen by Naomi as symbolical of her
bereavements (Ruth i:20).
KAKAH (ma'rah), (Heb. '''^'?, maw-raw', bit-
terness).
(1) The Bitter Waters. The Israelites in
departing from Egypt made some stay on the
shores of the Red Sea, at the place where it had
been crossed by them. From this spot they pro-
ceeded southward for three days without finding
any water, and then came to a well, the waters
of which were so bitter, that, thirsty as they
were, they could not drink them. The well was
called Marah from the quality of its waters. This
name, in the form of Amarah, is now borne by
the barren bed of a winter torrent, a little be-
yond which is still found a well called Howara,
whose bitter waters answer to this descrip-
tion. Camels will drink it; but the thirsty Arabs
never partake of it themselves; and it is said to
be the only water on the shore of the Red Sea
which they cannot drink. The water of this
well, when first taken into the mouth, seems in-
sipid rather than bitter, but when held in the
mouth a few seconds it becomes exceedingly
nauseous.
The Hebrews, unaccustomed as yet to the hard-
ships of the desert, and having been -in the habit
of drinking their full of the best water in the
world, were much distressed by its scarcity in
the region wherein they now wandered; and in
their disappointment of the relief expected from
this well, they murmured greatly against Moses
for having brought them into such a dry wilder-
ness, and asked him, 'What shall we drink?' On
this Moses cried to Jehovah, who indicated to
him 'a certain tree,' on throwing the branches of
which into the well, its waters became sweet and
fit for use.
(2) Was the Change MiraculousP The
question connected with this operation is— «
whether the effect proceeded from the inherent
virtueof the tree in sweetening bad water; orthat
it had no such virtue, and that the effect was
purely miraculous. In support of the former al-
ternative, it may be asked why the tree should
have been poicited out and used at all, unless it
had a curative virtue? And 10 this the answer
may be found in the numerous instances in which
God manifests a purpose of working even his
miracles in accordance with the general laws by
which he governs the world, and for that pur-
pose disguising the naked exhibition of super-
natural power, by the interposition of an apparent
CTUse, while yet the true character of the event
is left indisputable, by the utter inadequacy of
the apparent cause to produce, by itself, the re-
sulting effect. This tends to show that the tree,
or portion of it, need not be supposed, from the
mere fact of its being employed, to have had an
inhercni curative virtue. It had not necessarily
any such virtue: and that it positively had not
such virtue seems to follow, or, at least, to be
rendered more than probable by the consideration
— that, in the scanty and little diversified vege-
MARALAH
1113
MARK
tation of this district, any such very desirable
virtues in a tree, or part of a tree, could scarcely
have been undiscovered before the time of the
history, and if they liad been discovered, could
not but liave been known to Moses; and the
Divine indication of the tree would not have been
needful. And, again, if the corrective qualities
were inherent, but were at this time first made
known, it is incredible that so valuable a dis-
covery would ever have been forgotten ; and yet
it is manifest that in after-times the Hebrews had
not the knowledge of any tree which could ren-
der bad water drinkable ; and the inhabitants of
the desert have not only not preserved the knowl-
edge of a fact which would have been so impor-
tant to tlieni, but have not discovered it in the
thirty-five centuries which have since passed.
This is shown by the inquiries of travelers, some
of whom were actuated by the wish of finding a
plant which might supersede the miracle. No
such plant, however, can be found ; and whatever
the tree was, it can have had no more inherent
virtue in sweetening the bitter well of Marah,
than the salt had. which produced the same eflfect,
when thrown by Elisha into the well of Jericho
(Lindsay, i. 263-5).
MARALAH (mar'a-lah), (Heb. ^)?y^. mar-al-
aw' , eartli'quake, declivity).
A landmark on the southern boundary of the
tribe of Zebulun. but apparently within Issachar
(Josh. xix:ii). Not identified.
MARAN-ATHA (mar'an-ath'a), (Gr. tuipav i.66.,
niaraii' atli-ah' ,Ch;ild. "'7^ **^T'*?. our Lord Com-
eth).
An expression used by St. Paul at the conclu-
sion of his First Epistle to the Corinthians: "If
any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him
be Anathema Maran-atha" (xvi:22l. It may
have been used as a watchword, common to all
believers in the first age. Connected here with
an anathema, or curse, it is the Christian's re-
minder of the advent of the judge to execute the
anathema. (See Anathema.)
MARBLE (mar'b'l). (Heb. T"^'- shah'yhh, "^t,
s/ies/i), white marble or crystalline limestone, was
used for colunuis and costly pavements (Esth. i:6;
(Zant. v:l5), and was the material out of which
Solomon's temple was constructed (l Chron.
xxix:2).
It was obtained for the most part from quarries
underneath the Temple ?rea. (See Jerusalem.)
MARCHESHVAN ( mar - kesh' van ), (Heb.
The Macedonian Ams, or Zeus, is the name of
that month which was the eighth of the sacred,
and the second of the civil, year of the Jews;
which began with the new moon of our Novem-
ber. There was a fast on the 6th, in memory of
Zedckiah's being blinded, after he had witnessed
the slaughter of his sons (2 Kings xxv:?).
This month is always spoken of in the Old
Testament by its numerical designation; except
once, when it is called Bui (^12, I Kings vi:
38), supposed to be shortened form of the He-
brew 'rain.' The signification of rain-month is
exactly suitable to November in the climate of
Palestine. J. N.
MARCUS (mar'kus), (Col. iv:lo; Philem. 24; I
Pet. v:i3'). See Mark.
MARESHAH (ma-re'sha), (Heb. •'''f^.". mar-ay-
ihaw' , summit).
!• A town in the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv:44),
rebuilt and fortified by Rchoboam (2 Chron. xi:
8). The Ethiopians under Zerah were defeated
by Asa in the valley near Mareshah (2 Chron.
xiv:9-i3). It was laid desolate by Judas Macca-
baeus, on his march from Hebron to Ashdod (l
Mace. v:65-68; Joseph. Aniiq. xii;8, 6). Jo-
sephus mentions it among the towns possessed
by Alexander Jannaeus, which had been in the
hands of the Syrians (Antiq. xiii:i5. 4); but by
Pompey it was restored to the former inhab-
itants, and attached to the province of Syria
(xiv. 4. 4). Maresa was among the towns re-
built by Gabinius (Antiq. xiv. 5. 3), but was again
destroyed by the Parthians in their irruption
against Herod (xiv. 5. 3). A place so often
mentioned in history must have been of consider-
able importance ; but it does not appear that it
was ever again rebuilt. The site, however, is set
down by Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v.
Morasthi), as within two miles of Eleutheropolis,
but the direction is not stated. Dr. Robinson
(Bibl. Researches, ii. 422) found, at a mile and
a half south of the site of Eleutheropolis, a re-
markable tell, or artificial hill, with foundationi
of some buildings. As there are no other ruins
in the vicinity, and as the site is admirably suited
for a fortress, this, he supposes, may have been
Mareshah. Conder suggested el- Marah. south of
the valley of Elah, as Mareshah, but lately has
accepted M'erash as the site.
2. The "father" of Hebron ; in the line of Ju-
dah (i Chron. ii:42), by which it is apparently
meant that he was the progenitor of the inhab-
itants of Hebron. (B. C. 1190.)
3. Son of Laadah, of the family of Shelah ;
perhaps the founder of a place by tlie same name
(i Chron. iv:2l). Perhaps identical with 2. (B.C.
about 1612.)
MARINER (mar'I-ner), (Heb. "t^, ma/-
lawkh'. Ezek. xxvii:g, 27, 29; to shoot, row, xxvii.
8), a sailor. (See Ship.)
MARISHES (m5r'ish-6s), an old form of Marsh
(which sec).
MARK (mark), (Gr. yidprnt, mar'kos, from the
common Latin name Marcus).
According to ecclesiastical testimonies the
evangelist Mark is the same person who in the
Acts is called by the Jewish name John, whose
Roman surname was Marcus (Acts xii:i2, 25).
This person is sometimes called simply John
(Acts xiiirs, 13); and sometimes Mark (Acts
xv:39).
Mary, Mark's mother, had a house at Jerusalem,
in which the Apostles were wont to assemble
(Acts xii:i2). In the Epistle to the Colossians
(iv:io, 11) Mark is mentioned among the as-
sistants of Paul, and as being one of the con-
verts from Judaism. From this passage we learn
also that Mark was a cousin of Barnabas, which
circumstance confirms the opinion that he was
of Jewish descent. It was probably Barnabas
who first introduced him to Paul. He accompa-
nied Paul and Barnabas on their travels as an
assistant (Acts xii 125 ; xiii:5). When they had
arrived in Pamphylia, Mark left them and re-
turned to Jerusalem, from which city they had
set out (Acts xiii:i3). On this account Paul
refused to take Mark with him on his second
Apostolical journey, 'and so Barnabas took Mark,
and sailed unto Cyprus' (Acts xv 137-39). It
seems, however, that Mark, at a later period, be-
came reconciled to Paul, since, according to Col.
iv:io, and Philem. 24, he was with the Apostle
MARK
1114
MARK
during his first captivity at Rome ; and according
to 2 Tim. iv:il, he was also with him during
his second captivity. The passage in Colossians
proves also that he was about to undertake for
Paul a journey to Colosse.
There is a unanimous ecclesiastical tradition
that Mark was the companion and interpreter
of Peter and either orally or in writing communi-
cated and developed what Peter taught. The
testimony in favor of the connection between
Mark and Peter is so old and respectable, that
it cannot be called in question. It first occurs at
the commencement of the second century, and
proceeds from the presbyter John (Euseb. Hist.
Eccles. iii:3g); it afterwards appears in Irensus
(Adv. Har, iii. i. i, and x. 6) ; in TertuUian
(Contra Mart. iv. 5) ; in Clemens Alexandrinus,
Jerome, and others.
The Gospel According to fltaf^'
(1) Testimony of Eusebius. The same ancient
authors who call Mark a disciple and secretary
of Peter, state also that he wrote his Gospel ac-
cording to the discourses of that Apostle. The
most ancient statement of this fact is that of the
presbyter John and of Papias, which we quote
verljatim from Eusebius {Hist. Eccles. iii. 39) as
follows : "Mark having become secretary to
Peter, whatever he put into style he wrote with
accuracy, but did not observe the chronological
order of the discourses and actions of Christ, be-
cause he was neither a hearer nor a follower of
the Lord; but at a later period, as I have said,
wrote for Peter, to meet the requisites of instruc-
tion, but by no means with the view to furnish
a connected digest of the discourses of our Lord.
Consequently Mark was not in fault when he
wrote down circumstances as he recollected them;
for he had only the intention to omit nothing
of what he had heard, and not to misrepresent
anything." Critics usually ascribe all these words
to the presbyter. Schmidt especially observes,
in his Einleiiimg ins Neue Testament Nachtrsge
(p. 270), that he himself had erroneously quoted
this testimony as the words of Papias; but it
seems to us that the words <is i^i-nv do not allow
us to consider all this passage as belonging to
the presbyter. Papias had not before his eyes
a book of the presbyter, and he seems to have
alluded to that passage of his own work to which
Eusebius refers in his second book (ch. xv.), in
which work Papias had given some account re-
specting the life of this evangelist. According to
this view it seems that, with the words oCtc vAp
^Kova-e, there begins an explanation of the words of
the presbyter.
(2) Kelation to Peter. It has been observed
in the article Gospel (which see) that this pas-
sage has been made use of in order to disprove
the existence of an orally fixed evangelium-tra-
dition, since it is here stated that Peter preached
as circumstances required. To this we replied
that Papias considers the Gospel of Mark to be
the reflex of the discourses of Peter, in which
character they are described by the presbyter;
and since the Gospel of Mark really contains a
sketch of the life of Jesus, the account of the
presbyter does not imply that the discourses of
Peter could not likewise have contained a sketch
of his life. The presbyter only says that Peter
did not furnish a complete life of Jesus, em-
bracing a history of his infancy, youth, etc.; and
that, therefore, the account of Peter was in some
respects incomplete, since he, as Papias states,
omitted various circumstances. Schleiermacher,
and after him Strauss, have turned this into an
argument against the Gospel of Mark. Tliev
assert that this gospel is a summary, which, if
not chronological, is at least a concatenation ac-
cording to the subjects. Now the presbyter states
that Mark wrote without order. By this ex-
pression they consider all such arrangement ex-
cluded; consequently they infer that the presbyter
John, the old disciple of the Lord, spoke of an-
other Mark. We learn, however, from what
Papias adds, how Papias himself understood the
words of the presbyter ; and we perceive that he
explains his statement by the term, tvriting iso-
lated facts. Hence it appears that the words
06 rdjei signify only incompleteness, but do not
preclude all and every sort of arrangement.
It would be arbitrary, indeed, to suppose that
another Mark had an existence in the earliest
times of Christianity, without having any his-
torical testimony for such a supposition. Then- is
no indication that there was any other Mark in
the early times of Christianity besides the Mark
mentioned in the Acts, who is also reported to
have been the author of that gospel which bears
his name.
(3) Place among' the Gospels. We have
mentioned in the article Luke (which sec)
that, according to Irenaus, the Gospels of
Mark and Luke were written later than that of
Matthew ; and according to a tradition preserved
by Clemens Alexandrinus, the Gospels of Mat-
thew and Luke preceded that of Mark. The
chronological order of the gospels is, according
to Origen, the same in which they follow each
other in the codices. Irenasus (Adversus
Hayeses, iii. i) states that Mark wrote after the
death of Peter and Paul ; but, according to Clem-
ens Alexandrinus {Hypotypos. vi.) and Eusebius
(Hist. Eccles. vi. 14), he wrote at Rome while
Peter was yet living. These various data leave
us in uncertainty. If the opinions concerning
the relation of Mark to Matthew and Luke,
which have been current since the days of
Griesbach, were correct', we might be able to form
a true idea concerning the chronological succes-
sion in which the first three gospels were writ-
ten. Griesbach, Saunier, Strauss, and many oth-
ers state it as an unquestionable fact, that the
Gospel of Mark was merely an abridgment of
the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. De Wette,
even in the latest edition of his Einleitung, 1842,
calls this opinion erwiesen 'demonstrated' (see
pp. 130 and 157). The value of such demon-
strations may be learned from what appears to
De Weite the most certain proof of the alleged
fact, viz., that the statements of Mark concern-
ing the temptation of Christ are merely an
abridgment of other sources. But we do not
perceive why it should be impossible to furnish
a condensed statement from oral communications.
Weisse, Wolke, and Bauer, on the other hand,
have, in recent times, asserted that the Gospel of
Mark was the most ancient of all the gospels,
that Luke amplified the Gospel of Mark, and
that Matthew made additions to both. Weisse
and Wolke employ some very artificial expedients
in order to explain how it happened that, if Luke
and Matthew transcribed Mark, there should
have arisen a considerable difference both in
words and contents. Wolke especially accuses
Luke and Matthew of intentional misrepresenta-
tions. In the article (Jospel we have stated our
opinion concerning the relative position in which
the evangelists stand to each other. We do not
see any reason to contradict the unanimous tra-
dition of antiquity concerning the dependence of
Mark upon Peter. We deem it possible, and
MARK
1U5
MARRIAGE
even probable, that Ltike read Mark, and that
he also alludes to him by reckoning him among
the ]>tany who had written gospel history before
him. This supposition, however, is by no means
necessary or certain ; and it is still possible that
Mark wrote after Luke. Some of ihe ancient
testimonies which we have quoted, namely, those
of Irenaeus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome, and
others, state that Mark's Gospel was written at
Rome. Whether this was the case or not, it is
certain that it was written for Gentile Chris-
tians. This appears from the explanation of
Jewish customs (ch. vii:2, ii; xii:i8; xiii:3;
xiv:i2; xv:6, 42). The same view is confirmed
by the scarcity of quotations from the Old Testa-
ment, perhaps also by the absence of the geneal-
ogy of Christ, and by the omission of the Ser-
mon on the Mount, which explains the relation of
Christ to the Old Testament dispensation, and
which was, therefore, of the greatest importance
to Matthew.
(4) Peculiarity of Mark. The characteristic
peculiarity of Mark as an author is particularly
manifest in two points: (i) He reports rather
the works than the discourses of our Savior ;
(2) He gives details more minutely and graphic-
ally than Matthew and Luke; for instance, he
describes the cures effected by Jesus more ex-
actly (iv:3i, 41; vi:5, 13; vii :33; viii:23). He
is also more particular in stating definite numbers
(v:i3, 42; vi:7, 14, 30), and furnishes more exact
dates and times (i:32, 3S ; ii:i,26; iv:26,35; vi:2;
:ci:ii, 19, 20, etc.). It may be that ihese charac-
teristics of Mark originated from his connection
with Peter.
Most of the materials of Mark's narrative oc-
cur also in Matthew and Luke. He has, however,
sections exclusively belonging to himself, viz. iii :
21, 31, sq.; vi:i7, ^17.; xi:ii ; xii :28. sq.
We mention the conclusion of Mark's Gospel
separately, since its genuineness may be called in
question. Among the Codices MajuscuH the Co-
dex B. omits ch. xvi :9-20 altogether, and several
of the Codices Miiiusculi mark this section with
asterisks as doubtful. Several ancient Fathers and
authors of Scholia state that it was wanting in
some manuscripts. We cannot, however, suppose
that it was arbitrarily added by a copyist, since
at present all codices, except B, and all ancient
versions contain it, and the Fathers in general
quote it. We may also say that Mark could not
have concluded his gospel with ver. 8, unless he
had been accidentally prevented from finishing
it. Hence Michaelis and Hug have inferred that
the addition was made by the evangelist at a
later period, in a similar manner as John made
an addition in ch. xxi. of his gospel. Perhaps
also an intimate friend, or an amanuensis, sup-
plied the defect. If either of these two hypoth-
eses is well founded, it may be understood why
several codices were formerly without this con-
clusion, and why, nevertheless, it was found in
most of them. A. T.
MAKK (mark). This term is variously used.
1. (Hcb. r?, bin). A sign or brand fixed on
the forehead, hand or other part of the body for
the purpose of identification (Ezek. ix;4, 6).
2. (Heb. nix, oi/ie). Whether God set a "mark"
on Cain's person to distinguish him from others,
or only gave him some token, as he did Gideon
that he would make him conquer the Midianites,
and that he would preserve him, we know not
(Gen. iv ns").
3. It is used in the sense of a target (Heb.
^Ti^, mai-taw-raw' , yiAtc\\eA, I Sam. xx:2o; Job
xvi:i2; Lam.iii:i2).
In Gal. vi:i7 Paul writes, "Henceforth let
no inan trouble me. for I bear in my body the
marks of the Lord Jesus Christ," ». e., the brand
of my master, Jesus Christ. The Greek aHyna
(stig'mah) is the common word for the brand or
mark with which masters marked their slaves. St.
Paul's sufferings and scars were the marks or
brands of Christ, his master.
The mark (Or. x'^P'^T/t"^, khar" ag-mah, stamp)
was stamped on the right hand or the forehead as
the badge of the followers of Antichrist (Rev.
xiii:i6; xiv :9, 11; xvi :2 ; xix:20; xx:4).
MARKET (mar'ket), (Heb. ^'JJ?^??, niah-ar-awb\
a mercantile term found only in Ezek. xxvii
(rendered "merchandise," except in verses 13, 17,
"9. 25)-
It appears to have been used in several senses:
(i) Barter (ver. 9, 27) ; (2) [•lace ol trade (marg.,
verses 12, 13, 17, 19J ; (3) gain resulting from
trade (ver. 27, 34). In the New Testament see
Matt. xxiii:7; Mark xii:38; Luke xi:43; xx:46;
Acts xvi: 19, etc., and we learn from Matt, xx 13
that not only were all kinds of produce offered for
sale here, but hither resorted also the laborers to
find employment. The market of an ancient
Greek or Roman town occupied generally one
side of an area, the other sides being occupied by
public buildings, temples, courts, and offices of
various kinds. Laws were promulgated here, ju-
dicial investigations were instituted; questions of
philosophy and public interest were discussed ;
and all kinds of trade and business were carried
on. It was frequented by business-men and by
crowds of idlers and loungers. In a strictly Ori-
ental city, such as Jerusalem, the market had not,
like the forum, this character of being the center
of all public life. Still, it was always a lively
place, generally situated just within the gate,
and the principal scene of trade and traffic.
Schaff.
MARBIAGE (mSr'rlj), (Heb. •1?''^, c-nawA').
(1) Divine Origin. The Divine origin of mar-
riage, and the primitive state of the institution,
are clearly recorded in the instance of the first
human pair (Gen. ii:i8-25), whence it appears
that woman was made after man to be 'a helper
suited to him.' The narrative is calculated to
convey exalted ideas of the institution. It is in-
troduced by a declaration of the Lord God, that
'it is not good that the man should be alone' (ver.
18) ; of the truth of which Adam had become
convinced by experience. In order still further
to enliven his sense of his deficiency, the various
species of creatures are made to pass in review
before him, 'to see what he would call them ;' on
which occasion he could behold each species ac-
companied by its appropriate helper, and upon
concluding his task would become still more af-
fectingly aware, that amid all animated nature
'there was not found an help meet for himself.'
It was at this juncture, when his heart was thus
thoroughly prepared to appreciate the intended
blessing, that a Divine slumber (Sept. iKaraais, ech '-
stasis) or trance, fell upon him — a state in which,
as in after ages, the exercise of the external senses
being suspended, the mental powers are pecu-
liarly prepared to receive revelations from God
(Gen. xv:i2; Acts x:io: xxii:i7; 2 Cor. xii:2).
His exclamation when Eve was brought to him
shows that he had been fully conscious of the
circumstances of her creation, and had been in-
MARRIAGE
1116
MARRIAGE
strutted by them as to the nature of the relation
which would thenceforth subsist between them.
'The man said, this time, it is bone of my bone,
and flesh of my flesh ; this shall be called woman,
for out of man was this taken' (New Transla-
tion by the Rev. D. A. De Sola, etc. Lond. p. 8).
The remaining words, 'for this cause shall a
man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave
unto his wife, and they (two) shall be one flesh,'
which might otherwise seem a proleptical an-
nouncement by the historian of the social obliga-
tions of marriage, are by our Lord ascribed to
the Divine agent concerned in the transaction,
either uttered by him personally, or by the mouth
of Adam while in a state of inspiration. 'Have
ye not read that he that made them at the be-
ginning, made them male and female, and said,
for this cause,' etc. (Matt. xi.\ ;4, 5).
(2) Monogamous. It is a highly important
circumstance in this transaction that God created
only one female for one man, and united them
— a circumstance which is the very basis of our
Lord's reasoning in the passage against divorce
and remarriage; but which basis is lost, and his
reasoning consequently rendered inconclusive, by
the inattention of our translators to the absence
of the article, 'he made them ipaev xai BijXv,'
a male and a female, 'and said, they shall be-
come one flesh ; so that they are no more two,
but one flesh. What, therefore. God hath joined
together, let no man put asunder.' 'The weight
of our Lord's argument,' says Campbell, 'lay in
this circumstance, that God at first created no
more than a single pair, one of each sex, whom
he united in the bond of marriage, and, in so
doing, exhibited a standard of that union to all
generations. The apostasy introduced a new fea-
ture into the institution, namely, the subjection
of the wife's will to that of her husband (Gen.
iii:i6; comp. Num. xxx:6-l6). The primitive
model was adhered to even by Cain, who seems
to have had but one wife (Gen. iv:i7).
(3) Polygamy. Polygamy, one of the earliest
developments of human degeneracy, was intro-
duced by Lamech, who 'took unto him two wives'
(Gen. iv:i9). The intermarriage of 'the Sons of
God,' i. e. the worshipers of the true God, with
'the daughters of men,' 1. e. the irreligious, is the
next incident in the history of marriage. They
indulged in unrestrained polygamy, 'they took
them wives of all that they chose.' From this
event may be dated that headlong degeneracy of
mankind at this period, which ultimately brought
on them extirpation by a deluge (Gen. vi:3-7).
At the time of that catastrophe Noah had bui one
wife (Gen. vii:7), and so each of his sons (ver.
13). Pursuing the investigation according to
chronological arrangement, Job next appears (B.
C. 2130) as the husband of one wife (Job ii:9;
xix:i7). Reference is made to the adulterer,
who is represented as in terror and accursed
(xxiv:i5-i8). The wicked man is represented
as leaving 'widows' behind him; whence his
polygamy may be inferred (xxviiris). Job ex-
presses his abhorrence of fornication (xxxi:l),
and of adultery (ver. 9), which appears in his
time to have been punished by the judges (ver.
11). Following the same arrangement, we find
Abraham and Nahor introduced as having each
one wife (Gen. xi:29). From the narrative of
Abraham's first equivocaiion concerning Sarah,
it may be gathered that marriage was held sacred
in Egypt. Abraham fears that the Egyptians
would sooner rid themselves of him by murder
than infringe by adultery the relation of wife
even to an obscure stranger. The reproof of
Pharaoh. 'Why didst thou say, She is my sister?
so I micht have taken her to me to wife : now
therefore behold thy wife, take her, and go thy
way' (Gen. xii:ii-i9), affords a most honorable
testimony to the views of marriage entertained
by Pharaoh at that period, and most likely by
his court and nation. It seems that Sarah was
Abraham's half-sister. Such marriages were per-
mitted till the giving of the Law (Lev. xviiiig).
Thus Amram, the father of Moses and Aaron,
married his father's sister (Exod. vi:2o), a union
forbidden in Lev. xviii:i2.
(4) Concubinage. The first mention of con-
cubinage, or the condition of a legal though sub-
ordinate wife, occurs in the case of Hagar,
Sarah's Egyptian handmaid, whom Sarah, still
childless, after a residence of ten years in Canaan,
prevailed on Abraham, apparently against his
will, to receive into that relation (Gen. xvi:i).
which was however considered inviolable (Gen.
xlix:4; Lev. xviii:8; 2 Sam. iii :8, 16, 21, 22; i
Chron. v:l). The vehement desire for offspring,
common to women in the East, as appears from
the histories of Rebecca (Gen.xxv:2i), of Rachel
(xx.\:i), of Leah (ver. 5), and of Hannah (l
Sam. i :6, 7), seems to have been Sarah's motive
for adopting a procedure practiced in such cases
in that region in all ages. The miseries naturally
consequent upon it are amply portrayed in the
history of the Patriarchs (Gen. xvi:4-io; xxx:
I. 3. IS)-
Lot does not appear to have exceeded one wife
(Gen. xix:i5). The second equivocation of the
same kind by Abraham respecting Sarah elicits
equally honorable sentiments concerning mar-
riage, on the part of Abimelech, king of Gerar
(Gen. XX :5, 6, 9, 10, etc.), who, it appears, had
but one proper wife (ver. 17; see also ch. xxvi :
7-11). Perhaps Abraham relied on the ancient
custom, which will shortly be adverted to, of
the consent of the 'brother' being requisite to
the sister's marriage, and thus hoped to secure
his wife's safety and his own.
(5) Marriages, How Brought About. In an-
cient times the parents chose wives for their chil-
dren (Gen. xxi :2i ; xxxviii :6 ; Deut. xxii :i6) ; or
the man who wished a particular female asked
his father to obtain her from her father, as in
the case of Shechem, B. C. 1732 (Gen. xx.xiv:
4-6; comp. Judg. xiv:2, 3). The consent of her
brothers seems to have been necessary (verses 5,
8, II, 13, 14; comp. Gen. xxiv:5o; 2 Sam. xiii :
20-29). A dowry was given by the suitor to the
father and bretliren of the female (verses II, 12;
comp. I Sam. xviii:25; Hos. iii 12). This, in a
common case, amounted to from 30 to 50 shekels,
according to the law of Moses (comp. Exnd.
xxii: 16; Deut. xxii:29). Pausanias considers it
so remarkable for a man to part with his daugh-
ter without receiving a marriage-portion for
her, that he takes pains, in a case he mentions, to
explain the reason (Lacon. iii:i2, 2). In later
times we meet with an exception (Tobit viii :
23). It is most likely that from some time before
the last-named period the Abrahamidse restricted
their marriages to circumcised persons (Gen.
xxviii:8; comp, Judg iii:6; I Kings xi :8, 11,
16; Joseph. Antiq. xi :8, 2; xii :4, 6; xviii :9, 5).
(6) 'Various Marriage Accompaniments,
Etc. The marriage of Isaac develops additional
particulars; for beside Abraham's unwillingness
that his son should marry a Canaanitess (Gen.
xxiv:3; comp. xxvi 134; xxvii:46: Exod. xxxiv:
16; Josh. xxiii:i2; Ezra ix:2; x :3. 10. 11). costly
jewels are given to the bride at the betrothal
MARRIAGE
1117
MARRIAGE, CHRISTIAN
(vcr. 22), and 'precious things to her mother and
brother' (ver. 53) ; a customary period between
espousals and nuptials is referred to (ver. 55) ;
and the blessing of an abundant offspring invoked
upon the bride by her relatives (ver. 60) — which
most likely was the only marriage ceremony then
and for ages afterwards (comp. Ruth iv:ll-i3;
Ps. xlv:i6, 17); but in Tobit vii :3, the father
places his daughter's right hand in the hand of
Tobias before he invokes this blessing. It is re-
markable that no representation has been found
of a marriage ceremony among the tombs of
Egypt (Wilkinson's Ancient Egypt, vol. ii., Lond.
1837). The Rabbins say that among the Jews it
consisted of a kiss (Cant. i:2). It is probable
that the marriage covenant was committed to
writing (Prov. ii:i7; Mai. ii:i4; Tobit vii:i3.
14) ; perhaps, also, confirmed with an oath (Ezek.
xvi:8). It seems to have been the custom with
the patriarchs and ancient Jews to bury their
wives in their own graves, but not their con-
cubines (Gen. xlix:3i). In Gen. xxv:l, Abra-
ham, after the death of Sarah, marries a second
wife. Esau's polygamy is mentioned in Gen. xxviii:
9; x.xxvi:2-i3. Jacob serves seven years to ob-
tain Rachel in marriage (Gen. xxix: 18-20); and
has a marriage feast, to which the men of the
place are invited (ver. 22; comp. Cant. v:i;
viii:33). Samson's marriage feast lasts a week,
B. C. 1136 (Judg. xiv:io-i2; comp. John ii :
I, etc.) ; in later times it lasted longer (Tobit
viii:i9). The persons invited to Samson's mar-
riage are young men (Judg. xiv:io) ; called 'sons
of the bridal-chamber' (Matt, ixris). Females
were invited to marriages (Ps. xlv:i4), and at-
tended the bride and bridegroom to their abode
(i Mace. ix:37) ; and in the time of Christ, if it
was evening, with lamps and flambeaux (Matt.
xxv:l-lo). In later ages the guests were sum-
moned when the banquet was ready (Matt, xxii :
3), and furnished with a marriage garment (ver.
11). The father of the bride conducted her at
night to her husband (Gen. xxix;23; Tobit viii:
i). The bride and bridegroom were richly orna-
mented (Is. lxi:io). In Mesopotamia, and the
East generally, it was the custom to marry the
eldest sister first (Gen. xxix:26). By the decep-
tion practiced upon Jacob in that country, he
marries two wives, and, apparently, without any
one objecting (ver. 31). Laban obtains a promise
from Jacob not to marry any more wives than
Rachel and Leah (Gen. xxxi:5o). The wives
and concubines of Jacob, and their children, travel
together (Gen. xxxii :22, 23) ; but a distinction is
made between them in the hour of danger (Gen.
xxxiii:i. 2; comp. Gen. xxv:6).
(7) Details Regarding marriages, Etc. It
would seem, from the instance of Potiphar's wife,
that monogamy was practiced in Egypt (Gen.
xxxix:7). Pharaoh gave to Joseph one wife
(Gen. xli:45). The Israelites, while in Egypt,
seem to have restricted themselves to one. One
case is recorded of an Israelitish woman who
married an Egyptian man (Lev. xxiv:io). The
giving of the law (B. C. 1491) acquaints us with
many regulations concerning marriage, which
were different from the practices of the Jews
while in Egypt, and from those of the Canaanites,
to whose land they were approaching (Lev. xviii:
3). There we find laws for regulating the mar-
riages of bondmen (Exod. xxi:3, 4), and of a
bondmaid (verses 7-12). The prohibition against
marriages with the Canaanites is established by a
positive law (Deut. vii:3). Marriage is pro-
hibited with any one near of kin. 'of the re-
mainder of his flesh' (Lev. xviii :6-i9). A priest
is prohibited from marrying one that had been a
harlot, or divorced (Lev. xxi7). The high-
priest was also excluded from marrying a widow,
and restricted to one wife (verses 13, 14). Daugh-
ters who, through want of brothers, were heir-
esses to an estate were required 10 marry into
their own tribe, and if possible, a kinsman, to pre-
vent the estate passing into another family (Num.
xxvii:l-li; xxxvi:i-i2). The husband had pow-
er to annul his wife's vow, if he heard it, and
interfered at the time (Num. xxx:6-i6). If a
man had betrothed a wife, he was exempt from
the wars, etc. (Deut. xx:7; xxiv:s). It was al-
lowed to marry a beautiful captive in war, whose
husband probably had been killed (Deut. xxi :
10-14, etc.). Abundance of offspring was one of
the blessings promised to obedience, during the
miraculous providence which superintended the
Theocracy (Lev. xxvi:9; Deut. vii: 13, 14; xxviii:
11; Ps. cxxvii:3; cxxviii:3); and disappoint-
ment in marriage was one of the curses (Deut.
xxviii:i8, 30; comp. also Jer. vi;i2 ; viii:io).
A daughter of a distinguished person was
offered in marriage as a reward tor perilous
services (Josh. xv;i6, 17; i Sam. xvii:25). Con-
cubinage appears in Israel, B. C. 1413. (Judg.
xix:l-4). The violation of a concubine is avenged
(Judg. xx:s-io). Polygamy (Judg. viii:30). The
state of marriage among the Philistines may be
inferred, in the lime of Samson, from the sud-
den divorce from him of his wife by her father,
and her being given to his friend (Judg. xiv:20),
and from the father offering him a younger sis-
ter instead (Judg. xv:2). David's numerous
wives (2 Sam. iii:3-5). In Ps. xlv., which is
referred to this period by the best harmonists,
there is a description of a royal marriage upon
a most magnificent scale. The marriage of Solo-
mon to Pharaoh's daughter is recorded in i Kings
iii:i; to which the Song of Solomon probably
relates, and from which it appears that his
mother 'crowned him with a crown on the day of
his espousals' (verses 3. 11; and see Sept. and
Vulg. of Is. lxi:io). It would appear that in
his time females were married young (Prov.
ii:i7; comp. Joel i :8) ; also males (Pro\'. v:
18). An admirable description of a good wife
is given in Prov. xxxi:io-3i. The excessive
multiplication of wives and concubines was the
cause and effect of Solomon's apostasy in his
old age (i Kings xi:l-8). He confesses his error
in Ecclesiastes, where he eulogizes monogamy
(ix:9; ii:io). Rehoboam took a plurality of
wives (2 Chron. xi:i8-2i); and so Abijah (2
Chron. xiii:2l), and Ahab (l Kings xx:3), and
Belshazzar, king of Babylon (Dan. v:2). It
would seem that the outward manners of the
Jews, about the time of our Lord's advent, had
become improved, since there is no case recorded
in the New Testament of polygamy or concubin-
age among them.
MABRIAGE, CHRISTIAN (mar'rij, krls'-
chan),
(i) Our Lord excludes all causes of divorce,
except adultery (Matt. v:32), and ascribes the
origin of ilie Mosaic law to the hardness of their
hearts. The same doctrine concerning divorce
had been taught by the prophets (Jer. iii:i;
Micah ii:9; Mai. ii:i4-i6).
(2) The apostles inculcate the sacredness of
marriage (Rom. vii:3; i Cor. vii :4, 10, 11, 39);
yet St. Paul considers obstinate desertion by an
unbelieving party as a release (l Cor. vii:i5).
(3) Our Lord does not reprehend celibacy for
the sake of religion, 'those who make themselves
MARRIAGE, LEVIRATE
1118
MARRIAGE PROCESSIONS
eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake' (Matt.
xix:i2; comp. I Cor. vii :32, 36).
(4) Second marriages not condemned in case of
death ( I Cor. vii :39) .
(5) Mixed marriages disapproved (Deut. vii:3;
2 Cor. vi:i4).
(6) Early marriage not recommended (i Cor.
vii 136) . J- F. D.
Figurative. Both in the Old Testament and
in the New Testament the betrothal, marriage
feast, and marriage have given rise to numer-
ous allegorical and typical allusions, the rela-
tion between Jehovah and his chosen people being
the point of comparison in the Old Testament
(Is. liv:5; Jer. iii:i4; Hos. ii:i9, etc.); that of
Christ and his Church in the New Testament
(Matt. ix:is; John iii:29; 2 Cor. xi:2; Rev.
xix:;).
Literature. Evans, Christian Doctrine of
Marriage (Baltimore, i860) ; and magazine ar-
ticles as cited in Poole's Index ; Holy Matrimony,
Oscar D. Watkins, M. A. Rivington, Percival
& Co., (London, 1895).
MARRIAGE, liEVIRATE (mar'rij lev'i-rSt),
the marriage of a childless widow to her hus-
band's brother or nearest of kin, according to an-
cient Israelitish law.
Judah, Jacob's son by Leah, had married a
Canaanitish woman (Gen. xxxviii:2). His first-
born son was Er (ver. 3). Judah took a wife for
him (ver. 6). Er soon after died (ver. 7), and
Judah said to Onan, 'Go in unto thy brother's
wife, Tamar, and marry her, and raise up seed
to thy brother.' 'Onan knew that the offspring
would not be his.' All these circumstances be-
speak a pre-established and well-known law, and
he evaded the purpose of it, and thereby, it is
said, incurred the wrath of (jod (ver. 10). It
seems from the same account, to have been well
understood, that upon his death the duty de-
volved upon the next surviving brother. No
change is recorded in this law till just before the
entrance of Israel into Canaan (B. C. 1451). at
which time Moses modified it by new regulations
to this effect:— 'If brethren dwell together («. e.
in the same locality), and one of them die, and
leave no child, the wife of the dead must not
marry out of the family, but her husband's
brother or his next kinsman must take her to
wife, and perform the duty of a husband's
brother, and the firstborn of this union shall
succeed in the name of his deceased father, that
his name may be extant in Israel ;' not literally
bear his name, for Ruth allowed her son by Boaz
to be called Obed, and not Mahlon, the name of
her first husband (Ruth iv:i7, yet see Josephus,
Antiq., iv. 8, 23). In case the man declined the
office, the woman was to bring hirn before the
elders, loose his shoe from off his foot, and
spit in, or, as some render it, before his face, by
way of contempt (Deut. xxv:9, 10; Josephus un-
derstands in the face, Antiq. v. 9. 4), and shall
say, 'So shall it he done unto the man that will
not build up his brother's house ; and his name
shall be called in .Israel, the house of him that
hath his shoe loosed.' It does not appear that
the original law was binding on the brother, if
already married; and we may well believe that
Moses, who wished to mitigate it, allowed of that
exception. The instance of Ruth, who married
Boaz, her husband's relation, exhibits the prac-
tice of the law under the Judges. Boaz was
neither the father of, nor the nearest relation to,
Eliniclech, father-in-law to Ruth, the wife of
Mahlon, and yet he married her after the refusal
of him who was the nearest relation (Ruth ii:2o;
iii, iv).
MARRIAGE PROCESSIONS. The proces-
sion accompanying the bride from the house of
her father to that of the bridegroom was gen-
erally one of great pomp, according to the cir-
cumstances of the married couple ; and for this
they often chose the night. Hence, in the parable
of the ten virgins tha.t went to meet the bride and
bridegroom (Matt, xxv) it is said the virgins
were asleep ; and at midnight, being awaked at
the cry of the bridegroom's coming, the foolish
virgins found they had no oil to supply their
lamps; and while they went to buy, the bride-
groom and his attendants passed by.
Mr. Taylor has collected very copious informa-
tion relative to the marriage processions among
the Oriental people, in Fragments, 49, 557. and
674. Many of the circumstances attending these
will be found to contribute aid in the elucida-
tion of two or three passages of Scripture, but
their value would not justify us in appropriating
to them the space they would occupy. "At a
marriage, the procession of which I saw some
years ago," says Mr. Ward, {P'iew of Hist, of
Hindoos, vol. iii. p. 171, 172.) "the bridegroom
came from a distance, and ilie bride lived at
Serampore, to which place the bridegroom was
to come by water. After waiting two or three
hours, at length, near midnight, it was announced,
as if in the very words of Scripture, 'Behold!
the bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to meet him.'
All the persons employed now lighted their lamps,
and ran with them in their hands, to fill up their
stations in the procession; some of them had lost
their lights, and were unprepared, bxit it was
then too late to seek them, and the cavalcade
moved forward to the house of the bride, at
which place the company entered a large and
splendidly illuminated area before the house,
covered with an awning, where a great multitude
of friends, dressed in their best apparel, were
seated upon mats. The bridegroom was carried
in the arms of a friend, and placed in a superb
seat in the midst of the company, where he sat
a short time, and then went into the house, the
door of which was immediately shut, and guarded
by sepoys. I and others expostulated with the
doorkeepers, but in vain. Never was I so struck
with our Lord's beautiful parable as at this mo-
ment:— and the door was shut."
In the beautiful parable of our Lord, there are
ten virgins, who took their lamps, and went in a
company to meet the bridegroom. Five of them
were wise, endued with prudence and discretion ;
the other five were foolish, thoughtless and in-
considerate. The thoughtless took their lamps,
but were so foolish as to take only a little oil
in them to serve the present occasion. But the
prudent, mindful of futurity, and knowing that
the coming of the bridegroom was uncertain, as
well as filling their lamps, prudently took a quan-
tity of oil in their vessels to supply them, that
they might be ready to go forth at a moment's
warning. Having waited long for the bride-
groom, and he not appearing, they all, tired with
long watching, and fatigued with tedious expecta-
tion, were overcome with sleep, and sunk into
profound repose. But lo, at midnight they were
suddenly alarmed with a cry "The bridegroom,
the bridegroom cometh ! Hasten to meet and con-
gratulate him." Roused with this sudden proc-
lamation, they all got up and trimmed their
lamps. But the oil in those that belonged to the
■ foolish virgins, being consumed, they were in the
MARROW
1119
MARTHA
utmost confusion when they found them gone
out; and having nothing in their vessels to fill
them with, they began to see their mistake. In
this extremity they entreated their companions to
impart to them some of their oil, telling them
that their lamps were gone out. To these en-
treaties the prudent answered, that they had only
provided a sufficient quantity for their own use,
and therefore advised them to go and purchase
oil of those who sold it. They departed accord-
ingly, but while absent on this errand, the bride-
groom came, and the prudent virgins, being pre-
pared for his reception, went along with him to
the nuptial entertainment, and the door was shut.
After some time the others returned, and, knock-
ing loud, supplicated earnestly for admission. But
the bridegroom repulsed them, telling them. Ye
pretended to be my friends, and to do me honor
on this occasion; but ye have not acted as friends,
for which reason / kiwzv you not; 1 do not ac-
knowledge you as my friends, and will not admit
strangers.
From another parable, in which a great king
is represented as making a most magnificent en-
tertainment at the marriage of his son (Matt,
xxii), we learn that all the guests who were
honored with an invitation were expected to be
dressed in a manner suitable to the splendor
of such an occasion, as a token of just re-
spect to the newly-married couple ; and that after
the procession, in the evening, from the bride's
house was concluded, the guests, before they
were admitted into the hall where the entertain-
ment was served up, were taken into an apart-
ment and viewed, that it might be known if any
stranger had intruded, or if any of the company
were appareled in raiment unsuitable to the
genial solemnity they were going to celebrate ;
and such, if found, were expelled from the house
with every mark of ignominy and disgrace. From
the knowledge of this custom the following pas-
sage receives great light and luster. When the
kmg came in to see the guests, he discovered
among them a person who had not on a wedding
garment. He called him and said, Friend, how
came you to intrude into my palace in a dress
so unsuitable to this occasion? The man was
struck dumb: he had no apology to offer for this
disrespectful neglect. The king then called to his
servants, and bade them bind him hand and foot,
to drag him out of the room, and thrust him out
into the midnight darkness. Harwood.
MARROW (mar'ro), (Heb. ^'^, mo'akh. Job
xxi:24
. -n:3
, maw-khaiv' , to mix with marrow. Is.
xxv:6; Gr. iive\6i, moo-el-os' , Heb. iv:i2; '■^^<
kheh'leb, Ps. lxiii:5, the richest or choice part, and
W^ , shik-koo' ee , Prov. iii;8, inoisture).
Marrow is a soft, oleaginous, and very nour-
ishing substance, contained in the hollow of some
animal bones, and which strengthens them, and
promotes their healing when broken.
Figurative. To "marrow" are compared,
( I ) The most secret dispositions, thoughts, de-
signs, and desires of our soul (Heb. iv:i2). (2)
Christ and his fulness of righteousness, grace,
and glory, and all the fulness of God in him,
which are the delightful nourishment and
strength of churches, saints, and their holy dispo-
sitions (Ps. lxiii:s; Is. xxv:6). (3) The fear
of the Lord, and departing from evil, which
greatly promote the health and true welfare of
both soul and body (Prov. iii:8). Brown.
MARSENA (mar'se-na), (Heb. ^^^^y^, mar-sen-
aw', worthy), a satrap, or governor of Xerxes
(Esth. i;l4), B. C. 483.
HARSH (marsh), (Heb. **??, geh'beh, a reser-
voir, Ezek. xlvii:ll), a swamp or wet piece of land.
The place referred to by Ezekiel is the "Valley of
Salt," near the Dead Sea; for there the Kidron,
the course of which the prophet describes the holy
waters as following, empties. (Barnes, Peop. Bib.
Diet.)
MARS' HILL (marz hfll), (Gr.'Apcios Trdvos, ar'-
i-os pag'os. Acts xvii:22). See Areopagus.
MART (mart), (Heb. ""!!?, saw-khar', to go
about as a merchant, Is. xxiii:3. See Prov. iii:i4;
Is. xlv;i4), a trading place or emporium.
Delitzsch says the word cannot have this mean-
ing. ( Con. in toco.)
MARTHA (mar'tha), (Gr. MdpSa, mar'tha; Heb.
t1-, mar' thaw, perhaps laily), sister of Lazarus
and Mary, who resided in the same house with
them at Bethany. (See Lazarus.)
From the house ai Bethany being called 'her
house,' in Luke x :38, and from the leading part
which Martha is always seen to take in domestic
matters, it has seemed to some that she was a
widow, to whom the house at Bethany belonged,
and wiih whom her brother and sister lodged;
but this is uncertain, and the coiumon opinion,
that the sisters managed the household of their
brother, is more probable. Luke probably calls it
her house because he had no occasion to men-
tion, and does not mention, Lazarus; and when
we speak of a house which is occupied by dif-
ferent persons, we avoid circumlocuiion by call-
ing it the house of the individual who happens to
be the subject of our discourse. Jesus was in-
timate with this family, and their house was
often his home when at Jerusalem, being ac-
customed to retire thither in the evening, after
having .spent the day in the city. The point which
the Evangelists bring out most distinctly with re-
spect to Martha, lies in the contrariety of dispo-
sition between her and her sister Mary. The first
notice of Christ's visiting this family occurs in
LuJce_x^8-42^ He was received with great atten-
tion by the sisters ; and Martha soon hastened
to provide suitable entertainment for the Lord
and his followers, while Mary remained in his
presence, sitting at his feet, and drinking in the
sacred words that fell from his lips. The ac-
tive, bustling solicitude of Martha, anxious that
the best things in the house should be made sub-
servient to the Master's use and solace, and
the quiet earnestness of Mary, more desirous to
profit by the golden opportunity of hearing his
instructions, than to minister to his personal
wants, strongly mark the points of contrast in the
characters of the two sisters. The part taken
by the sisters in the transactions connected with
the death and resurrection of Lazarus, is entirely
and beautifully in accordance w^ith their previous
history. Martha is still more engrossed with out-
ward things, while Mary surrenders herself more
to her feelings, and to inward meditation. When
they heard that Jesus was approaching. Martha
hastened beyond the village to meet him, 'but
Marv sat still in the house' (Johnjdj20, 22).
When Martha saw Jesus actually appear, whose
presence had been so anxiously desired, she ex-
liiliits a strong degree of faith, and hesitates not
to express a confident hope that he, to whom all
things were possible, would even yet aflford re-
MARTYR
1120
MARY
lief. But, as is usual with persons of her lively
character, when Christ answered, with what
seemed to her a vague intimation, 'Thy brother
shall rise again," she was instantly cast down
from her height of confidence, the reply being
less direct than she expected : she referred this
saying to the general resurrection at the last day,
and thereon relapsed into despondency and grief.
This feeling Jesus reproved, by directing her at-
tention, before all other things, to that inward,
eternal, and Divine life, which consists in union
with him, and which is raised far above the power
even of the grave. This he did in the magnifi-
cent words, 'I am the resurrection, and the life:
he that believeth in me, though he were dead,
yet shall he live : and whosoever liveth and believ-
eth in me shall never die. Believest thou this?' Sor-
row and shame permitted the troubled Martha, in
whose heart the feeling of an unconditional and
entire surrender to his will was re-awakened, to
make only the general confession that he was
actually the promised Messiah ; in which confes-
sion she, however, comprised an acknowledgment
of his power and greatness. It is clear, however,
that she found nothing in this discourse with
Christ, to encourage her first expectation of re-
lief. With the usual rapid change in persons of
lively susceptibilities, she had now as completely
abandoned all hope of rescue for her brother,
as she had before been sanguine of his restora-
tion to life. Thus, when Jesus directed the stone
to be rolled away from the sepulcher, she gath-
ered from this no ground of hope ; but rather
objected to its being done, because the body,
which had been four days in the tomb, must al-
ready have become disagreeable. The reproof
of Christ. 'Said I not unto thee, that, if thou
wouldest believe, thou shouldest see the glory of
God?' suggests that more discourse had passed
between them than the Evangelist has recorded,
seeing that no such assurance is contained in the
previous narrative _Qohn xi :39, 40).
Nothing more is recor3«r^f~-Martha, save
that some time after, at a supper given to Christ
and his disciples at Bethany, she, as usual, busied
herself in the external service. Lazarus, so
marvelously restored from the grave, sat with he^
guests at table. 'Martha served,' and Mary occu-
pied her favorite station at the feet of Jesus,
which she bathed with her tears, and anointed
with costly ointment (John xii:i, 2). (See
Lazarus; Mary, 4.) ' —
Character. There are few characters in the
New Testament, and certainly no female charac-
ter, so strongly brought out in its natural points
as that of Martha : and it is interesting to observe
that Luke and John, although relating different
transactions in which she was concerned, per-
fectly agree in the traits of character which they
assign to her. Tholuck has skillfully followed
out its development in his Commentary on the
eleventh chapter of St. John. See also Niemeyer,
Charakt. i. 66; and Hall's Contemplations, vol.
iii., b. 4. Contemp., 17, 23, 24.
MABTYTl (mar'ter), {Gr. iidprvs.mar'ioos, a wit-
ness).
This word means properly a witness, and is
applied in the New Testament — (l) To judicial
witnesses (Matt. xviii:l6: xxvi :65 ; Mark jciv:
63; Acts vi:i3: vii:58; 2 Cor. xiii:i; i Tim.
v:l9: Heb. x:28). The Septuagint also uses it
for the Hebrew tV ed, in Deut. xvii:6; Prov.
xxiv 128. (2) To one who has testified, or can
testify to the truth of what he has seen, heard,
or known. This is a frequent sense In the New
Testament: as in Luke xxiv:48; Acts i :8, 22;
Rom. i:9; 2 Cor. i:23; i Thess. ii:S, 10; I Tim.
vi:i2; 2 Tim. ii:2; i Pet. v:i; Rev. i :s ; iii:i4;
xi ;3, and elsewhere. (3) The meaning of the
word which has now become the most usual, is
that in which it occurs most rarely in the Scrip-
ture, i. e., one who by his death bears witness
to the truth. In this sense we find it only in Acts
xxii:2o; Rev. ii:i3; xvii :6. This now exclusive
sense of the word was brought into general use
by the early ecclesiastical writers, who applied it
to every one who suffered death in the Christian
cause (see Suicer, Thesaurus Eccles. sub voc.).
Stephen was in this sense the first martyr (see
Stephen) ; and the spiritual honors of his death
tended in no small degree to raise to the most
extravagant estimation, in the early church, the
value of the testimony of blood. Eventually a
martyr's death was supposed, on the alleged au-
thority of the under-named te.xts. to cancel all
the sins of the past life (Luke xii:so; Mark
x:39); to supply -the place of baptism (Matt.
X :39) ; and at once to secure admittance to the
presence of the Lord in Paradise (Matt. v:io-!2).
In imitation of the family custom of annually
commemorating at the grave the death of de-
ceased members, the churches celebrated the
deaths of their martyrs by prayer at their graves,
and by love-feasts. From this high estimation of
the martyrs, Christians were sometimes led to de-
liver themselves up voluntarily to the public au-
thorities— thus justifying thecharge of fanaticism
brought against them by the heathen. For the
most part, however, this practice was discounte-
nanced, the wordsof Christ himself being brought
against it (Matt. x:23; see Gieseler, Eccles. Hist.
i. 109, no).
MARVEIj (mar'vei), (Heb. *<??, paw-law', to
separate, to distinguish).
The word means : 1- To be struck with sur-
prise at the sight or thought of anything strange
and uncommon (Jer. iv:9).
2. To exercise a reverential regard to ; or with
wonder to adore and serve (Rev. xiii:i3).
MABVELS OB WONDEES. 1. Things
strange and astonishing, as the more rare appear-
ances of nature (Ps. cvii :24) ; or the miracles
which God wrought in delivering Israel out of
Egypt (Ps. cv:27).
2. A token or sign ; thus Isaiah was a "won-
der" in Egypt and Ethiopia, as his walking with-
out his upper robe, and barefoot, was a presage
of calamities to these countries (Is. xx:3). (See
MiRACLE.S.)
MABY (ma'ry), (Heb. ^tI'?, vieer-yawvi' , re-
bellion; Or. Mopia, ma-ree'a, or Mapid^, }>ia-ree-a}n').
I. Ghe Mother of Jesus. 'The Mother
of Jesus' (Acts i:i4), and 'Mary his Mother'
(Matt. ii:ii), are the appellations of one who has
in later times been generally called the 'Virgin
Mary,' but who is never so designated in Scrip-
ture. Little is known of this 'highly favored'
individual, in whom was fulfilled the first proph-
ecy made to man, that 'the seed of the ivoman
should bruise the serpent's head' (Gen. iii:is).
As her history was of no consequence to Chris-
tianity, it is not given at large. Her genealogy
is recorded by St. Luke (ch. iii.), in order to
prove the truth of the predictions which had
■ foretold the descent of the Messiah from Adam
through Abraham and David, witli the design
evidently of showing, that Christ was of that royal
house and lineage (comp. Davidson's Sacred
Hcrmeneulics, p. 589, sq.^.
Eusebius, the early ecclesiastical historian, al-
though unusually lengthy upon 'the name Jesus,'
MARY
1121
MARY
and the genealogies in Matthew and Luke's Gos-
pels, throws no new light upon Mary's birth and
parentage. The legends respecting Anne, who is
said to have been her mother, are pure fables
without the slightest evidence.
(1) The Annunciation. The earliest event
in her history, of which we have any notice, was
the annunciation to her by the angel Gabriel
that she was destined, whilst yet a pure virgin,
to become the mother of the Messiah — an event
which was a literal fulfilment of the prophecy
given centuries before by Isaiah, that 'a virgin
should conceive, and bear a son, and should call
his name Immanuel,' which being interpreted, is
'God with us' (Is. vii:i4; Matt. 1:23). On this
occasion she was explicitly informed that she
should conceive by the miraculous power of God,
and that her child should be 'Holy,' and be called
'the Son of God.' As a confirmation of her faith
in this announcement she was also told by the
angel that her cousin Elisabeth, who was the
wife of one of the chief priests, and who was
now far advanced in years, had conceived a son,
and that the time was not far off when her re-
proach among women should cease (Luke i:
36).
(2) Visit to Elisabeth. Almost immediately
on receiving this announcement Mary hastened
from Nazareth, where she was when the angel
visited her, to the house of her cousin, who was
then residing in the hilly district in 'a city of Ju-
dah,' supposed to be Hebron. The meetingof these
two pious females, on whom such unexpected
privileges had been conferred, was one of mutual
congratulations, and united thanksgiving to the
Author of their blessings. It was on this occasion
that Mary uttered the Magnificat — that splendid
burst of grateful adoration which Christians of
all parties have from the earliest times delighted
to adopt as expressive of the best feelings of
the pious heart towards God (Luke i:39-s6).
After spending three months with her relative,
Mary returned to Nazareih, where a severe trial
awaited her, arising out of the condition in which
it had now become apparent she was.
(3) Betrothed to Joseph. Betrothed (per-
haps in early life) to a person of the name of
Joseph, an artificer of some sort (Matt. xiii:55),
probably, as our translators suppose, a carpenter,
the Jewish law held her exposed to the same pen-
alties which awaited the married wife who should
be found unfaithful to the spousal vow. Jo-
seph, however, being a right-hearted man ('one
who feels and acts as a man ought to do in the
circumstances in which he is placed'), was un-
willing to subject her to the evils of a public ex-
posure of what he deemed her infidelity: and ac-
cordingly was turning in his mind how he might
privately dissolve his connection with her, when
an angel was sent to him also to inform him in
a dream of the true state of the case, and enjoin
upon him to complete his engagement with her
by taking her as his wife. This injunction he
obeyed, and hence came to be regarded by the
Jews as the father of Jesus (Matt. i:i8-25).
(4) Census of the People. Summoned by
an edict of Augustus, which commanded that a
census of the population of the whole Roman em-
pire should be taken, and that each person should
be enrolled in tlie chief city of his family oi"
tribe, Mary and her husband went up to Bethle-
hem, the city of the Davidic family; and whilst
there the child Jesus was born.
(5) Subsequent History. After this event
the only circumstances in her history mentioned
by the sacred historians are her appearance and
71
offerings in the temple according to the law of
Moses (Luke i:22, sq.); her return with her hus-
band to Nazareth (Luke iirjg); their habit of
annually visiting Jerusalem at the Feast of the
Passover (verse 41) ; tlie appearance of the Magi,
which seems to have occurred at one of these
periodic visits (Matt. ii:i-i2); the flight of the
holy family into Egypt, and their return, after
the death of Herod, to Nazareth (verses 13-23) ;
the scene which occurred on another of those
periodic visits, when, after having proceeded two
days' journey on her way homeward, she dis-
covered that her son was not in the company, and,
on returning to Jerusalem, found him sitting in
the temple with the doctors of the law, 'both
hearing them and asking them questions' (Luke
ii :42-S2) ; her appearance and conduct at the
marriage feast in Cana of Galilee (John ii:i,
sq.) ; her attempt in the synagogue at (Tapernaum
to induce Jesus to desist from teaching (Matt.
xii:46, sf.); her accompanying of her son when
he went up to Jerusalem immediately before his
crucifixion; her following him to Calvary; her
being consigned by him while hanging on the
cross to the care of his beloved apostle John,
who from that time took her to reside in his
house (John xix :2s, sq.) ; and her associating
with the disciples at Jerusalem after his ascen-
sion (Acts i :i4).
(6) Traditions of Death, Etc. The tradi-
tions respecting the death of Mary differ mate-
rially from each other. There is a letter of the
General Council of Ephesus in the fifth century,
which states that she lived at Ephesus with St.
John, and there died and was buried. Another
epistle of the same age says she died at Jerusa-
lem, and was buried in Gethsemane. The legend
tells that three days after her interment, when
the grave was opened (that Thomas the apostle
might pay reverence to her remains), her body
was not to be found, 'but only an exceeding
fragrance,' whereupon it was concluded that it
had been taken up to heaven. The translations
of Enoch and Elijah, and the ascension of the
Lord Jesus Christ, took place while they were
alive, and the facts are recorded by the inspira-
tion of God ; but when the dead body of Mary
was conveyed through the earth, and removed
thence there were no witnesses, and no revela-
tion was ever made of the extraordinary and
novel incident, which certainly has no parallel in
Scripture. This miraculous event is appropriately
called 'the Assumption.'
It is said that Mary died in A. D. 63. The
Canon of Scripture was closed in A. D. 96, thirty-
three years after her decease; which, however,
is never alluded to by any of the apostles in their
writings, nor by St. John, to whose care she was
entrusted.
In the Roman Catholic church many facts are
believed and doctrines asserted concerning the
Virgin Mary, which not only are without any
authority from Scripture, but many of which are
diametrically opposed to its declarations.
It does not appear that Mary ever saw Christ
after the resurrection ; for she was not one of
the 'chosen witnesses' specified in Scripture, as
Mary Magdalene was. S. D.
(7) Character. "Her faith and humility ex-
hibit themselves in her immediate surrender of
herself to the Divine will, though ignorant how
that was to be accomplished (Luke i 138) ; her
energy and earnestness in her journey from
Nazareth to Hebron (verse 39) ; her happy thank-
fulness in her song of joy (verse 48) ; her silent,
musing thoughtfulness in her pondering over the
MARY
U22
MARY
shepherds' visit (ii:i9), and in her keeping her
Son's words in her heart (verse 51 ). though she
could not fully understand their import. In a
word, so far as Mary is portrayed to us in Scrip-
ture, she is, as we should have expected, the
most tender, the most faithful, humble, patient and
loving of women, but a woman still" (Smith, Diet.).
(8) Literature. Mrs. Jameson, Legends of
the Madonna (Lond. 1852) ; Jones, On the New
Testament, vol. ii, cc. xiii, xv; Wilberforce,
Rome— Her New Dogma, etc. (Oxford, 1855).
2. Mary Magdalene, (ma'ry mag'da-lene ),
(Gr. M.a-YSa\rivTi, mag-dal-ay-nay' ), probably so
called from Magdala in Galilee, the town where
she is supposed to have dwelt. According to the
Talmudists, Magdalene signifies 'a plaiterof hair."
(1) Name. Much wrong has been done to
this individual from imagining that she was the
person spoken of by St. Luke in ch. vii 139 ; but
there is no evidence to support this opinion.
There were two occasions on which Christ was
anointed. The first is thus recorded in John xii :
I, 3: 'Six days before the Passover Jesus came
to Bethany, where Lazarus was which had been
dead, whom he raised from the dead. There they
made him a supper; and Martha served. Then
took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very
costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped
his feet with her hair.' This Mary was certainly
the sister of Martha. The second instance oc-
curred in the house of Simon, 'And, behold, a
woman in the city, which was a sinner, when she
knew that Jesus sat at meat in the Pharisee's
house, brought an alabaster box of ointment, and
stood at his feet behind him weeping, and be-
gan to wash his feet with tears, and did wipe
them with the hairs of her head, and kissed his
feet, and anointed them with the ointment' (Luke
vii :37). How Mary Magdalene came to be
identified with the person here mentioned, it is
difficult to say; but such is the case and accord-
ingly she is generally regarded as having been
a woman of depraved character. For such an
inference, however, there appears to be no just
ground whatever.
(2) Personal History. The earliest notice
of Mary Magdalene is in St. Luke's Gospel (viii:
2), where it is recorded that out of her 'had gone
seven devils,' and that she was 'with Joanna, the
wife of Herod's steward, and Susanna, and
many others, which ministered unto Christ of
their substance.'
This is sufficient to prove that she had not
been known as a person of bad character ; and
it also implies that she was not poor, or amongst
the lower classes, when she was the companion
of one whose husband held an important office in
the king's household.
It is as unjust to say that she who had been so
physically wretched as to be possessed by seven
devils was dissolute, as to affirm that an insane
person is necessarily depraved. In the Savior's
last hours, and at his death and resurrection,
Mary Magdalene was a chief and important wit-
ness. There had followed him from Galilee
many women (Matt.xxvii :5S,56),and there stood
by the cross several, of whom Mary Magdalene
was one ; and. after his death, she 'and Mary the
mother of Jesus beheld where the body was laid'
(Mark xv:47; Luke xxiii :S5, 56); 'and they re-
turned and prepared spices and ointments.' 'The
first day of the week cometh Mary Magdalene
early, when it was yet dark, unto the sepulcher,
and seeth the stone taken away from the sep-
ulcher' (John XX :i).
Then she returned to tell Peter and John that
the stone was removed. Peter immediately ran
to the place with the other disciple, when they
saw only the napkin and linen clothes lying; and
'the disciples went away again unto their own
homes' (John xx 12-11). But she 'who was last
at the cross and first at the tomb' 'stood at the
sepulcher weeping,' and saw two angels, who said
to her, 'Woman, why weepest thou? She saith,
because they have taken away my Lord, and I
know not where they have laid him.' Her pa-
tient waiting was rewarded, for she had scarcely
ceased speaking when Jesus himself asked her
the same question, and as soon as he said 'Mary,'
she turned herself, and then, seeing who it was,
said unto him, 'Rabboni,' and at once acknowl-
edged his risen person ; when he not only as-
sured her of his resurrection, but also announced
his intended ascension (John xx:i7). Mary
Magdalene then returned and told these things
to the apostles (Luke xxiv:io, 11), 'and her
words seemed to them as idle tales,' 'and they,
when tJiey had heard that he was alive, and had
been seen of her, believed her not* (Mark xvi :
10). On every occasion Christ selected the most
fit and proper persons, and on this, his first ap-
pearance from the dead, he chose Mary Magda-
lene to be the only witness of his resurrection;
and to other women had been also vouchsafed the
vision of angels (Luke xxiviio). These persons,
with the acute perception of their sex, receiving
distinct evidence without captious disbelief, at
once saw, believed, and 'worshiped' their risen
Lord (Matt, xxviii :9) ; whilst the men who had
been his daily companions during the whole time
of his public ministry, and had heard 'the gracious
words which fell from his lips,' entirely refused
the testimony of eye-witnesses, to whom, 'by in-
fallible proofs, he had shown himself alive,' and
remained unconvinced until 'Jesus stood in the
midst of them,' and 'showed them his hands and
his feet' (Luke xxiv:36, 40) ; and even then 'they
believed not for joy.'
But the faith of Mary Magdalene is 'in ever-
lasting remembrance,' inasmuch as, when others
were 'fools and slow of heart to believe,' she,
with less evidence than they possessed, at once
acknowledged that 'Christ is risen from the dead,
and is become the first-fruits of them that slept,'
and to her was granted the honor of being the
first witness of that great event, thg Resurrection,
without which Christ would have died in vain
(i Cor. xv.). S. P.
"Nothing is really known to us of the subse-
quent history of the Magdalene. The Greek
Church believed that she died at Ephesus, whither
she had followed St. John, and that her relics
were removed from thence to Constantinople by
the Emperor Leo VI. The story, however, which
took root in the West was very different. It
was said that she belonged to a wealthy family
possessed of great estates at Magdala and Beth-
any; that she abused all her admirable gifts to
tempt others to sin ; that after the Ascension she
remained at Bethany till the disciples were scat-
tered by the persecution which followed the
martyrdom of Stephen. She and her sister with
others were placed in a boat by their persecutors,
and were providentially carried without oars or
sails to Massilia, where, by their, preaching and
miracles, they converted the heathen, and Lazarus
was made bishop, while Mary retired to the wil-
derness and lived a life of extreme asceticism for
thirty years. Finally, she was carried up to
heaven in the arms of ascending angels." (J. B.
Mayor, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
MARY
1123
MAST
3. Mary. Wife of Cleophas or Alpheeus.
and sister of the Lord's mother I Mnlt. xxvii:56;
Mark xv:40; John xix:25). This Mary was one
of those holy women who followed Christ, and
was present at the crucifixion; and she is that
'other Mary' who, with Mary Magdalene, at-
tended the body of Christ to the sepulcher when
taken down from the cross (Matt, xxvii :6l ;
Mark xv :47 ; Luke xxiii:ss). She was also
among those who went on the morning of the
first day of the week to the sepulcher to anoint
the body, and who became the first witnesses of
the resurrection (Matt. x.xviii:i; Mark xvi:i;
Luke xxivri). James, Joses, Jude, and Simon,
who are called the Lord's brethren (see the
names; also Alph.eus ; Brother, ii), are very
generally supposed to have been the sons of this
Mary, and therefore cousins of Jesus, the term
brother having been used with great latitiide
among the Hebrews. This is the usual alternative
of those who deny that these persons were sons
of our Lord's mother by her husband Joseph ;
although some imagine that they may have been
sons of Joseph by a former wife. The fact seems
to be this : Christ had four 'brethren' called
James, Joses, Simon, and Jude ; he had also three
apostles called James, Simon, and Jude, who
were his cousins, being sons of Alpliaeus and this
Mary; and it is certainly very difficult to resist
the conclusion that the three cousins and apostles
are to be regarded as the same with those three
of the four 'brethren' who bore the same names.
4. The Sister of Lazarus and Martha.
The friendship of our Lord for this family has
been explained in other articles. (See L.-VZARUS;
Martha.) The points of interest in connection
with Mary individually arise from the contrast
of character between her and her sister Martha,
and from the incidents by which that contrast was
evinced. Apart from this view, the most signal
incident in the history of Mary is her conduct
at the supper which was given to Jesus in Beth-
any, when he came thither after having raised
Lazarus from the dead. The intense love which
distinguished her character then glowed with the
_ highest fervor, manifesting the depth of her
emotion and gratitude for the deliverance from
the cold terrors of the grave of that brother who
now sat alive and cheerful with the guests at
table. She took the station she best loved, at the
feet of Jesus. Among the ancients it was usual
to wash the feet of guests before an entertain-
ment, and with this the anointing of the feet was
frequently connected. (See Anointing.) Mary
possessed a large quantity of very costly oint-
ment; and in order to testify her gratitude she
sacrificed it all by anointing with it the feet of
Jesus. We are told that the disciples murmured
at the extravagance of this act, deeming that it
would have been much wiser, if she had sold the
ointment and given the money to the poor. But
Jesus, looking beyond the mere external act to the
disposition which gave birth to it — a disposition
which marked the intensity of her gratitude — vin-
dicated her deed. Always meditating upon his de-
parture, and more especially at that moment,
when it was so near at hand, he attributed to
this act a still higher sense — as having reference
to his approaching death. The dead were em-
balmed ; and so, he said, have I received, by
anticipation, the consecration of death (John xii:
1-8; Matt. xxvi:6-i3; Mark xiv:3-9).
5. The pother of John, Surnanted Mark.
had a house in Jerusalem, to which it is thought
the apostles retired after the ascension of our
Lord, and where they received the Holy Ghost.
This house was on mount Sion, and Epiphaniu?
says, it escaped tlie destruction of Jerusalem by
Titus, and was changed into a very famous
church, which continued several ages. After the
imprisonment of Peter, the faithful were assem-
bled in this house, praying, when Peter, deliv-
ered by the ministry of an angel, knocked at the
gate (Acts xii .-5, 12). From Col. iv:io we learn
that she was sister to Barnabas, and they ap-
parently gave up their land and house for the
good of the church (Acts iv:37; xii:i2).
6. A Christian woman at Rome greeted by St.
Paul in his Epistle to the Romans (xvi:6). There
is no further notice of her than that she had
treated St. Paul with great kindness. (See
Jowett, The Epistles of St. Paul.)
MASCHIIi (mas'khil), (Heb. '"vip^, mas-ieef,
titles of Ps. xxxii, xlii, xliv, xlv, lii, liii, liv, Iv,
Ixxiv, Ixxviii, Ixxxviii, Ixxxix, cxlii), probably im-
plies a /(7i?»? or song- enforcing intelligence, wis-
dom, piety.
HASH (mash), (Heb. ^'1?, tnash, meaning un-
known), the fourth son of Aram (Gen. x:23), erro-
neously called Meshech in i Chron. 1:17. Bochart
believes he inhabited Mount Masius in Mesopo-
tamia, and gave his name to the river Mazecna,
whose source is there. (B. C. 2513.)
"A name corresponding with Mash is found
in Assyrian inscriptions, especially the cylinder
of Assur-bani-pal, who, in describing his Arabian
campaign, says he marched through the desert
of Mash, 'a place of thirst and fainting, whither
comes no bird of the heaven, neither do asses nor
gazelles feed there.' (S. A. Smith, i, pp. 67, 68;
Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
MASHAL (ma'shal), (Heb. ^'f5, maw-shawl',
depressed, i Chron. vi:74). See Mishal.
MASON (ma's'n), (Heb. ^^'■?, khaw-rash').
The Egyptians were skilled in stone-work, and
the Hebrews probably brought much of their
knowledge from there. From 2 Sam. v:il it has
been inferred that the Hebrews were not so
skilled in masonry as the Tyrians (i Kings vi:
7; vii:io). Later the Hebrews erected walls,
fortresses, arches, etc. (2 Chron. xxxiii:i4;
Ezra iii:io); (comp. 2 Sam. v:ii; 2 Kings xii:
12; xxii:6; i Chron. xiv:i; xxii:2; 2 Chron.
xxiv:i2; Ezra iii:7.)
MASREKAH (mas-re'kah), (Heb. ■Tt'!?''^. >nas-
ray-kaw' , vineyard), a city in Idumaea, and the
native place of Samlah, an Edomitish king (Gen.
xxxvi:36; i Chron. i:47).
The name signifies place or plantation of vines.
Site not identified.
MASSA (mSs'sa), (Heb. *'?5, wfli-iaw', burden).
A son of Ishmael, who became the founder of
a tribe by the same name (Gen. xxv:i4; i Chron.
i:3o). This tribe is usually identified with the
Masani, on the eastern side of the Arabian desert,
near the borders of Babylon.
If ASSAH (mas'sah), (Heb. ■^^5, mas-saw', trial,
temptation), a name given to the place where the
Israelites murmured forwant of waterand tempted
Jehovah (Exod. xvii:7; Deut.vi:l6; ix:22; xxxiii:8);
called also Meribah (which see).
The Arabs point to a rock called Hesy el-
Hattatin, in the arid northwestern part of the
Wady Feiran, as the one struck by Moses at
'Massah' (Palmer, Desert of Exodus, 159). (See
Meribah; REriiiDiM.)
BIASI (mast). See Suif.
MASTER
1124
MATTANIAH
MASTER (mas'ter). The rendering in the A. V.
of several Hebrew and Greek words;
1. Bah'al (Heb. ■?5, owner), master in the
prevalent sense, e. g., "the master of the house"
(Exod. xxii:8; Judg. xix:23).
2. Aw-done' (Heb. !'"•?; Gr. /ciipios, koo' ree-os),
properly lord, and usually so rendered.
3. Oor(We\>. 11^, to wake), only so rendered in
Mai. ii:i2, "the master and the scholar;" marg.
"him that waketh and l.im that answereth."
4. Kab (Heb. ^^. abundant, and so great), great
or chief (Dan. 1:3).
5. Sar (Heb. ''^ , a head person), used only with
reference to Chenaniah, "the master of the song"
(I Chron. xv:27); Greek (^Trto-Tdrijs, ep-is-tat'ace,
Luke v:5; viii:24, 45; xvii;i3). (See Chknaniah.)
6. "Master" is the translation of the Gr. Ku/Sep-
»i)ti;s, koo-ber-7iay'tace (Acts xxvii:li), a sailing
master; rendered "shipmaster" in Rev. xviiiiiy.
7. Did-as' kal-os (Gr. 5iad<rKoXos, "master"), in
the sense of instructor, was often used of Christ,
both by his disciples and others.
8. Oy-kod-es-poi' ace (Gr. o/KoSeirTriTijs, "master of
the house"), the head of the family (Matt. x;25;
Luke xiii:25; xiv:2i).
9. Ep-is-tat' ace (Gr. iina-TdTris, appointed over),
is used of any kind of overseer or superintendent.
It is termed Rabbi by the disciples when address-
ing Jesus (Luke v. 5; viii:24, 25; ix:33, 49; xvii:i3).
(See Rabbi.)
10. Kath-ayg-ay-tace' (Gr. Kaefmririii, "one is
your master," Matt. xxiii:8, 10). Here "master" is
used of a leader in the scholastic sense, i. e., a
teacher. (Barnes' Bib. Diet.; Strong's Concord-
ance.)
11. Des-pot'ace (Gr. Sco-ttAtt/s), a despot or sov-
ereign master (i Tim. vi;i, 2; Titus 11:9; I Peter
ii:i8).
12. Koo'ree-os (Gr. Ki/pios, Master, Lord, and
Sir). No man can serve two masters (Matt. vi:24;
Mark xiii:35; Acts xvi:i6; Rom. xiv:4').
Master, then, in general, is one who rules or
teaches. It is a title applied ( i ) to Jesus Christ,
who is our great lawgiver and teacher, and who
alone can inwardly and powerfully instruct our
soul, and in matters of faith and worship is only
to be followed (Matt, xxiii ;8, 10) : (2) topreachers
and ministers, who, to assembled congregations.
declare and explain the oracles of God (Eccl.
xii:ll); (3) to such as more privately teach
scholars or disciples (Luke vi:40); (4) to such
as have and rule over servants (Eph. vi;s) ; (5)
to such as proudly aflfect vain applause and a
superiority above others (Matt, xxiii ;lo); (6)
to such as judge, condemn, censure, and reprove
others (James iii :i).
Master in a Christian point of view has duties
which relate (i) To the civil concerns of the fam-
ily. To arrange the several businesses required
of servants; to give particular instructions for
what is to be done, and how it is to be done:
to take care that no more is required of serv-
ants than they are equal to; to be gentle in our
deportment towards them ; to reprove them when
they do wrong, to commend them when they do
right; to make them an adequate recompense for
their services, as to protection, maintenance,
wages, and character. (2) To the morals of
servants. Masters must look well to their serv-
ants' characters before they hire them; instruct
them in the principles and confirm them in the
habits of virtue; watch over their morals, and
set them good examples.
MATHUSALA (ma-thu'sa-la), (Gr. MoffowiXo.
Math-00-sah' lah, Luke iii:37). See Methuse-
lah.
MATBED (raa'tred), (Heb. ""T^^, mat-rade'
propelling).
l3aughter of Mezahab, and mother-in-law of
Hadar, an Edomitish king (Gen. xxxvi:39; i
Chron. 1:50). (B. C. before 1619.)
MATBI (ma'trl), (Heb. "!'^^, mat-ree' , rain of
Jehovah, or Jehovah is watching).
The founder of the Benjamite family from
which sprang Kish, and his son Saul (i Sam.
x:2i). (B. C. about 16-12.)
MATRIMONY (mat-ri-mo-ny). See Mar-
riage.
MATTAN (mat' tan), (Heb. Iv^, mat-tawn' , a
gift).
1. Son of Eleazar, father of Jacob, and grand-
father of Joseph, husband to the Virgin Mary.
Luke (iii:23) makes Heli, son of Mattan, to be
father of Joseph ; but it is thought that Heli is
the same as Joachim, father of Mary, and father-
in-law to Joseph. So that Matthew (1:15, iCi)
gives the direct genealogy of Joseph, and Luke
that of Mary. (Calmet.) (B. C. before 588.)
2. The priest of Baal slain by Jehoiada (2 Kings
xi:i8; 2 Chron. xxiii :i7). This led to the
death of Athaliah and the coming of Joash to the
throne of Judah. ( B. C. 876.)
3. Father of Shephatiah, which latter charged
Jeremiah with treason (Jer. xxxviii:i). (B. C.
before 589.)
MATTANAH (mat'ta-nah), (Heb. '^??^, mat-
taw-naw' , a gift), the fifty-third encampment of
Israel (Num. xxi:i8, 19), which P^usebius says was
on the north side of Arnon, twelve miles from
Medaba, southeast.
It was probably in the country of Moab ; but
the exact site is unknown, although Maschana,
on the Arnon, twelve miles from Dibon, has
been suggested as marking Mattanah.
MATTANIAH (mat'ta-ni'ah), (Heb. '^'fD'2.
mat-tan-yaiii' , gift of Jah.)
1. A Levite, son of Heman, and leader of the
ninth course of musicians in David's time (l
Chron. xxv 14, 16). (B. C. 1014.)
2. A Levite, descendant of Asaph, and as-
sistant to Hezekiah in the purification of the tem-
ple (2 Chron. xxix:i3). ( B. C. 726.)
3. The original name of King Zedekiah, which
Nebuchadnezzar changed when he raised him to
tlie throne in place of Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxiv:
17).
4. A Levite, descendant of Asaph, and great-
grandfather of Zechariah (Neh. xii:35). (B. C.
before 446.)
5. A Levite, son of Micah, descendant of
Asaph. After the exile he lived at Netophathites
(i Chron. ix:i6; Neh. xii:28). He was leader
of the temple choir (Neh. xi:i7; xii :8, 25, 35),
and a "keeper" of the "threshold" (i Chron. xv :
18. 21). Probably identical with (4). (B. C.
440.)
6. A Levite, father of Zaccur (Neh. xiii:i3).
(B. C. before 410.) Perhaps also identical
with 5.
t — 10. Four Israelites, the "sons," or residents
(if Elam (Ezra x:26), of Zattu (Ezra ■x.:2y\. of
Pahath-Moab (Ezra x:3o). and of Bani (Ezra
x:37). who put away their Gentile wives after
tlie exile. (B. C. 459.)
11. Father of Jeiel, and ancestor of that Jaha-
ziel, the Levite, who foretold the overthrow of the
MATTATHA
1125
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF
Moabites at the hands of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron.
xx:i4). (B. C. 1014.) Perhaps identical with !•
MATTATHA (mat'ta-tha) (Luke iii:3l). See
Mattathah, I.
MATTATHAH (mat'ta-thab), (Heb. •"'^05.
tnat-tat-hiw' , gift of Jehovah).
!• The son of Nathan, the son of David in
the genealogy of Christ (Luke iii:3i). (B. C.
past 1014.)
2. An Israelite, the son of Hashum, who put
away his Gentile wife after the exile (Ezra x:
ii). (B. C. 458.)
MATTATHIAS (mat'ta-thi'as), (Gr. -ilia.TTo.eio.%,
mat-liith-cc'as), from the Hebrew for Matti-
THiAH (which see).
1. Son of Amos, an ancestor of Christ (Luke
iii:25).
2. Son of Semei in the same genealogy (Luke
iii :26).
MATTENAI (raat'te-na'i), (Heb. 'i^^, mat-ten-
ah'cc, liberal); probably a contraction of the name
Mattaniah.
1. An Israelite of the family of Hashum, who
divorced his foreign wife after the exile (Ezra
if.:ii). (B. C. 459-)
2. One of the family of Bani, who likewise put
away his Gentile wife (Ezra y.\},l). (B. C.
459)
3. A priest of the house of Joiarib, in the time
of Joiakim, the son of Jeshua (Neh. xiiiig).
(B. C. 53(>.)
MATTER (raat'ter). In James iii:5 the Greek
word (iJX?;, hoo-lay') is translated matter, i.e., ajfair.
MATTHAN (raat'than), (Gr. UarSiv, }itat-ihan\
Matt. i:i5). See Mattan, I.
MATTHAT (mat'that), (Gr. Mot9(£t, mat-that'),
perliaps a form from Matthan (which sec).
1. A son of Levi, in the genealogy of Christ ;
between David and Zerubbabel (Luke iii;29).
(B. C. after 623.)
2. The son of a later Levi, and grandfather
of Mary, the mother of Christ (Luke iii:24). (B.
C. before 22.)
MATTHEW (raath'thu), (Gr. Marearot, mat-
thali'yos, iirobably from the Hebrew Mattathias,
"gift (if Jehovah'').
(1) Name and Family. According to Mark
ii;i4. Matthew was a son of Alphaeus. It is gcn-
cr;>lly supposed that Jacobus, or James, the son
of Alphaeus, was a son of Mary, the wife of Cleo-
phas, who was a sister of the mother of Jesus
(John xix:2S). If this opinion is correct, Mat-
thew was one of the relatives of Jesus.
(2) Collector of Customs. Matthew was a
portitor, or inferior collector of customs at Caper-
naum, on the Sea of Galilee. He was not a pub-
licaiius, or general farmer of customs. We may
suppose cither that he held his appointment at
the port of Capernaum, or that he collected the
customs on the high road to Damascus, which
went through what is now called Khan Minyeh,
which place, as Robinson has shown, is the an-
cient Capernaum (Bibl. Res. in Palcslinc, vol.
iii. pp. 288-295). Thus we see that Matthew be-
longed to the lower class of people.
(3) Also Called Levi. In Mark U:i4, and
l.\ike V ;27. he is called Levi. We hence conclude
that he had two names. This circumstance is
not mentioned in the list of the apostles (Matt.
X and Luke vi) ; but the omission does not
prove the contrary, as we may infer from the
fact that Lebbxus is also called Judas in Luke
vi:i6, in which verse the name Lcbbscus is omit-
ted. In Matt. ix:9 is related how Matthew was
called to be an apostle. We must, however, sup-
pose that he was previously acquainted with Jesus,
since we read in Luke vi:i3, that when Jesus,
before delivering the Sermon on the Mount, se-
lected twelve disciples, who were to form the
circle of his more intimate associates, Matthew
was one of them. After this Matthew returned
to his usual occupation ; from which Jesus, on
leaving Capernaum, called him away. On this
occasion Matthew gave a parting entertainment
to bis friends. After this event he is mentioned
only in Acts i:i3.
(4) Abstinence from Animal Food. Accord-
ing to a statement in Clemens ."Mexandrinus
(Pccdagog. ii, i), Matthew abstained from ani-
mal food. Hence some writers have rather
hastily concluded that he belonged to the sect of
the Essenes. It is true that the Essenes prac-
ticed abstinence in a high degree; but it is not
true that they rejected animal food altogether.
Admitting the account in Clemens Alexandrinus
to be correct, it proves only a certain ascetic
strictness, of which there occur vestiges in the
habits of other Jews (comp. Joseph, yita, cap.
ii and iii).
(5) Ministry. According to another account,
which is as old as the first century, Matthew,
after the death of Jesus, remained about fifteen
years in Jerusalem. This agrees with the state-
ment in Eusebius (Hist. Ecclcs. iii, 24), that Mat-
thew preached to his own nation before he went to
foreign countries. Rufinus (Hist. Ecclcs. x, 9)
and Socrates (Hist. Ecclcs. i, 19) state that he
afterwards went into Ethiopia; and other authors
mention other countries. There also he probably
preached specially to the Jews. According to
Heracleon (about A. D. 150), and Clemens Alex.
(.'itrom. iv, 9), Matthew was one of those apos-
tles who did not suffer martyrdom.
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF.
The genuineness of the Gospel of St. Matthew
has been more strongly attacked than that of any
of the three others, as well by external as by in-
ternal arguments.
1. External Arguments Against Its Gen-
uineness. We will first consider the external ar-
guments. The most ancient testimony concern-
ing Matthew's Gospel is that of Papias, who,
according to Eusebius (Hist. Ecclcs. iii, 39).
wrote as follows : 'Matthew wrote the sayings
in the Hebrew tongue, but everybody interpreted
them according to his ability.' Doubts of three
different kinds have been raised whether this tes-
timony could refer to our Greek Gospel of St.
Matthew.
(1) Omission by Papias. Papias, the most
ancient witness, who was a disciple of John,
speaks only about tlic XAvia of Christ, which were
apparently a collection of the remarkable saymgs
01 our Lord.
(2) Possibly Another Tongue. He speaks
about a work written in the Hebrew, wdiich here
means probably the ,'\rama;an or Chaldee tongue.
(3) Mentions Ko Translation. His statement
seems to imply that there was no translation of
this work.
These doubts were particularly brought for-
ward by Schleiermacher in the Studicn uitd Kril-
ikcii. 1832, Heft 4. The opinion nf Schleier-
macher was adopted by Schneckenburger, Lach-
mann, and many others. According to thesecrilics,
the apostle wrote only a collection of the remarka-
ble sayings of Jesus; which collection was put
into a historical form by a Greek trau'ilator.
Papias is said to intend the explanation of the
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF
1126
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF
sayings of Christ by means of the addition of
the historical facts.
2. Unreliability of Evidence Against. Most
critics, however, have either never adopted, or
have subsequentiy rejected, the above interpreta-
tion. It was first objected by Dr. Liicke, that
Papias, in his report, followed the statements of
Johannes Presbyter, who said that Peter fur-
nished 'a collection of the sayings of our Lord,'
and that Mark stated what he had heard from
Peter, and that Papias nevertheless adds that
Mark wrote 'as ivcll the sayings as the doings of
Christ.'
(1) Xiogia a Comprehensive Term. Hence
it follows, according to Dr. Liicke, that X67ia
is a term a parte potiori, which comprehends the
history also. In addition to this. Dr. Liicke ob-
serves, that Papias himself wrote a work and
that the extracts from this work which Eusebius
has furnished prove that its contents were partly
historical. According to this view, the testimony
of Papias may be considered as referring to our
Gospel of St. Matthew ; but the force of the two
other objections remains still unimpaired.
It lias been observed by those who deny the
genuineness of this gospel, that in none of the
Fathers before Jerome do we find any statement
from which we could infer that they had seen the
Hebrew Gospel of St. Matthew ; and that conse-
quently we may consider as a mere conjecture
the opinion of the Fathers, that our gospel is a
Greek translation of a Hebrew original.
(2) Testimony of Jerome. Jerome in his
Catalogue of Illustrious Men (cap. iii), reports
that the Hebrew Gospel of St. Matthew was pre-
served in the library at Csesarea, and that he
took a copy of it. In his commentary on Matt.
xii:i3, he says that he translated this Hebrew
gospel into Greek. In the same passage, and in
his book Contra Pelagianos (iii, 2), Jerome slates
that this Hebrew copy was considered 'by most
people' (a plerisque) to be the original text of
St. Matthew. The cautious expression, 'a ple-
risque,' is considered by many critics as an indi-
cation that Jerome's statement cannot be de-
pended upon. Indeed it appears that the He-
brew copy of St. Matthew was not the mere
original of our gospel, for what motive, in that
case, could Jerome have had to translate it into
Greek?
(3) A Possible Apocryphal Work. The
whole difficulty is cleared up if, like most mod-
ern critics, we suppose that the second Gospel to
the Hebreii's, about which Jerome speaks, was the
Gospel of St, Matthew corrupted by apocryphal
additions. This conjecture is confirmed by the
fragments of it which have been preserved.
Hence many critics are led to suppose that the
strictly Judaizing Christians made a translation
of St. Matthew, which they endeavored to bring
into harmony with their own opinions and leg-
ends. Nevertheless Jerome's statement respect-
ing the second Gospel to the Ilebrcii's may be
taken as a confirmation of the account of Papias,
that Matthew wrote his gospel in Hebrew. If
this be the fact, the question must arise whether
our Greek Matthew is a correct translation of the
Hebrew. The words of Papias seem to imply
that in his days there was no Greek translation
in existence.
(4) Account of Papias Questioned. This
has induced many critics to question his account,
and to suppose that the original text was Greek.
Such is the opinion of Erasmus, Qicolampadius,
Calvin, Beza, Lardner, Guerike, Harless, and
others.
The authority of Papias has been deemed to be
overthrown by the character given of him by
Eusebius, according to whose statement he was
'of a very little mind.' Guerike considers also
as rather incredible the addition, that "everybody
interpreted that gospel according to his ability."
Papias, indeed, proves himself very credulous,
by reporting, according to Eusebius, 'many rather
fabulous things;' but this does not authorize us
to reject his testimony in a mere matter of fact,
for the perception of which no extraordinary abil-
ities were required, especially as his account of
this fact agrees with the statement of Jerome.
It is by no means improbable, that after sev-
eral inaccurate and imperfect translations of the
Aramaean original came into circulation, Matthew
himself was prompted by this circumstance to
publish a Greek translation, or to have his gos-
pel translated under his own supervision. It is
very likely that this Greek translation did not
soon come into general circulation, so that Papias
may have remained ignorant of its existence. It
may also be, and nothing prevents us from sup-
posing, that Papias, being acquainted with our
Greek gospel, spoke, in the passage referred to, of
those events only which came to pass soon after
the publication of the Aramaean original. We, at
least, rather prefer to confess ourselves unable to
solve the objections, than to question the direct
testimony of Papias ; especially since that testi-
mony is supported by other ancient authorities :
(1) By Origen (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vi, 25).
(2) By the Alexandrian Catechist Pantaenus,
who, according to Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. v, 10),
having, in the latter half of the second century,
gone on a missionary expedition to India, found
there some Christians who possessed the Gospel
of St. Matthew in Hebrew. (3) By Irenaeus
{Adz>. Hccr. iii, i) and Eusebius (Hist. Eccles.
To this it has been objected, that Origen and
Irenjeus probably only repeated the statement of
Papias; but it is unlikely that a man of so much
learning as Origen should have had no other au-
thority for his account; and the statement of
Pantaenus, at least, is quite independent of that of
Papias. It ought also to be considered that Mat-
thew was not so much known in ecclesiastical
antiquity that any partisanship could have
prompted writers to forge books in his name.
(5) External Proof of Genuineness. On
summing up what we have stated, it appears
that the external testimonies clearly prove the
genuineness of the Gospel of St. Matthew. The
authenticity indeed of this gospel is as well sup-
ported as that of any work of classical antiquity.
It can also be proved that it was early in use
among Christians, and that the apostolical Fa-
thers, at the end of the first century, ascribed to
it a canonical authority (see Polycarp, Epist. c.
ii. 7; Ignatius. Ad Smyrn. c. vi ; Ad Rom. c. vi ;
Clemens Romanus, Epist. i. c. xlvi ; Barnabas,
Epist. c. iv).
3. Internal Arguments Against. But the ex-
ternal arguments against the authenticity of this
gospel are less important than the doubts which
have been started from a consideration of its
internal qualities.
(1) The Claim That Matthew Lacks Clear-
ness. The representations of Matthew (it is
said) have not that vivid clearness which char-
acterizes the narration of an e>e-witness, and
which we find, for instance, in ihe Gospel of John.
Even Mark and Luke surpass Matthew in this
respect. Compare, for example. Matt. iv:i8 with
Luke v:i, sq.; Matt, viii :5, sq., with Luke vii:i.
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF
1127
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF
sq. This is most striking in the history of his
own call, where we should expect a clearer rep-
resentation.
(2) Omissions. He omits some facts which
every apostle certainly knew. For instance, he
mentions only one journey of Christ to the pass-
over at Jerusalem, namely, the last; and seems
to be acquainted only with one sphere of Christ's
activity, namely, Galilee. He even relates the
instances of Christ's appearing after his resurrec-
tion in such a manner that it might be under-
stood as if he showed himself only to the women
in Jerusalem, and to his disciples, nowhere but
in Galilee (Matt, xxvi 132 and xxviii:7).
(3) Transposition of Events. He relates
unchronologically, and transposes events to times
in which they did not happen ; for instance, the
event mentioned in Luke iv: 14-30 must have
happened at the commencement of Christ's public
career, but Matthew relates it as late as ch. xiii :
5.^, sq.
(4) Combines Discourses. He embodies in
one discourse several sayings of Christ which,
according to Luke, were pronounced at different
times (comp. Matt, v-vii, and xxiii).
(5) Errors Claimed. He falls, it is asserted,
into positive errors. In ch. i and ii he seems not
to know that the real dwelling-place of the par-
ents of Jesus was at Nazareth, and that their
abode at Bethlehem was only temporary (comp.
Matt. ii:i, 22, 23, with Luke ii 14, 39). Accord-
ing to Mark xi:20, 21, the fig-tree withered on
the day after it was cursed, but according to
Matt, xxiiig, it withered immediately. Accord-
ing to Matt. xxi:i2, Christ purified the temple
immediately after his entrance into Jerusalem;
but according to Mark he on that day went out
to Bethany, and purified the temple on the day
following (Mark xi:ii-i5). Matthew says (xxi:
7) that Christ rode on a she-ass and on a colt,
which is impossible. The other gospels speak
only of a she-ass.
These circumstances have led Strauss and oth-
ers to consider the Gospel of St. Matthew as an
unapostolical composition, originating perhaps at
the conclusion of the first century ; while some
consider it a reproduction of the Aramaan Mat-
thew, augmented by some additions ; others call
it an historical commentary of a later period,
made to illustrate the collection of the sayings of
Christ which Matthew had furnished (comp.
Sietfert, Uebcr die Aechthcit und den Ursprttng
dcs crsten EvangcUi, 1832 ; Schneckenburger,
Ucbcr den Ursprung des crsten Evangelii, 1834;
Schott, Ueber die Authenticitut des Ev. IMatth.
1837).
4, Reptt/. To these objections we may reply
as follows :
(1) Completeness of Narration. The gift
of narrating luminously is a personal qualifica-
tion of which even an apostle might be destitute,
and which is rarely found among the lower or-
ders of people : this argument therefore has re-
cently been given up altogether. In the history of
his call to be an apostle, Matthew has this ad-
vantage over Mark and Luke, that he relates the
discourse of Christ (ix:i3) with greater com-
pleteness than these evangelists. Luke relates
that Matthew prepared a great banquet in his
house, while Matthew simply mentions that an
entertainment took place, because the apostle
could not well write that he himself prepared a
great banquet.
(2) Omissions by One Witness do not
Invalidate Testimony of Others. An argu-
mentum a silentio must not be urged against
the evangelists. The raising of Lazarus is nar-
rated only by John ; and the raising of the youth
at Nain only by Luke, the appearance of five
hundred brethren after the resurrection, which,
according to the testimony of Paul (i Cor. xv:
6), was a fact generally known, is not recorded
by any of the evangelists. The apparent restric-
tion of Christ's sphere of activity to Galilee, we
find also in Mark and Luke. This peculiarity
arose perhaps from the circumstance that the
apostles first taught in Jerusalem, where it was
unnecessary to relate what had happened there,
but where the events which had taken place in
Galilee were unknown, and required to be nar-
rated: thus the sphere of narration may have
gradually become fixed. At least it is generally
granted that hitherto no satisfactory explanation
of this fact has been discovered. The expres-
sions in Matt, x.xvi 132, and xxviii -.7, perhaps
only indicate that the Lord appeared more fre-
quently, and for a longer period, in Galilee than
elsewhere. In Matt, xxviii: 16, we are told that
the disciples in Galilee went up to a mountain,
whither Christ had appointed them to come ; and
since it is not previously mentioned that any
such appointment had been made, the narrative
of Matthew himself here leads us to conclude
that Christ appeared to his disciples in Jerusalem
after his resurrection.
(3) Communications Grouped According to
Subjects. There is no reason to suppose that
the evangelists intended to write a chronological
biography. On the contrary, we learn from Luke
i :4, and John xx:3i, that their object was of a
more practical tendency. With the exception of
John, the evangelists have grouped their com-
munications more according to the subjects than
according to chronological succession. This fact
is now generally admitted. The principal groups
of facts recorded by St. Matthew are: (l) The
preparation of Jesus, narrated in ch. i — iv:l6.
(2) The public ministry of Jesus, narrated in ch.
iv:i7 — xvi :20. (3) The conclusion of the life
of Jesus, narrated in ch. xvi:2l — xxviii.
The second of these groups is siabdivided into
minor groups. If we consider that Matthew, for
the benefit of the Jews, describes Christ as being
the promised Messiah of the old covenant, it
must appear perfectly appropriate in him to nar-
rate the Sermon on the Mount before the calling
of his disciples. The Sermon on the Mount
shows the relation in which the Redeemer stood
to the old covenant. In cc. viii and ix are given
examples of the power which Jesus possessed of
performing miracles; after which, in ch. ix :36, is
stated the need of 'laborers' to instruct the peo-
ple. Then naturally follows, in ch. x, the ad-
monition delivered to the apostles before they
arc sent out on their mission. In ch. xii is re-
corded how Jesus entered into conflict with the
dominant party, etc. (comp. Kern's Abhandlung
liber den Ursprung dcs Evangelii Matthcri, p.
51, sq.; Koster, Uebcr die Composition des Ev.
Matth. in Peh's Mitarbeiten, Heft i; Kuhn, Lebcn
Jesu. t. i., Beilage.)
But our adversaries furthei- assert that the
evangelist not only groups together events be-
longing to different times, but that some of his
dates are incorrect : for instance, the date in
Matt. xiii:53 cannot be corrrect if Luke, ch. iv,
has placed the event rightly. If, however, we
carefully consider the matter, we shall find that
Matthew has placed this fact more chronologically
than Luke. It is true that the question in Matt,
xiii :S4, and the annunciation in Luke iv:i8-2i,
seem to synchronize best with the first public ap-
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF
1128
MATTHIAS
nearance of Jesus. But even Schleiermacher,
ivho, in his work on Luke, generally gives the
preference to the arrangement of that evangelist,
nevertheless observes (p. 63) that Luke iv -.23
leads us to suppose that Jesus abode for a longer
period in Capernaum (comp. the words koto tA
(luSoi airif in verse 16).
(4) Combination of Harmonious Themes.
If the evangelist arranges his statements accord-
ing to subjects, and not chronologically, we rnust
not be surprised that he connects similar sayings
of Christ, inserting them in the longer discourses
after analogous topics had been mentioned. These
discourses are not compiled by the evangelist, but
always form the fundamental framework to which
sometimes analogous subjects are attached. But
even this is not the case in the Sermon on the
Mount ; and in ch. xiii it may be doubted whether
the parables were spoken at different times. In
the discourses recorded in ch. x and xxiii. it can
be proved that several sayings are more correctly
placed tjy Matthew than by Luke (comp. espe-
cially Matt, xxiii :37-39 with Luke xiii :34. 3S)-
(5) Sources of Information. It depends en-
tirely upon the mode of interpretation, whether
such positive errors as are alleged to exist are
really chargeable on the evangelist. The differ-
ence, for instance, between the narrative of the
birth of Christ, as severally recorded by Matthew
and Luke, may easily be solved without question-
ing the correctness of either, if we suppose th.at
each of them narrates what he knows from his
individual sources of information. The history of
Christ's childhood given in Luke, leads us to con-
clude that it was derived from the acquaintances
of Mary, while the statements in Matthew seem
to be derived from the friends of Joseph. .A.S
to the transaction recorded in Matt, xxi: 18-22,
and Mark xi:ii, 15, 20, 21, it appears that Mark
describes what occurred most accurately: and we
must grant that we should scarcely have expected
from an eye-witness the inaccuracy which is ob-
servable in Matthew. But we find that there are
characters of such individuality that, being bent
exclusively upon their main subject, they seem
to have no perception for dates and localities.
5. Internal Proof of Genuineness. If these
arguments should still appear unsatisfactory, they
may be supported by adding the positive internal
proofs which exist in favor of the apostolical origin
of this gospel.
(1) Harmony of Early Writers with the
Book. The nature of the book agrees entirely
with the statements of the Fathers of the church,
from whom welearn that it was written for Jewish
readers. None of the other e\'^ngelist5 quotes
the Old Testament so often as Matthew, who,
moreover, docs not explain the Jewish rites and
expressions, which are explained by Mark and
John.
(2) Fullness of Accounts. If there is a want
of precision in the narration of facts, there is,
on the other hand, a peculiar accuracy and rich-
ness in the reports given of the discourses of
Jesus; so that we may easily conceive why
Papias, a parte pntiori, styled the Gospel of Mat-
thew \A71a ToD Kup/oii, the sayini;s of the Lord.
Some of tlie most beautiful and most important
savings of our Lord, the historical credibility of
which no skeptic can attack, have been preserved
by Matthew alone (Matt, xi 128-30: xvi:l6-l9;
xxviii:20: comp. also xi :2-2i ; xii :3-6, 25-29;
xvii:i2, 25. 26; xxvi:i3). .\bove all. the Sermon
nn the Mount must here be considered. Even
negative criticism grants that Luke's account is
defective as compared with Matthew's; and that
Luke gives as isolated sentences what in Mat-
thew appears in beautiful connection. In short,
the Sermon on the Mount, according to Matthew,
forms the most beautiful and the best arranged
whole of all the evangelical discourses. It may
also be proved that in many particulars the re-
ports of several discourses in Matthew are more
exact than in the other Evangelists; as may be
seen by comparing Matt, x.xiii. with the various
parallel passages in Luke. Under these circum-
stances it is surprising that the genuineness of
this gospel has not yet met with more distin-
guished advocates. The most important work in
defense of the genuineness of Matthew is that
of Kern. Ueber den Ursprung des Evangclii Mat-
tlitei. Tiibingen, 1834. Next in value are Ols-
hausen's Drei Programme, 1835, and the two
Lueiibrationes of Harless, 1840 and 1843. Even
De Wette, in the fourth edition of his Introduc-
tion, p. 170, has ascribed only a qualified value
to the doubts on this head.
6. Early Hate. With regard to the date
of this gospel, Clemens Alexandrinus and Origen
state that it was written before the others.
Irenaeus (Adv. Harr. in. 1) agrees with them, but
places its origin rather late — namely, at the time
when Peter and Paul were at Rome. Even De
Wette grants {Einleitung, sec. 97) that it was
written before the destruction of Jerusalem. In
proof of this we may also quote ch. .xxvii :8.
A. T.
MATTHIAS (mat-thi'as), (Gr. MarWas, mat-
t/iee'its, gift of Jehovah, equivalent to Matthew),
one of the seventy disciples who was chosen by
lot, in preference to Joseph Barsabas, into the
number of the Apostles, to supply the deficiency
caused by the treachery and death of Judas
(Acts i :23-26).
This is the sole instance of the lot being
employed in the history of the Apostolic Church,
and it occurs significantly between the Ascension
and Pentecost, when the disciples were 'orphans'
(John xiv:i8). Stier (Words of the Apostles, in
loc.) regards this election as premature and un-
warranted, the outcome of St. Peter's officious
impetuosity. 'The lot fell : not the Lord chose.'
He holds that St. Paul was the true successor
of Judas, chosen, like the other Apostles, by the
Lord himself. It may be granted that the ap-
pointment of Matthias stands on a somewhat
lower level than that of the original Twelve and
of St. Paul ; but, in the absence of any direction
to the contrary, the procedure was a legitimate
e.xercise of human wisdom in dependence upon
Divine guidance ; and St. Luke, the 'beloved'
friend of St. Paul, appears to endorse the election
(representing, doubtless, the general opinion of
the .\postolic Church) ; for after speaking of the
eleven Apostles (Acts 1:2$) he refers (.\cts vi :
2) to the 'Twelve.' (H. Cowan, Hastings' Bib.
Diet.)
According to Grotius, the lot was taken by
means of two urns. In one they placed two rolls
of paper, with the names of Joseph and Matthias
written within them, and in the other, two rolls,
one with the word "apostle" and the other blank;
and one roll was drawn from each urn simulta-
neously. Clarke (Cotn.) thinks that the selection
was by ballot, the Lord directing the mind of the
majority to vote for Matthias. In the case of
selection by lot there was no chance, for "the
lot is cast into the lap (properly urn) ; but the
whole disposing thereof is of the Lord" ^ Prov.
xvi ■.:^:<).
Nothing sure is known of his subsequent career,
MATTITHIAH
1129
MEALS. MKAL TIME
although according to one tradition, he preached
in Ethiopia and suffered martyrdom there ; ac-
cording to another, he labored in Judaea and was
stoned by the Jews.
Others hold that he was a martyr — by crucifix-
ion— in Ethiopia or Colchis. An apocryphal gos-
pel was published under his name, and Clement
^f Alexandria quotes from the Traditions of Mat-
iiias.
MATTITHIAH (raat'ti-thi'ah), (Heb. ^^riHS.
niat-tith-yaii.-' . gift of Jehovah; prolonged form,
^'^'^'^'^, mat-tith-yaw' /wo).
1. A son of Jeduthun, the Levite, and leader of
the fourteenth course of Temple musicians in
the time of David (I Chron. xxv:3. 21). (B. C.
1014.) He was probably the doorkeeper of the
ark, appointed by David (i Chron. xv:l8, 21;
xviis).
2. One of the "sons" of Nebo, who put away
his Gentile wife after the exile (Ezra x:43). (B.
C. 459)
3. Son of Shallum, a Korhite Levite, who had
charge of the baked offerings of the Temple after
the exile (l Chron. ix:3i). (B. C. 440).
4. One of those who stood on Ezra's right
when he read the law to the people (Neh. viii:
4). (B. C. 410.)
5. Son of Semei in the genealogy of Christ
(Luke iii:26) ; but the name is probably an inter-
polation of 6.
6. Son of Amos, in the genealogy of Christ
(Luke iii:25). (B. C. after 406.)
MATTOCK (mat'tuk). Three Hebrew words
are thus translated :
1. Makh-ar-ay-shaw' (Heb. •"'?"l?:?), I Sam.
xiii:2o, 21.
2. Kheh'reb (Heb. "^T}). The expression
"with their mattocks round about" (2 Chron.
xxxiv:6, marg. "mauls."
3. Malt-dare' (Heb. ^'''?'5), Isa. vii;25, a weed-
ing hook or hoe.
MAXTL (maI),(Heb. V*?^,OTa>'-/^r/.5',a breaker).
It was a hammer, such as coppersmiths use, found
only in Prov. xxv:l8.
It is to-day a stick for striking a person •n the
head as a mark of disgrace, but it may also mean
a club. Clubs are always carried by the shep-
herds of Lebanon, slung from the wrist by a
thong or cord. The head of the club is round
and heavy and is sometimes studded with iron
spikes. Solomon compares a false witness to a
"maul," he wounds the reputation, he ruins the
health, and takes away the life of his neigh-
bor (see as above Rrov. x.\v:i8). In Jer. li :
20, the Hebrew is rendered in R. V. "battle
axe," and in the marg. "maul."
UATJZZIM (mauz'zini), (marginal, Dan. xi:38).
A word meaning "the God of forces," but by
some it is taken as a proper name, though it proba-
bly refers to the dedication by Antiochns Epiph-
anes of a temple in Antioch to Jupiter Capitolinus,
or to the family god of the Seleucids to whom
there was an altar in the Acropolis at Athens.
MAW (ma), (Heb. ^9r., kay-baw' , hollow), the
ventricle, or the second of the four stomachs of
ruminating animals, in which the digestion of the
food is completed.
It, like tripe, was esteemed a great delicacy
among the ancients. This, with the shoulder and
the cheeks of a sacrificial animal, was the portion
of the priest (Deut. xviii:3).
MAZZABOTH (maz'za-roth). (Heb. ^'^'V^, mas-
:aw-roth' , only in Job xxxviii:32), the name of
twelve signs of the zodiac, which were imagined
as menazil, i. e., lodging houses; or burug, strong-
holds, in which one after another the sun lodges
as it describes the circle of the year. (See Stars.)
MEADOW (mSd'o), the rendering of two words:
\. Aiv'khoo (Heb. ''"?, Gen. xli;2, 18), probably
an Egyptian term. In Job viii:2 this word seems
to mean a reed or rush. In Judg. xx:33 the word
translated ' meadow ' probably means an open
plain, or a region stripped oi wood, a treeless por-
tion of the country.
2. Mah-ar-eh' (Heb. '^';?;^, stripped), Judg. xx:
33, " the meadows of Gibeah."
MEAH (me'ah), (Heb. '^?^, may-aw\ a hun-
dred).
A tower on the eastern wall of Jerusalem, prob-
ably at the angle of the Temple inclosure (Neh.
iii:i; xii:39), between the Sheep Gate and the
tower of Hananeel. (See Jerusalem ; Han-
ANEEL.)
MEAL (mel), the rendering of several words:
1. Keh'tnakh (Heb. '^^P, marrow), the fatness
of wheat or barley, i. e., its ground substance (Gen.
xviii:6; Num. v:l5; i Kings iv:22; xvii:l2, 14, 16; 2
Kings iv:4i; 1 Chron. xii:4o; Is. xlvii:2; Hos. viii:7).
2. Keh'makh so'leth (Heb. ^P ™|?., Gen. xviii:
6, "fine meal"; Gr. iXtvpav, al'yoo-ron. Matt, xiii:
33; Luke xiii;2l), the finest portion of flour.
Figurative. In the prophetic writings 'meal'
is used in several figures. The humbling
of the Daughter of Babylon was to be shown
by her being reduced to the work of grinding
meal as a sign of servitude (Is. xlvii:2). Hosea
represents the unprofitableness of the evil works
of Israel as sowing the wind, reaping the whirl-
wind, whose bud, having no stalk, makes no meal
(Hos. viii -.y).
MEAL-OFFERING (rael of'fer-Ing) is the trans-
lation substituted by the Old Testament revision
for A. V. 'meat-offering.'
The American Revisers further record their
preference for 'meal-offering' in Jer. xiv:i2;xvii;
26; xxxiii:i8; xli:5. In these passages our R. V.
reads 'oblation' with 'meal-offering' in the mar-
gin.
MEALS, MEAL TIME (mels, mel tim).
(1) When and How Served. The meals of
the Israelites consisted of a simple breakfast in
the morning and two other daily meals, one at
midday (Gen. xviii :i; xliii:l6, 25; Ruth ii:i4; i
Kings xx:l6) and the other some time in the
evening (Gen. xix:i; Ruth iii:2). In earlier
times the midday ineal as well as the evening meal
was regarded as important and consisted of sub-
stantial fare. It was also customary to ask a
blessing upon the food (i Sam. ix:i3; Matt, xiv :
ig; XV 136 ; Luke ix:i6: John vi:ii). Meat was
served in a solid form, and no soups were used
by the Israelites. Portions of flesh, whether boiled
or roasted, were lifted by the fingers and placed
on a piece of bread, which served as a plate, and
also as a fork to lift to the mouth. The food of the
poorer classes consisted of bread dipped in vine-
gar, milk, and parched corn (Ruth ii:i4); those
ill a better position had in ••iddition boiled flesh
and a variety of vegetables and fruits ; while the
wealthy had roasted flesh of fatted cattle, venison
and fowls. .At feasts honor was shown to guests
by the position assigned to them at table, by the
MEAN
1130
MEDAD AND ELDAD
thoice pieces and the amount of the portions set
before them.
(2) Seasoning of Food. It does not appear
that the people were very particular in the sea-
soning or dressing of their food. Salt was the
only seasoning of what was prepared in the tem-
ple; if we do not add the oil wherewith meat-
offerings were baken. The paschal lamb was
eaten with bitter herbs; salt, honey, butter, oil,
and perhaps sometimes aromatic herbs were used
in their common ragouts.
(3) Various Customs. People of different na-
tions disliked to eat together. The Egyptians hated
to eat with shepherds (Gen. xliii:3i). The Jews
abhorred eating with heathens, particularly the
Samaritans (John iv :9) ; they reproached our
Savior for eating with publicans (Matt. ix:ii;
Luke XV : 2). The Jews washed their hands be-
fore and after they partook of their meals (Matt.
XV :2; Mark vii:2; Luke xi:33). Anciently, they
sat at separate tables, but in after ages they cop-
ied after the Persian, Chaldean, and Roman man-
ner of lying on couches at their meals; hence John
leaned on Jesus' bosom at his last supper (John
xiii :23, 25). The different se.xes feasted in differ-
ent apartments, a common custom in some places
of the East. Perfumes on their hair, or on their
couches, together with music and dancing, were
common at their feasts (Luke vii 137; xv ; John
xii).
(4) Effect of the Law. The abolishment of
the ceremonial law, by the death of Jesus Christ,
took away the legal distinction of meats; but to
avoid offence of the weak Jews who turned
Christians, and were hard to wean from their
ancient customs, the synod of Jerusalem required
their Christian brethren to abstain from meats
offered to idols, and from things strangled, and
from blood. This matter, especially that of eat-
ing things offered to idols, and which were some-
times, after the oblation, sold in the public
markets, occasioned no small disturbance. St.
Paul determines, that all food was clean and in-
different in itself; and that whatever was bought
in the public market, might be eaten without any
scruple of conscience ; but warmly inculcates the
forbearance of flesh offered to idols, if it tended
to lay a stumbling-block before any person, or
grieved any tender conscience; and charges such
as did otherwise, with being murderers of their
Christian brethren, for whom Christ died (Tit.
i:i5: Rom. xiv; I Cor. vi:ii-i3; viii and x).
(See Food.)
MEAN (men).
1. The verb to 'mean' (from Anglo-Sax.
macnan to intend, tell, and connected with 'mind,'
the root being man, to think) signifies sometimes
to design, intend, purpose. Gen. 1 :20, 'But as
for you, ye thought evil against me ; but God
meant it unto good;' Is. iii:i5, 'What mean ye
that ye beat my people to pieces, and grind the
faces of the poor?' x :7, 'Howbeit he meaneth
not so, neither doth his heart think so;' Acts xxi :
13, 'What mean ye to weep and to break mine
heart?" Acts xxvii :2, 'We launched, meaning to
sail by the coasts of Asia'; 2 Cor. viii:i3; 'For I
mean not that other men be eased, and ye bur-
dened.'
2. The noun 'mean' in Prov. xxii :29, signifies
that which is obscure. (Comp. Acts xxi 139.)
MEABAH (me-a'rah), (Heb. '^P?'?, vteh-aw-
raw' , a cave). A place on the northern boundary
i)f I'alestine (losh. xiii:4), near Sidon. Commonly
identified with a district of caves on Lebanon, to
the east of Sidon, called Jezzim; also with Moghe-
tiyeh, northeast of Sidon.
MEASURES (mezh'Qrs). See Weights and
Measures.
MEASXTRING LINE (mezh'dr-rng lin). See
Weights and Measures.
MEAT (met). This word does not appear to be
used in the Bible in the sense of animal food,
which is denoted uniformly by "flesh."
Perhaps the following may be exceptions :
"Savory meat" (Gen. xxvii 14); "corn and bread
and meat" (xlv:23).
Figurative, (i) Christ's mediatorial work
is represented as his meat; it was more delightful
to him than his necessary food (John iv :32, 34).
He in his person, righteousness, and fullness, and
God in him, are represented as meat; as true and
satisfying food, the receiving and enjoyment of
which nourishes up men's souls to eternal life
(John vi:55; i Cor. x:3; Ps. xxxiv:8). (2) The
truths of God in the Scripture are meat; they
refresh and nourish men's souls; and the deeper
mysteries are strong meat, which can only edify
and nourish strong Christians (Jer. xv:i6; Heb.
v:i2, 14). (3) Ceremonial ordinances are called
meats and drinks; much of them related to eat-
ables (Heb. xiii:9; Col. ii:i6). (4) The king-
dom of God consists not in meat and drink, but
in righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy
Ghost: the gospel-dispensation does not relate to
meats and drinks ; nor does true inward religion
consist in observances of these, but in applying
Christ's righteousness, and studying to have fel-
lowship with and conformity to God (Rom. xiv:
17)- (S) The fruit of believers is for meat and
medicine; their instructions and holy examples
are edifying (Ezek. xlvii:i2). (6) Men are meat
to others, when they are given up to be destroyed
by them (Ps. xliv:ii, and liii:4; Num. xiv:9,
and xxiv:8). (7) Sin is meat to men; they de-
light in it, and promise themselves nourishment
from it : but it becomes the gall of asps within
them (Job xx:i4). (8) Sorrozvfxd meat, is coarse
provision, which mourners ate (Job vi:7). (9)
Tears are meat, when sorrow takes away all ap-
petite for meat (Ps. xlii:3). (10) The year of
release was meat for the Hebrews; they ate what
grew of its own accord in it (Lev. xxv:6). (11)
Israel's ordinary food, which God diminished,
was their accustomed prosperity (Ezek. ,xvi:27).
MEAT-OFFERING (met of'fer-tng). See Of-
fering.
MEBUNNAI (me-bijn'nai), (Heb. '^^r, meh-oon-
nah'ee, construction).
One of David's bodyguard (2 Sam. xxiii :
27); elsewhere Sibbechai (2 Sam. xxi:i8; i
Chron. xx:4), or Sibbecai (i Chron. xi:29;
x.xvii :ii).
MECHERATHITE (mek'e- rath-ite), (Heb.
"P^^r, viek-ay-raw-thee' , from the word meaning
a sword).
The appellation of Hepher, one of David's
heroes (1 Chron. xi:36). The place. Mecherah,
is otherwise unknown, but the word may be a
corruption of Maachathite (2 Sam. xxiii :34).
MEDAD and ELDAD (me'dSd and Sl'dad),
(Heb. ''T^i may-dawd' , loving).
Two of the seventy elders who were nominated
to assist Moses in the government of the people,
but who remained in the camp, probably as mod-
estly decining themselves unfit for the office, when
the others presented themselves at the Taber-
nacle. The Divine spirit, however, rested on them
even there, 'and they prophesied in the camp'
(Num. xi:24-29). The Targum of Jonathan al-
MEDAN OR MADAN
1131
MKDIA
leges that these two men were brothers of Moses
and Aaron by the mother's side. (B. C. 1657.)
MEDAN or MADAN (me'dan), (Heb. H?.
med-awn' , contention; Sept. MaSiiM, madiam).
Son of Abraham, by Keturah (Gen. xxv:2; I
Chron. 1:32). He and his brother Midian are
supposed to have peopled the country of Midian,
east of the Dead Sea. The word is probably to
be identified with Madcm, the god of some Arab
tribe, best known through the proper name 'Abd-
Al-Maddn, 'worshiper of Al-Madan." The seat of
the worsliip of Al-Madan appears to have been
Yemen (77;/ Ai-'Arr,s, s. v.), whereas the de-
scendants of Keturah appear to be far away from
S. Arabia.
MEDEBA (med'e-ba), (Heb. **?1^, may-deb-aw'.
Sept. BIoi5o/3di', Maedaban).
A town east of the Jordan, in the tribe of
Reuben (Josh. xiii:9, 16), before which was
fought the great battle in which Joab defeated the
Ammonites and their allies (I Chron. xix:7).
It originally belonged to the Moabites (Num.
xxi :30) ; and after the captivity of the tribes
beyond the Jordan, they again took possession of
it (Is. XV :2). The Ononiasticon places it near
Heshbon ; and it was once the seat of one of the
thirty-five bishoprics of Arabia (Reland. Pahrs-
tina, pp. 217, 223, 226). Medeba, now in ruins,
still retains its ancient name, and is situated upon
a round hill seven miles south of Heshbon. The
ruins are about a mile and a half in circuit, but
not a single edifice remains perfect. (Seetzen, in
Zach's Monat. Corresp., xviii. 431 ; Burckhardt,
Syria, p. 625; Legh. p. 245.)
MEDES (medes), (Heb. '^7. matv-dah'ee, a
Mede). Tlie inhabitants in ancient times of one of
the most fruitful and populous countries of Asia,
called Media.
MEDIA (me'dl-a), (Heb. *!!?', rendered "Madai,"
Gen. x:2; I Chron. i:5; "Media," Esth. i:3, 14, 18;
x:2; Is. xxi:2; Dan. viii:2o; "Median," Dan. v:3i;
>*;1j, "Media," R. V. Ezra vi:2).
(1) Location. Media lay directly south of
Armenia and was bounded on the northeast by
the mountains beside the Caspian Sea. To the east
and southeast were Hyrcania and Parthia. Elam
or Susiana lay on the southern side, and the
mighty Assyrian power was on the west.
(2) Cities. In Great Media lay the metropolis
of the country. Ecbatana (Plin. Hist. Nat. vi.
17), as well as the province of Rhagiana and the
city Rhag:e, with the plain of Nisseum, celebrated
in the time of the Persian empire for its horseS
and horse-races (Herod, iii. 106: Arrian, vii. 13;
Ileeren, Idccn, i. 1. 305). This plain was near the
city Nisa?a, around which were fine pasture lands
producing excellent clover (Hcrha Mcdica). The
horses were entirely white, and of extraordinary
height and beauty, as well as speed. They con-
stituted a part of the luxury of the great, and a
tribute in kind was paid from them to the mon-
arch, who, like all Eastern sovereigns, used to de-
light in equestrian display.
(3) Tribute. Sonic idea of the opulence of
the country may be h.ul when it is known that,
independently of imposts rendered in money.
Media paid a yearly tribute of not less than 3.000
horses. 4.000 mules, and nearly 100,000 sheep.
(4) Products. The horse-races, once celebrated
through the world, appear to exist no more ; but
Ker Porter saw the Shah ride on festival oc-
casions a splendid horse of pure white. Cattle
abounded, as did the richest fruits, as pines, cit-
rons, oranges, all of peculiar excellence, growing
as in their native land. Here also was found the
Silphium (probably assafoetida), which formed a
considerable article in the commerce of the an-
cients, and was accounted worth its weight in
gold. The Median dress was proverbially splen-
did ; the dress, that is, of the highest class, which
seems to have gained a sort of classical authority,
and to have been at a later period worn at the
Persian court, probably in part from its antiquity.
This dress the Persian monarchs used to present
to those whom they wished to honor, and no oth-
ers were permitted to wear it. It consisted of a
long white loose robe, or gown, flowing down
to the feet, and enclosing the entire body, speci-
mens of which, as now used in those countries,
may be seen in plates given in Perkin's Resi-
dence in Persia, New York, 1843. The nature
and the celebrity of this dress combine with the
natural richness of the country to assure us that
the ancient Medians had made no mean progress
in the arts ; indeed, the colors of the Persian
textures are known to have been accounted sec-
ond only to those of India. If these regal dresses
were of silk, then was there an early commerce
between Media and India ; if not, weaving, as
well as dyeing, must have been practiced and
carried to a high degree of perfection in the
former country (.Amniian. Marcell. xxiv. 6. p. 353.
ed. Bip. ; Xcnoph. Cyrop. i. 3. 2; Athen. xii. pp.
512, 514, sq.: Hceren. /flfri-», i. 205, 307; Herod,
vi. 112; Strabo, xi. p. 525; Dan. iii:2i).
(5) Religion. The religion of the Medes con-
sisted in the worship of the heavenly bodies,
more particularly the sun and moon, and the
planets Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mercury, and
Mars (Strabo, xv. p. 732). (See St.\rs.) The
famous Median dress, comprised the miter, as
well as the flowing robe. The priestly caste
were denominated magi ; they were a separate
tribe, and had the charge not only of religion,
but of all the higher culture.
(6) Language. The language of the ancient
Medes was not connected with the Semitic, but
the Indian; and divided itself into two chief
branches, the Zend, spoken in North Media, and
the Pehlvi, spoken in Lower Media and Parthia ;
which last was the dominant tongue among the
Partliians.
(7) Early History. The Medes originally
consisted of six tribes, of which the Magi were
one (Herod. i:ioi). Being overcome by Ninus,
they formed a part of the great Assyrian empire,
which, however, lost in course of time the primi-
tive simplicity of manners to which its dominion
was owing, and fell into luxury and consequent
weakness ; then Arbaces, who governed the coun-
try as a satrap for Sardanapalus, taking advantage
of the effeminacy of lliat monarch, threw off his
yoke, destroyed his capital, Nineveh, and became
himself sovereign nf the Medes, in llic ninth cen-
tury before the Christian era (Diod. Sic, ii. i,
2, 24, 32). According to Diodorus, this empire
extended through nine monarchs, enduring 310
years, until .\styages, son of Cyaxarcs. was de-
throned by Cyrus in the year of the world 349S.
when Media became a part of the Persian empire,
sinking from the same inevitable causes as those
which enabled it to gain over the Assyrian power
the dominion of Asia. The account given by
Herodotus varies from that now set forth.
We do not propose to subject the diversities to
a critical investigation, believing that little, if any,
good could result, at least within our narrow
space. Dates, names, and dynasties may be more
MEDIA
1132
MEDIATOR
or less uncertain, but the facts we have given
are unimpeached.
(8) Extent. The magnitude of the Median
empire is another important fact equally well as-
certained. Being in their time the most valorous,
as well as the most powerful nation of Asia, the
Medes extended their power towards the east and
the west beyond any strictly definable limits,
though, like dominion generally in Oriental coun-
tries, it was of a vague, variable, and unstable
kind. That they regarded the Tigris as their
western boundary appears from the fact that they
erected on its banks strongholds, such as Mespila
and Larissa (Xenoph., Anab. iii. 4, 10) ; but that
they carried their victorious arms still farther
westward, appears from both Herodotus (i. 134)
and Isaiah (xiii:i7, 18). The eastern limits of
the empire seem to have been different at differ-
ent periods. Hceren inclines to the opinion that
it may have reached as far as the Oxus, and even
the Indus (Idccii. i. 142). Many, however, were
the nations and tribes which were under the sway
of its sovereigns.
(9) Government. The government was a
succession of satrapies, over all of which the
Medes were paramount; but the different nations
exerted a secondary dominion over each other,
diminishing with the increase of distance from
the center of royal power (Herod., i. I34)' 'o
which center ultimately the tribute paid by each
dependent to his superior eventually and securely
came. Not only were the Medes a powerful, but
also a wealthy and cultivated people ; indeed, be-
fore they sank, in consequence of their degen-
eracy, into the Persian empire, they were during
their time the foremost people of Asia, owing
their celebrity not only to their valor, but also
to the position of their country, which was the
great commercial highway of Asia. The sover-
eigns exerted absolute and unlimited dominion,
exacted a rigid court-ceremonial, and displayed
a great love of pomp (Heeren, Ideen, 143).
(10) Under Persian Rule. Under the Persian
monarchs Media formed a province, or satrapy,
by itself, whose limits did not correspond with in-
dependent Media, but cannot be accurately de-
fined.
To Media belonged another country, namely,
Aria, which, Heeren says, took its name from the
river Arius (now Heri), but which appears to
contain the elements of the name (in the Zend
language) which was common to the two, if not to
other. Eastern nations who were denominated
Indians by Alexander the Great, as dwellers in
or near the Indus (which he also misnamed) but
who were known in their own tongue as Arians
(Arii, Aria, Ariana, also the name of Persia,
Iran; see Ritter, Erdkundc. v. 458; Manu, 22;
X. 45 ; Herod., vii. 62, who declares that the
Medes were of old universally called Arii.'Aptoi).
Subsequently, however, from whatever cause, the
Arians were separated from the Medes, form-
ing a distinct satrapy in the Persian empire. Thus
the name of a clan, or gens, became the name of
a nation, and then of an individual tribe (Strabo,
quoted bv Heeren, Idccn. i. 190).
(11) Scriptural Mention. The Medes are not
mentioned in sacred Scripture till the days erf
Hoshca. king of Israel, about 740 B. C. when
Shalmaneser. king of Assyria, brought that mon-
arch under his yoke, and in the ninth year of
his reign took Samaria, and carried Israel away
into Assyria, placing them in Halah and in Habor,
bv the river of (kizan, and in the cities of the
Medes. Here the Medes appear as a part of the
Assyrian empire ; but at a later period Scripture
exhibits them as an independent and sovereign
people (Is. xiii;i7; Jer. xxv :25 ; li:li, 28). In
the last passage their kings are expressly named :
'The Lord hath raised up the kings of the Medes ;
for his device is against Babylon to destroy it.'
'Prepare against her (Babylon) the kings of the
Medes, the captains thereof, and all the rulers
thereof.'
It has been conjectured that soon after the
time of Arbaces they again fell under the domin-
ion of the Assyrians ; but availing themselves of
the opportunity afforded by the distant expedi-
tions which Sennacherib undertook, they gained
their freedom, and founded a new line of kings
under Dejoces (Winer, Rcalw'drt,). Indeed, so
sudden and rapid are the changes of government,
even to the present day, in Oriental monarchies,
that we need not be surprised at any difficulties
which may occur in arranging the dynasties or
the succession of kings, scarcely in any ancient
history, certainly least of all in the fragmentary
notices preserved regarding the kings of Media
and other neighboring empires.
(12) Medes and Persians. According, how-
ever, to other historical testimony, we find the
Medes and Persians united as one people in Holy
Writ (Dan. v:28; vi:is; viii:2o; Esth. i :3, 18;
x:2), in the days of Cyrus, who destroyed the
separate sovereignty of the former. To the united
kingdom Babylon was added as a province.
(13) Conquered by Alexander. After the
lapse of about 200 years, Media, in junction with
the entire Persian monarchy, fell under the yoke
of Alexander the Great (B. C. 330) ; but after the
death of Alexander it became, under Seleucus
Nicator, the Macedonian governor of Media and
Babylonia, a portion of the new Syrian kingdom
(i Mace. vi:56), and, after many variations of
warlike fortune, passed over to the Parthian
monarchy (i Mace. xiv:2; Strabo, xvi. p. 745).
(14) The People. The ancient Medes were a
warlike people, and much feared for their skill in
archery (Herod., vii. 61 ; Strabo, xi. p. 525.) They
appear armed with the bow in the army of the
Persians, who borrowed the use of that weapon
from them (Herod., ut supra). Those who re-
mained in the more mountainous districts did not
lose their valor; but the inhabitants of the cities
and towns which covered the plains, in becoming
commercial lost theirformer hardy habits, together
with their bravery, and, giving way to luxury,
became in process of time an easy prey to new
aspirants to martial fame and civil dominion.
(See Grote, History of Greece, iii. pp. 301-312;
Rawlinson, Ancient Monarchies; Porter, Travels;
Kinnier, Persian Empire.) (See Persian.)
J. R. B.
MEDIAN (mg'di-an), (Chald. '??, maw-dah' ee\
an appellation of Darius (Dan. ix:l), "the Mede"
(xi:i). (Sec Darius).
MEDIATOR (me'dl-a'ter), (Gr. Mcit/ttjs, mes-ee'-
tace, mediator), is a word peculiar to the Scrip-
tures (see Beza, Annot. in Gr. Test.), and is used,
in an accommodated sense, by many of the ancient
Fathers, to denote one who intervenes between
two dispensations. Hence it is applied to John the
Baptist, because he came, as it were, between the
Mosaic and Christian dispensations. Thus Crefj.
fiaihmzcnus (Oral, xxxix. p. 633) calls him 6 TroXatas
KoX via^ lxe<rlTri%. Theophylact, commenting on Matt.
iii, gives him the same denomination.
/. ^Signification. Again, it signifies, in its
more proper sense, an intcrntincius or ambas-
sador, one who stands as the channel of com-
munication between two contracting parties.
MEDIATOR
1133
MEDIATOR
Some commentators think that the Apostle Paul,
in Gal. iii:i9, calls Moses mediator, because he
conveyed the expression of God's will to the peo-
ple, and reported to God their wants, wishes, and
determinations. In reference to this passage of
Scripture, Basil (Dc Spiritu Saiicio, ch. xiv)
says, 'Afosen fitptram representas'^e, quando inUr
Detim ft popiilum intermedius extiterit.' Many
ancient and modern divines, however, are of opin-
ion that Christ himself, and not Moses, is here
meant by the inspired Apostle, and this view
would seem to be confirmed by comparing Deut.
xxxiii :2 with Acts vii:38-S2. Christ it was who,
surrounded by angelic spirits, communicated with
Moses on Mount Sinai. On this point, the words
of the learned and pious Chrysostom. on Gal. iii
are very express: 'Here,' says he, 'Paul calls
Christ Mediator, declaring thereby that he ex-
isted before the law. and that by him the law
was revealed.' This application of the passage
will be the more evident if we consider the scope
of the Apostle's argument, which evidently is, to
point out the dignity of the law. How could he
present a clearer demonstration of this than by
showing that it was the second person of the
ever-blessed Trinity who stood forth on the
mount to communicate between God the Father
and his creature man ! Moreover, to contradis-
tinguish Christ's mediation from that of Moses,
the former is emphatically styled liealrrjt KpelrTomt
SiaO-^KT)! (Heb. viii;6).
2. yipplied to The Christ. Christ is called
Mediator by virtue of the reconciliation lie has
effected between a Justly offended God and his
rebellious creature man (see Grotius, De Safi's-
factione Christi, ch. viii ). In this sense of the
term Moses was, on many occasions, an eminent
ty[)e of Christ. The latter, however, was not
Mediator merely by reason of his coming be-
tween God and his creatures, as certain heretics
would affirm (see Cyril Alex. Dial.i.de Sancta
Triiiilatc, p. 410) ; but because he appeased God's
wrath, and made reconciliation for iniquity.
'Christ is the Mediator.' observes Theophylact.
commenting on Gal. iii. 'of two, i. e., of God and
man. He exercises this office between both by
making peace, and putting a stop to that spiritual
war which man wages against God. To accom-
plish this he assumed our nature, joining in a
marvelous manner the human, by reason of sin
unfriendly, to the Divine nature.' 'Hence.' he
adds, 'he made reconciliation.' Oecumenius ex-
presses similar sentiments on the same passage of
Scripture. Again. Cyril, in his work before quoted,
remarks: 'He is esteemed Mediator because, the
Divine and human nature being disjointed by
sin, he has shown them united in his own per-
son ; and in this manner he reunites us to God
the Father.'
(1) Prophet. H, in addition to the above gen-
eral remarks, confirmed by many of the most an-
cient and orthodox Fathers of the church, we
consider the llirrc great offices which holy Scrip-
ture assigns to Christ as Savior of the world,
viz., those of prophet, priest, and king, a further
and more ample illustration will be afforded of
his Mediatorship.
One of the first and most palpable predictions
which we have of the prophetic cliaracter of
Clirist. is that of Moses (Deut. xviii:i5): 'The
Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet
from the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto
ine: unto him ye shall hearken.' That this refers
to Christ we are assured l)y the inspired Apostle
Peter (Acts iii -.22).
Again, in Isaiah lxi:i, 11, Christ's consecration
to the prophetic office, together with its sacred
and gracious functions, is emphatically set forth :
(see Luke iy:i6-2i, where Christ applies this
passage to himself). In order, then, to sustain
this part of his mediatorial office, and thus work
out the redemption of the world, we may see
the necessity there was that Messiah should tje
both God and man. It belongs to a prophet to
expound the law, declare the will of God, and
foretell things to come: all this was done, and
that in a singular and eminent manner, by Christ,
our prophet (Matt. v:2i, etc.; John i:8). All
light comes from this prophet. The Apostle
shows that all ministers are but stars which shine
by a borrowed light (2 Cor. iii :6, 7). All the
prophets of the Old, and all the prophets and
teachers of the New Testament, lighted tlieir
tapers at this torch (Luke xxi :i5). It was Christ
who preached by Noah (i Pet. iii: 19), taught the
Israelites in the wilderness (Acts vii:37),and still
teaches by his ministers (Eph. iv:ii, 12). On
this subject Bishop Butler (Analogy, part ii. ch.
V.) says : 'He was, by way of eminence, the
prophet, "the prophet that should come into the
world" (John vi:i4) to declare the Divine will.
He published anew the law of nature, which
men had corrupted, and the very knowledge of
which, to some degree, was lost amongst them.
He taught mankind, taught us authoritatively, to
live soberly, righteously, and godly in this present
world, in expectation of the future judgment of
God. He confirmed the truth of this moral sys-
tem of nature, and gave us additional evidence of
it, the evidence of testimony. He distinctly re-
vealed the manner in which God would be wor-
shiped, the efficacy of repentance, and the re-
wards and punishments of a future life. Thus
he was a prophet in a sense in which no other
ever was.' Hence the force of the term
A \iyos, by which St. John designates Christ.
But, on the other hand, had the second person
of the Trinity come to us in all the majesty of
his Divine nature, we could not have approached
him as our instructor. The Israelites, terrified at
the exhibitions of Deity, cried out that the Lord
might not so treat with them again; it was then
that he, in gracious condescension to their feel-
ings, promised to communicate with them in
future through a prophet like unto Moses. The
Son of God, in assuming the form of an hutuble
man, became accessible to alt. Thus we perceive
the connection of Christ's prophetic office — he be-
ing both God and man — with the salvation of
man. On this subject Clirysostoni (Ilomil.
cxxxiv. tom. v. p. 860) remarks: 'A mediator,
unless he has a union and communion with the
parties for whom he mediates, possesses not the
essential qualities of a mediator. When Christ,
therefore, became Mediator between God and man
(l Tim. ii. etc.), it was indispensable that he
should be both God and man.'
Macarius also (Homil. vi :97) on this question
more pointedly observes : ''Phc Lord came and
took his body from the virgin; for if he had ap-
peared among us in his naked divinity, who could
bear the sight? But he spoke as man to us
men.'
Again, the Redeemer was not only to pro-
pound, explain, and enforce God's law. but it was
needful that he shouW give a practical proof
of obedience to it in his own person. Now, if
he had not been man. he could not have been sub-
ject to the law: hence it is said. Gal. iv :4. 'When
the fullness of the time was come. God sent forth
his son. made of a woman, made under the law ;'
and if he had not been God. he could not, by
MEDIATOR
1134
MEDICINE OR PHYSIC
keeping the law, have merited forgiveness for
us, for he had done but what was required oi
him. It was the fact of his being voy God and
very man which constituted the merit of Christ's
obedience.
(2) Priest. Moreover, in working out the
mighty scheme of redemption the mediator must
assume the office of priest.
To this office Christ was solemnly appointed by
God (Ps. ex 14; Heb. v;io), qualified for it by
his incarnation (Heb. x :6, 7), and accomplished
all the ends thereof by his sacrificial death (Heb.
ix:ii, 12) ; as in sustaining his prophetic charac-
ter, so in this, his Deity and humanity will be
seen. According to the exhibition of type and
declaration of prophecy, the mediator must die,
and thus rescue us sinners from death by de-
stroying him who nad the power of death. 'But
we see Jesus,' says the Apostle (Heb. ii:9), 'who
was made a little lower than the angels for the
suffering of death, crowned with glory and honor,
that he by the grace of God should taste death
for every man. Forasmuch, then, as the children
are partakers of flesh and blood, he also him-
self likewise took part of the same, that through
death he might destroy him who had the power
of death, that is, the Devil.' On the other hand,
had he not been God he could not have raised
himself from the dead. 'I lay down my life
(he says, John x:i7, 18), and take it up again.'
He had not had a life to lay down if he had
not been man, for the Godhead could not die ; and
if he had not been God, he could not have ac-
quired merit by laying it down ; it must be his
own, and not in the power of another, else his
voluntarily surrendering himself unto death — as
he did on the charge that he, being only man,
made himself equal with God — was an act of
suicide, and consequently an act of blasphemy
against God! It was, then, the mysterious union
of both natures in the one person of Christ,
which constituted the essential glory of his vicari-
ous obedience and death.
Nor are the two natures of Christ more ap-
parent in his death than they are in the inter-
cession which 'he ever liveth to make' in behalf of
all who come unto God by him (Heb. vii:25).
The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews teaches
us (cc. vii, ix) how the high-priest, under the
Levitical dispensation, typified Christ in his in-
tercessory character ; as the high-priest entered
alone within the holiest place of the tabernacle
once a year with the blood of the sacrifice in
his hands, and the names of the twelve tribes
upon his heart, so Christ, having offered up him-
self as a lamb without spot unto God, has gone
into glory bearing on his lieart the names of his
redeemed. We may. then, ask, with the Apostle
(Rom. viii:33), 'Who shall lay anything to the
charge of God's elect? It is God that justifieth,
who is he that condemneth? It is Christ that
died, yea rather, that is risen again, who is even
at the right hand of God, who also maketh in-
tercession for us.' In this part of his mediatorial
work God's incommunicable attributes of omnis-
cience, omnipresence, and omnipotence are seen.
He must therefore have been God, and on the
ground of his being able, from personal experi-
ence, to sympathize with the suffering members
of his mystical body, he must have been man ;
being perfect God and perfect man, he is, then,
a perfect intercessor.
(3) King. We come, lastly, to notice Christ's
mediatorial character as king. The limits of this
article will not adinit of our even alluding to
the varied and multiplied passages of Scripture
which delineate Christ as 'Head over all things
to the church' (see Ps. ii:6; xlv ; Isaiah xx'xii :
i; Dan. ix :25 ; Col. i:i7, 18, etc.). Suffice it
here to say that Christ could not, without the
concurrence of his Divine nature, gather and gov-
ern the church, protect and defend it against all
assailants open and secret, and impart to it his
Holy Spirit, to enlighten and renew the minds
and hearts of men and subdue Satan — all these
are acts of his kingly office.
Such, then, is the work of Christ's mediatorship
— salvation revealed by him as prophet, procured
by him as priest, and applied by him as king—
the work of the whole person wherein both na-
tures are engaged. Hence it is that some of the
ancients speaking of it, designate it 'a Divine-
human operation (see Dionys. Areopag. Epist
IV. ad Caiam, Dainascenus, iii. 19). For a more
ample view of this important subject see Flavel,
Panstratia of Shamier, vol. iii. fol. Genev. vii.
I, in which the views of the Romish church arc
ably controverted. See also Brinsley (John),
Christ's Mediation, 8 vols. Lond. 1657. (See
Jesus Christ.) J. W. D.
MEDICINE or PHYSIC (med'i-sin), (Heb.
^^■'-.j^e/i-hciui'), is ascribed by Jesus, son of Sirach,
to God himself (Eccles. xxxviii:i, etc.).
Scripture makes no mention of physicians be-
fore the time of Joseph, who commanded his serv-
ants, the physicians of Egypt, tu embalm the
body of Jacob (Gen. 1:2). The art of medicine,
however, was very ancient in Egypt. They
ascribed the invention of it to Thaut, or to
Hermes, or to Osiris, or to Isis; and some of the
learned have thought that Moses, having been in-
structed in all the learning of the Egyptians, must
also have known the chief secrets of medicine.
It does not appear that physicians were com-
mon among the Hebrews, especially for internal
maladies, but for wounds, fractures, bruises, and
external injuries, they had physicians, or sur-
geons, who understood the dressing and binding
up of wounds, with the application of medica-'
ments. (See Jer. viii :22 ; xlvi:li; Ezek. xxx:2l).
Asa, being diseased in his feet, and having ap-
plied to physicians, is upbraided with it, as con-
trary to that confidence which he ought to have
had in the Lord ( i Kings xv :23 ; 2 Chron. xvi :
12). Hezekiah, having a boil, probably a malig-
nant one, was cured by Isaiah, on the applica-
tion of figs (2 Kings XX 7; Is. xxxviii:2i). The
low state of the art of medicine, with the persua-
sion that distempers were effects of God's anger,
or were caused by evil spirits, was the reason
that in extraordinary maladies the sufferers applied
to diviners, magicians, enchanters, or false gods.
Sometimes they applied to the prophets of the
Lord for cure; or. at least, to know whether
they should recover or not. When Ahaziah, king
of Israel, by a fall from the roof of his house,
was greatly hurt, he sent to consult the false god
Baal-zebub at Ekron (2 Kings i :2, etc.). Jere-
miah (viii:i7) speaks of enchantments used
against the biting of serpents, andother venomous
animals. Hazael was sent by the king of Syria
to consult Elisha the propliet as to the issue of
his disease (2 Kings viii:8). Naaman the Syrian
came into the land of Israel, to obtain from Elisha
a cure for his leprosy (2 Kings v:s, 6). And
when our Savior appeared in Palestine, al-
though there can be no doubt that there were
physicians in the country, it is evident that the
people placed hut little confidence in them (comp
Mark v:26; Luke viii:4.3). They brought to our
Savior and his Apostles multitudes of diseased
MEDITATION
1135
MEGIDDO
.c from all parts of the land, and he laid his
nds upon them and healed them. Calmet.
MEDITATION (mgd'I-ta'shun), is an act by
which we consider anything closely, or wherein
the soul is employed in the search or consideration
of any truth. In religion it is used to signify the
serious exercise of the understanding, whereby
our thoughts are fixed on the observation of spirit-
ual things.
Mystic divines make a great difference be-
tween meditation and contemplation ; the former
consists in discursive acts of the soul, consider-
ing methodically and with attention the mysteries
of faith and the precepts of morality ; and is per-
formed by reflections and reasonings which leave
behind them manifest impressions on the brain.
The pure contemplative, they say, has no need
of meditation, as seeing all things in God at a
glance, and without any reflection.
(1) A Duty. Meditation is a duty which ought
to be attended to by all who wish well to their
spiritual interests. It ought to be deliberate,
close, and perpetual (Ps. cxix :g7 ; Ps. i:2-6).
(2) Subjects Of. The subjects which ought
more especially to engage the Christian mind are
the works of creation (Ps.xix) ; the perfections of
God (Deut.xxxii :4) ; the excellencies, offices, char-
acters, and works of Christ (Heb. xii:2, 3); the
offices and operations of the Holy Spirit (John
XV and xvi) ; the various dispensations of Provi-
dence (Ps. xcvii:i, 2) ; the precepts, declarations,
promises, etc., of God's word (Ps. cxix); the
value, powers, and immortality of the soul (Mark
viii -.36) ; the noble, beautiful, and benevolent plan
of the gospel (l Tim. i:ii) ; the necessity of our
personal interest in and experience of its power
(John iii :3) ; the depravity of our nature, and the
freedom of Divine grace in choosing, adopting,
justifying, and sanctifying us (i Cor. vi:ii) ; the
shortness, worth, and .swiftness of time (James
iv:l4); the certainty of death (Heb. ix 127) ; the
resurrection and judgment to come (i Cor. xv :
50), etc., and the future state of eternal rewards
and punishments (Matt, xxv ; Rev. xix:7-9.)
(3) Should Be with Prayer. To perform this
duty aright, we should be much in prayer (Luke
xviii:i); avoid a worldly spirit (I John ii:i5);
beware of sloth (Heb. vi:ii); take heed of
sensual pleasures (James iv 14) ; watch against
the devices of Satan (i Pet. v:8) ; be often in re-
tirement (Ps. iv :4) ; embrace the most favorable
opportunities, the calmness of the morning (Ps.
v:i, 3), the solemnity of the evening (Gen. xxiv :
63), Sabbath days (Ps. cxviii:24), sacramental
occasions, etc. (i Cor. xi:28).
MEEKNESS (mek'nes), (Heb. from ^i^, aw-
naw' , to be depressed; Gr. Trp^Anjs, prah-ot' ace,
gentleness).
A state of mind not easily provoked to resent-
ment. In the Greek language the word signifies
also easiness of spirit, and thus it may be justly
called ; for it accommodates the soul to every
occurrence, and so makes a man easy to him-
self, and to all about him.
(1) Specific Kesults. The Latins call a meek
man inausuestus. or maiiu assuetus, used to the
hand; which alludes to the taming and reclaiming
of creatures wild by nature, and bringing them
to be tractable and familiar (James iii :y, 8) : so
where the grace of meekness reigns, it sutjdues
the impetuous disposition, and teaches it submis-
sion and forgiveness. It teaches us to govern
our own anger whenever we arc at any time
provoked, and patiently to bear the anger of oth-
ers, that it may not be a provocation to us. The
former is its office, especially in superiors; the
latter in inferiors, and both in equals (James
iii:l3)-
(2) Excellence. The excellency of such a
spirit appears, if we consider that it enables us to
gain a victory over corrupt nature (Prov. .xvi:
32) ; that it is a beauty and an ornament to hu-
man beings (i Pet. iii:4); that it is obedience
to God's word, and conformity to the best pat-
terns (Eph. v:i, 2; Phil. iv:8).
It is productive of the highest peace to the pos-
sessor (Luke xxiiig; Matt, xi :28, 29). It fits
us for any duty, instruction, relation, condition,
or persecution (Phil. iv:il, 12).
(3) How Obtained and Examples. Tu ob-
tain this spirit, consider that it is a Divine in-
junction (Zeph. ii:3; Col. iii:i2; i Tim. vi:ti).
Observe the many exaniples of it : Jesus Christ
(Matt. xi:28); Abraham (Gen. xiii ; xvi 15, 6);
Moses (Num. xii:3) ; David (Zech. xii:8; 2 Sam.
xvi:io, 12; Ps. cxxxi:2); Paul (i Cor. ix:i9).
How lovely a spirit it is in itself, and how it
secures us from a variety of evils I What peculiar
promises are made to the meek (Matt. v:5; Is.
Ixvi:2). Also such give evidence of their being
under the influence of Divine grace, and shall en-
joy the Divine blessing (Is. Ivii:i5).
MEGIDDO (me-gid'do), (Heb. "''''^?, meg-id-do' \
in Zech. xii:ii, "~?'r, mef^ id-done' , iilace of trooiis).
A town belonging to Manasseh, although within
the boundaries of Issachar (Josh. xvii:ll). It
had been originally one of the royal cities of
the Canaanites (Josh. .xii:2i), and was one of
those of which the Israelites were unable for a
long time to gain actual possession. Megiddo
was rebuilt and fortified by Solomon (i Kings
ix:is), and thither Ahaziah king of Judah fled
when wounded by Jehu, and died there (2 Kings
i.K:27). It was in the battle near this place that
Josiah was slain by Pharaoh-necho (2 Kings
xxiii:29, 30; 2 Chron. xxxv:20-2S). From the
great mourning held for his loss, it became pro-
verbial to compare any grievous mourning to it,
as 'like the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the val-
ley of Megiddon' (Zech. xii:ii).
'The waters of Megiddo' are mentioned in Judg.
v:i9; and are probably those formed by the river
Kishon. Eusebius and Jerome do not attempt
to mark the situation of the place, and it appears
that the name Megiddo was in their titne already
lost. They often mention a town called Legio,
which must in their day have been an important
and well-known place, as they assume it as a
central point from which to mark the position
of several other places in this quarter. This has
been identified with the village now called Lej-
jun, which is situated upon the western border of
the great plain of Esdraelon, where it begins to
rise gently towards the low range of wooded hills
that connect Carmel with the inountains of Sa-
maria. This place was visited by Maundrell,
who speaks of it as an old village near a brook,
with a khan then in good repair (Journey. March
22). This khan was for the accommodation of
the caravan on the route between Egypt and
Damascus, which passes here. Having already
identified the present village of Taannuk with the
ancient Taanach, the vicinity of this to Lejjutt
induced Dr. Robinson to conceive that the latter
might be the ancient Megiddo, seeing that
Taanach and Megiddo are constantly named to-
gether in Scripture. (Conder places it at Khurbet
el-Mujedda, ten miles southeast from Jezreel.)
MEGIDDON
113G
MELCHIZEDEK
SIEGIDDON (me-gld'don), (Zech. xii:li). See
Megiddo.
MEHETABEEIi (rae-het'a-beel), (Neli. vi:io).
See Mehetabel, 2.
MEHETABEL (me-hSfa-bel), (Heb. ^!<?i?'rit.
me h- hay-tab-ale' , bettered of God).
1- Daughter of Matred, and wife of Hadad,
king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi:39; i Chron. i:5o).
(B. C. about i6i9._)
2. Father of Delaiah and ancestor of the
prophet Shemaiah. which latter was hired against
Nehemiah (Neh. vi:lo). ( B. C. before 446.)
MEHIDA (me-hi'da), (Heb. *<7'"?, mekh-ee-
daw\ joining).
Founder of a family of Nethinim, some of
whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel
(Ezra ii:S2; Neh. vii:54). (B. C. before 536.)
MEHIB (me'hir), (Heb. "■'H'?, mekh-eer' , price).
Son of Chelub. of the tribe of Judah, and father,
or founder of Eshton (l Chron, iv:ll). (B. C.
about 1618.)
MEHOLATHITE (rae-horath-ite), (Heb. "P^"'?.
mekh-o-laiLi-tliee ), probably a native of Abel-Meh-
olah (I Sam. xviii:i9; 2 Sam. xxi:8).
MEHtrjAEL (me-hu'ja-el), (Heb. ^M*''"?. mekh-
00-yaw-ale' , smitten of God).
Son of Irad. and father of Methusael, a
descendant of Cain (Gen. iv:l8). (B. C. about
3840.)
MEHUMAN (me-hu'man), (Heb. W^'9, meh-
hoo-7naiun' , perhaps, faithful).
One of the eunuchs who served in the palace of
Ahasuerus (Esth. i:io). (B. C. 483.)
MEHUNIMS, THE (me-hu'nimz. the), (Heb.
V"'^'?' meli-oo-naiv-ee'\ or ^■T'^'^, 7>iefi-ee-fiee').
A people, with a capital city, Maan, twelve
miles southeast of Petra, against whorn Uzziah
was successful in war (2 Chron. xxvi:7). In
the reign of Hezekiah the Mehunims (A. V. 'habi-
tations') in the valley of the Gedor were smitten
by the Simeonites (i Chron. iv:39-4i). It was
probably some of tiheir descendants who served
in the Temple as Nethinim after the exile (Ezra
ii :50; Neh. vii :52).
ME-JABKON (rae-jar'kon), (Heb. IVl-^! *'!?>
may-hah' ee-yar-kone' , waters of yellowishness).
A town of Dan, near Joppa (Josh. xix:46).
Kiepert and Conder suggest a place on the river
Anjah, which flows through a swamp, rendering
the waters yellow, as suggested by tlie name.
The stream empties into the Mediterranean a lit-
tle north iif Joppa.
MEKONAH (mek'o-nah), (Heb. '^f-?, mck-o-
naw' , a base, standing place or foundation).
A town reinhabited by men of Judah after the
exile (Nell. xi:28). It is mentioned with Zik-
lag, and therefore probably located far to the
south. Not identified. ^ ,
MEIiATIAH (mCl-a-ti'ah), (Heb. '^V'f-'?. mel-
at-yaw' , Jah has delivered).
A Gibeonitc who helped to repair a part of the
northern wall of Jerusalem after the exile (Neh.
iii:7). (B. C. 446.)
DIELCHI 'mel'ki), (Gr. MeXx', niel-khee' ; Heb.
'?;?, mal-kee' , my king).
1. Son of Addi, an ancestor of Christ (Luke
iii:28). probably identical with Maaseiah (2
Chron. xxxiv:8).
2. Son of Janna and father of Levi, in the
latter genealogy of Christ (Luke iti:24). (B. C.
before 22).
MELCHIAH (mel-ki'ah), (Heb. ''''?^^, )>tal-
kee-yaw' , Jcliovah's king).
A priest, father of Pashur (Jer. xxi;i). Iden-
tical with Malchiah (Jer. xxxviii;i; Neh. xi:
12), and Malchijah (i Chron. ix:i2).
KELCHISEDEC (mel-kiz'e-dek), (Heb. v-viii).
See Melchizeijek.
MELCHISHTJA (mel-ki-shu'a), (i Sam. xiv:49;
xxxi:2). See Malchishua.
MELCHIZEDEK (mel-kiz'e-dek), (Heb. '"V?^
PIV ), mat-kee-tseh' dek, king of righteousness).
A 'priest of the most high Ged,' and king of
Salem, who went forth to meet Abraham on his
return from the pursuit of Chedorlaomer and his
allies, who had carried Lot away captive. He
brought refreshment, described in the general
terms of 'bread and wine,' for the fatigued war-
riors, and bestowed his blessing upon their leader,
who, in return, gave to the royal priest a tenth of
all the spoil which had been acquired in his ex-
pedition (Gen. xiv:i8, 20).
This statement seems sufficiently plain, and to
offer nothingveryextraordinary ;yet it has formed
the basis of much speculation and controversy.
In particular, the fact that Abraham gave a tithe
to Melchizedek attracted much attention among
the later Jews. In one of the Messianic Psalms
(cx:4), it is foretold that the Messiah should be
'a priest after the order of Melchizedek' ; which
the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (vi:
20) cites as showing that Melchizedek was a
type of Christ, and the Jews themselves, cer-
tainly, on the authority of this passage of the
Psalms, regarded Melchizedek as a type of the
regal priesthood, higher than that of Aaron, to
which the Messiah should belong. The bread and
wine which were set forth on the table of shew-
bread was also supposed to be represented by
the bread and wine which the king of Salem
brought forth to Abraham (Schottgen, Hor. Heb.
ii. 645). A mysterious supremacy came also to
be assigned to Melchizedek, by reason of his
having received tithes from the Hebrew patriarch;
and on this point the Epistle to the Hebrews
(vii:i-io) expatiates strongly, as showing the in-
feriority of the priesthood represented, to that
of Melchizedek, to which the Messiah belonged.
'Consider how great this man was, unto whom
even the patriarch Abraham gave a tenth of the
spoils;' and he goes on to argue that the Aaronic
priesthood, who themselves received tithes of the
Jews, actually paid tithes to Melchizedek in the
person of their great ancestor. This superiority
is, as we take it, inherent in his typical rather
than his personal character. But the Jews, in
admitting this official or personal superiority of
Melchizedek to Abraham, sought to account for
it by alleging that the royal priest was no other
than Shem, the most pious of Noah's sons, who,
according to the shorter chronology, might have
lived to the time of Abraham. But such con-
jectures do not need to be refuted in the light of
the discoveries made by the monuments. Prof.
A. H. Sayce in his Patriarchal Palestine has
cleared up the mystery regarding Melchizedek.
He says :
It is only since the discovery and decipher-
ment of the cuneiform tablets of Tell .'Xmarna
that the story of Melchizedek has been illustrated
and explained. Hitherto it had seemed to stand
alone. The critics, in the superiority of their
MELCHIZEDEK
1137
MELITA
knowledge, had refused credit to it, and had de-
nied that the name even of Jerusalem or Salem
was known before the age of David. But the
monuments have come to our help, and have
shown that it is the critics and not the Biblical
writer who have been in error.
Several of the most interesting of the Tell
Amarna letters were written to the Pharaoh
Amenophis IV, Khu-n-Aten, by Ebed-Tob the
king of Jerusalem. Not only is the name of
Uru-salim or Jerusalem the only one in use, but
the city itself is already one of the most important
fortresses of Canaan. It was the capital of a
large district which extended southwards as far
as Keilah and Karniel of Judah. It commanded
the approach to the vale of Siddim, and in one of
his letters Ebed-Tob speaks of having repaired
the royal roads not only in the mountains but
also in the kikar or "plain" of Jordan (Gen.
xiii :lo). The possession of Jerusalem was eagerly
coveted by the enemies of Ebed-Tob, whom he
calls also the enemies of the Egyptian king.
Now Ebed-Tob declares time after time that he
is not an Egyptian governor, but a tributary ally
and vassal of the Pharaoh, and that he had re-
ceived his royal power, not by inheritance from
his father or mother, but through the arm (or
oracle) of "the mighty king." As "the mighty
king" is distinguished from the "great king" of
Egypt we must see in him the god worshiped by
Ebed-Tob. the "most high God" of Melchizedek
and the prototype of the "mighty God" of Isaiah.
It is this same "mighty king," Ebed-Tob assures
the Pharaoh in another lettter, who will over-
throw thenaviesof Babylonia and Aram-Naharim.
Here then as late as the fifteenth century be-
fore our era we have a king in Jerusalem who
owes his royal dignity to his god. He is in fact
a priest as well as a king. His throne has not
descended to him by inheritance; so far as his
kingly office is concerned, he is like Melchizedek,
without father or mother.
Between Ebed-Tob and Melchizedek there is
more than analogy; there is a striking and un-
expected resemblance; the description given of
himself by Ebed-Tob explains what has so long
puzzled us in the person of Melchizedek (Patri-
archal Palestine, pp. 71, sg.).
We may justly conclude that his twofold
capacity of king and priest (characters very com-
monly united in the remote ages) afforded Abra-
ham an opportunity of testifying his thankfulness
to God in the manner usual in those times, by of-
fering a tenth of all the spoil. This combina-
tion of character happens for the first time in
Scripture to be exhibited in his person, which,
with the abrupt manner in which he is intro-
duced, and the nature of the intercourse between
him and Abraham, render him in various respects
an appropriate and obvious type of the Messiah
in his united regal and priestly character. Salem,
of which Melchizedek was king, is usually sup-
posed to have been the original of Jerusalem (Jo-
seph. Antiq. i, 10, 2; Jerome, Quasi, on Genes.).
Prof. Sayce also says : The origin of the name
of Jerusalem also is now cleared up. It was no
invention of the age of David; on the contrary,
it goes back to the period of Babylonian inter-
course with Canaan. It is written in the cuneiform
documents Uru-Salim, "the city of Salim," the
god of peace. We can now understand why
Melchizedek should have been called the "king
of Salem." His capital could be described either
as Jeru-salem or as the city of Salem, .^nd
that it was often referred to as Salem simply is
shown by the Egyptian monuments. One of the
72
cities of Southern Palestine, the capture of which
is represented by Rameses II on the walls of the
Ramesseum at Thebes, is Shalam or Salem, and
"the district of Salem" is mentioned, between "the
country of Hadashah" (Josh, xv 137) and "the
district of the Dead Sea" and "the Jordan," in
the list of the places which Rannses 111 at Medi-
net Habu describes himself as having conquered
in the same part of the world.
It may be that Isaiah is playing upon the old
name of Jerusalem when he gives the Messiah the
title of "Prince of Peace." But in any case the
fact that Salim, the god of peace, was the patron
deity of Jerusalem, lends a special significance to
Melchizedek's treatment of Abraham. The patri-
arch had returned in peace from an. expedition in
which he had overthrown the invaders of Canaan;
he had restored peace to the country of the priest-
king, and had driven away its enemies. The offer-
ing of bread and wine on the part of Melchizedek
was a sign of freedom from the enemy and of
gratitude to the deliverer, while the tithes paid
by Abraham were equally a token that the land
was again at peace. The name of Salim, the god
of peace, was under one form or another widely
spread in the Semitic world. Salamanu, or Solo-
mon, was the king of Moab in the time of Tig-
lath-pileser III; the name of Shalmaneser of
Assyria is written Sulman-asarid, "the god Sul-
man is chief," in the cuneiform inscriptions; and
one of the Tell Amarna letters was sent by Ebed-
Sullim, "the servant of Sullim," who was gov-
ernor of Hazor. In one of the Assyrian cities
(Dimmen-Silim, "the foundation stone of peace")
worship was paid to the god "Sulman the fish."
Nor must we forget that "Sahna was the father
of Bethlehem" (i Chron. ii:5i). {Patriarchal
Palestine, pp. 74-76.)
MEIiEA (me'le-a), (Or. MfXeaj, 7nel-eh-as' , sig-
nification unknown).
Son of Menan and father of Eliakim in the
genealogy of Christ, on the maternal side ; but
the name is of doubtful authenticity (Luke iii :
ICELECH (ras'lek), (Heb. "?, meh'lek, king).
The second of the four sons of Micah, grand-
son of Jonathan, the son of Saul ( I Chron. viii :
35; ix:4i). (B. C. after 1037.)
MELICTJ (mSriku), (Neh. xii:i4.) See Mal-
LUCH.
MELITA (mel'i-ta), (Or. MeXfTTj, mel-ee'tay,
Melita), an island in the Mediterranean, on which
the ship which was conveying St. Paul as a pris-
oner to Rome was wrecked, and which was the
scene of the interesting circumstances recorded
in Acts xxviii :28.
(1) Name. Melita was the ancient name of
Malta, and also of a small island in the Adriatic,
now called Meleda, and each of these has found
warm advocates for its identification with the
Melita of Scripture. The received and long-estab-
lished opinion is undoubtedly in favor of Malta;
and those who uphold the claims of Meleda are
to be regarded as dissenting from the general
conclusion. This dissent proceeds cliielly upon
the ground that the ship of St. Paul was 'driven
about in (the sea of) Adria,' when wrecked on
Melita. But the name Adria was not. in its aii-
cient acceptation, limited to the present Adriatic
Sea. but comprehended the seas of Greece and
Sicily, and extended even to Africa. This seems
to have been established beyond dispute, and ev-
ery one acquainted with the mass of evidence
brought to bear on this point, must regard the
MELITA
1138
MELITA
only strong argument in favor of Meleda as hav-
ing been entirely overthrown.
(2) St. Paul's Bay. The name of St. Paul's
Bay has been given to the place vi'here the ship-
wreck is supposed to have taken place. This, the
sacred historian says, was at 'a certain creek with
a shore,' i. e. a seemingly practicable shore, on
which they purposed, if possible, to strand the
vessel, as their only apparent chance to escape be-
ing broken on the rocks. In attempting this the
ship seems to have struck and gone to pieces on
the rocky headland at the entrance of the creek.
This agrees very well with St. Paul's Bay, more
so than with any other creek of the island. This
bay is a deep inlet on the north side of the island,
being the last indentation of the coast but one
from the western extremity of the island. It is
about two miles deep, by one mile broad. The
harbor which it forms is very unsafe at some dis-
tance from the shore, although there is good
anchorage in the middle for light vessels. The
most dangerous part is the western headland at
the entrance of the bay, particularly as there is
waves. From the headland of the bay the an-
cient capital of Malta (now Citta Vecchia, Old
City) is distinctly seen at the distance of about
five miles.
The sacred historian calls the inhabitants /3dp-
/Sapoi, 'barbarians': — 'the barbarous people showed
us no small kindness.' This is far from im-
plying that they were savages or uncivilized
men : it merely intimates that they were not of
Greek or Roman origin. This description applies
to the ancient inhabitants of Malta most ac-
curately; and as it could not apply to the in-
habitants of Melida, who were Greeks, this is an-
other argument to show that not Melida but
Malta is the Melita of Scripture.
(3) Location. The island of Malta lies in the
Mediterranean, about sixty miles south from Cape
Passaro in Sicily. It is sixty miles in circumfer-
ence, twenty in length, and twelve in breadth.
Near it, on the west, is a smaller island, called
Gozo, about thirty miles in circumference. Malta
has no mountains or high hills, and makes no fig-
ure from the sea It is naturally a barren rock,
3fe'"^=~'V& ' ''■'■'^^^^"\^'''-^^''-/ y. "^^ ^
St. Paul's Bay.
close to it a small island (Salamone), and a still
smaller islet (Salamonetta), the currents and
shoals around which are particularly dangerous
in stormy weather. It is usually supposed that
the vessel struck at this point.
In i8io the British frigate Lively went to pieces
on those very breakers, at the point of Koura, at
the entrance of the bay. The crew, like Paul's
shipmen, at the distance of a quarter of a mile,
could not see the land, but they saw the surf
on the shore. Every ship approaching the land
must here pass over twenty fathoms, and not
only must this depth be close to the spot where
they had the indications of land, but it must bear
east by south from the fifteen fathom depth. The
fifteen fathom depth is, as nearly as possible, a
quarter of a mile from the shore, which is here
girt with mural precipices, and on which the sea
must have been breaking violently. At the bot-
tom of the Bay of St. Paul's the're is a com-
munication with the sea outside by a channel not
more than a hundred yards in breadth, formed by
the separation of Salamone Island, a long rocky
ridge, from the mainland. Near this channel,
where "two seas meet," are two creeks, into
one of which they ran the ship ashore ; the fore-
part stuck fast in the mud and clay, while the
Stern was dashed to pieces by the force of the
but has been made in parts abundantly fertile by
the industry and toil of man,
(4) History. The island was first colonized
by the Phoenicians, from whom it was taken by
the Greek colonists in Sicily, about B. C. 736;
but the Carthaginians began to dispute its posses-
sion about B. C. 528, and eventually became en-
tire masters of it. From their hands it passed
into those of the Romans, B. C. 242, who treated
the inhabitants well, making Melita a municipium,
and allowing the people to be governed by their
own laws. The government was administered by
a propraetor, who depended upon the praetor of
Sicily; and this office appears to have been held
by Publius when Paul was on the island (Acts
xxviii:7). On the division of the Roman empire,
Melita belonged to the western portion ; but hav-
ing, in A. D. 553, been recovered from the Van-
dals by Belisarius, it was afterwards attached to
the empire of the East. About the end of the
ninth century the island was taken from the
Greeks by the Arabs, who made it a dependency
upon Sicily, which was also in their possession.
The Arabs have left the impress of their aspect,
language, and many of their customs, upon the
present inhabitants, whose dialect is to this day
perfectly intelligible to the Arabians, and to the
Moors of Africa. Malta was . taken from the
MELODY
1139
MEMPHIS
Arabs by the Normans in A. D. logo, and after-
wards niulirwent other changes till A. D. 1530,
when Charles V.. who had annexed it to his
empire, transferred it to the Knights of St. John
of Jerusalem, whom the Turks had recently dis-
possessed of Rhodes. Under the knights it be-
came a flourishing state, and was the scene of
their greatest glory and most signal exploits. The
institution having become unsuited to modern
times, the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, com-
monly called Knights of Malta, gradually fell into
decay, and the island was surrendered to the
French under Bonaparte when on his way to
Egypt in 1798. From them it was retaken by the
English with the concurrence and assistance of the
natives; and it was to have been restored to the
Knights of Malta by the stipulations of the treaty
of Amiens ; but as no sufficient security for the
independence of the Order (composed mostly of
Frenchmen) could be obtained, the English re-
tained it in their hands ; which necessary infrac-
tion of the treaty was the ostensible ground of
the war which only ended with the battle of
Waterloo. The island is still in the hands of the
English, who have lately remodeled the govern-
ment to meet the wishes of the numerous in-
habitants.
It has been asserted that no vipers exist in
Malta, but Lewin saw a serpent there which he
regarded as a viper; but even if not found on the
thickly-populated island now, this would not
prove that they did not exist in Paul's day and
have since been exterminated. (Boisgelin, His-
tory of Malta. 1804; Bartlett, Overland Route;
Harper's Classical Diet.)
MELODY (mel'6-dy). See Music.
MELONS (mel'unz). (Heb. 0-ntS2N. _ ab-attee-
kheem'). (Num. xirj.)
Melons of all kinds have ever been largely
cultivated in Egypt, and during the heat of sum-
mer often form the chief food and drink of the
lower classes. The muskmelon was grown there
at the time of the Exodus, and perhaps the water-
melon, which came from Persia. "A traveler in
the East who recollects the intense gratitude
which a gift of a slice of melon inspired while
journeying over the hot and dry plains will readily
comprehend the regret with which the Hebrews
in the Arabian desert looked back upon the mel-
ons of Egypt." (See Abattachim.) Kitto.
Melon.
MELZAB (mel'zar), (Heb. ^V;? > mel-tsawr' ,
from Persian, bullcr ; marg. "steward"). The
title of the officer in the court of Babylon wlio had
charge of Daniel and the other youths who were
candidates for promotion as magi (Uan. i:i 1, 16).
MEMBER (mgm'ber), (Heb. '^V", yaw-toor', to
mold; Gr. m^'^os, tnel'os, a limb).
A part of an animal body, legs, hands, ears,
eyes, etc. (Ps. cxxxix:i6). Because our whole
man, soul and body is united into one system, the
faculties of the soul, as well as the parts of the
body, arc called "members" (Rom. vi:l3, 19).
Figurative. Christ and his people being
considered as "a body," the saints are called his
"members," and "members of one another" : they
are closely united to him as their head, and
joined to one another, as his, by having the same
Spirit, engagement, profession, and practice
(Eph. iv:25; v:3o).
MEMORIAL (me-mo'ri-al), (Heb. ~7?!?^, a=-
kaiv' raw' ; \'^r', zik-rone' ; Or. ii.vi)iiJi<!vvov, mitay-
nios' oo-non), name; report (Prov. x:?; Is. xxvi:i4).
"Memorial" is that which tends to bring a person
or thing to remembrance.
God's name, Jehovah, is his "memorial in all
generations" ; the name whereby he shall be re-
membered, called upon, and thought and spoken
of (Exod. iii:i5). The soul ransom-money, the
part of the meat-offering burnt on the altar, and
the frankincense set on the shew-bread, are called
a "memorial" ; they as it were put God in mind of
his covenant with, and of the mercies necessary
to be shown to, the Hebrews : and they put the
Hebrews in mind of Jesus as a ransom, offeriiig,
and intercessor for us (Exod. xxx:i6; Lev. ii:
2; xxiv :7). The stones of the high-priest's breast-
plate, and shoulder-piece were for a "memorial" ;
they tended to put him in mind to pray earnestly
for the Hebrew tribes ; and as it were called
down mercies from (jod upon them (Exod.
xxviii :I2, 29).
MEMPHIS (raera'phis), (Heb. -"^b, w^/i'), a very
ancient city, the capital of lower Egyj)t, standing
at the apex of the Delta, ruins of which are stifl
found not far from its successor and modern
representative, Cairo.
(1) Name. Its Egyptian name, in the hiero-
glyphics, is Menofri ; in Coptic, Memfi. Manfi.
Membe, Panoufi orMefi, being probably corrupted
from Man nofri, 'the abode,' or, as Plutarch terms
it {Isid. ct Osir. ch. xx), 'the haven of good men.'
It was called also Plhah-ei, the abode of Pthah
(Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, iii. 278). In Hebrew
the city bears the name of Mofc (Hos. ix:6),
or Nofe Noph (Is. xix:i3). These several names
are obviously variations of one, of which Meph
seems to contain the essential sounds. Whether
we may hence derive support to the statement
that the place was founded by Menes, the first hu-
man king of Egypt, or whether we have here a
very early instance of the custom which prevailed
so extensively among the Greeks and Romans,
of inventing founders of cities, having names ccjr-
respondent with the names of the places they
were said to have built, it is impossible, with the
materials we possess, to determine with any fair
approach to certainty.
(3) Founder. Menes. however, is universally
reputed to have founded not only Memphis but
Thebes ; the addition of the latter may seem to in-
validate bis claim to the former, making us sus-
pect that here, too, we have a case of that cus-
tom of referring to some one distinguished name
great events which happened, in truth, at differ-
ent and far distant eras. If. as is probable. Thel)«
as well as Memphis was, at any early period, the
seat of a distinct dynasty, the cradle and the
throne of a line of independent sovereigns, they
could scarcely have had one founder.
MEMPHIS
1140
MENAHEM
(3) Bed of the Nile. The statement, however,
is, that having diverted the course of the Nile,
which had washed the foot of the sandy moun-
tains of the Libyan chain, Menes obliged it to
run in the center of the valley, and built the city
Memphis in the bed of the ancient channel. This
change was effected by constructing a dyke about
a hundred stadia above the site of the projected
city, whose lofty mounds and strong embank-
ments turned the water to the east and confined
the river to its new bed. The dyke was carefully
kept in repair by succeeding kings, and even as
late as the Persian invasion, a guard was always
maintained there to overlook the necessary re-
pairs; for, as Herodotus asserts, if the river were
to break through the dyke, the whole of Memphis
would be in danger of being overwhelmed with
water, especially at the period of the inundation.
Subsequently, however, when the increased de-
posit of the alluvial soil had raised the circum-
jacent plains, the precautions became unnecessary ;
and though the spot where the diversion of the
Nile was made may still be traced, owing to the
great bend it takes about fourteen miles above
ancient Memphis, the lofty mounds once raised
there are no longer visible.
(4) Identification of Site. The site of Mem-
phis was first accurately fixed by Pocock, at the
village of Metrahenny. According to the reports
of the French, the heaps which mark the site of
the ancient buildings have three leagues of cir-
cumference; but this is less than its extent in
early times, since Diodorus gives it 150 stadia,
or six leagues and a quarter. Memphis declined
after the foundation of Alexandria, and its ma-
terials were carried off to build Cairo (Kenrick,
Egypt of Herodotus, p. 129; Rennell, ii, 115;
Champoll, Egypte et les Pit. i, 336).
(5) History. The kingdom of which Memphis
was the capital, was most probably the Egypt of
the patriarchs (in which Abraham, Jacob, and
the Israelites resided. Psammetichus, in becom-
ing sole monarch of all Egypt, raised Memphis
to the dignity of the one metropolis of the en-
tire land (Plin. Hist. Nat. v, 9), after which
Memphis grew in the degree in which Thebes de-
clined. It became distinguished for a multitude
of splendid edifices, among which may be men-
tioned a large and magnificent temple to Vulcan,
who was called by the Egyptians Phthah, the
demiurgos, or creative power (Wilkinson, i, 96;
Herod, ii, 136, 154; Strabo, xvii, p. 807; Plin.
Hist. Nat. viii, 71; Diod. Sic. i, 57, 67). Under
the dominion of the Persians, as well as of the
Ptolemies, Memphis retained its preeminence
as the capital, though even in_ the time of the
former it began to part with its splendor; and
when the latter bestowed their favor on Alex-
andria, it suffered a material change for the
worse, from which the place never recovered. In
the days of Strabo many of its fine buildings lay
in ruins, though the city was still large and popu-
lous. The final blow was given to the prosper-
ity of Memphis in the time of Abdollatif, by the
erection of the Arabian city of Cairo.
That the arts were carried to a great degree
of excellence at Memphis is proved by the most
abundant evidence. Its manufacturers of glass
were famed for the superior quality of their
workmanship, with which Rome continued to be
supplied long after Egypt became a province of
the empire. The environs of Memphis presented
cultivated groves of the acacia tree, of whose
wood were made the planks and masts of boats,
the handles of offensive weapons of war, and va-
rious articles of furniture (Wilkinson, iii, 92,
168). Memphis was also distinguished as be-
ing the place where Apis was kept, and where his
worship received special honor. The city's over-
throw was predicted (Is. xix:i3; Jer. xlvi:i9).
The latest of these predictions was uttered nearly
600 years before Christ, and half a century before
the invasion of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 525.
The city never recovered from the blow inflicted
by Cambyses. The rise of Alexandria hastened
its decline. The caliph conquerors founded Old
Cairo upon the opposite bank of the Nile, a few
miles north of Memphis, and brought materials
from the old city to build their new capital, A.
D. 638. At length so complete was the ruin of
Memphis that for a long time its very site was
lost. Recent explorations have brought to light
many of its antiquities, and specimens of its relics
are now in museums in Europe and America. A
little village, Mitrahineh, stands upon a portion of
the site of ancient Memphis. "The immense
necropolis at the west of Memphis, on the bor-
ders of the Libyan desert, still extends from
Abu-Rosh in the north to Dashur in the south.
The gigantic royal tombs, the pyramids, attract
numerous visitors from the whole world. Usually,
only the most remarkable group of pyramids
(those of Khuftt, Khafre, and Menkare of the
fourth dynasty — in Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren,
and Mycerinus) at Gizeh are visited; about
fifty other pyramids of smaller size or still more
dilapidated are less known (those at Sakkara, be-
longing to the si.xth dynasty, and of Dashur of
the fourth dynasty, being most remarkable). The
immense sphinx at Gizeh (probably a work of
Khafre — Chepliren, although recently some schol-
ars place it in the twelfth dynasty), and many
private tombs, the latter much destroyed, contrib-
ute to make the site of ancient Memphis still
remarkable." (M. Max Miiller, Hastings' Bib.
Did.)
(6) Literature. Vyse, Pyramids of Gizeh;
Wilkinson, Modern Egypt and Thebes; Poole,
Englishtvoman in Egypt; Niebuhr, Travels;
Classical Dictionaries. (See Egypt.)
MEMTJCAN (me-mu'kan), (Heb. 1?''^'?, mem-00-
kaivn ' ).
One of the seven royal counselors at the court
of Media and Persia (Esth. i:i4, 16, 21), who
recommended that Vashti be deposed.
MENAHEM (men'a-hem), (Heb. =^1^^, tnen-
akh-anie' , consoler).
Sixteenth king of Israel, who began to reign
B. C. 772, and reigned ten years. Menahem ap-
pears to have been one of the generals of king
Zachariah. When he heard the news of the mur-
der of that prince, and the usurpation of Shal-
lum, he was at Tirzah, but immediately marched
to Samaria, where Shallum had shut himself
up, and slew him in that city. He then usurped
the throne in his turn; and forthwith marched to
Tiphsah, which refused to acknowledge his rule.
Having taken this place after a siege, he treated
the inhabitants with a degree of savage barbarity,
which, as Josephus remarks {Antiq. ix, 11, l),
would not have been pardonable even to foreign-
ers. He adhered to the sins of Jeroboam, like the
other kings of Israel. In his time the Assyrians,
under their king Pul, made their first appearance
on the borders of Palestine ; and Menahem was
only able to save himself from this great invad-
ing power at the heavy price of i.ooo talents of
silver, which he raised by a tax of fifty shekels
from every man of substance in Israel. This was
probably the only choice left to him ; and he is
not therefore to be blamed, as he had not that
MENAN
1141
MENEPTAH, INSCKIJ' 1 lONh OF
resource in the treasures of the temple of which
the kings of Judah availed themselves in similar
emergencies. Menahem died in B. C. 761, leav-
ing the throne to his son Pekahiah (2 Kings xv:
14-22).
DCENAIf (me'nan), (Gr. MoiVdi', vtahee-nan',
meaning unknown), the son of Mattatha, a descen-
dant of David and ancestor of Christ (Luke iii;3i);
the authenticity is doubtful.
MENE, lyCENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN (me'
ne, me'ne, te'kel', u-phar-sin'), (Chald. '^'Ti fiert-
ny', ^ri^, men-ay', ^W^, tek-at , X^'^.w-phar" sin).
The inscription supernaturally written 'upon
the plaster of the wall' in Belshazzar's palace at
Babylon (Dan. v:S-2S); which 'the astrologers,
the Chaldseans. and the soothsayers' could neither
read nor interpret, but which Daniel first read,
and then interpreted. The sentence reads, when
translated literally, Mate, "he is numbered;"
Alcne, "he is numbered ;" Tckcl, "he is weighed ;"
Upharsin, "they are divided." "Peres," in the
original language, is the same word with "Uphar-
sin." but in a different case or number. It
means "he was divided" (Dan. v:2S).
The words. as they are found in Daniel, are pure
Chaldee, and if they appeared in the Chaldee
character could have been read, at least, by any
person present on the occasion who understood
the alphabet of his own language. To account
for their inability to decipher this inscription, it
has been supposed that it consisted of those Chal-
dee words written in another character. Dr.
Hales thinks that it may have been written in
the primitive Hebrew character, from which the
Samaritan was formed, and that, in order to show
on this occasion that the writer of the inscription
was the offended God of Israel, whose authority
was being at that moment peculiarly despised
(verses 2, 3. 4), Jehovah adopted the sacred char-
acter in which the Decalogue had been writ-
ten, which Daniel could understand, but which
would be unknown to 'the wise men of Baby-
lon' (New Analysis of Chronology, vol. i, p.
505, Lond., 181 1 ). This theory has the recom-
mendation that it involves as little as possible of
miraculous agency. It has been supposed by
some that 'the wise men' were not so much at
fault to read the inscription as to explain its
meaning, which, it is said, they might sufficiently
understand to see its boding import to the mon-
arch, and be unwilling to consider further — like
the disciples in regard to the predictions of our
Lord's death (Luke ix:45), where it is said, 'this
saying was hid from them, they perceived it not,
and they feared to ask him of that saying.' And
certainly it is said throughout our narrative that
'the wise men could not read the writing, nor
make known the interpretation of it,' phrases
which would seem to mean one and the same
thing: since, if they mean different things, the
order of ideas would be that they could not in-
terpret nor even read it. and Wintle accordingly
translates 'could not read so as to interpret it'
(Improved Version of Daniel, Lond. 1807). At
all events the meaning of the inscription by it-
self would be extremely enigmatical and obscure.
To determine the application, and to give the full
sense, of an isolated device which amounted to
no more than 'he or it is numbered, he or it is
numbered, he or it is weighed, they are divided.'
must surely have required a supernatural endow-
ment on the part of Daniel — a conclusion which
is confirmed by the exact coincidence of the event
with the prediction, which he propounded with
so much fortitude (verses 30, 31). J. F. D.
MENEPTAH, INSCKIPTI0N8 OF.
Modern scholars agree with Manetho in the
opinion that Meneptah, the son and successor of
Rameses II, was the Pharaoh of the Exodus.
Manetho calls him "Amenephthes, the son of
Rameses," and in the inscriptions found at Bubas-
tis he is represented as the general of the in-
fantry during the reign of his father. The view
that he was the Pharaoh of the Exodus is also
confirmed by an inscription which was recently
discovered.
(1) Concerning the Israelites. In the winter
of 1895-6, Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie was work-
ing among the ruins of Thebes, and discovered
there the remains of a temple which belonged to
the Nineteenth Dynasty. Among the inscribed
stones he found a large stela of black granite upon
which was an inscription, which proved to be a
hynm of victory, reciting the glories of Meneptah
and his triumphs over his enemies. The record
seems to have been made in the fifth year of
his reign, and it reads as follows : "Vanquished
is the land of the Libyans, and the land of the
Hittites tranquilized. Captured is the land of
Pa-kana'na with all violence. Carried away is
the land of Ashkelon. Overpowered is the land
of Gezer. The Israelites (I-s-y-r-a-e-1-u) are
minished. so that they have no seed. The land
of Kharu is become like the widows of Egypt.
All lands are at peace."
Kharu was the southern part of Palestine, and
the name was identified by Prof. Maspero with
that of the Horites of the Scriptures.
The name of Israel is most distinct, and has
been accepted by Prof. Maspero, Dr. Neville,
Dr. Spiegelberg and others. This alone of all the
people mentioned in the inscription, had no word
of explanation concerning the country to which
they belonged. They must therefore have been
at that time either bond slaves in Egypt, or, as
is more probable, they were wanderers in the wil-
derness, the Exodus having already taken place
when the hymn of victory was written.
The word which is here rendered "minished"
has the determinative for badness or smallness
attached, but it is met with here for the first
time. The word which is rendered "seed" is used
elsewhere in the sense of offspring. Attempts
have been made to explain this statement as re-
ferring to the crops in a hypothetical land of
Israel, which are supposed to have been destroyed
by the Egyptians. But the Israelites were herds-
men, and not agriculturists, and the supposition
is also rendered impossible by the fact that they
are expressly marked out as having no land of
their own upon which crops could be cultivated.
The word "seed" must therefore have the mean-
ing which it often bears in other inscriptions —
"posterity."
(2) Invaders. One of the inscriptions of
Meneptah also tells us that a flood of barbarians
penetrated as far as Belbeis. in the southern ex-
tremity of the land of Croshen. where the coun-
try had been "handed over from old kings to
foreigners as pasturage for their cattle." These
"foreigners" must have been the Israelites, in
whom the invaders found sympathizing friends.
They are as.sociated also with the land of the
Horites, who are said to have become "widows"
on account apparently of the destruction of the
male seed of Israel. Therefore the author of
the poem must have been aware of the fact that
Israel had fled towards Edom, which was the
territory of their kin.
The cutting off of the male seed lest Israel
migiht ally themselves with an invader was the
MENES, RECENT DISCOVERIES
1142
MENUCHITE OR MENUCHOTH
act of Rameses II, the father and predecessor of
Meneptah, but in order to glorify the reigning
king, the poet does not hesitate to ascribe to him
the deeds of his father, and indeed this was often
the custom among the Egyptian kings. They
were very wilHng to erase the inscriptions of their
predecessors and inscribe their own victories upon
the same stela, or to claim the triumphs for them-
selves. (See Rameses II.)
(3) Political Conditions. The narrative in
Exodus harmonizes exactly with what we know
of the political condition of Egypt in the fifth
year of Meneptah, and the geography of the age
of Meneptah also harmonizes with the geography
of Exodus. For instance, the road from Goshen
to the desert at that time lay past Thuku or Suc-
coth and the "Migdol of King Meneptah." Suc-
coth was one of the names of the city of Pithom,
and even Baal-Zephon (Ex. xiv:2) is mentioned
in a papyrus of the same age. The district which
included the land of Goshen appears to have been
comparatively unoccupied for a time after it was
evacuated by the Israelites, but we have a clay
letter which was addressed to the Egyptian court
in the eighth year of King Meneptah in which
the writer claims that Bedouin tribes from the
land of Edom had been allowed to settle and
pasture their herds there.
We may therefore conclude that Egyptian tra-
dition is correct in claiming that Meneptah was
the Pharaoh of this period, but we need never
expect to find any Egyptian monuments recording
the escape of the Israelites. The old kings of
Egypt and Assyria were enough like modern poli-
ticians to preserve a dead silence concerning their
defeats and record only their victories. (See
Pi-BESETH ; Sennacherib; Nebuchadnezzar.)
(Lectures before Univ. Coll., London, by W. M.
Flinders Petrie.)
MENES (men'ez), KECENT DISCOVERIES
CONCERNING.
In 1901 Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, of the Uni-
versity of London, wrote a most interesting ac-
count of his recent work. In a letter from Arabah,
Baliana, Upper Egypt, to the London Times he
says : "The continuation of the work of the Egypt
Exploration Fund on the Royal Tombs of the first
Eg>'ptian dynasties has proved in some respects
more surprising than that of last year. We are
now able to trace out the regular development of
civilization during some four hundred years, from
the time when writing was but rarely used, and
then only in rude pictorial stage, down to the
common use of delicately figured hieroglyphs in-
distinguishable from those used for thousands of
years after.
"We have now in our hands the beautifully
wrought jewelry and gold works, the minutely
engraved ivories, the toilet objects, of Menes, the
founder of the monarchy, and his successor, fash-
ioned more than 6,500 years ago.
"The following summary will give an idea of
the gain of knowledge during the last three
months:
"Of Menes and his predecessors there are about
thirty inscriptions and labels in stone and ivory.
From these we learn certainly the names of three
kings, — Narmer, Ka, and a name written with a
fish sign; perhaps also Det and Sam are two other
names, but they are more probably word signs.
Among these works of Menes are parts of four
ebony tables with figures and inscriptions, one
apparently showing a human sacrifice. The
Strangest object is one showing a massive strip of
gold of unknown use with the name of Menes
(Aha) upon it.
"Of Zer, the successor of Menes, the astonish-
ing find is the forearm of his queen, still in its
wrappings, with four splendid bracelets intact.
One is a series of figures of the royal hawk
perched upon the tomb, thirteen figures in cast
and chased gold alternating with fourteen carved
in turquoise. The second bracelet is of spiral
beads of gold and lazuli in three groups. The
third bracelet is of four groups of hour-glass
beads, amethyst between gold, with connections
of gold and turquoise. The fourth has a center
piece of gold copied from the rosette seed of a
plant, with amethyst and turquoise beads, and
band of braided gold wire. This brilliant and
exquisitely finished group of jewelry shows what
a high level was already attained at the beginning
of the First Dynasty. It is two thousand years
older than the jewelry of Dahshur; the oldest yet
known, and it has the great advantage of being
carefully examined as found, and restrung in its
exact arrangement.
"Of the same king there are some forty in-
scribed pieces of ivory and stone, and two lions
carved in ivory. Also the great royal tombstone
has been found in pieces and rejoined. About
sixty private tombstones give us the names in
use in the royal household; many formed from
the goddess Neith, but not one from Isis."
Pertaining to the same subject. Prof. A. H.
Sayce has an article in the Horailetic Review for
March, 1901, entitled "The New Light from the
Ancient Monuments," in which he says: "Once
more the light which has come from the monu-
ments of the past has been fatal to the pretensions
of critical skepticism. The discoveries at Abydos
have discredited its methods and results. They
have shown that where these can be tested they
prove such pretensions to be absolutely worthless.
"Menes and his dynasty were very real and
historical personages, in spite of the critics, and
the age in which they lived, so far from being
mythical, was an age of literary culture and civili-
zation. It is only reasonable to conclude that
methods and results which thus break down under
the test of monumental discovery must enually
break down in other departments of history where
no such test can as yet be applied.
"The principles and mode of argument which
have turned the Hebrew patriarchs into creatures
of myth are precisely the same as those which
declared Menes to be unhistorical. and the fate
which has overtaken them in the case of Menes
may be expected also in the case of the Old Testa-
ment.
"It is not the discoveries of higher criticism,
but the old traditions, which have been confirmed
by archaeological research."
MENSTEALER (ra^n-stsl'er), (Gr. ivSpairoSia-
Ti;5, an-(irap-od-is-tace'), one who decoys or kid-
naps a free person into slavery, or one who steals
and sells the slaves of others. St. Pauldenounces
it as among the highest crimes (i Tim. i;lo).
The stealing of a freeborn Israelite, either to
treat him as a slave or sell him into slavery, was
by the law of Moses punished by death (Exod.
xxi:i6; Deut. xxiv:7).
mENXrCHAH (raen-Q'kah), is regarded as a
proper name in the marginal reading (Judg. xx:43;
Jer. li;5Q). If a town it was in Benjamin, on the line
of retreat taken by the Benjamites at the siege of
Gibeah. (See Seraiah).
MENUCHITE or MENUCHOTH (men-u'kite
or men-u'koth), (I Chron. ii;52, 54, marg.). See
Manahethites, The.
MEONENIM
1143
MERARITE
MEONENIM (meon'e-nim), (Hebrew from 1^?.
aw-nan' , oak of soothsayers, or to act covertly,
i. e., to practice magic), not "plain," but an oak
or terebinth (Judg. ix:37; comp. Deut. xviii:io, 14;
Mic. v;i2, "soothsayers").
The meaning of the name seems to connect it
with some old diviners, probably of the pagan in-
habitants. Conder suggests its identity with the
plain of Miikhnah.
MEONOTHAI (me-on'o-thai), (Heb. T-'l'>?,
meh-o-no-thahee, my dwellings), a man of Judah,
the founder of Ophrah (I Chron. iv;l4), B. C. after
1612.
MEPHAATH (m«ph'a-5th), (Heb. f^i'?"^, may-
fah'aih), a city given to the Merarite Levites
(Josh. xxi:37; i Chron. vi:79), from the tribe of
Reuben (Josh. xiii:i8), but afterward coming into
the possession of Moab (Jer. xlviii:2i). Site not
known.
MEPHIBOSHETH (me-phifb'o-sheth), (Heb.
f^s^'ETJ^ tnef-ee-bo'sheth, extermination of idols);
also in i Chron. ix:40, IMerib-Baal.
/. Son of Jonathan and grandson of Saul (2
Sam. iv 14).
(1) Early Life. He was only five years of age
when his father and grandfather were slain in
Mount Gilboa; and on the news of this catas-
trophe, the woman who had charge of the child,
apprehending that David would exterminate the
whole house of Saul, fled away with him ; but in
her hasty flight she stumbled with the child, and
lamed him for life (B. C. lO.SS). Under this
calamity, which was very incapacitating in times
when agility and strength were of prime import-
ance, Mephibosheth was unable to take any part
in the stirring political events of his early life.
According to our notions, he should have been the
heir of the house of Saul ; but in those times a
younger son of an actual king was considered to
have at least as good a claim as the son of an heir
apparent who had never reigned, and even a better
claim if the latter were a minor. This, with his
lameness, prevented Mephibosheth from ever ap-
pearing as the opponent or rival of his uncle Ish-
bosheth on the one hand, or of David on the other
(2 Sam. ix). He thus grew up in quiet obscurity
in the house of Machir, one of the great men of
the country beyond the Jordan (2 Sam. ix:4; xvii :
27) ; and his very existence was unknown to
David till that monarch, when firmly settled in his
kingdom, inquired whether any of the family of
Jonathan survived, to whom he might show kind-
ness for his father's sake.
(2) Befriended by David. Hearing then of
Mephibosheth from Ziba, who had been the royal
steward under Saul, he invited him to Jerusalem,
assigned him a place at his own table, and be-
stowed upon him lands, which were managed for
him by Ziba, and which enabled him to support an
establishment suited to his rank.
(3) During Absalom's Revolt. He lived in
this manner till the revolt of Absalom, and then
David, in his flight, having noticed the absence of
Mephibosheth. inquired for him of Ziba. and being
informed that he had remained behind in the hope
of being restored to his father's throne, instantly
and very hastily revoked the grant of land, and
bestowed it on Ziba (2 Sam. xvi:l-4). After-
wards, on his return to Jerusalem, he was met
with sincere congratulations by Mephibosheth,
who explained that being lame he had been un-
able to follow the king on foot, and that Ziba had
purposely prevented his beast from being made
ready to carry him : and he declared that so far
from having joined in heart, or even appearance,
the enemies of the king, he had remained as a
mourner, and, as his appearance declared, had not
changed his clothes, or trimmed his beard, or even
dressed his feet, from the day that the king de-
parted to that on which he returned. David could
not- but have been sensible that he had acted
wrong, and ought to have been touched by the de-
votedness of his friend's son, and angry at the
imposition of Ziba; but to cover one fault by an-
other, or from indifference, or from reluctance to
oflfend Ziba, who had adhered to him when so
many old friends forsook him, he answered coarse-
ly. 'VVhy speakest thou any more of thy matters?
I have said, thou and Ziba divide the land.' The
answer of Mephibosheth was worthy of the son of
the generous Jonathan : 'Yea, let him take all ;
forasmuch as my lord the king is come again in
peace unto his own house' (2 Sam. xix:24-3o).
We hear no more of Mephibosheth. except that
David was careful that he should not be included
in the savage vengeance which the Gideonites were
suffered to execute upon the house of Saul for the
great wrong they had sustained during his reign
(2 Sam. xxi:7). Another Mephibosheth, a son of
Saul by his concubine Rizpah. was, however,
among those who suffered on that occasion
(verses 8, 9).
2. A son of Saul and his concubine Rizpah.
who, with his brother Armoni, was delivered by
David to the Gibeonites, to be hanged before the
Lord (2 Sam. xxi :8, 9), B. C. 1053-1019.
MEKAB (me'rab), (Heb. ^7^, may-rau<h, in-
crease); eldest daughter ol king Saul, who was
promised in marriage to David ; but when the time
fixed for their union approached, she was. to the
surprise of all Israel, bestowed in marriage upon
an unknown personage named Adriel (l Sam. xiv :
49; xviii :i7-i9). By him she had five sons, who
were among those of the house of Saul that were
given up to the Gibeonites, who put them to death
in expiation for the wrongs they had sustained
from their grandfather.
SIERAIAH (mer'a-i'ah), (Heb. '^^l^, mrr-aw-
yaiv', revelation of Jah), a chief priest of the house
of Seraiah, in the days of Joiakim (Nell. xii:i2) B.
C. aftei 536.
KEBAIOTH (rae-ra'yoth), (Heb. ^V*?, mer-aw-
yohth' , revelations).
1. A priest of the race of Aaron, son erf Zerahiah,
and father of Amariah, among the high-priests (I
Chron. vi: 6, 7, 52; Ezra vii:3), B. C. before 1062.
2. A chief priest, father of Hilkai, a contem-
porary of the high-priest Joiakim (Neh. xii:i5).
BIEKARI (mer'a-ri or me-ra'ri), (Heb. ""l^P.
mer-aw'ree, bitter), youngest son of Levi, born in
Canaan (Gen. xlvi:il; Exod. vi:i6; Num. iii:i7; I
Chron. vi:i). He is only known from his name
having been given to one of the three great divis-
ions of the Lcvitical tribe. (B. C. 1874.)
IIEKAKITE (mer'a-rite), (Heb. 'I^?, mer-aw'-
ree, bitter\ descendants of Merari, making one of
the three L-evitical families (Num. xxvi:i;7). They
were sub-dividtd into the Mahlites and Mushites
(Num. iii:20, 33), at the first census they numbered
6,200 males. Four cities were assigned to them
from each of the tribes of Gad, Reuben and Zebu-
lun;of these Ranioth-gilead was a city of refuge
(Josh. xxi:34, 40; i Chron. vi:63, 77-ol). David
reorganized the tribe (i Chron. xxiii:6, 21-23).
MERATHAIM
1144
MERODACH
MERATHAIM (mer'a-tha'im), (Heb. 0*?!^,
mer-aw-thah'yim, double or rebellion, Jer. l:2i),
a name given to Babylon because of the double
captivity to which it had subjected the Israelites
(Jer. 1:21).
MERCHANDISE, MERCHANT (raer'chan-
diz, mer'chant). See Commerce.
MERCTTRY (mer'cu-ry). See Hermes.
MERCY (mer'sy), (Heb. ""P?, kheh'sed, kind-
ness; Gr. eXeos, ei'ek-os, compassion).
!• Affectionate pity to such as are in misery and
distress, and readiness to do them good (Phil, ii :
I ; Col. iii :i2; Tit. iii .'S).
2. Kind acts proceeding from inward compas-
sion, and desire to relieve such as are in misery
and want (Ps. cxlv:9; I Tim. i:i3, i6). (.o)
Mercy to the sinner is God's sovereign compas-
sion in forgiving him (Rom. ix:is). {b) All
his dealings with them are the effects of mercy
and l<indness to them, and are the accomplish-
ment of his promises to them (Ps. xxv:io). (c)
To "show," "have," or "give" mercy, is to dis-
cover inward pity and compassion, by acts of
kindness to the distressed (Gen. xxxix :2i ; Exod.
XX :6; Ps. iv:i; 2 Tim. i:i8). (rf) To "And or
obtain mercy," is to receive acts of kindness, and
valuable blessings, proceeding from pity and com-
passion (Matt. v:7; Heb. iv:i6). (?) To "keep
mercy," is to be in constant readiness to do good
freely to the distressed and miserable (Dan. ix :
4). (/) To "remember mercy," is to pass inju-
ries unresented, and do acts of undeserved kind-
ness (Hab. iii:2). (g) To "love mercy," is to
love Christ and take a pleasure in doing unde-
served good to such as are in misery and want
(Mic. vi:8). (/;) To "foUozv mercy," is earnestly
to seek after a share in the blessings of the new
covenant, and study to e.xercise acts of pity to-
wards those in mercy (Prov. xxi:2i).
MERCY-SEAT (mer'sy-set), (Heb. ^1^^, kap-
poh'reth, mercy-seat).
The Hebrew name literally denotes a cover,
and, in fact, describes the lid of the ark with cher-
ubim, over which appeared 'the glory of God'
(Exod. XXV :I7, sg.; xxx:8; x.xxi :7, and else-
where.) (See Ark OF THE Covenant. ) The word
used in the Septuagint and New Testament to
translate the term which in Hebrew means simply
'a cover,' is iXoff-r^pio;', the 'expiatory' or 'propitia-
tory.' in allusion to that application of the Hebrew
word which we have noted; which application is
in this instance justified and explained by reference
to the custom of the high-priest once a year enter-
ing the most holy place, and sprinkling the lid of
the ark with the blood of an expiatory victim,
whereby 'he made atonement for the sins of the
people.' .\s this was the most solemn and signifi-
cant act of the Hebrew ritual, it is natural that a
reference to it should be involved in the name
which the covering of the ark acquired. By a
comparison of the texts in which the word oc-
curs, it will be seen that there would, in fact, have
been little occasion to name the cover of the ark
separately from the ark itself, but for this im-
portant ceremonial. (See Tabernacle.)
MERED(me'red), (Heb. 1v^,»/MVM rebellion),
sec(jnd son of Ezra of Judah (i Chron. iv:l7). He
is said to have married Bithiah, daughter of Pha-
raoh. Jehudijah, "the Jewess," was probably his
second wife. (B. C. 1658). (See Bithiah.)
MEREMOTH (mer'e-moth), (Heb. ^'''215, »j«r-
ay-mohth' , heights, i, e., exaltations),
1. A priest, son of Urijah, descendant of Koz,
who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel
(Neh. xii:3), and had charge of the gold and
silver dishes forwarded by Ezra (Ezra viii :33).
He is undoubtedly the same as the one who re-
paired two sections of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. iii:4, 21), B. C. 459.
2. A layman of the descendants of Bani, who
divorced his foreign wife at Ezra's command
(Ezra x:36), B. C. 459.
3. A priest, or, better, a family of priests, who
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x:5),
B. C. 410.
MERES (rae'rez), (Heb. Dl^, meh'res, worthy),
one of the seven eunuclis or councillors of the
court of Babylon (Esth. i:i4), B. C. 483.
MERIBAH (mer'i-bah), (Heb. '~?"!^, mer-ee-
baw' , quarrel, strife).
1- One of the names given by Moses to the
fountain in the desert of Sin, on the western gulf
of the Red Sea, which issued from the rock that
he smote by the divine command (Exod. .xvii :
1-17). He called the place, indeed, Massa (temp-
tation) and Meribah. and the reason is assigned
'because of the chiding of the children of Israel,
and because they did there tempt the Lord.' (See
Wandering, The; Exodus. Geography of the.)
2. .-Vnother fountain produced in the same man-
ner, and under similar circumstances, in the des-
ert of Zin (Wady Arabah), near Kadesh ; and
to which the name was given with a similar ref-
erence to the previous misconduct of the Israel-
ites (Num. xx:i3, 24; Deut. xxxiii:8). In the
last text, which is the only one where the two
places are mentioned together, the former is called
Massah only, to prevent the confusion of the two
Meribahs. 'Whom thou didst prove at Massah,
and with whom thou didst strive at the waters of
Meribah.' Indeed, this latter Meribah is alinost
always indicated by the addition of 'waters.' i. e.,
ivaters of Meribah, as if further to distinguish it
from the other (Ps. lxxxi:8; cvi :32) ; and still
more distinctly 'waters of Meribah in Kadesh'
(Num. xxvii:i4; Deut. xxxii :5i ; Ezek. xlviirig).
Only once is this place called simply Meribah
(Ps. xcv:8). It is strange, that with all this care-
fulness of distinction in Scripture, the two places
should rarely have been properly discriminated.
IffERIB-BAAL (raer'ib-ba'al), (Heb. ^J'5'3*'^^,
mer-eeb'bah'al, contender with Baal), a name given
to Mephibosheth, son of Jonathan, in i Chron. viii:
34; ix:40. (See Mephibosheth.)
Of the two the latter seems the more correct
form. It means 'contender against Baal.' Some
think that the difference has arisen from some
corruption of the text ; but, from the analogy of
Ishbosheth, whose original name was Esh-baa),
it seems more like a designed alteration, arising
probably from the reluctance of the Israelites to
pronounce the name of Baal. (See Ish-bo-
sheth.)
MERODACH (me-ro'dak), (Heb. Tf^, 7ner-o-
tiawk' , death, slaughter).
In conformity with the general character of
Babylonian idolatry. Merodach is supposed to be
the name of a planet ; and, as the Tsabian and
Arabic names for Mars are Nerig and Mirrich,
'arrow' (the latter of which Gesenius thinks may
be for Mirdich, which is very nearly the same as
Merodach), there is some presumption that it
may be Mars. As for etymologies of the word,
Gesenius has suggested that it is the Persian
mardak. the diminutive of mard, 'man,' used as a
terra of endearment; or, rather, that it is from
MERODACH-BALADAN
1145
MEROM
the Persian and Indo-Germanic mord, or mort
(which means death, and is so far in harmony
with the conception of Mars, as the lesser star
of evil omen), and the affix och, which is found
in many Assyrian names, as Nisroch, etc.
In Jer. 1:2 we read: "Babylon is taken, Bel is
confounded, Merodach is broken in pieces. Her
idols are confounded, her images are broken in
pieces."
Bel Merodach is one of the Babylonian deities,
which is not only spoken of in the Scriptures,
but which also finds frequent mention on the tab-
lets. According to the inscriptions of Nebuchad-
nezzar. Marduk or Merodach was the favorite
deity of that king. These inscriptions begin by
declaring Nebuchadnezzar to be the "King of
Babylon, the exalted prince, the worshiper of
Marduk, the prince supreme, the beloved of the
god Nebo."
Nebuchadnezzar is never weary of extolling
his own achievements and the glories of his cap-
ital city. The thirty or forty inscriptions of this
king which are now in the British Museum all
reflect the spirit of the boast : "Is not this great
Babylon that I have built, for the house of the
kingdom, by the might of my power and for the
honor of my majesty?" (Dan. iv:3o).
He also describes the splendid temple which
he built for Marduk or Bel Merodach, with its
costly woods, "its silver and molten gold, and
precious stones," and "sea clay" (amber), "with
its seats of splendid gold, with lapis-lazuli^ and
alabaster blocks" ; and these have been found in
the ruins of Babylon.
And the king made the great festival Lilmuku
when the image of Merodach was brought into
his temple (4th Col., lines 1-6, Cun. Ins. West.
Asia, Rcc. of the Past).
The inscription also speaks of this idol temple
as receiving "within itself the abundant tribute
of the kings of the nations, and of all peoples."
This portion of Nebuchadnezzar's inscription
is confirmed by the following statement in the
book of Daniel : "And the Lord gave the King
of Judah into his (Nebuchadnezzar's) hand, with
part of the vessels of the house of God. which
he carried into the land of Shinar to the house of
his god" (Dan. i :2).
MEBOD ACH-B AL ADAN (me - ro'dak - bal 'a-
dan), (Hcb. Ti^^^ ^-^"''P. mer-o-dak' bal-ad-awn' ,
Merodach has given a son).
Son of Baladan and king of Babylon. He is
mentioned also with the name Berodach-baladan
(2 Kings xx:i2), which form is due to a confu-
sion of two Hebrew characters which are much
alike in their old forms. He is represented as
sending messengers to Hezekiah to congraulate
him on his recovery from his severe illness, and
acquainting himself through them with all the
treasures of the Jewish king (2 Chron. xxxii:i;
Is. xxxix :i).
Merodach-baladan was by race a Chaldsean. and
though the Chaldeans were almost certainly Sem-
ites, they were nevertheless quite a different peo-
ple. (See CHALD.EANS.) He is identified by most
modern scholars with Mardokempad, referred to
in the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, Sargon and
Sennacherib. He reigned B. C. 721-710.
If Hezekiah's sickness immediately followed
Sargon's campaign against Ashdod (in 711 B. C),
then Merodach-baladan's embassy, nominally to
congratulate Hezekiah on recovery from his sick-
ness, but really to ascertain the possibility of an
alliance against Sargon, took place in 710 B. C.
This order is not impossible, for Sargon's next
two or three years were spent in fully crushing
all of his foes in southern Babylonia. After the
conquest and organization of all his long-
dreamed-of realm, Sargon sought to perpetuate
his fame in another way. He established at
Khorsabad, several miles above Nineveh, his royal
headquarters. Here he built his enormous palace,
uncovered by Botta. He entered this magnificent
horne in 706 B. C, and in the very next summer
was assassinated by one of his own soldiers. (See
Assyria.)
The assassination of Sargon yielded the throne
of Assyria to his son, Sennacherib (705-681 B. C).
Whether this son had anything to do with the
intrigue is not known. It is at least signifi-
cant that the father's name is not found in the
records of the son. This king of Assyria, from
his frequent mention in the Bible, is most famil-
iar to Bible students. His records of his own
campaigns, his conquests, his cruelties, modify in
no important respect the character attributed to
him by the books of Kings and Isaiah.
The earlier activities of Sennacherib were con-
fined to his eastern and southern boundaries. He
measured lances with the irrepressible Chaldeans
of the South. His own brother, whom he had put
upon the throne of Babylon, was displaced by a
usurper; and this usurper, after one month, was
deposed by Merodach-baladan. Sennacherib
swooped down on the intriguing army of seced-
ers and crushed them, and established his au-
thority in lower Babylonia. To secure himself
still further, he captured and pillaged 75 cities
and 420 villages ; 208,000 captives, with nearly a
million large and small cattle, he deported to As-
syria. As a kind of figure-head, he placed on the
throne of Babylon Bel-ibni, while the country of
Chaldaea was under a military governor. With
these temporary rulers in power, Sennacherib re-
turned to Nineveh. (Price, The Monuments and
the Old Test., pp. 179-181.)
Sennacherib then attacked the west, and while
thus engaged a new rebellion began in Babylonia,
in which, naturally enough, Merodach-baladan
was ready to participate. It was, however, of
very short duration, for Sennacherib entered the
land again, and again Merodach-baladan fled.
He put his goods, his people, and his gods upon
boats, and floated them down the Euphrates to the
Persian gulf, and settled on its eastern shores in
a part of Elam, whither Sennacherib dared not
follow. There in exile he soon died. His career
is without a parallel among his people. It was
filled with contradictions. No man before him
of that race has held power so great for so long
a time. He had failed ultimately, but his follow-
ers would in a later day succeed far beyond his
dreams. (Dr. R. W. Rogers, Barnes' Bib. Cyc.)
KEBOiyi (me'rom). (Heb. Oil??, may-rome' ,
height, or upper waters). The waters of Merom,
of Josh. xi:5 are the lake Semechonitis, now called
Huleh, the upper or highest lake of the Jordan.
(See Palestine).
It is four miles long (some say seven) by three
and a half broad, and 270 feet below the Medi-
terranean Sea. The Jordan passes through it.
It was called by the Greeks "Semachonitis," and
and by the Arabs "Huleh." Here the confederate
kings of North Canaan, under Jabin, king of
Hazor, were gathered together, when Joshua fell
upon them suddenly, rushing down on them
from the mountain slopes, and utterly destroying
them. The lake is surrounded by marshes and
thickets of papyrus, and abounds in wild diick,
pelican, and other fowl. On the north is an im-
penetrable jungle, the wallowing place of buffa-
MERONOTHITE
1146
MESHECH
loes. The miasma from the marshes renders the
district very unheahhy. Kedesh, an important
stronghold of Napthah, lay four miles west of its
northern end.
MERONOTHITE (rae-ron'o-thite), (Heb. 'P-^??.
may-ro-?io-thee'), an appellation of Jehdeiah, the
herdsman of David and Solomon (i Chron. xxvii:
30), and of Jadon, who assisted in repairing the
walls of Jerusalem (Neh. iii7). Meronoth is not
otherwise known.
MEBORIM (me-ro'rJm), (Heb. ^'^T''^, me-ro-
run'), occurs in two places in Scripture, and is in
both translated bitter herbs in our Authorized
Version, as well as in several others.
In Exod. xii:8, Moses commanded the Jews to
cat the lamb of the Passover 'with unleavened
bread, and with bitter herbs (meroriin) they shall
eat it.' So at the institution of the second Pass-
over, in the wilderness of Sinai (Num. ix:ii).
Succory or endive was early selected as being
the bitter herb especially intended ; and Dr. Ged-
des justly remarks, that 'the Jews of Alexandria,
who translated the Pentateuch, could not be
ignorant what herbs were eaten with the
paschal lamb in their days.' Jerome understood
it in the same manner; and Pseudo-Jonathan ex-
pressly mentions horehound and lettuces. Forskal
informs us that the Jews at Sana and in Egypt eat
the lettuce with the paschal lamb. Aben Ezra, as
quoted by Rosenmiiller, states that the Egyptians
used bitter herbs in every meal ; so in India some of
the bitter Cticurbitacece, as kurella, are constantly
employed as food. (See Pakyoth.) It is curi-
ous that the two sets of plants which appear to
have the greatest number of points in their favor,
are the endive or succory, and one of the fragrant
and usually also bitter labiate plants; because we
find that the term marooa is in the East applied
even in the present day both to the bitter worm-
wood and the fragrant Ocymum. Moreover the
Chaldee translator, Jonathan, expressly mentions
lettuce and horehound, or marrubium, which is
also one of the Labiatae. It is important to ob-
serve that the Artemisia, and some of these fra-
grant labiatas. are found in many parts of Arabia
and Syria ; that is, in warm, dry, barren regions.
The endive is also found in similar situations, but
requires, upon the whole, a greater degree of mois-
ture. Thus it is evident that the Israelites would
be able to obtain suitable plants during their long
wanderings in the Desert, though it is difficult for
us to select any one out of the several which might
have been employed by them. (See Bitter Herbs.)
J. F. R.
MEBOZ (me'rSz), (Heb. Tiltt, tnay-roze'), a place
in the northern part of Palestine, the inhabitants of
which are severely reprehended in Judg. v;23, for
not having taken the field with Barak against .Sisera.
It would seem as if they had had an opportunity
of rendering some particular and important serv-
ice to the public cause which they neglected. The
site is not known ; Eusebius and Jerome {Ononuist.
imder subject 'Merus') fix it twelve Roman miles
from Sebaste, on the road to Dothaim ; but this
position would place it south of the field of battle,
and therefore scarcely agrees with the history.
Schwarz identifies it with el-Murussus, about four
miles northwest of Beth-shean {Palest, p. 168).
MESECH (rae'sek), (Ps. cxx :;). See Meshech.
MESHA (me'sha), (li€b.^T'^,may-shaw' .m\A-
die district).
1- A place mentioned in describing that part of
Arabia inhabited by the descendants of Joktan
(Gen. x:3o). Mouza, east of the Red Sea,; Bis-
cha, in northern Yemen ; and Massa have been
suggested as the place referred to. (See Nations,
Dispersion of.)
2. A king of Moab, who possessed an immense
number of flocks and herds, and appears to have
derived his chief wealth from them. In the time
of Ahab, he being then under tribute, 'rendered
unto the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and 100,000
rams, with the wool' (2 Kings iii:4). These
numbers max seem exaggerated if understood as
the amount of yearly tribute. It is, therefore,
more probable that the greedy and implacable
Ahab had at some one time levied this enormous
impost upon the Moabites; and it is likely that it
was in the apprehension of a recurrence of such
ruinous exactions that they seized the opportunity
for revolt which the death of Ahab seemed to of-
fer (2 Kings i :i ; iii :$)■ The short reign of Aha-
ziah afforded no opportunity for reducing them
to obedience; but after his death his brother and
successor, Jehoram, made preparations for war ;
and induced Jehoshaphat to join him in this expe-
dition. The result, with the part taken by Elisha
the prophet, has been related under other heads.
(See Elisha; Jehoram; Jehoshaphat.) King
Mesha was at length driven to shut himself up,
with the remnant of his force, in Areopolis, his
capital. He was there besieged so closely that,
having been foiled in an attempt to break through
the camp of the Edomites (who were present as
vassals of Judah), he was reduced to extremities,
and in the madness of his despair sought to propi-
tiate his angry gods by offering up his own son,
the heir of his crown, as a sacrifice, upon the wall
of the city. On beholding this fearful sight, the
besiegers withdrew in horror, lest some portion
of the monstrous crime might attach to their own
souls. By this withdrawal they, however, afforded
the king the relief he desired, and this was. no
doubt, attributed by him to the efficacy of his offer-
ing, and to the satisfaction of his gods therewith.
The invaders, however, ravaged the country as
they withdrew, and returned with much spoil to
their own land. (See Moabites.) Mesha was
the author and subject of the inscription on. the
famous Moabite Stone. (See Dibon ; Moabite
Stone.)
3. (Heb. as above.) Eldest son of Caleb, of
Judah, family of Hezron, and founder of Ziph (l
Chron. ii :42). B. C. 1618.
4. (Heb. as above.) A Benjamite, son of
Shaharaim by Hodesh or Baara (i Chron. viiirg),
B, C. about 1612.
MESHACH (me'shak), (Heb. or Chald. Tl?'^.
may-s/iak'), a name given by the chief of the
eunuchs in the court or Babylon to Mishael, who
was in training for the rank of magi, and was one
of the three faithful Jews saved from the fiery
furnace (Dan. 17; ii:4Q; iii:i2-3o).
MESHECH (me'shek), (Heb. 1?^, meh'shek,
possession).
Meshech in the Old Testament is nearly always
mentioned in connection with his brother Tubal.
In the Assyrian inscriptions the names appear as
Tubla and Muska. The classical geographers
called them Tibareni and Moskhi. At this time,
however, they belonged farther to the northward
than they had been in the times of the Assyrian
monuments.
In the time of Sargon and Sennacherib their ter-
ritories still extended as far south as Cilicia and
the northern half of Komagene. Afterward they
were forced to retreat northward toward the Black
.Sea, and it was in this region of Asia Minor that
Xenophon and his Greek troops found what little
remained of this people. (See Anabasis v, 5.)
MESHELEMIAH
1147
MESOPOTAMIA
In these two sons of Japheth (Meshech and
Tubal) we must see representatives of the so-
called Alarodian race, to which the modern Geor-
gians belong. This people were once in possession
of the highlands of Armenia, and the cuneiform
inscriptions there found were evidently the work
of the Alarodian princes who established a king-
dom on the shores of Lake Van.
About B. C. 600 the Aryans from Phrygia en-
tered Armenia, overthrew the old monarchy, and
imposed their rule upon the indigenous population.
The majority of the Armenians still belong to
the older race, although they have long since
adopted the language of the invaders. (Sayce,
Races of Ihe Old Testament). (See Nations,
Dispersion of.)
MESHELEMIAH (me-shel'e-mi'ah), (Heb,
•^^'?.<¥P, mesh-eh-lem-yavj' , friendship of Jehovah)i
a Korhite Levite, who with liis seven sons and ten
other relatives had charge of the east gate of the
Temple under David (l Chron. ix:2l; xxviri).
Called Shelemiah (i Chron. xxvi:i4), and ap-
parently Shallum (i Chron. ixMQ). (See Me-
SHULLAM, 10.) B. C. IOI4.
MESHEZABEEL ( me - shez' a - beel ) , (Heb.
'^JI'h", mesh-ay-zab-ale , delivered by God).
!• Apparently a priest, the father of Berechiah
and ancestor of Meshullam (Neh. iii 14).
2. A chief of the people who sealed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x:2i), B. C. about 410.
3. Father of Pethahiah, of Judah (Neh. xi:24),
B. C. 410.
MESHILLEMITH (me-shn'le-mith), (i Chron.
ix:i2).
MESHILLEMOTH (me-shn'le-moth), (Heb.
n'!;Ti'^_ tnesh-il-lay-mohth' , reconciliation).
1. An Ephraimite. father of the Berechiah, who
opposed reducing his captive brethren of Judah to
slavery (2 Chron. xxviii:i2), B. C. before 735.
2. A priest, son of Immer (Neh. xi:i3). B. C.
before 440.
MESHOBAB (me-sho'bab), (Heb. -5"'^?, mesh-
o-bawb', returned), a chief Sinieonite who mi-
grated to Gedor in the time of Hezekiah (I Chron.
iv:34), B. C. about 711.
MESHTTLLAM (me-shul'lam), (Heb. D^'f'?.
mesh-ool-lawm' , allied).
1. \ chief Gadite, resident at Jerusalem in the
reign of Jotham (i Chron. v:i3), B. C. 781.
2. Grandfather of Shaphan, the scribe (2 Kings
xxii:3), B. C. about 623.
3. A priest, son of Zadok, and father of Hilkiah
(i Chron. ix:ii; Neh. xi:ii). The same as
Shallum (i Chron. vi:i3; Ezra vii:2).
4. A Kohathite Levite who helped to oversee the
repairing of the Temple in the time of Josiah (2
Chron. xxxiv:r2), B. C. 623.
5. A Benjamite, descendant of Elpaal, living at
Jerusalem (i Chron. viii:i7), B. C. 589.
6. Father of Sallu (i Chron. ix:7), and son of
Joed (Neh. xi:7)-
7. Eldest son of Zerubbabel (i Chron. iii iig), B.
C. about 536.
8. A chief priest, of the house of Ezra, in the
days of Joiakim (Neh. xii:i3), B. C. after 536.
9. Another chief priest, son of Ginnethon, con-
temporary with Joiakim (Neh. xii:i6), B. C. after
S36.
10. A chief Lsraelite, sent with others by Ezra
to accompany his party of Levites to Jerusalem
(Ezra viii: 16). He seems also to have assisted
in finding out those who had married foreign
wives (Ezra xiij), and possibly identical with
the Temple warden (Neh. xii:2S), B. C. about
440. The last mentioned Meshullam is called
Meshelemiah (i Chron. xxvi:i), Shelemiah (l
Chron. x.xvi:l4), and Shallum (Neh. vii:4S).
11. One of the "sons" of Bani who divorced
his foreign wife after the exile (Ezra xrzg), B.
C. ASQ-
12. A priest, son of Meshillemith, descendant
of Immer (i Chron. ix:i2). B. C. after 440.
13. Son of Berechiah. He helped to repair
two sections of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii :4,
30). His daughter married Johanan, the son of
Tobiah (Neh. vi:i8), B. C. 446.
14. Son of Besodciah, who helped Jchoiada re-
pair the old gate of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh.
iii :6), B. C. 446.
15. One of the princes of Judah who joined in
the procession around the walls of Jerusalem at
their completion (Neh. xii :33), B. C. 446.
16. A chief Benjamite, dwelling in Jerusalem
after the exile (i Chron i.x:8), B. C. about 440.
17. One of the chief Israelites who stood on
Ezra's left when he expounded the law to the
people (Neh. viii:4), B. C. about 410. Perhaps
identical with 10, 13, 14, 15, or i6. Probably
identical with the one who sealed the covenant
(Neh. x:20).
18. A priest, who sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x:7), B. C. about 410. Perhaps
identical with 7 or 8.
MESHXJXLEMETH (me-shul'le-mSth), (Heb.
n^?'ip)p_ 7iiesh-ool-leh'meth, friend), the wife o\
Manasseh, and mother of Amon {2 Kings xxiilp).
She was the daughter of Haruz of Jotbah. (B. C.
664-642.)
MESOBAITE (raes'o-ba'ite), (Heb, 'T?^*?, mets-
o-baw-yaiv' found of Jah), a title given to Jasiel,
one of David's guard (I Chron. xi:47l. If it indi-
cates a place there is no other notice of it.
MESOPOTAMIA (mes'o-po-ta'mi-a), (Gr. Mtao-
TTOTa/iio, )iies-op-ot-am-ee' ah, the country between
the two rivers), the ordinary Greek rendering of
the Heb. S'^^Di 2'!;N.^ ar'am nah-har-ah' yim, the
Greek name given after the conquests of Alex-
ander to the region between the Euphrates and
the Tigris, excluding the northern part which
continued to be known as Babylonia.
The name for this district in the Old Testament
is Aram-Naharaim, or "Aram or Syria of the two
rivers" (Gen. x,xiv:io: Dcut. xxiii:4; Judg. iii :8,
10 ; I Chron. xix:6), and Padan-aram or "Plain of
Syria" Gen. xxv:2o; xxviii:2-7; xlvi:is; also
Aram or "Syria" (Num. xxiii:7; Gen. xxxi :20,
24; comp. Acts iirp; vii:2). Under the former
name it is referred to as the kingdom of Chushan-
Rishathaim, who was conquered by Othniel. son
of Kenaz, Caleb's brother (Judg. iii:8). Two
great thoroughfares of trade led through Meso-
potamia, both starting from Aleppo in Syria and
passing, the one to Edessa on the Euphrates, and
the other to Carchemish on the same river. This
latter road is continued on the east of the Eu-
phrates through Harran to the Tigris. It would
therefore be along it, or in that line, that Abraham
journeyed on his migration from Ur of the Chal-
dees to Canaan. From about B. C. 800 Mesopota-
mia was subject to Assyria and the cities Gozan.
Haran, and Rczcph, and Thelasar, are spoken of
as among the conquests of Sennacherib (2 Kings
xix:i2). Jews from Mesopotamia were at Jeru-
salem at the great Pentecost (Acts ii:9). and
MESS
1148
MESSIAH
Stephen uses the name in his speech (Acts
vii :2). (See Aram.)
MESS (mes), (Heb. f^*?'?^, mas-ay th' , a raising,
as of the hands in prayer, Ps. cxli:2; or of flame,
Judg. xx:38, 40), a portion of food (Gen. xliii:34;
2 Sam. xi:8).
ICESSIAH (mes-si'ah), (Heb. O"!???, maw-shee-
akh\ Sept. '^pi.<!Tb%, anointed).
(1) The Anointed. In both languages this
woird signifies the same thing, viz., anointed.
Hence Gr. Khris-tos', xp^""^^^, the anointed
priest, for the Hebrew, the high priest (Lev. iv:
3. S. 16). In order to have an accurate idea of
the scriptural application of the term, we must
consider the custom of anointing which obtained
amongst the Jews. That which was specifically
set apart for God's service was anointed, whether
persons or things. (See Anointing.) Thus we
read that Jacob poured oil upon the pillar (Gen.
xxviii:i8, 22). The tabernacle also and its uten-
sils were anointed (Lev. viiirio), being thereby
appropriated to God's service.
But this ceremony had, moreover, relation to
persons. Thus priests, as Aaron and his sons,
were anointed that they might minister unto
God (Exod. xl:i3, 15).
Kings were anointed. Hence it is that a king
is designated the Lord's anointed in the Hebrew,
and in the Greek the anointed of the Lord. Saul
and David were, according to the divine appoint-
ment, anointed by Samuel (l Sam. x:l; xv:i;
xvi :3, 13). Zadok anointed Solomon, that there
might be no dispute who should succeed David (l
Kings 1:39).
We cannot speak with confidence as to whether
the prophets were actually anojnted with the ma-
terial oil. 'We have neither an express law nor
practice to this efifect on record. True it is that
Elijah IS commanded to anoint Elisha to be
prophet in his room (i Kings xix:i6); but no
more may be meant by this expression than that
he should constitute him his successor in the
prophetic office : for all that he did, in executing
his divine commission, was to cast his own gar-
ment upon Elisha (i Kings xixiig) ; upon which
he rose and ministered unto him (verse 21). For
kings and priests the precept and practice are
unquestionable.
(2) Redeemer of Humanity. But the name
Messiah is, par excellence, applied to the Re-
deemer of man in the Old Testament (Dan. ix:25;
Ps. ii:2). The words of Hannah, the mother of
Samuel, at the close of her divine song, are very
remarkable (i Sam. ii :io) : 'The adversaries of
the Lord shall be broken in pieces ; out of heaven
shall He thunder upon them: the Lord shall judge
the ends of the earth ; and he shall give strength
unto his king, and exalt the horn of his Messiah.'
The Hebrews as yet had no king; hence the pas-
sage may be taken as a striking prophecy of the
promised deliverer. In various parts of the New
Testament is this epithet applied to Jesus. St.
Peter (Acts x :36, 38) informs Cornelius the
centurion that God had anointed Jesus of Naza-
reth to be the Christ, and our Lord himself ac-
knowledges to the woman of Samaria that he is
the expected Messiali (John iv:2S). This term,
however, as applied to Jesus, is less a name than
the expression of his office.
Thus the Jews had in type, under the Mosaic
dispensation, what we have in substance under
the Christian system. The prophets, priests and
kings of the former economy were types of Him
who sustains these offices as the head of his mys-
tical body, the Church. (See Mediator.) As
the priests and kings of old were set apart for
their offices and dignities by a certain form pre-
scribed in the law of Moses, so was the blessed
Savior by a better anointing (of which the for-
mer was but a shadow), even by the Holy Ghost.
Thus the apoctle tells us that God anointed Jesus
of Nazareth with the Holy Ghost, and with power
(Acts x:38). He was anointed:
First, at his conception; the angel tells Mary, *
'The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the
power of the Highest shall overshadow thee;
therefore that holy thing which shall be born of
thee shall be called the Son of God ' (Luke i:35).
Second, at his baptism at the River Jordan
(Matt. iii:i3; Mark i:9, 10, 11, 12). St. Luke
moreover records (Luke iv:i7, 21) that our Lord
being at Nazareth, he had given unto him the
book of the prophet Isaiah ; and on reading from
ch. Ixi :i, 'The Spirit of the Lord is upon me,'
etc., he said to his hearers, 'This day is this
Scripture fulfilled in your ears.'
(3) Prophecy. But as the Jews will not ac-
knowledge the right of either Jesus or his
apostles to apply the prophetic passages which
point to the Messiah to himself, it now remains
for us to show —
First, That the promised Messiah has already
come.
Second, That Jesus of Nazareth is unquestion-
ably the Messiah who has come.
(a) To prove our first assertion, we shall con-
fine our remarks to .three prophecies. The first oc-
curs in Gen. xlix:8, 10, where Jacob is giving his
sons his parting benediction, etc. When he comes
to Judah he says: 'The scepter shall not de-
part from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between
his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall
the gathering of the people be.' It is evident
that by Judah is here meant, not the person but
the tribe; for Judah died in Egypt, without any
preeminence. By scepter and lawgiver, are ob-
viously iiftended the legislative and ruling power,
which did, in the course of time, commence in
David, and which, for centuries afterwards, was
continued in his descendants. Whatever variety
the form of government — whether monarchical
or aristocratical — might have assumed, the law
and polity were still the same. This prediction
all the ancient Jews referred to the Messiah Now,
that the scepter has departed from Judah, and,
consequently, that the Messiah has come, we argue
from the acknowledgments of some most learned
Jews themselves. The precise time when all author-
ity departed from Judah is disputed. Some date
its departure from the time when Herod, an Idu-
masan, set aside the Maccabees and Sanhedrim.
Others think that it was when Vespasian and
Titus destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple, that
the Jews lost the last vestige of authority. If,
therefore, the scepter has departed from Judah —
and who can question it who looks at the broken-
up, scattered, and lost state of that tribe for ages?
— the conclusion is clearly irresistible, that the
Messiah must have long since come. The tribe
of Judah was in a most prosperous state.
The next proof that the Messiah has long since
come, we adduce from Dan. ix :25, 26, 27. It is
evident that the true Messiah is here spoken of.
He is twice designated by the very name. And if
we consider what the work is which he is here said
to accomplish, we shall have a full confirmation
of this. Who but He could finish and take away
transgression, make reconciliation for iniquity,
bring in everlasting righteousness, seal up the
vision and prophecy, confirm the covenants with
many, and cause to cease the sacrifice and obla-
MESSIAH
1149
METALS
tion? If then it be the true Messiah who is de-
scribed in the above prophecy, it remains for us to
see how the time predicted for his coming has long
since transpired. This is expressly said to be
.seventy weeks from the going forth of the com-
mandment to restore and build Jerusalem. That by
seventy weeks are to be understood seventy sevens
of years, a day being put for a year, and a week
for seven years, making up 4qo years, is allowed
by Kimchi. Jarchi, Rabbi Saadias, and other
learned Jews, as well as by many Christian com-
mentators. This period of time then must have
long since elapsed, whether we date its commence-
ment from the first decree of Cyrus (Ezra i :l, 2,),
the second of Darius Hystaspes (ch. vi:i5), or
that of Artaxerxes (ch. viii:ii). See Grotius De
I'eritat. v; Josephus. De Bell. Jud. vii, 12, 13.
We can only barely allude to one more remark-
able prediction, which fixes the time of the Mes-
siah's advent, viz.. Hag. ii:7-9: 'I will shake ail
nations, and the desire of all nations (or the de-
sirable things of all nations shall come — R. V.) :
and I will fill this house with glory, saith the
Lord of hosts. The silver is mine, and the gold
is mine, saith the Lord of hosts. The glory of
this latter house shall be greater than of the
former, saith the Lord of hosts.' The glory here
spoken of must be in reference to the Messiah,
or on some other . account. It xould not have
been said that the second Temple exceeded in
glory the former one ; for in many particulars,
according to the acknowledgment of the Jews
themselves, it was far inferior both as a building
(Ezra iii :3, 12), and in respect of the symbols
and tokens of God's special favor being wanting
(see Kimchi and R. Salomon on Hag. i:8). The
promised glory, therefore, must refer to the com-
ing and presence of him who was promised to the
world before there was any nation of the Jews,
and who is aptly called the 'Desire of all nations.'
This view is amply confirmed by the prophet
Malachi (iii:l). Since, then, the very Temple
into which the Savior was to enter has for ages
been destroyed, he must, if the integrity of this
prophecy be preserved,, have come. That there
was, at the time of our Lord's birth, a great ex-
pectation of the Messiah, both amongst Jews and
Gentiles, may be seen from three celebrated his-
torians, as well as from the sacred Scriptures.
We may just add that as there was a general
expectation of the Messiah at this time, so there
were many impostors who drew after them many
followers (Joseph. Antiq. xx :2, 6; De Bell. Jud.
lvii:3i). See also a full account of the false
Christs who appeared by John a Lent Schediasm,
c:2; Maimon, £/>. ad Judaos Marsilienscs ; Christ
prophesies of such persons (Matt, xxiv :24, 29).
(b) The limits of this article will admit of our
only touching upon the proofs that Jesus of
Nazareth, and none other, is the very Messiah
who was to come.
(i) What was predicted of the Messiah was ful-
filled in Jesus. Was the Messiah to be of the
seed of the woman (Gen. iii:i5), and this woman
a virgin? (Is. vii:i4). So we are told (Gal. iv:
4; Matt. i:i8, 22, 23) that Jesus was made of
a woman, and born of a virgin. Was it pre-
dicted that he (Messiah) should be of the tribe
of Judah, of the family of Jesse, and of the house
of David? (Mic. v:2; Gen. xlix:lo; Is. xi:io;
Jer. xxiiirs). This was fulfilled in Jesus (Luke
i :27, 69; Matt. i:i). (See Genealogy.)
(2) if the Messiah was to be a prophet like unto
Moses, so was Jesus also (Deut. xviii:i5; John
vi:l4). If the Messiah was to appear in the sec-
ond Temple, so did Jesus (Hag. ii:7, 9; John
xviii :20).
(3) Was the Messiah to work miracles? (Is.
\xxv:5, 6; comp. Matt, xi :4, 5).
(4) If the Messiah was to suffer and die (Is.
liii), we find that Jesus died in the same manner,
at the very time, and under the identical
circumstances, which were predicted of him. The
very man who betrayed him, the price for which
he was sold, the indignities he was to receive
in his last moments, the parting of his garments,
and his last words, etc., were all foretold of the
Messiah, and accomplished in Jesus.
(5) Was the Messiah to rise from the dead? So
did Jesus. How stupendous and adorable is the
Providence of God, who. through so many appar-
ent contingencies, brought such things to pass!
J. W. D.
(4) Literature. Harris, Sermons on the Mes-
siah; Maclaurine, On the Prophecies Relating to
the Messiah; Fuller. Jesus the True Messiah;
Liddon, Divinity of Christ; Milman, History of
the Jezi'S. ii, 432, sq., iii, 366; Allen, Mod. Judaism.
HESSIAS (mes-si'asl, (Gr. Mto-trias, mes-see' as), a
Greek form of the Hebrew Messiah (John i:4i; iv:
25)-
METALS (met'als). The principal metals are
in this work considered separately under their
several names; and a few general observations
alone are necessary in this place.
(1) Native Minerals. The mountains of Pales-
tine contained metals, nor were the Hebrews
ignorant of the fact (Deut. viii 19) ; but they do
not appear to have understood the art of mining.
They therefore obtained from others the superior
as well as the inferior metals, and worked them
up. They received also metal utensils ready made,
or metal in plates (Jer. xrg), from neighboring
and distant countries of Asia and Europe. The
metals named in the Old Testament are (Heb
'.!''.?) barzel, iron steel, (Jer. xv:i2) nekh-o'sheth
(Heb. f^?'^:'), rendered brass, included copper, cop-
per ore, and bronze, and also brass if zinc was
then known; //«, (^"l.?, bed-eel') and lead (Heb.
niEV o-fek'reth): (Heb. n?.?), keh'sef. silver;
(Heb. ^CJ), zaw-hawb' , gold. The trade in these
metals was chiefly in the hands of the Phoenicians
(Ezck. xxvii:i2), who obtained them from their
colonies, principally those in Spain (Jer. x:9;
Ezek. xxvii:i2). Some also came from Arabia
(Ezek. xxvii:l9), and sorne apparently from the
countries of the Caucasus ' (Ezek. xxvii:i3). A
composition of several metals is expressed by the
Hebrew word chasmil. (See Chasmil.)
(2) Metallic Compositions. In general the
ancients had a variety of metallic compositions,
and that which the word chasmil describes appears
to have been very valuable. Whether it was the
same as that precious compound known among
the ancients as Corinthian brass is uncertain, but
it is likely that in later times the Jews possessed
splendid vessels of the costly compound known by
that name. Indeed, this is distinctly affirmed by
Josephus (Vita, 13).
The vast quantity of silver and gold used in the
temple in the time of Solomon, and which was
otherwise possessed by the Jews during the flour-
ishing time of the nation, is very remarkable, un-
der whatever interpretation we regard such texts
as I Chron. xxii:i4; xxix :4. etc. In like manner,
we find among other ancient Asiatic nations, and
also among the Romans, extraordinary wealth in
gold and silver vessels and ornaments of jewelry.
As all the accounts, received from sources so
various, cannot be founded on exaggeration, we
METALS
1150
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
may rest assured that the precious metals were in
those ancient times obtained abundantly from
mines — gold from Africa, India, and perhaps even
then from Northern Asia ; and silver principally
from Spain.
(3) Metallic Manufactures. The following
are the metallic manufactures named in the Old
Testament: — Of iron, axes (Deut. xix:5; 2
Kings vi:5) ; saws (2 Sam. xii:3i) ; stone-cutters'
tools (Deut. xxvii:5); sauce-pans (Ezek. iv:3);
bolts, chains, knives, etc., but especially weapons
of war (i Sam. xvii:7; i Mace. vi:35). Bed-
steads were even sometimes made of iron (Deut.
iiiril); 'chariots of iron,' t. e., war-chariots, are
noticed elsewhere. (See Chariots.) Of copper
we find vessels of all kinds (Lev. vi:28; Num.
xvi:39; 2 Chrori. iv:i6; Ezra viii:27); and also
weapons of war, principally helmets, cuirasses,
shields, spears (i Sam. xvii :s, 6, 38; 2 Sam. xxi :
16) ; also chains (Judg. xvi:2i) ; and even mirrors
(Exod. xxxviii:8). (See Copper.) Gold and sil-
z>er furnished articles of ornament, also vessels,
such as cups, goblets, etc. The holy vessels of the
temple were mostly of gold (Ezra v:i4). Idola-
ters had idols and other sacred objects of silver
(Exod. xx:23; Is. ii:2o; Acts xvii 129 ; xix:24).
Lead is mentioned as being used for weights, and
for plumb-lines in measuring (Amos vii:7; Zech.
v:8).
(4) Tools of the Workers. Some of the tools
of workers in metal are also mentioned : Paam,
anvil (Is. xli:7); makkabah (Is. xHv:i2); pat'
tish, hammer (Is. xli :7) ; mal kachim, pincers;
and iiiappttach, bellows (Jer. vi :29) ; matzreph,
crucible (Prov. xvii .-3); cur, melting-furnace
(Ezek. xxii :i8).
There are also allusions to various operations
connected with the preparation of metals. (l)
The smelting of metal was not only for the pur-
pose of rendering it fluid, but in order to sepa-
rate and purify the richer metal when mixed
with baser minerals, as silver from lead, etc. (Is.
i :25 ; comp. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvii 147 ; Ezek.
xxii:i8-2o). The dross separated by this process
is called sigini, although this word also applies
to metal not yet purified from its dross. For the
actual or chemical separation other materials were
mixed in the smelting, such as alkaline salts, bor
(Is. i:25), and lead (Jer. vi:29; comp. Plin. Hist.
Nat. xxxiii:3i). (2) The casting of images
(Exod. XXV :i2; xxvi:37; Is. xl:i9); which are
always of gold, silver, or copper. The casting of
iron is not mentioned, and was perhaps unknown
to the ancients (Hausmann, in Commentatt. Sac.
Goett. iv:53; $q.; Muller, Archaol. p. 371.) (3)
The hammering of metal and making it into broad
sheets (Num. xvi:38; Is. xliv:i2; xl:l9). (4)
Soldering and welding parts of metal together
(Is. xli 7). (5) Smoothing and polishing metals
(i Kings vii:45). (6) Overlaying with plates of
gold and silver and copper (Exod. xxv:ii-24;
I Kings vi:2o; 2 Chron. iii :5 ; comp. Is. xl:i9).
The execution of these different metallurgic oper-
ations appears to have formed three distinct
branches of handicraft before the exile ; for we
read of the blacksmith, by the name of the
'worker in iron' Is. xliv:i2); the brass founder
(1 Kings vii :i4) ; and the gold and silver smith
(Judg. xvii :4 ; Mal. iii:2).
The invention of the metallurgic arts is in
Scripture ascribed to Tubal-cain (Gen. iv:22).
In later times the manufacture of useful utensils
and implements in metals seems to have been car-
ried on to a considerable extent among the Is-
raelites, if we may judge from the frequent allu-
sions to them by the poets and prophets. But it
does not appear that, in the finer and more elabo-
rate branches of this great art, they made much,
if any, progress during the flourishing times of
their commonwealth ; and it will be remembered
that Solomon was obliged to obtain assistance
from the Phoenicians in executing the metal work
of the temple (i Kings vii:i3, 14).
The Hebrew workers in iron, and especially
such as made arms, were frequently carried away
by the different conquerors of the Israelites (l
Sam. xiiiiig; 2 Kings xxiv:i4, 15; Jer. xxiv:l;
xxix:2); which is one circumstance among oth-
ers to show the high estimation in which this
branch of handicraft was anciently held.
METEYABD (met'yard), (Heb. ~"^, muf daw,
extension, Lev. xix;35), a yard measure. (See
Weight-s and Measures.)
METHEG-AMMAH (me'theg-am'mah), (Heb.
n?2Xn 3TO^ tneh'theg haw-am-mau>' , bridle of the
mother, i. e., curb of the city), a figurative term
applied to a city, probably Gath, taken by David
from the Philistines (2 Sam. viii:l). A. V. "bit of
the metropolis."
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL, IN THE UNI-
TED STATES.
1. The Methodist Episcopal Church.
Small, indeed, the beginnings, but steady the
growth and mighty the present stature, of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. Figures gathered
nearly two years ago (the latest accessible) make
the total ministry and lay membership of the
church at that time 2,925,629.. The same authority
(Methodist Year Book, 1901) makes the total
value of church and parsonage property $145,759,-
844, or in round numbers, at the present time,
$150,000,000 for these two items alone.
(1) Introduction to America. This is certainly
a sizable tree. From what sort of a seed did it
spring, and how did it get rooted? A young Irish
carpenter, Philip Embury, is believed to have de-
livered what may be fairly called the first Method-
ist sermon in America, to a congregation of five
persons in his own humble house in New York.
He had been licensed as a local preacher among
the followers of Wesley in Ireland, but had made
no move religiously during the six years of his
residence in the New World, until stirred thereto
in 1766 by the strong exhortations of a fellow im-
migrant, Mrs. Barbara Heck. The start proved
to be timely, and in the order of God. The num-
bers soon increased, a more commodious room
was hired, and the excitement rapidly spread.
Early in 1767 another Wesleyan local preacher,
Capt. Thomas Webb, of the British army, recently
appointed barrackmaster at Albany, hearing of the
struggling society at New York, hastened to its
aid. A stone chapel, the first Methodist meeting-
house in America, was dedicated October 30, 1768,
and soon crowded with hearers. Thus the move-
ment grew.
(2) Francis Asbury. And now most natu-
rally the eyes of the little company looked for aid
to their great father over the sea. Wesley being
appealed to sent a couple of preachers, (Dctober,
1769, and eight more came in the five years follow-
ing, but none of them stayed long or were very
successful except Francis Asbury. His name is
the greatest in the history of Methodism on this
side of the water. Dr. Leonard Woolsey Bacon,
writing "A History of American Christianity" this
year, says of him : "It may reasonably be doubted
whether any one man from the founding of the
church [meaning the Church of Christ] in
America until now has achieved so much in the
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
1151
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
visible and traceable results of his work." Thougli
only a peasant boy, without education, he proved
to be a general of consummate ability, invincible
energy and wide-reaching plans. He kept the
preachers on the march, and wonderfully aroused
the people. Under his wise guidance Methodism
passed through the troubled years of the Revolu-
tionary War without a check to its progress, and
in 1784 there were 15,000 members, 84 itinerant
preachers and probably not less than 200,000 at-
tendants on worship.
(3) Independence Gained. The Methodist
Episcopal Church, strictly speaking, in its dis-
tinctive organized form as an American institu-
tion, began in the closing week of the year 1784.
Up to that time the Methodists here had been an
offshoot of British Methodism, more or less sub-
ject to the control of its founder, John Wesley,
and the societies which had been established were
in no proper sense a church. This inchoate and
unsatisfactory condition of things had been en-
dured with exemplary patience, though not with-
out agitation, until the securement of the inde-
pendence of the republic. This brought matters
to a crisis. Wesley took the right steps. He
clearly discerned the signs of the times and be-
lieved he had the guidance of the Spirit. He dis-
patched his right-hand man. Dr. Thomas Coke —
having first, in connection with two other presby-
ters, ordained or set him apart as general super-
intendent or bishop — to arrange matters. The
American Methodist ministers assembled in con-
ference at Baltimore, proceeded, in accordance
with the counsel of Wesley, to form themselves
into an episcopal church, with superintendents or
bishops, elders or presbyters, and deacons, the
episcopal office being elective and the elected bish-
ops being amenable to the body of ministers. Coke
and Asbury were unanimously elected first incum-
bents of the office. General rules were adopted,
twenty-five Articles of Religion, abridged by Mr.
Wesley from the thirty-nine of the Church of
England, were accepted, a variety of minor regula-
tions were passed, and the shaping of the new ec-
clesiastical edifice was, for the time, finished, with
remarkable oneness of spirit and great practical
wisdom.
(4) The Doctrines. The doctrines of the new
church cannot, of course, be stated here with any
fullness, yet since they have been one of the main
elements, if not chief of all, in its growth, a para-
graph must be devoted to them. Calvinism was
vigorously repudiated from the start. The doc-
trines of election, predestination, limited atone-
ment, irresistible grace, and final perseverance of
the Saints as set forth by those who accounted
themselves the only orthodox, were stoutly op-
posed in every Methodist pulpit, and the common-
sense of the people soon ranged itself with thern.
On the positive side Methodism gave emphasis
in its preaching to the doctrines having closest
connection with the spiritual life, and this also
powerfully appealed to the people, meeting their
needs and capturing their assent. It promoted re-
vivals by preaching strongly the lost condition of
humanity without Christ, the freedom of his
grace to all who seek and the assurance of present
salvation by simple faith in the Savior. It se-
cured thoroughness of religious experience in vast
numbers of cases by urging its converts on to
complete consecration, which they were taught
would be accompanied by a corresponding purifi-
cation from sin. A bright, joyous, active type of
religion was thus produced, very attractive to the
multitudes and very effective as a means of church
advancement. A free, a full, and a present salva-
tion, which was the early rallying-cry of the
Methodist hosts, proved amazingly productive of
extensive as well as permanent results. A reason-
able religion, being joined with a very earnest re-
ligion, swept the country. The freedom of the
human will was emphasized rather than the abso-
lute sovereignty of God. God's love was dwelt
upon rather than his justice, though by no means
to the exclusion of the latter. The depravity of
man was not regarded as being total in any or-
dinary sense of that word, since God's spirit
works in all and gracious ability to accept the of-
fers of mercy is freely supplied to all. ^Iethodism
is not sacramentative or sacerdotal, but takes a
moderate view of the ordinances. It believes that
the baptism of infants should be retained in the
church, and it offers in theory to all its converts
who have not been baptized in infancy their choice
as to sprinkling, pouring or dipping; but in prac-
tice nearly all are sprinkled.
(5) The Polity. Another large element in the
growth of Methodism has been its form of church
government. This, therefore, must be briefly
sketched. It has a marvelous system of confer-
ences and a complete set of officials carefully
graded, all interlocking in a way to secure close
supervision and great efficiency of movement,
without seriously or needlessly infringing personal
liberty. The General Conference, which has su-
preme jurisdiction over the entire denomination,
and is the only legislative body in it, meets on the
first Wednesday of May in every fourth year and
continues in session about a month. Since 1812 it
has been a delegated body, at first wholly of minis-
ters, but since 1872 a part of the delegates have
been laymen. It makes such laws, rules and regu-
lations as the interests of the church seem to re-
quire, elects the Bishops and other general officers,
such as publishing agents, editors and secretaries,
supervises all the connectional societies and main-
tains fraternal relations with other churches. Its
powers are somewhat restricted by a constitution,
but in most matters it has a free hand. The an-
nual conferences, meeting once a year, are next in
order of importance. Including mission confer-
ences and missions, they number now one hundred
and forty-five, and are in almost all parts of the
world. They are composed entirely of traveling
preachers, have only administrative functions, and
are presided over by the Bishops. In most .An-
nual Conferences there are several District Con-
ferences, held by the Presiding Elders and com-
posed of the preachers and lay officials of all
churches in the districts. Finally, each church or
pastoral charge (where several small churches are
under one man) has its own Quarterly Conference
(consisting of local preachers, exhorters, class
leaders, stewards, trustees, Sunday-school superin-
tendents and presidents of Epworth Leagues),
which supervises the interests of the charge. The
duties of these various lay oflScers cannot be here
specified ; but since the most distinctive character-
istic of the Methodist economy is the itinerancy of
its ministers, a word should be said as to this
feature. It sprang up providentially through the
necessities of the early days, but it has proved a
marvelous labor-saving arrangement. At first the
preachers were tnoved, as a rule yearly, in some
instances every six months, though there was no
law against their indefinite reappointment to the
same place. Then (in 1804) a rule was made that
no preacher should be allowed to remain in one
station more than two years successively; in 1864
it was changed to three years; in 1888 to five
years ; and at the General Conference held in
Chicago in igoo the time limit was removed. The
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
1152
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
Bishop presiding at the annual conference is au-
thorized to fix the appointments, but he is aided
in this arduous duty by information furnished him
from both churches and ministers, chiefly through
the Presiding Elders, whose business it is to travel
all the year, having general oversight, each one
of a District comprising from twenty to seventy
churches. This system distributes evenly, with
very little friction, the talents of the ministry, and
supplies every church with a preacher and every
preacher with a church all the time.
(6) Growth. After being fully organized, as
described, the church proceeded on its widening
way, not without difficulties, perplexities, and oc-
casional dissensions, but on the whole with mar-
velous success. In 1789, Methodism, under the
leadership of Jesse Lee, was introduced into
New England, it having previously been con-
fined to the Middle and Southern States. It
pushed westward with great vigor, by means
of its itinerant, circuit-riding preachers, with their
headquarters in the saddle, who kept pace with
the advancing tide of emigration. It was the
first religious body to congratulate Washington
on his inauguration to the presidency in 1789. It
was the first to establish, develop and recognize
the vast importance of Sunday-schools. It very
early laid great emphasis on camp-meetings, and
has been more largely identified with this useful
means of grace than any other church. Its first
literary institution, Cokesbury College, in Mary-
land, opened in 1787, was burned down in 1795.
It was some time before the church, in its poverty,
rallied from this blow, but after a while attention
was turned anew in this direction, colleges and
academies began to be founded, and in the last
fifty years (especially the last thirty years) great
strides have been made. There are now not far
from one hundred and fifty high-class institu-
tions in this country under the various names of
university, college, institute, seminary, academy,
together with about eighty more of diverse grades
in the foreign mission fields. The total value of
grounds, buildings and endowments is put in the
last reports at $31,385,920, with 46,545 students
in attendance. Chief among these institutions
are the American University at Washington, the
Northwestern University at Chicago, the Boston
University at Boston, the Wesleyan University
at Middletown, Conn., the Syracuse University
at Syracuse, N. Y., the Ohio Wesleyan University
at Delaware, Ohio, De Pauw University at Green-
castle, Ind., and Dickinson College at Carlisle,
Pa. A general Board of Education, chartered in
1869. looks after this interest.
(7) Missions. The Methodist Episcopal
Church has been thoroughly missionary from the
start so far as the evangelization of this country
is concerned, and has expended immense sums on
the frontiers, in the cities, among the colored peo-
ple of the South, the Indians of the West, and the
various foreign races that have come to our
shores. Its Missionary Society was not reg:ularly
organized till 1819, and its first foreign mission,
that to Liberia, was not entered upon till 1833.
Next it weut to South America, 1836; to China
in 1847; to Germany in 1849; to India in 1856.
It is working now in many parts of Europe (in-
cluding Sweden. Norway, Finland, Denmark,
Russia, Bulgaria, Italy, Switzerland, Germany)
in East Africa and Centra] Africa, as well as
Liberia: in Peru, Chili. Paraguay. Uruguay, Brazil
and Argentine; in Mexico. Japan. Korea. Malay-
sia; besides five missions in China and five in
India. And in these various fields it has about
one hundred and eighty thousand communicants,
besides nearly as many adherents. Nearly a mil-
lion and a quarter of dollars (sometimes more)
have been for a few years past annually raised
by this society, which covers both foreign and
domestic missions. There is in addition a Wom-
an's Foreign Mission Society, begun in 1869,
which raises over $300,000 a year, and a Woman's
Home Missionary Society, organized in 1880.
The total missionary disbursements of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church through these three so-
cieties are about a million and three-quarters a
year, and another quarter of a million is expended
by the City Missionary Societies.
(8) The Book Concern. The publishing agency
of the church (technically called the "Book Con-
cern") was set in motion as early as 1789, and
has wonderfully prospered until now it has mag-
nificent headquarters in New York and Cincinnati,
and Chicago, with agencies or depositories of
large importance at Kansas City, San Francisco,
Detroit, Pittsburg and Boston. It publishes a
large number of periodicals and papers, makes
annual sales of two million dollars, and has a
capital of nearly three and a half millions. It
has passed all financial panics without the slightest
interruption or danger; has cleared profits of six
million dollars in the last fifty years and has paid
out half of this for various church objects.
(9) Societies. Other organizations dear to the
church and employed by it as instrumentalities of
wide usefulness are the Sunday School Union
(begun in 1827), the Tract Society (organized
in 1852), the Board of Church Extension (in-
corporated in 1865), the Freedmen's Aid and
Southern Education Society (started in 1866), and
the Epworth League (formed in 1889 by the junc-
tion of several young people's societies). This
latter has at the present time over twenty thou-
sand senior chapters and over seven thousand
junior chapters, or about two million members.
The Freedmen's Aid Society has expended nearly
$4,500,000 in the South since the war. The
Church Extension Board has, during the last
twelve years, aided in building nearly twelve
thousand new churches, and has a Loan Fund of
over $2,500,000. The Hospital and Deaconess
work has greatly extended during the past few
years.
(10) Secessions. Such are a few of the re-
sults which exhibit themselves after something
more than a hundred years of effort. The detailed
history cannot be given here. As already inti-
mated, it has not been entirely peaceful. This
would be too much to expect considering the
frailty of human nature. There have been a va-
riety of secessions, none of them, it is worthy of
notice, arising from strife over doctrines, but all
springing out of differences of opinion over ad-
ministration. James O'Kelley, a flaming Irish-
man of great ability and extensive influence in
Virginia, led off a small following in 1792, because
the Conference refused to restrict the power of
the bishops in the appointment of the ministers.
In 1816 the colored members of Philadelphia and
vicinity withdrew and organized the African
Methodist Episcopal Church, and a secession from
it in 1820 formed the African Methodist Episcopal
Zion Church. In 1830 the Methodist Protestant
Church was organized by those who were restive
under the power of the bishops, presiding elders
and ministers, and had been defeated in their
strenuous demand for the incorporation of the lay
element in the General Conference. In 1843, many
preachers and members, who were dissatisfied
with what they deemed the too favorable attitude
of the Church toward slavery, withdrew and con-
stituted the American Wesleyan Church. And
in 184s there was organized at Louisville, Ky., the
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
1153
METHODISM. EPISCOPAL
Methodist Episcopal Church Soiitli, embracing
nearly all the ministers and members in the slave-
holding states (about five hundred thousand) who
were dissatisfied with the hostile altilude toward
slavery exhibited by the General Conference of
1844. These are all the departures of any conse-
quence. For the last fifty years matters have
moved on smoothly. There has been agitation
looking towards various changes in polity, some
of it successful, some unsuccessful, but there
has been no further split, and is not likely to be.
The most recent conflicts have been for the pur-
pose of changing the composition of the General
Conference so that the laymen shall be as numer-
ous as the ministers, and women delegates may be
admitted as well as men. The former has already
been won and the last General Conference was
composed of an equal number of lay and minis-
terial delegates. Prevailing sentiment favors the
admission of women delegates.
(11) The Last Half Century. The progress
in the last half century has been uniform and
great. In 1848 there were but six hundred and
forty-two thousand nine hundred and twenty-
seven communicants lay and ministerial. There
are now, as before said, just about three million.
And the encouraging feature about it is that the
lastest years have shown the most rapid advance.
In 1883, eighteen years ago, we had eighteen
thousand seven hundred and forty-one churches;
there are now about twenly-seven thousand. In
1883 our total membership was one million seven
hundred and sixty-nine thousand five hundred and
thirty-four; we had in our foreign missions forty-
three thousand one hundred communicants; the
total value of church and parsonage property was
$79,238,085. It will be seen from these figures,
compared with those given before for the present,
that the Church seems to be just beginning to
grow.
Nor do we find on examination that this out-
ward prosperity has been won by any sacrifice
of spiritual life or any criminal conformity to
worldly folly. Outward methods and habits are
different but the heart is no less sound and true.
Revivals are still of constant occurrence, and
there is very deep interest on all subjects per-
taining to the higher Christian life. There has
been no lowering of the rigid standard of morals
for which from the start Methodism has been
nobly conspicuous. It still occupies the foremost
position on the temperance question, it still pro-
nounces strongly against demoralizing worldly
amusements. Dr. Buckley, one of the latest his-
torians of the church, asking at the close of his
volume, "Has Methodism lost to a dangerous
degree its original vital impulse?" finds himself
able to answer it in the negative. He says, "The
flames of pure devotion burn upon many an
altar, accessions by conversion arc numerous,
many preachers deliver truth in the power of the
Iloly Ghost, and every society contains those who
cry continually. 'Wilt thou not revive us^ again,
that thy people may rejoice in thee?'" He
thinks that the many institutions which have been
superadded to the simpler methods and forms of
the fathers are being made tributary to the great
work for which Methodism was established. We
are quite certain that this is the case, and that
the original purposes of the Methodist Episcopal
Church are still being carried out under changed
conditions. It started, in the language of the
Discipline, "to evangelize the continent and spread
spiritual holiness over these lands." It is still
doing this, and is likely to continue it with im-
abated efficiency. Its sources of strength. uniKr
God, are in itself, its record has been every way
78
creditable, and its future seems bright. Its
progress has not been due to any government
aid, nor to members received from emigration,
nor to prestige on account of great wealth, social
position or superior educational facilities. All
these things have been against it. It has been the
church of the masses. Its growth has been due
to its reasonable doctrines, its earnest piety, its
military form of church government. It has been,
aiid still is, a church thoroughly missionary in its
organization and well adapted to avail itself
promptly of all favorable openings, filled with
reverent fire and burning with a zeal to bring
men to God, brotherly and social in its spirit,
identifying itself with all classes and making them
feel at home within its walls, liberal in its opinions
yet high-toned in its spiritual life, and admirably
adapted every way to the wants of the new
nation in which Providence placed it. How
could it, being thus, do anything else but thrive
as church never throve before.
Dr. J. M. Buckley says, "The most potent
forces which account for the numerical increase
of Methodism, the mutual labors of pastors and
people in the local societies, are incapable of his-
toric description. Vet without them the visible
fabric of Methodism would be as the log-hut in
which the fathers preached compared with the
elaborate ecclesiastical structures which prosperity
has made possible."
Bishop Charles H. Fowler says, "What does
Methodism mean? It has the fecundity of the
acorn. It shall wave on the mountains like the
forests of Lebanon. It shall whiten all seas and
all worlds with the sails of its spiritual commerce.
It has the enlightening power of the school ; it
shall shine into every dark corner, driving all
superstitions and all goblins from the earth's sur-
face. It has the vigilance of the invisible police;
it shall expose with the glare of its searchlight
every stealthy criminal. It has the compact or-
ganization of an army, it shall march with its
swing of conquest through every known valley
and plain, and plant the cross of the Redeemer
on every hilltop and mountain peak."
Dr. .\bel Stevens, the principal historian of
Methodism in this country, at the close of the
last of the four volumes in which he narrates the
rise and development of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, says : 'This lowly Methodistic story is
but the reproduction in substance, of the apostolic
history, and presents, in full vitality, that original,
that only example of evangelical propagandism,
which, when all dogmatic conflicts and hierarchical
pretensions, with their wasted passions and pomps,
are recorded as historical failures, will bear for-
ward to universal triumph the ensign of the cross
by a catholic, living, working church of the
common people." J M.
2. The Methodist Episcopal Church South.
The movement called Methodism originated one
hundred and fifty years ago in England, when the
Wesleys and Whitfield began their erangelical
preaching to the masses. "The field preaching of
Wesley .-■.nd Whitfield, in 1739." says Isaac Taylor,
"was the event whence the religious epoch, now
current, mu.st date its commencement." The first
Methodist Conference was held in the Foundry,
London, beginning June 25. 1744- In 1760 Robert
Strawbridge came to America, and settk-d at
Sam's Creek. Maryland. Soon after he built the
first Methodist church in the United States. In
1766. Philip Embury, a local preacher, organize^*
a Methodist society in New York, being assi'.ted
by Barbara Heck. From these beginnings ivfclh-
odism continued to grow until 1773, when the
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
1154
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
first annual conference in America was held in
the city of Philadelphia. In December, 1784, in
Baltimore, at Lovely Lane Chapel, the Methodist
Episcopal Church was organized, and Thomas
Coke and Francis Asbury were elected and or-
dained bishops. The Methodist Episcopal Church
prospered and grew until 1S44, when the agitation
on the subject of slavery, which had been going
on for some years, culminated in the division of
the church. A short time previous to the Gen-
eral Conference of 1844, Bishop James O. Andrew,
of Georgia, had married a lady possessed of
slaves. Soon after their marriage, in order to
free himself from any owner.ship in these slaves,
he had secured them to her by a deed of trust.
But the sentiment against his position was so
strong among the delegates from the Northern
Conferences that when the General Conference
met, by a vote of no to 68, they passed a resolu-
tion that "It is the sense of this General Confer-
ence that he [Bishop Andrew] desist from the
exercise of this office so long as this impediment
remains." The result was a protest from the
southern delegates, followed by a long discus-
sion, which resulted in the adoption of a "Plan
of Separation." Under the provisions of this plan
the delegates from the Southern Conferences met
in Louisville, Ky., in May, 1845, and organized the
Methodist Episcopal Church South. Since that
time this church has gone forward with its work,
being faithful to the traditions and principles of
Methodism, until now it numbers nearly a million
and a half communicants, and 6,000 traveling
preachers.
(1) Condition of Membership. While Meth-
odism accepts the great cardinal doctrines of
Christianity, such as are crystallized in the Apos-
tles' Creed, there are several distinctive features
in her doctrine and polity. Perhaps the most
noticeable thing in Methodism is the broad con-
dition of its membership, including all those who
desire to flee from the wrath to come. This is
the only condition required for admission into
the M. E. Church South, the pastor being au-
thorized to receive candidates as soon as he is
satisfied of their sincerity.
(2) "Witness of the Spirit. Methodism places
emphasis on a personal experience and teaches
that it is the privilege of every Christian to have
a conscious knowledge of the pardon of sin. This
doctrine of a conscious conversion, and of a di-
rect witness of the Spirit testifying to the heart
of the believer that he is a child of God is, as
has been said, "the true key" to Methodist the-
ology.
(3) Free Will. The doctrines of universal re-
demption and of the freedom of the human will
are cardinal principles in Methodism. The M. E.
Church South, in common with all other branches
of Methodism, teaches that the sacrifice of Christ
derived infinite value from the divinity of his per-
son, and is therefore intrinsically sufficient to
expiate the sins of the u-holc human race; that
he "died for all men," and that salvation does not
depend on an arbitrary decree, but upon the will-
ingness or unwillingness of each man to comply
with the gospel conditions of salvation. A nat-
ural inference from this is the absolute freedom
of the human will. Methodists believe in justifi-
cation by faith. "Justification is the divine judi-
cial act which applies to the sinner beh'eving in
Chri.st the benefit of the atonement, delivering
him from the condemnation of his sin. introduc-
ing him into a state of favor, and treating him as
a righteous person." It is a judicial act, some-
thing done for the sinner because of his faith, as
regeneration is something done in him, the two
being part of the one work of conversion. The
originating cause of justification is the love of
God ; the meritorious cause is the atonement of
Christ ; the instrumental cause is the personal faith
of the believer.
(4) The New Birth. Regeneration is an im-
portant Methodist doctrine, and is the new birth,
a change of heart. All Methodists teach that
"Except a man be born again, he cannot see the
kingdom of God." It is the work of the Holy
Spirit and is a conscious change in the heart and
the life.
(5) The Sacraments. Methodism teaches that
there are but two sacraments — baptism and the
Lord's supper. The Methodist Church holds that
the three modes of baptism — pouring, sprinkling,
and immersion — are equally valid, but that the
vast preponderance of evidence is in favor of
pouring or sprinkling. Methodism also teaches
the baptism of infants.
(6) The Itinerancy. I'jie chief feature of the
Methodist polity is the itinerant system. Every
itinerant Methodist preacher is a member of some
annual conference, and the bishop presiding over
each conference appoints every preacher to some
pastoral charge for one year. No preacher can be
appointed to the same pastoral charge for more
than four consecutive years in the M. E. Church
South. From fifteen to twenty pastoral charges
constitute a district, over which a presiding elder
is appointed, whose duty it is "To travel through
his appointed District, in order to preach and to
oversee the spiritual and temporal affairs of the
Church." No presiding elder can be appointed for
more than four years to the same District.
(7) The Conferences. In every pastoral charge
a quarterly conference, composed of the official
board and local preachers, is held every three
months; a conference of all the members of a
church may be held monthly ; a District Confer-
ence, composed of the preachers and delegated
laymen of a district is held annually ; an Annual
Conference, composed of all the preachers and lay
delegates in the bounds of that conference, is held
once a year, and a General Conference, composed
of one preacher and one layman for every forty-
eight clerical members of an Annual Conference,
is held every four years. The business of the
General Conference is: (i) The election of bish-
ops when deemed necessary; (2) To create and
readjust the boundaries of the Annual Confer-
ence; (3) To revise the laws and rules of Disci-
pline ; (4) To superintend the interests of foreign
missions; (5) To elect the various connectional
officers of the Church.
(8) Principles. The principles and polity of
Methodism have borne the test of one hundred and
fifty years, and no branch of Methodism has
grown more rapidly than the M. E. Church South.
She stands to-day for a pure and aggressive Chris-
tianity, and claims that her mission is to "Spread
scriptural holiness over this land." W. F. B.
J. The African Methodist Episcopal
Church.
(1) Historic Period. The African Methodist
Episcopal Church is the oldest and largest or-
ganization among the negroes. It has grown up
in four distinct periods. The heroic period, be-
ginning in 1787 and continuing until 1816. The
organic period, from 1816 to 1868. The devel-
oping period, extending from 1868 to 1892, and
from 1892 to 1900 has been an expansion period,
the borders of the church having extended to the
uttermost parts of the earth.
The originating cause of the existence of the
African Methodist Episcopal Church was the i;;-
METHODISM, EPISCOPAL
1155
METHODISM. EPISCOPAL
treatment of the negro members of St. George's
Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, i'a.,
by the while members of the same in the years
1785, 1 780 and 1787.
Richard Allen was a local preacher in the
church, and his brethren were denied thcLr rights
and were insulted. He organized a class of
forty-two persons. This class continued under
the care of St. George's Church for several years,
but there was much friction between the class
and church, which resulted in a call for a con-
vention of all persons and churches having griev-
ances because of ill-treatment received in the
Methodist Episcopal Church.
The convention was held in Philadelphia, April
9, 1816. The following persons were present :
Richard Allen, Jacob Tapsico, Clayton Durham,
James Champion and Thomas Webster, all of
Philadelphia, Pa.; Daniel Coker, Richard Will-
iams, Henry Harding, Stephen Hill, Edward
Williams and Nicholson Gilliard, of Baltimore,
Md. ; Peter Spencer, of Wilmington, Del. ; Jacob
Marsh, Edward Jackson, and William Andrews,
of Attleboro, Pa., and Peter Cuff, of Salem,
N. J.
(2) Growth and Statistics. Up to the present
time thirty bishops have been elected and sixty-
eight annual conferences have been organized.
Nearly all of these are found upon American
soil, but this church also has active forces in
Sierra Leone and Liberia, in the Transvaal and
South Africa, conferences having been organized
in those distant lands during the last ten years.
In the year 1900 there were 5,832 ministers in
this connection, and $984,462.84 was devoted to
their support, the average annual amount paid
to each working pastor being only about $168.20.
The membership that year was 672,220, there hav-
ing been a constant annual increase since the first
organization, with only forty-two members, was
effected in 1787. Beginning thus in the latter part
of the eighteenth century, with only one church,
they now have 5.630 churches, and the value of
their church property is estimated at $10,310,993.
(3) Educational Work. The first school
planted by the A. M. E. Church was in 1847, at
Columbus, Ohio. The Rev. John M. Brown was
the principal, and Mrs. Frances Allen-Watkins
was the assistant principal. It was a manual labor
or industrial school. It remained the only school
of the church until 1863, when Bishops Daniel
Payne and James A. Shorter and Dr. John G.
Mitchell purchased Wilberforce University.
The following are the schools now under the
control of the A. M. E. Church .
Wilberforce University and Payne Seminary,
Wilberforce, Ohio.
Kittrell College, Kittrell. N. C.
Western University, Quindaro, Kan.
Morris Brown College, Atlanta. Ga.
Payne University, Selma, Ala.
Allen University, Columbia, S. C.
Flegler High School, Marion, S. C.
Edward Waters College. Jacksonville. Fla.
Shorter University, North Little Rock. Ark.
Campbell-Stringer College. Jackson, Miss
Turner N. and T. Institute. Shelbyville, Tenn.
Wayman Institute, Harrodsburg, Ky.
Paul Quinn College. Waco. Texas.
Delhi Institute, Delhi, La.
Sissons High School, South McAIister, I. T.
Total amount of money raised for school pur-
poses during the last quadrennium was $208.-
598.28.
There are twenty-eight students from South
and West Africa, and South America, who are
being educated and making preparations to return
to their homes to begin the work of redeeming
their race.
The work of educating the ministry of the
Church has long had a special place in the hearts
of the leaders. Bishop Daniel A. Payne labored
very hard to develop this department of her educa-
tional system.
In 1891 Bishop B. W. Arnett promoted the idea
of .separating the theological department from
Wilberforce University by organizing Payne The-
ological Seminary as a distinct organization.
The school had fifty-eight students the last
quadrennium, and is presided over by Bishop Ben-
jamin T. Tanner, as the dean. It is destined to
do a good work for the ministers of the A. M. E.
Church and other denominations, for the school
makes no distinction as to ministerial students.
B. W. A.
4. African JHelhodist Episcopal Zion
Church.
(1) Organization, The African Methodist
Episcopal Zion Church was organized in 1796 in
New York City by James Varick and a few others,
because of proscription on the part of their white
brethren in the Methodist Episcopal Church.
Twenty-eight years previous (1768) the first
Methodist church in America was established in
John street. New York ; while and colored mem-
bers contributed of their means to the building
and support of the church. As years passed on
the colored membership increased, and caste prej-
udice, the outcome of slavery, began to appear.
When the church became rich and influential the
color line began to be drawn, and the black mem-
bers were restricted in their religious privileges
until the yoke became unbearable, resulting in
the colored members obtaining permission from
Bishop Francis Asbury to hold meetings by them-
selves. In 1796 a cabinetmaker's shop on Cross
street. New York City, was hired and fitted up as
a house of worship. There services were held un-
til the year 1799, when the membership had so
largely increased that a meeting of the colored
men of New York was called for the purpose of
incorporating themselves into a separate body
from the white church. They decided to call their
organization the African Methodist Episcopal
Church. The word Zion was added some years
afterward to distinguish it from the denomina-
tion now known as the A. M. E. Church. Nine
trustees were appointed to secure a house of wor-
ship: two lots were purchased on the corner of
Church and Leonard streets, and a small frame
building was erected in the year 1800. In 1801
the church was incorporated under the laws of
the State of New York. The first annual confer-
ence was held in this church June 21, 1821. At
this conference a form of limited episcopacy was
established and James Varick was elected the
first bishop (then called superintendent). This
form was continued till 1868. when it was changed
to an unlimited (or lifetime) episcopacy.
The first discipline of the Church was adopted
October 25. 1820. and in it she declared against
slavery ; this declaration was the means of keeping
her out of the South till 1862.
(2) Growth. During the 105 years of her ex-
istence this church has grown to over half a
million communicants. She had at the last Gen-
eral Conference nine Bishops, besides other gen-
eral officers.
(3) Institutions. The church has her own
publishing house, located at Charlotte. N. C. The
plant is fitted with modern appliances and valued
at $30,000. It is controlled by the Bishops and
one member from each Episcopal district.
The principal educational institution of the
METHUSAEL
1156
MICAH
Church is Livingstone College, Salisbury, N. C.
It is well equipped with buildings. Among its
departments is an industrial school. This institu-
tion is a monument of negro skill and industry.
The Church has a missionary department which
sustains missions in Africa and the West Indies.
(4) Statistics and Literature. The latest
statistics of the A. M. E. Zion Church are as fol-
lows :
Number of Ministers 3.'55
Number of Churches 2,qo6
Number of Members 536,271
Number of Sunday Schools 3,200
Number of Pupils 225,000
Value of Property , $6,000,000
A large number of the ministers of this denom-
ination are graduates of some of the best univer-
sities of the land. Among the literary produc-
tion are; Rise and Prof;ress of the Zion CImrch in
America, by Bishop Christopher Rush ; a brief
History of the Zion Church, by Bishop J. J.
Moore; Book of Sermons, by Bishop S. T.
Jones; a Book of Sermons, and A Code on Disci-
pline, by Bishop J. B. Small; History of the A.M.
E. Zion Chnrch, by Bishop J. W. Hood, senior
bishop of the church. A. W.
METHODIST PROTESTANT CHXTBCH.
See article on page 1758. L....•.,-v^
METHUSAEIi (me-thu'sa-el), (Heb. "?«'"'?,
meth-oo-shaw-ale' , man of God), son of Mehujael,
of the race of Cain (Gen. iv;i8).
METHtrSELAH (me-thu'se-lah), (Heb. n^T'^r-
meth-00-sheh' lakh, man of the dart), son of Enoch,
and remarkable as being the oldest of those ante-
diluvian patriarchs whose great ages are recorded
in Gen. v:2i, 22,25, 27; I Chron. 1:3. At the age of
187 years he begat Lamech (the father of Noah);
after which he lived 782 years, making altogether
969 years. (See Longevity.)
METKOIjOGY (me-trol'o-jy). See Weights
AND Measures.
METTZAIj (me-u'zal), in the margin of Ezek.
xxvii:i9, means perhaps "from Uzal," the later
Sanaa, the metropolis of Yemen.
HEZAHAB (raez'a-hab), (Heb. ^VJ '^i may-
zaw-hawb' , waters of gold), father of Matred and
grandfather of Mehetabel, I, who was the wife
of Hadad or Hadar, an Edomite king (Gen.xxxvi;
39; I Chron. i:5o), B. C. before 1619.
MEZXTZOTH (mez-u-z6th'), (Heb. '^''^r, mez-zu-
zoM). This word is found in Exod. xii 7. 22;
Deut. virg; and in other places, in all of which it
signifies 'doorposts.' It has no other meaning in
Scripture. In the texts now referred to, the word
occurs in the injunction. 'Thou shalt never forget
the laws of the Lord thy God ; but shalt write
them on the the posts of thy house, and on thy
gates.' This, contrary to most Christian inter-
preters, the Jews understand in the literal sense;
rd in this sense it might have been followed in
the East, where it is at this day not unusual for
the Moslems to inscribe on or over the gates, and
on other parts of buildings, passages from their
sacred book, the Koran. If therefore the Jews,
before their dispersion, intcrnreted this precept
literally, they probably applied it in the same man-
ner. But when they came into western countries,
where such was not the custom, and where oft-
times it might have proved inconvenient thus to
point out their houses as those belonging to Jews,
they adopted the custom of writing the precepts
on scrolls of parchment, which they inclosed in
a case and attached to the doors of their houses
and chambers. To the scrolls thus inclosed the
name of mezuzolh is, not very properly, given.
Buxtorf, Synag. hid. p 482 ; Leo Modcna. Rites
and CustO)ns. pt. I, chapter ii, sec. 3; Allen's
Modern Judaism, pp. 327-329. (See Doorpost.)
MIAiyilN (mi'a-min), (Heb. 1'^''?, me-yaw-
meen' , from the right hand).
1. A chief priest who returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii 15), B. C. 536. Proba-
bly identical with Miniamin (Neh. xii:i7), and
perhaps with the one who sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x:7).
2. "Son" of Parosh who put away his foreign
wife after the exile (Ezra x:25), B. C. 459.
MIBHAR (mifb'har), (Heb. ^?r^, mib-khawr" ,
choice), one of the "sons" of Haggeriand a mighty
man of David (i Chron. xi :38) ; probably the
same as Bani (2 Sam. xxiii:35), B. C. 1046.
MIBSAM (mib'sam), (Heb. C??'^, tnib-sawm' ,
sweet odor).
1. The fourth of the twelve sons of Ishmael,
who founded an Arabian tribe of the same name
(Gen. XXV : 13; i Chron. i:29), B. C. after 2061.
2. The son of Shallum, a Simeonite (i Chron.
iv:25), B. C. before 1658.
ItriBZAIl (mib'zar), (Heb. "^V"^'?, mib-tsawr' ,
fortress), one of the petty chiefs of Edom, a de-
scendant of Esau (Gen. xxxvi:42; I Chron. 1:53),
B. C. after 1905.
MICAH (mi'kah), (Heb. '"'?''?, mee-kaw' , who is
like Jehovah).
1. One of the twelve Minor Prophets who,
according to the inscription of the book, prophe-
sied during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze-
kiah (B. C. 759-699), and was consequently con-
temporary with Isaiah. It is, however, doubtful
whether any accurate separation of the particular
prophecies of Micah can be ascertained. He was
a native of Moresheth of Gath (i;i4,i5), so called
to distinguish it from another town of the same
name, in the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv:44; 2
Chron. xiv 19, 10). Micah is to be distinguished
from a former prophet of the same name, called
also Micaiah, mentioned in i Kings xxii :8 (B. C.
897).
2. An Ephraimite, apparently contemporary
with the elders who outlived Joshua. He secretly
appropriated i.ioo shekels of silver which his
mother had saved ; but being alarmed at her im-
precations on the author of her loss, he confessed
the matter to her, and restored the money. She
then forgave him, and returned him the silver, to
be applied to the use for which it had been ac-
cumulated. Two hundred shekels of the amount
were given to the founder, as the cost or material
of two teraphim, the one molten and the other
graven ; and the rest of the money served to cover
the other expenses of the semi-idolatrous estab-
li<;hment which was formed in the house of Micah,
of which a wandering Levite became the priest,
at a yearly stipend ; till the Danite army, on their
journey to settle northward in Laish, took away
both the establishment and the priest, which they
afterwards maintained in their new settlement
(Judg. xviii:i8). (See Dan ; Jonathan. i).The
establishments of this kind, of which there are
other instances — as that of Gideon at Ophrah —
were, although most mistakenly, formed in honor of
Jehovah, whom they thus sought to serve by means
of a local worship, in imitation of that at Shiloh.
This was in direct contravention of the law, which
allowed but one place of sacrifice and ceremonial
MICAH. BOOK OF
1157
MICAH. BOOK OF
service; and was something of the same kind, al-
though different in extent and degree, as the serv-
ice of the golden calves, which Jeroboam set up,
and his successors maintained, in Dan and Bethel.
The previous existence of Micah's establishment
in the former city no doubt pointed it out to Jero-
boam as a suitable place for one of his golden
calves.
3. Son of Merib-baal, or Mcphiboshcth, son of
Jonathan (i Chron. viii :34, J5 ; ixi^o, 41), B. C.
after 1037. He is called Mkii.\ (2 Sam. ix:i2).
4. A Kohathite Levitc of the house of Uzziel,
and the first in rank according to the arrangement
of David (i Chron. xxiii:20). B. C. 1014- (See
MiCHAH.)
5. A Reubenite, son of Shimei (i Chron. v:s),
B. C. before 782.
6. A Levite. descendant of Asaph (i Chron. ix:
15). Elsewhere (Neh. xi:i7, 22) called MicHA.
7. Father of Abdon (2 Chron. xxxiv:2o; 2
Kings xxii:i2). In the latter place the form is
MicilAlAH, father of Achbor.
mCAH, BOOK OF (raikah, bwk 6v).
In the book of Micah we do not have the
individual discourses which the prophet uttered
at different times, but their essential contents
united in a collected form and divided into three
sections, mutually connected, and referring to
one another (cc. i and ii, iii-v, vi and vii). In
the form of prophetical discourses they threaten
judgments on the theocracy. — namely, the destruc-
tion of Samaria and Jerusalem, togetlier with the
Temple, and the carrying of the people away cap-
tive, on account of the prevalent sins of idolatry,
and the covetousness of the powerful classes, the
injustice of the judges, and the lying spirit of the
false prophets; but they also announce, as com-
ing after the judgment, redemption from the mis-
ery, gathering of the delivered remnant of Israel,
and glorification of Zion by the Messiah. It fol-
lows from the internal unity of the book, that the
prophet composed it in the reign of Hezekiah. On
account of the frequent rebukes of idolatry (i:s;
v:ll-i3; vi:i6), it appears to have been composed
before the extermination of idolatry throughout
the land, which followed the solemn celebration
of the Passover (2 Chron. xxx. xxxi), and before
the overthrow of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes,
on account of the announcement of the destruction
of Samaria (i:6, 7). It is therefore to be dated in
the period R. C. 728-722. (Kcil, /«/. /o O. T.)
Micah is the third of tlie minor prophets ac-
cording to the arrangement of the Septuagint, the
sixth according to the Hebrew, and the fifth ac-
cording to the date of his prophecies.
(1) Analysis. Jahn (hitrod.) points out the fol-
lowing predictions as contained in the prophet Mi-
cah : ( I ) The destruction of the kingdom of Israel,
which was impending when the prophecy was de-
livered, and which was fulfilled in the taking of
Samaria by Shalmaneser, in the sixth year of
Hezekiah (2 Kings xvii), and then that of the king-
dom of Judah. with the destruction of Jerusalem
(iii:i2;vii:l.3). (2) The Babylonian captivity (iv :
ID, II ; vii :7. 8. 13). These predictions were deliv-
ered I. so years before the event, when the Chal-
dwans, by whom they were accomplished, were
scarcely known as a people. {3) The return from
the exile, with its happy eflfects. and the tranquillity
enjoyed by the Jews under the Persian and Grecian
monarchies, which referred to e\'ents from 200 to
500 years distant (iv:i8: viiiii; xiv:i2). (4)
The heroic deeds of the Maccalx^es. and their vic-
tories over the Syrians or Syro-Macedonians,
called Assyrian"; in Micah v. as well as in Zech-
ariah x:ii. (5) Thj establishment of the royal
residence in Sion (iv:8). (6) The birth and
reign of the Messiah {v:2). The last three
prophecies, observes this learned writer, are mure
obscure than the others, by reason of the remote
distance, in point of time, of their accomplishment
from the period of tUcir being delivered.
(2) Bethlehem. There is no prophecy in Micah
so iiueresting to the Christian as that in which the
native place of the Messiah is announced. 'But thou,
Bethlehem Ephratah (though) thou be little
among the thousands of Judah (yet) out of thee
shall he come forth unto me (that is) to be ruler
in Israel' (Eng. Authorized Version). It is thus
translated by the Sept. : 'And thou, Bethlehem,
house of Ephratah. although thou be least among
the thousands of Judah. out of thee shall come
unto me one that shall be a ruler of Israel.' The
citation of this passage by the Evangelist differs
both from the Hebrew and the Septuagint "And
thou, Bethlehem (in) the land of Judah, are not
the least among the princes of Judah; for out of
thee shall come a governor, that shall rule (Gr.
feed) my people Israel" (Matt. ii:6). The differ-
ence, however, is but verbal. Some suppose that
the negative {oiSa/xwi) originally belonged to the
Hebrew, and others to the Greek, while many read
the Hebrew interrogatively, 'art thou little?' etc.
Eichhorn supposes that the Greek translator of
St. Matthew's Gospel interchanged thousands with
rulers. Of more importance is the application
of the prophecy. It is evident that the Jews in the
time of Jesus interpreted this passage to mean the
birthplace of the Messiah (Matt, ii :s ; John vii :4i,
42). The later Rabbinical writers, however, such
as Kimchi, Aben Ezra, ."^barbanel, etc., have main-
tained that it had only an indirect reference to
the birthplace of the Messiah, who was to be a
descendant of David, a Bethlehemite, but not of
necessity himself born in Bethlehem. Others,
however, as David Ganz (B. Zemach David), ex-
pressly mention Bethlehem as the birthplace of
the Messiah. The interpretation which consid-
ered this prophecy as intimating only that the
Messiah was to be a descendant of David, was
that current among the Jews in the time of
Theodoret, Chrysostom, Thcophylact and Euthy-
mius Zigabenus, from whom we learn that it was
maintained to have been fulfilled in Zerubbabel,
the leader of the Jews on their return from Bab-
ylon, of which, and not of Bethlehem, he was a
native. This interpretation was held among
Christians by the celebrated Theodore of Mop-
suestia (as we learn from his condemnation by
the council at Rome under Pope Vigilius). and
afterwards by Grotius {Comment.'), who, how-
ever, regarded Zerubbabel as a type of Christ, and
considered Christ's birthplace at Bethlehem as
an outward representation of his descent from the
family of David. 'Nalus c.r Bethlehemo Zoro-
habcl reele dicilur, quod ex Davidis famili/i rsset,
qua orta Bethlehemi.' Many of the moderns
have been attached to this interpretation of the
prophecy, referring it to the general idea of the
Messiah rather than to Zerubbabel, while some
among them have, after the example of some
Jews, ventured to assert that the account of the
birth of Christ at Bethlehem was not to be de-
pended on. Some have asserted after Jerome
(Comm. in Mic). that the citation in Matt, ii :6
is that of the Sanhedrim only, not of the Evan-
geli.st (Hcngstenberg's Cliristolopy). Jahn (Ap-
pend. Hermcneut.) observes that it is evident that
the Jews in the time of Christ expected the Mes-
siah's birth to take place at Bethlehem; and al-
though he admits that the prophecy may be un-
derstood tropically in the sense applied to it by
MICAIAH
1158
MICHAL
Grotius, lie contends that the context will not
admit of its applicability either to Hezekiah or
any other monarch than the Messiah ; nor is it
possible to apply the prophecy fully and literally
to any but him who was not only of the house
and lineage of David, but was actually born at
Bethlehem, according to the direct testimony of
both St. Matthew's and St. Luke's gospels.
(3) Style. The style of Micah is sublime and
vehement, in which respects he exceeds Amos and
Hosea. De Wette observes that_ he has more
roundness, fullness, and clearness in his style and
rhythm than the latter prophet. He abounds in
rapid transitions and elegant tropes, and piquant
plays upon words. He is successful in the use
of the dialogue, and his prophecies are penetrated
by the purest spirit of morality and piety. (See
especially chapters vi:6-8; and vii:i-io.)
See, besides the works on the minor prophecies
collectively in De Wette's Introduction, Pococke's
Commentary on Micah; Groseschopf's Micah
Uchersetct ; and Jahn's, Eichhorn's and Keils
Introductions. W. W.
MICAIAH (mi-ka'iah) (-ya), (Heb. i^^"^. mee-
haw-yaw', who like Jehovah?), a prophet of the
time of Ahab.
He was absent from the mob of false prophets
who incited the kings of Israel and Judah to
march against the Syrians in Ramoth-gilead ; for
Ahab, having been offended by his sincerity and
boldness, had not called for him on this occasion.
But he was sent for at the special desire of Jehosh-
aphat ; and as he declared against the enter-
prise, which the other prophets encouraged, Ahab
commanded him to be imprisoned, and allowed
only 'bread and water of affliction' till he returned
from the wars in peace. To which the prophet
ominously answered, 'If thou return at all in peace,
then the Lord hath not spoken by me' (i Kings
xxii:8-28). The event corresponded with this
intimation (see Ahab) ; but we have no further
information concerning the prophet.
MICE (mis). See MOUSE.
MICHA (mi'ka), (Heb. ^J"'?, mee-kaw', who is
like Jehovah?).
1. 2 Sam. ix:i2. See Micah, 3.
2. A Levite, or family of Levites, who sealed
the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x:il), B. C.
410.
3. Neh. xi:i7, 22. See MiCAH, 6.
MICHAEL (mi'ka-el), (Heb. "'^J''?, mee-kaw
ale' , who is like God ?).
1. The name given to one of the chief angels,
who, in Dan. x:i3-2i, is described as having
special charge of the Israelites as a nation;
and in Jude 9, as disputing with Satan about the
body of Moses, in which dispute, instead of bring-
ing against the arch enemy any railing accusa-
tion, he only said, 'The Lord rebuke thee, O
Satan!' Again, in Rev. xii 7-9, Michael and his
angels are represented as warring with Satan and
his angels in the upper regions (iv t<(5 oi/po«JJ),
from which the latter are cast down upon the
earth. This is all the reference to Michael which
we find in the Bible.
The passages in Daniel and Revelation must
be taken as symbolical, and in that view offer
little difficulty. The allusion in Jude 0 is more
difficult to understand, unless, with Vitringa,
Lardner, Macknight, and others, we regard it also
as symbolical ; in which case the dispute referred
to is that indicated in Zcch. iii:i; and 'the body
of Moses' is a symbolio.Tl phrase for the Mosaical
law and institutions. (See Judas or Jude.) A
comparison of Jude 9 with Zech. iii:i gives much
force and probability to this conjecture.
2. \ man of Asher and father of Sethur, who
was sent to spy out the land of Canaan (Num.
xiiirii), B. C. before 1657.
3. Son of Izrahiah, a descendant of Issachar,
of the house of Uzzi (i Chron. vii:3), B. C. after
1618.
4. A Benjamite, descendant of Elpaal through
Beriah (i Chron. viii:i6), B. C. after 1612.
5. A chief Gadite, son of Abihail, who settled
in Bashan (1 Chron. v:i3), B. C. after 1093.
6. A Gadite ancestor of Abihail (i Chron. v:
14), B. C. before 782.
'7. One of the captains of Manasseh who came
to David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:2o), B. C.
1053-
8. A Levite, father of Shimea, of the house
of Gershon, and an ancestor of Asaph (i Chron.
vi:4o), B. C. before 1014.
9. Father of Omri, which latter was captain of
the people of Issachar in the reign of David
and Solomon (i Chron. x.xvii:i8), B. C. before
1014.
10. Son of Jehoshaphat, slain by Jehoram (2
Chron. xxi:2), B. C. 887.
11. A descendant of Shephatiah ; his son, Zeba-
diah, returned from Babylon with a company of
eighty males (Ezra viii;8), B. C. 459.
MICHAH (rai'kah), (i Chron. xxiv:24,25). See
Micah, 4.
MICHAIAH (mi-ka'ya), another form of
MicAiAH (which see).
1. Daughter of Uriel, wife of Rehoboam and
mother of Abijah (2 Chron. xiii:2). The name
is doubtless a corruption of Maacah (2 Chron.
xi :2o).
2. One of the princes whom Jehoshaphat sent to
'teach in the cities of Judah' (2 Chron. xvii:7),
B. C. 910.
3. 2 Kings xxii:i2. See Micah, 7.
4. Son of Gemariah, who, after having heard
Baruch read the terrible predictions of Jeremiah
in his father's hall, went, apparently with good
intentions, to report to the king's officers what
he had heard (Jer. xxxvi :il-l3), B. C. 605.
5. Neh. xii :35. See Micah, 6.
6. One of the priests who played on the trumpet
at the celebration of the completion of the walls
of Jerusalem (Neh. xii:4i), B. C. 446.
MICHAI. (rai'kal), (Heb. ^T^, me-kawl', brook),
youngest daughter of King Saul (i Sam. xiv:49).
(1) Marriage. She became attached to David,
and made no secret of her love, so that Saul,
after he had disappointed David of the elder
daughter (See Merab), deemed it prudent to be-
stow Michal in marriage upon him (i Sam. xviii :
20-28). Saul had hoped to make her the instru-
ment of his designs against David, but was foiled
in his attempt through the devoted attachment of
the wife to her husband. Of this a most memora-
ble instance is given in i Sam. xix:ll-i7.
(2) Saves David's Life. When David es-
caped the javelin of Saul he retired to his own
house, upon which the king set a guard over
night, with the intention to slay him in the morn-
ing. This being discovered by Michal, she as-
sisted him to make his escape by a window, and
afterwards amused the intended assassins under
various pretenses, in order to retard the pursuit.
When they were detected Michal pretended to her
father that David had threatened her with death
if she did not assist his escape.
(3) Second Marriage. Saul probably did not
believe this; but he took advantage of it by can-
MICHMAS, MICHMASH
1159
MIDIANITES
celing the marriage, and bestowing her upon a
person named Plialti (i Sam. xxv:44).
(4) Restored to David. David, however, as
the divorce had been without his consent, felt that
the law (Deut. xxiv:4) against a husband taking
hack a divorced wife could not apply in this case;
he therefore formally reclaimed her of Ishbo-
sheth, who employed no less a personage than
yVbner to take her from Phalti and conduct her
with, all honor to David. It was under cover
of this mission that Abner sounded the ciders
respecting their acceptance of David for king, and
conferred with David himself on the same sub-
ject at Hebron (i Sam. iii:i2-2i).
(5) Reunion TTnhappy. The reunion was less
happy than might have been hoped. On that great
day when the ark was brought to Jerusalem,
Michal viewed the procession from a window,
and the royal notions she had imbibed were so
shocked at the sight of the king not only taking
part in, but leading, the holy transports of his
people, that she met him on his return home with
a keen sarcasm on his undignified and unkingly
behavior. This ill-timed sneer, and the unsympa-
thetic state of feeling which it manifested, drew
from David a severe but not unmerited retort ;
and the Great King, in whose honor David in-
curred this contumely, seems to have punished the
wrong done to him, for we are told that 'therefore
Michal, the daughter of Saul, had no child to the
day of her death' (2 Sam. vi:i6-23). It was thus,
perhaps, as Abarbanel remarks, ordered by Provi-
dence that the race of Saul and David should
not be mixed, and that no one deriving any ap-
parent right from Saul should succeed to the
throne.
MICHMAS, MICHMASH (mifk'mas, mik'-
mash), iHeb.'~^^^, mii-»ias/i', something hidden;
^??^, viik-7Haivs'), a town of Benjamin (Ezra
ii:27; Neh. xi:3i; comp. vii:^!), east of Beth-aven
(1 Sam. xiii:5), and south from Migron, on the road
to Jerusalem (Is. x:28).
The words of i Sam. xiii:2; xiv:4, and Is.
X :29, show that at Michmas was a pass where the
progress of a military body might be impeded
or opposed. It was perhaps for this reason that
Jonathan Maccabxus fixed his abode at Mich-
mas (i Mace. ix:73) ; and it is from the chival-
rous exploit of another hero of the same name,
the son of Saul, that the place is chiefly celebrated
(i Sam. xiii ; .xiv:4-i6). Eusebius describes Micli-
mash as a large village nine Roman miles from
Jerusalem on the road to Ramah (Oiwi)iasl, s. v.
Jiaxiitl). Travelers have usually identified it with
Bir or El-Bireh ; but Dr. Robinson (Researches,
ii:ii7) recogniizes it in a place still bearing the
name of Mukhmas, at a distance and position
which correspond well with these intimations.
This is a village situated upon a slope to the north
of a valley called Wady es-Suweinit. It is small,
and almo.st desolate, but bears marks of hav-
ing been once a pl.ace of strength and importance.
There are many foundations of huge stones, and
some columns lie among them. The valley es-
Suweinit, steep and precipitous, is probably the
'passage of Michniash' mentioned in Scripture.
'In it,' says Dr. Robinson, 'just at the left of
where we crossed, are two hills of a conical, or
rather spherical, form, having steep rocky sides,
with small wadies running up between each so as
almost to isolate them. One of them is on the
side towards Jeba (Gibeah). and the other to-
wards Mukhmas. These would seem to be the
two rocks mentioned in connection with Jona
than's adventure (l Sam. xiv:4, 5). They are
not, indeed, so "sharp" as the language of Scrip-
ture would seem to imply ; but they are the only
rocks of the kind in this vicinity. The northern
one is connected towards the west with an emi-
nence still more distinctly isolated.'
MICHMETHAH or MACHMETHATH (mlk'
me-thah). (Heb. •'^v't?'?, mik-nulh-a'ii'th' , hiding
place), a city of the half-tribe of Manasseh, on the
frontiers of Ephraim and Manasseh; over against
Sheclicm (Josh. xvi;6; xvii:/). The site is perhaps
indicated by a village called El-Makhua, south of
Nabliis (De. '63.\\\zy , Narrative, i:93).
MICHRI (rark'rf), (Heb. '1?^, mik-ree' , prize of
Jehovah I, a lieiijamite, father of Uzzi (i Chron.
ix:8), B. C. before 440.
MICHTAM (mik'tam), (Heb. ^\i}''>,mik-ta7u»i' ,
a writing, especially a psalm), a word occurring in
the title of Psalms xvi, Ivi, Ivii, Iviii, and Ix, which
means a writing, poem or song. .Some translate
'\\. golden ; and Ewald, .<<■(■/■<-/, concealed, that is, a
new composition. The best rendering is perhaps
epigram, a poem intended to record memorable
thoughts.
MIDDAY (mid'da), (Heb. ="' T^'^.tso' har yome,
double light, i Kings xviii:2g; 0"'? ^I'VO^, mak/i-
ats-eetli' /lay-yome' , half of the day, Neh. viii:3; Gr.
riiiipa /i^ffos, hay-mer' ah ines'os, middle day, Acts
x.xvi:i3) See Time.
MIDDIN (raid'din),(Heb.r?'?,w«?ar-flfc^«', exten-
sion), a village in the desert of Judah(Josh. xv:6i),
probably near the Dead Sea.
MIDDLE WALIi (mtd'd'l w:il), (Gr. ^a6Toixov,
vies-ot'oy-klion, middle), the c/iel, or sacred parti-
tion between the Court of the Gentiles and the
inner sanctum of the temple (E[)h. ii:l4). (See
Temple.)
MIDIAN (mid'i-an), (Heb. 1*1'?, mid-yawn'
strife), fourth son of Abraham by Kcturah, and
progenitor of the Midianites (Gen. xxv:2; I Chron.
1:32), B. C. after 2024.
MIDIANITES (mid'i-an-ites), (Heb.2"'^1P, mid-
ya-dj-nccm').
(1) A tribe of people descended from Abraham's
son Midian. His descendants must have settled in
Arabia, and engaged in trade at an early period, if
we identify them with those who in the time of
Jacob appear, along with the Ishmaelites, as mer-
chants traveling from Gilead to Egypt, and who,
having in their way bought Joseph from his
brethren, sold him to the latter country (Gen.
xxxvii :28, 36). It is, however, very difficult to
conceive that the descendants of a son of Abra-
ham, born so many years after Isaac, had become
a tribe of people at the time when the descendants
of Isaac himself were so few. One is therefore
much inclined to suppose that these Midianites
were different and distinct from those descended
from Abraham's son ; and there appears the more
ground for this when at a later period we find two
tribes of Midianites, different in locality and char-
acter, and different in their feelings towards the
Israelites.
(2) If this distinction be admitted, then it would
be necessary to seek the earlier Midianites in those
dwelling about the eastern arm of the Red Sea,
among whom Moses found refuge when 'he fled
from Egypt,' and whose priest or sheik was
Jethro, who became the father-in-law of the future
lawgiver (Exod. iii:i: xviii:5: Num. x:29).
These, if not of Hebrew, would appear to have
been of Cushite origin, and descended from Mid-
MIDNIGHT
1160
MILCOM
ian, the son o£ Cush. We do not aBrain meet with
these Midianites in the Jewish history, but they
appear to have remained for a long time settled
in the same quarter, where indeed is the seat of
the only Midianites known to Oriental authors.
(3) The other Midianites, undoubtedly descended
from Abraham and Keturah, occupied the coun-
try east and southeast of the Moabites, who were
seated on the east of the Dead Sea ; or rather, per-
haps, we should say that, as they appear to have
been a semi-nomad people, they pastured their
flocks in the unsettled country beyond the Moab-
ites, with whom, as a kindred, although more
settled tribe, they seem to have been on the rnost
friendly terms, and on whose borders were situ-
ated those 'cities and goodly castles which they
possessed' (Num. xxxi:io). These Midianites,
like the other tribes and nations who had a com-
mon origin with them, were highly hostile to the
Israelites. In conjunction with the Moabites, they
designedly enticed them to idolatry as they ap-
proached Canaan ( Num. xxxi :2, 5 : xxv :6, 14-18) ;
on which account Moses attacked them with a
strong force, killed all their fighting men, including
their five princes or emirs, and made the women
and children captives or servants (Num. xxxi).
(See Service; Servant, etc.) The account of
the spoil confirms the view which we have taken
of the semi-nomad position of the Midianites —
namely, 675,000 sheep, 72,000 beeves, 61,000 asses,
32,000 persons. This was only the 'prey,' or live
stock; but besides this there was a great quantity
of 'barbaric pearl and gold,' in the shape of 'jew-
els of gold, chains, and bracelets, rings, earrings,
and tablets.'
(4) Some time after the Israelites obtained pos-
session of Canaan, the Midianites had become so
numerous and powerful, that, for seven successive
years, they made inroads into the Hebrew territory
in the time of harvest, carrying off the fruits and
cattle, and desolating the land. At length Gideon
was raised up as the deliverer of his country, and
his triumph was so complete that the Israelites
were never more molested by them (Judg. vi :
1-7; vii. viii). To this victory there are subse-
quent allusions in the sacred writings (Ps. Ixxxiii :
9, 12; Is. ix:4; x :26) ; but the Midianites do not
again appear in sacred or profane history.
MIDNIGHT (mid'nit'). See Time.
MIDWIFE (mld'wif), (Heb. "^I^, yaled).
The two midwives mentioned in Exod. 1:15 are
probably representatives or superintendents of a
whole class, as such a number seems to stand in
a decided disproportion to the needs of the^ Jew-
ish nation at that time. The expression "upon
the stools," in the following verse, refers to a kind
of chair in which the patient sat during the birth,
and which is still in use in modern Egypt.
MIGDAL-EL (mig'dal-el), (Heb. ">?'"'^ri?'?, mig-
dal-a!e' , tower of God), a fortified city of Naphtali
(Josh. xix:38).
Robinson thinks it may be the modern Mejdel
or Mujcidil, ancient ruins being found on the sea-
shore, three miles north of Tiberias.
It lies about twelve miles fromHurah, or Horem,
and the same distance from Yarim or /ro>t.
MIGDAIiGAD (mig'dal-gad), (Heb. T^l!^?}.
mig-ila!-i;a7vii' , tower of fortune), a city in the low
country of Judah (losh. xv:37). Probably El-Mej-
del, about two miles north of Ascalon (Schwarz,
Palest, p. 103; Van de Vclde, Mem., p. 334).
MIGDOIi (mTg'dol), (Heb. •'^?'^, img-dole', tow-
er), a place between which and the Red Sea the
Israelites were commanded to encamp on leaving
Egypt (Exod. xiv:2; Num. xxxiii:7). (See Exodus,
The).
The name, which means o tower, appears to in-
dicate a fortified place. In Jer. xliv:i; xlvi:i4,
it occurs as a city of Egypt, and it would seem to
have been the last town on the Egyptian frontier,
in the direction of the Red Sea ; hence 'from
Migdol to Syene,' in Ezek. xxix:io; xxx:6.
Among other sites Ebers favors the southern end
of Bitter Lakes, where the Gulf of Suez was nar-
row and liable to be blown back by an east wind.
(See Exodus, Geography of The.)
MIGHTIES (mit'Iz), (Heb. "'"2?, ghib-bore\
powerful, I Chron. xi:i2, 24), the term used to de-
note the three great captains of David, elsewhere
called "mighty men" (2 Sam. xxiii:8), and meaning
leaders in war, warriors.
MIGRON (mig'ron),(Heb. V'"'?'?, wz^-row^', prec-
ipice), a town which, from the historical indications,
must have been south or southwest of Ai, and
north of Michnias (Is. x:28).
From Michmas northward a narrow valley ex-
tends out of and at right angles with that which
has been identified as the pass of Michmas. (See
Michmas.) The town of Migron seems to have
been upon and to have commanded the pass
through this valley, but the precise situation has
not been determined. Saul was stationed at the
further side of Gibeah, 'under a pomegranate
tree which is by Migron' (i Sam. xiv:2), when
Jonathan performed his great exploit at Mich-
mas ; and this is to be explained on the supposi-
tion that Migron was on the border, towards
Michmas, of the district to which Gibeah gave its
name.
MIJAMIN (raij'a-rain), (Heb. l^''?. me-yaw-
meen', fortunate, or on the right hand).
1. The head of the sixth course of priests as
established by David (l Chron. xxiv:9), B. C.
1014.
2. A family of priests who sealed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x:7); probably descended
from 1, and identical with Miamin, I, and Mini-
AMIN, 2.
MIKLOTH (mik'loth), (Heb. ^'^V^, mik-loih' ,
twigs, sticks or rods).
1. An officer of the second division of David's
army, under Dodai, the Ahohite (l Chron. xxvii :
4), B. C. 1014.
2. A Benjamite, son of Jehiel and father of
Shimeah or Shimeam, of the family of Saul (i
Chron. viii:32; ix 137, 38), B. C. about 536.
MIKNEIAH (mik-ne'iah (-ya)), (Heb. ''■I'^.l?'?.
mik-nav-yaiv' hoo, possession of Jehovah), a Levite
doorkeeper of the Temple, and musician appoint-
ed by David (i Chron. xv:i8, 21), B. C. 1014.
MILAIiAI (mil'a-la'i), (Heb. "5^'?, mee-lal-ah'ee,
eloquent), a Levite musician who joined the pro-
cession about the walls of Jerusalem at their com-
pletion after the exile (Neh. xii:36), B. C. 536.
MLLCAH (mn'kah), (Heb. '""Jt'P, mil-kaiv' , ad-
vice).
1. Daughter of Haran, and sister of Lot. By
her husband Nahor she had eight sons (Gen. xxii:
20, 23). She was the grandmother of Rebekah
(Gen. xxiv:i5, 24), B. C. about 2047.
2. Daughter of Zeluphehad (Num. xxvi:33), who
became an heiress, as did her sisters (Num. xxvii:
i; xxxvi:ii ; Josli. xvii:3), B. C. 1170.
MILCOM (mil'kom). See MoleCH.
MILDtW
1161
MILK
MILDEW (mll'du), (Heb. !?7', yay-raw-kone' ,
pale), is properly a species of fungus or parasite
which, settling oQ plants, destroys their leaves, and
causes thcni to wither. Its origin is uncertain,
God threatens and sends mildew as a judgment
(Deut. xxviii:22; Amos iv:9; Hag. ii;i7).
KLIliE (mil), (Gr. iiWiov, ?nii'ee-on, the Greek
form of the Lat. milliarium].
This word is only mentioned in Matt. v. '41,
where Christ says, 'If any one compel thee to
go with him one mile, go with him two.' The
mile was originally (as us derivation from millc,
'a thousand.' implies) a Roman measure of 1,000
geometrical paces (passtis) of five feet each, and
was therefore equal to 5.OOO Roman feet. Taking
the Roman fool at 11.6496 English inches, the
Rom^n mile would be 1,618 English yards, or
142 yards less than the English statute mile. By
another calculation, in which the foot is taken at
11.62 inches, the mile would be little more than
1,614 yards. The number of Roman miles in a
to have had four havens, one of which was capa-
ble of holding a fleet.
It was noted tor a famous temple of Apollo,
the oracle of which is known to have been con-
sulted so late as the fourth century ( Apollodorus,
De Orig. Dear, iiiiijo). There was, however, a
Christian church in the place, and in the fifth,
seventh and eighth centuries we read of bishops
of Miletus, who were present at several councils
(Magdeburg, Hist. Ecclcs. ii:i92: iv:86; v :3 ;
vii:2S4; viii:4). The city fell to decay after its
conquest by the Saracens.
Some take the Miletus where Paul left Trophi-
mus sick (2 Tim. iv :2o) to have been in Crete,
and therefore different from the above ; but there
seems no need for this conclusion.
Near the site of the ancient city is a small
Turkish village called Melas. The most note-
worthy ruins of former grandeur are the theater,
with its many tiers of .seats in good preservation,
and the temple of Apollo, of which a few columns
are yet standing. The wandering channels of the
Miletus. Temple of ApotlO.
degree of a large circle of the earth is very little
more than 75. The Roman mile contained eight
Greek stadia (see Smith's Diet, of Greek and
Rom. Antiq., art. 'Milliare'). The Greek stade
hence bore the same relation to the Roman mile
which the English furlong does to the English
mile.
MILETtJM (mile'tum), (Gr. MfXijToj, mr7ay-/os,
2 Tim. iv;20). See MiLETUS.
MILETUS (mi-le'tus), (Gr. iU\r,To!. »n7ay-tos),
a city and seaport of Ionia in Asia Minor, about
thirty-six miles south of Ephesus.
St. Paul touched at this port on his voyage
from Greece to Syria, and delivered to the elders
of Ephesus, who had come to meet him there, a
remarkable and affecting address (Acts xx:l5-
j8). Miletus was a place of considerable note,
and the ancient capital of Ionia and Caria. It was
the birthplace of several men of renown — Thales,
Timotheus. Anaximander. Anaximenes. Democri-
tus (Pomp, Mela. i:i7; Diog, I.aert. Vit, Philn-
soph. pp, 15, 88, 8g, 650). Ptolemy (Geog. v:2)
places Miletus in Caria by the sea, and it is stated
Meander are near by, although the mouth of the
river is ten miles away.
MILK (mrlk). The Hebrew word for milk,
-, ?, khaw-lawb' , is from the same root as ^.iC khe-
leh' , 'fatness,' and is properly restricted to new
milk, there being a distinct term, '''?tV', khem'-
aw, for milk when curdled.
(1) Frequent Mention. Milk, and the prepa-
rations from it, butler and cheese, are often men-
tioned in Scripture. Milk, in its fresh state, appears
to have been used very largely among the Hebrews,
as is usual among people who have much cattle,
and yet make but sparing use of their flesh for
food. The proportion which fresh ir.ilk held in
the dietary of the Hebrews must not, however,
be measured by the comparative frequency with
which the word occurs,
(2) Milch Animals. In reading of milk in
Scripture, the milk of cows naturally presents it-
self to the mind of the European reader ; but in
Western Asia, and especially among the pastoral
and semi-pastoral people, not only cows, but
MILK
1162
MILL
goats, sheep, and camels, are made to give their
milk for the sustenance of man. That this was
also the case among the Hebrews may be clearly
inferred even from the slight intimations which
the Scriptures afford. Thus we read of 'butter
of kine, and milk of sheep' (Deut. xxxii:i4) ; and
in Prov. xxvii 127. the emphatic intimation, 'Thou
shalt have goats' milk for food,' seems to imply
that this was considered the best for use in the
simple state. 'Thirty milch camels' were among
the cattle which Jacob presented to his brother
Esau (Gen. xxxii:i5), implying the use of cam-
el's milk.
(3) Curdled Milk. The word for curdled milk
■^b'^n, (khetn'aw) is always translated 'butter'
in the A. V. It seems to mean both butter and
curdled milk, but most generally the latter; and
the context will, in most cases, suggest the dis-
tinction, which has been neglected by our trans-
lators. It was this curdled milk, highly esteemed
as a refreshment in the East, that Abraham set
before the angels (Gen. xviii:8). and which Jacl
gave to Sisera, instead of the water which he
asked (Judg. v:25). In this state milk acquires
a slightly inebriating power, if kept long enough.
Is. vii :22, where it is rendered 'butter,' is the
only text in which the word is coupled with
'honey,' and there it is a sign of scarcity, not of
plenty as when honey is coupled with fresh milk.
It means that there being no fruit or grain, the
remnant would have to live on milk and honey ;
and, perhaps, that milk itself would be so scarce
that it would be needful to use it with economy ;
and hence to curdle it, as fresh milk cannot be
preserved for sparing use. Although, however, this
word properly denotes curdled milk, it seems also
to be sometimes used for milk in general (Deut.
xxxii:i4; Job xx:i7; Is. vii:is).
(4) Idolatrous TTse of. The most striking
Scriptural allusion to milk is that which for-
bids a kid to be seethed in its mother's milk,
and its importance is attested by being thrice
repeated (Exod. xxiiing; xxxiv:26; Deut. xiv:
21). There is, perhaps, no precept of Scrip-
ture which has been more variously interpreted
tlian this; it is possible that this was not a com-
mon act of cookery, but an idolatrous or magical
rite. Maimonides, in his More Nevocldm. urges
this opinion. He says, 'Flesh eaten with milk, or in
milk, appears to me to have been prohibited, not
only because it affords gross nourishment, but be-
cause it savored of idolatry, some of the idolaters
probably doing it in their worship, or at their fes-
tivals.' This is confirmed by an extract which
Cudworth (Discourses concerning the True No-
tion of the Lord's Supper, p. 30) gives from an
ancient Karaite commentary on the Pentateuch.
'It was a custom of the ancient heathen, when they
had gathered in all their fruits, to take a kid. and
boil it in the dam's milk, and then in a magical
way to go about and besprinkle with it all their
trees, and fields, and gardens, and orchards, think-
ing that by this means they should make them
fructify, and bring forth more abundantly the fol-
lowing year.' Some such rite as this is supposed
to be the one interdicted by the prohibition.
(5) Butter. Butter is not often mentioned in
Scripture, and even less frequently than our ver-
sion would suggest ; for, as already intimated, the
word khcm'-aw must sometimes be understood
curdled milk. Indeed, it may be doubted whether
it denotes butter in any place besides Deut. xxxii :
14, 'butter of kine.' and Prov. xxx :33, 'the churn-
ing of milk bringeth forth butter.' as all the other
texts will apply better to curdled milk than to
butter. Butter was, however, doubtless much in
use among the Hebrews, and we may be sure that
it was prepared in the same manner as at this
day among the Arabs and Syrians. The milk is
put into a large copper pan over a slow fire, and
a little Icben or sour milk (the same as the curdled
milk mentioned above^ or a portion of the dried
entrails of a lamb, is thrown into it. The milk
then separates, and is put into a goatskin bag,
which is tied to one of the tent poles, and con-
stantly moved backwards and forwards for two
hours. The buttery substance then coagulates, the
water is pressed out, and the butter put into an-
other skin. In two days the butter is again
placed over the fire, with the addition of a quan-
tity of burgoul { wheat boiled with leaven, and
dried in the sun), and allowed to boil for some
time, during which it is carefully skimmed. It
is then found that the burgoul has precipitated
all the foreign substances, and that the butter
remains quite clear at the top. This is the process
used by the Bedouins, and it is also the one em-
ployed by the settled people of Syria and Arabia.
The chief difference is that in making butter
and cheese the townspeople employ the milk of
cows and buffaloes, whereas the Bedouins, who
do not keep these animals, use that of sheep and
goats. The butter is generally white, of the color
and consistence of lard, and is not much relished
by English travelers. It is eaten with bread in
large quantities by those who can afford it, not
spread out thinly over the surface, as with us,
but taken in mass with the separate morsels of
bread. (See Butter.)
Figurative. In the greater number of exam-
ples it is employed figuratively to denote great
abundance, and in many instances it is used as a
general term for all or any of the preparations
from it.
(i) In its figurative use, the word occurs some-
times alone, as the sign of abundance (Gen. xlix:
12; Ezek. XXV :4; Joel iii:i8, etc.) ; but more fre-
quently in combination with honey — 'milk and-
honey' being a phrase which occurs about twenty
times in Scripture. Thus a rich and fertile soil
is described as a 'land Aowing with milk and
honey' ; which, although usually said of Palestine,
is also applied to other fruitful countries, as
Egypt (Num. xvi:i3). Hence its use to denote
the food of children.
(2) Milk is also constantly employed as a sym-
bol of the elementary parts or rudiments of doc-
trine (l Cor. iii:2; Heb. v:i2. 13); and from its
purity and simplicity it is also made to symbolize
the unadulterated word of God and the blessings
of the Gospel, (i Pet. ii:2; comp. Is. Iv:i).
HILL (mil), Heb. '^"l!', ray-kheh' , to pulverize;
Or. y-vKiiiv, 71100 lone, grinder).
The mill for grinding corn had not wholly su-
perseded the mortar for pounding it in the time
of Moses. The mortar and the mill are named
together in Num. xi :8. But fine meal, that is,
meal ground or pounded fine, is mentioned so
early as the time of Abraham (Gen. xviii :6) ;
hence mills and mortars must have been pre-
viously known. The mill common among the He-
brews differed little from that which is in use
to this day throughout Western Asia and North-
ern Africa. It consisted of two circular stones
two feet in diameter, and half a foot thick. The
lower is called the 'nether millstone' (Job xli:i6,
24), and the upper the 'rider,' 221 (Judg. ix:53;
2 Sam. xi:2l). The former was usually fi.xed
to the floor, and had a slight elevation in the
center, or, in other words, was slightly convex
MILLENNIUM
1163
MILLENNIUM
in the upper surface. The upper stone had a
concavity in its under surface fitting to, or re-
ceiving, the convexity of the lower stone. There
was a hole in the top, through which the corn was
introduced by handfuls at a time. The upper
stone had an upright stick fixed in it as a handle,
by which it was made to turn upon the lower
stone, and by this action the corn was ground,
and came out at the edges. As there were neither
public mills nor bakers, except the king's (Gen.
xl:2; Hos. vii:4-8), each family possessed a mill;
and as it was in daily use, it was made an in-
fringement of the Law for a person to take an-
other's mill or millstone in pledge (Deut. xxiv;6).
The mill was, as now, commonly turned by
two persons, usually women, and these, the work
being laborious, the lowest maid-servants in the
house. They sat opposite each other. One took
hold of the mill-handle, and impelled it half way
round ; the other then seized it, and completed
the revolution (Exod. xi :5 ; Job xxxi:io, ii ; Is.
xlvii:2; Matt. xxiv:4l). As the labor was severe
and menial, enemies taken in war were often con-
demned to perform it (Judg. xvi:2i ; Lam. v:l3).
(Jahn, Bibiischcs Archaol. ix:i39.) It will be
seen that this millstone does not materially differ
from the Highland quern; and is, indeed, an
obvious resource in those remote quarters, where
a population is too thin or too scattered to afford
remunerative employment to a miller by trade.
In the East this trade is still unknown, the hand-
mill being in general and exclusive use among
the corn-consuming, and the mortar among the
rice-consuming, nations. (See Bread; Corn.)
Figurative- (i) Both the millstones were
hard, and it seems especially the nethermost,
which was fixed ; and so the heart of leviathan
is likened to a piece of it, to represent his un-
daunted courage and obstinacy (Job xli:24). (2)
The ceasing of the sound of the millstones was a
sure sign that a place had been turned into a
desolation (Jer. xxv:lO; Rev. xviii:22). (3)
Christ's falling on men, and grinding them to
powder, denotes the final, complete and terrible
destruction of those who refuse to yield their
wills to him (Matt, xxi 144 ; Luke xx:i8). (4)
To "grind the faces of the poor." is cruelly to op-
press and afflict them (Is. iii:l5). (5) "Let my
wife grind to another" ; let her become the prop-
erty of another man, and his slave to work at the
mill (Job xxxi:io). Our jaw teeth, which chew
our food, are called our "grinders" ; and their
sound is brought low when they are lost by old
age (Eccl. xii:3. 4).
MHjLENNITTM (mil-len'ni-um), (Lat. miUe, a
thousand, and annus, a year).
This word is not found in Scripture ; but as
it refers to ideas founded on Scripture, a treat-
ment of the doctrine is required. The word
denotes the term of a thousand years, and, in a
theological sense, that thousand years mentioned
in Rev. xx:2, 3, 4, 6, during which Satan is there
described as being bound. Christ as reigning tri-
umphant, and the saints as living and reigning
with him. Tlie doctrine involved in this view is
usually called Millenarianism, but in ecclesias-
tical history more usually Chiliasm, from the
(jreek word x'^'»'. 'a thousand.' As the world
was made in six days, and as, according to Ps.
xc 14, 'a thousand years are as one day' in the
sight of God, so it was thought the world would
continue in the condition in which it had hitherto
been for 6,000 years; and as the Sabbath is a day
of rest, so will the seventh period of a thousand
years consist of this millennial kingdom, as the
close of the whole earthly state.
The Jews supposed that the Messiah at his
coming would reign as king upon the carili, and
would reside at Jerusalem, the ancient royal city.
The period of his reign they thought would be
very long, and it was therefore put down as a
thousand years, which was at first understood only
as a round number. This period was conceived
by the Jews as a sort of golden age to the earth,
and every one formed such a picture of it as
agreed with his own disposition, and with the
views concerning the highest felicity which were
dictated by the degree of intellectual and moral
culture to which he had attained. With many
these views were very low, being confined to sen-
sual delights, while others entertained better and
more pure conceptions of that happy time (Wet-
stein, Comment, in Rev. xxii :2 ; Knapp, Christ.
Theolog., translated by Leonard Woods, Jun..
D.D., sec. 154).
This notion was taken up by many of the Juda-
izing Christians : Jesus had not yet appeared as
an earthly king, and these persons were unwilling
to abandon an expectation which seemed to them
so important. They therefore allowed themselves
to hope for a second advent of Christ to establish
an earthly kingdom, and to this they transferred
most if not all of that which in their unconverted
state they had expected of the first. The Apostles
generally seem to have entertained this notion till
after the ascension of Christ and the outpouring
of the Holy Spirit, whereby they were instructed
in the higher verities and mysteries of the Gospel ;
but that they then abandoned it, and expected no
other coming of Clirist than that at the judgment
of the world, appears clear from i Cor. xv and
other passages. The fact that these Jewish no-
tions had taken deep root in the minds of many
Christians, even in the Apostolical age, is, how-
ever, manifest from i Thess. iv:i3, sq., v; and 2
Thess. ii.
The following views are epitomized from The
Seer of Patmos, by Sir Wm. Dawson :
The millennium which is described in chapter
XX of Revelation has attracted much attention
from scholars and has become the subject of much
controversy, the two centers of criticism being
ranged under the heads of "pre-millennial" and
"post-millennial" return of our Lord. If, with
many able men of our time, we connect the sec-
ond advent of the Messiah and the resurrection
of the saints with the beginning of the millennium,
we find these stupendous events very near as in-
dicated by the position which we have reached
along the line of events which were foretold by the
prophets.
If, on the other hand, we regard the second
advent of the Christ as post-millennial, the great
event is postponed by the duration of the thou-
sand years and also by the period which is cov-
ered by the loosing of Satan, and it is thus con-
nected with the general resurrection and judg-
ment descril)ed in chapter xxi and with the New
Jerusalem of the closing chapter.
(1) Nearing Millennial Period. In either case
it would seem that we are now very near the
opening of the millennial period. According to
the prophecies of Daniel and the statements of
the Christ this period is to follow as the next
great event after the four successive empires
which occupy "the times of the Gentiles."
In order to understand the millennium we must
remember that it forms a part of the subject of
the prophecies of the things that follow the last
septenary of God's judgments on the apostasy
and its abettors which are represented by the
vials. In the end of chapter xvi these are spoken
MILLENNIUM
1164
MILLENNIUM, VIEWS ON THE
of as the last plagues, and it is said that men
blaspheme God because of them, but the two chap-
ters following contain explanations of this and
announce the downfall of the apostasy. Then in
chapter xix we have a picture of the marriage of
the Lamb and of the bride, the Lamb's wife with
her spotless garments.
(2) Final Triumph of the Word. Again the
heavens are opened "and behold a white horse ;
and he that sat upon him was called Faithful
and True, . . . and on his head were many
crowns; . , . and his name is called The Word of
God. . . . And he hath on his vesture and on
his thigh a name written, King of kings and Lord
of lords."
Here the Lord appears as the "Word of God"
and may be considered as representing the final
triumph of the "Word" over the three unclean
spirits in the sixth vial who have hitherto been
going forth "unto the kings of the earth, and to
the whole world, to gather them to the battle of
that great day of God Almighty," but they are
now driven from the field, and their final over-
throw, together with that of the beast and the
false prophet, is described in unmistakable terms
at the close of the chapter.
(3) Binding of the Dragon. In the beginning
of chapter xx the angel "laid hold on the dragon,
that eld serpent which is the Devil and Satan, and
bound him for a thousand years." Thus that
Satan which has been the instigator of all opposi-
tion to God in all ages of the world is shut out
from his deceitful work in influencing mankind.
The "bottomless pit" or abyss may be a part of the
earth, for in a previous passage pertaining to the
fifth trumpet, the locusts which typify the Saracen
invaders are said to come from the pit or abyss,
thus representing the outlying parts of the world —
those which are beyond the limits of Christen-
dom.
(4) Bevival of the Pure Faith. The descrip-
tion of the millennium plainly indicates a revival
of the pure faith and practice of primitive Chris-
tianity. It is to be remembered that the Protes-
tant Reformation did not effect this. During the
millennial period these will be brought back to
their best estate and become dominant, and this
state of things will continue during the thousand
years. Seated upon the thrones of judgment there
are two bodies of judges, the one being "the souls
of them that were beheaded for the witness of
Jesus and for the Word of God." and the others
are those who "had not worshiped the beast,
neither his image, neither had received his mark
in their foreheads, or in their hands, and they lived
and reigned with Christ a thousand years."
(5) A New Heaven and New Earth. At
present we are unable to fully comprehend the
conditions and details which are connected with
any judgment scene, but there must surely be "a
new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven
and the first earth were passed away."
The book closes with a description of the New
Jerusalem, and its last thought is the promise of
the coming of the Christ and John's loving re-
sponse, "Even so, come Lord Jesus." This is the
thought which is presented throughout the New
Testament as the sustaining hope of the church.
and here it is placed side by side with her final
blessedness as the fulfillment of her hopes and
prayer and faith. During all her pilgrimage it
has been one of the incentives to her loyalty and
courage in time of trial, and in the final picture
she is reaping the reward of her faith and her
patience.
Surely we may well join in the fervent invita-
tion, "Even so, come Lord Jesus."
(See Enquiry into the Prospects of the Chris-
tian Church; Anderson, Apolog. for Millen. Doet.,
Glasg. 1830; Irving, Lect. on the Revelat., 1831;
Greswell, Exposition of the Parables, 1834-35 ;
Pigou, The Millennium, 1837; Miltenniarism Un-
scriptural, 1838; Jefferson, The Millennium, 1840;
Bush, The Millennium, Salem (N. S.), 1842;
Hopkins, Second Adventism in the Light of Jew-
ish Hist., 1873, N. Y. ; Carson, The Personal
Reign of Christ, 1873; see also Poole's Index for
magazine articles.)
MILLENNITJM, VIEWS ON THE, CON-
TRASTED.
Two contrasted articles are herein given on the
Pre-Millennium and Post-Millennium beliefs.
/. Pre'Jifillennial View. Millenarian doctrine,
known in former years as Chiliasm, has since
the foundation of the Church, been the Chris-
tian's blessed hope. Throughout her variable
history, even when she was seemingly eclipsed,
the Church of God never lost sight of this bril-
liant star in her eschatological sky.
In comparatively recent years, Whitbyism as-
sumed that the millennial era would constitute
the period of Christ's spiritual reign, as opposed
to literal, and therefore predicated, universal sal-
vation in this age. Accordingly, a conquered world,
and an enthroned church, were to be the har-
bingers of our Lord's return. ' Pre-millennialists
consider Whitby's mode of interpretation akin to
Origen's fanciful method of exegesis, and there-
fore unreliable.
Pre-millennialism is a term of comparative new-
ness. It was not needed in theological discussion
for centuries. Post-millennialism having become
popularized, it must needs be emploved, in order
to define the view held by the prim five church,
that Christ will literally return from ihe heavens
in order to effect the restitution foretold by the
holy prophets (Acts iii:i9-2i). The re-genesis
of nature and restoration of nations included in
the promised restitution will occupy one thousand
years, the duration of Earth's antitypical Sabbath,
including the resurrection of all believers, the
imprisonment of Satan, with the destruction of
the Antichrist. This hope, as ever imminent, was
the strong consolation of early believers, while
martyrs in their sufferings were sustained through
its constant expectation.
Pre-millennialism has a notable history. Dur-
ing dark days, oft-recurring, when superstition
and superficial views of religious life prevailed;
when worldliness came in like a flood, and idola-
trous practices abounded, this polestar of the
church grew dim to the point of evanishment.
But yet again its brightness grew apace, until
now, when its intensified light shines afar. Dur-
ing the century just ended it was brought into
prominent recognition. The highest Biblical
scholarship has emphatically indorsed pre-mil-
lennialism as an integral part of the gospel
scheme, and its profound literature has taken
rank among essential theological disquisitions.
Many of its living advocates are foremost in
Biblical research, are identified with aggressive,
world-wide evangelism, and also intensely loyal
to orthodox evangelicalism and to incrrant Bib-
lical inspiration.
Pre-millennialism does not base its claims on
any single proof-text, or series of texts, but
rather on the whole trend of Scripture revelation.
The much controverted passage in the Apocalvnse
(ch. xx;i-6) they explain in the glowing light
of multiplied predictions. The learned Alford
MlLLENNlUiM. VIEWS ON THE
11G5
MILLENNIUM, VIEWS ON THE
declared that the whole church for three hundred
years understood (he above verses in a plain, ht-
eral sense. John Albert Bengel, first of cxegetes.
gave unequivocal testimony to the view that Christ
would come before the millennium, and in this
hope John Wesley, who was taught it by Bengel,
exulted. Prof. Hackett, interpreting Acts iiiiip-
21, voiced the conviction of many Christian schol-
ars, that the Coming of Christ "was the great
consummation on which the strongest desires of
their souls (the first believers) were fixed ....
they lived in expectation of it ; they labored to
be prepared for it."
Pre-millennialism protests against the applica-
tion of those parables and discourses of our Lord
which clearly point to a new kingdom, introduced
and established on his return, to natural phe-
nomena, such as death, war, national calamities
and natural convulsions. These frequently re-
curring events are too superficial as adequate ful-
fillment of divine prophecy.
Pre-millennialists believe that those Old Testa-
ment predictions of the sufferings and glories
of Messiah bound the present age. They are as
mountain peaks between which lie the Church,
and beyond the Millennial Kingdom.
Pre-millennialists believe that the Bible given
in the language of men must be interpreted by
such rules as govern that language ; that the literal
meaning of a word be retained until it be de-
termined that the language is figurative. Proph-
ecy frequently appears in symbolic form, but most
Scripture symbols are explained in the Scrip-
tures.
In addition to Old Testament predictions is
New Testament promise inciting millennial ex-
pectation. Several hundred texts emphatically and
inferentially teach that our Lord will return vis-
ibly, bodily, audibly, gloriously, and that the
world's condition at the time of his arrival pre-
cludes all possibility of a millennium prior to that
event. The age of Noah and the days of Lot pre-
figure our time-end, thereby harmonizing with
parabolic and didactic teaching. The field of
wheat and tares, the flock of sheep and goats, the
net of good and bad fish prove that evil is not
minimized as the age approaches its consumma-
tion. Accordingly, the last days, and the latter
times are vividly sketched in their woeful de-
generacy (i Tim. iv:i-3; 2 Tim. iii:i-5). There-
fore, pre-millennialism holds out no hope of a
converted world before the Parousia. Results of
the Advent will include the resurrection of be-
lievers unto glory, life to dead Israel, and liberty
for groaning creation. The new kingdom will he
clean from Satan's presence when the glory of
Jehovah will be revealed, and the will of God
be done on the earth, even as it is done in heaven.
The shekinah will again appear in the Holy Land
when the pierced feet of our glorious Lord shall
stand on the Mount of Olives (i Thess. iv:i5-
i8; Rom. viii:i5, 22-23; Rev. xx:i-3; Is. iv:5;
Zech. xiv:4). G. C. N.
2, Post-Millennialism, Ever since the days of
the Apostles the Church has looked forward to
a better day, when the reigning powers of idola-
try and superstition, and all forms of false re-
ligion, shall give place to the kingdom of God,
and when Jesus Christ will be confessed as Lord
among all the nations of the earth. It is impos-
sible to interpret the Scriptures without antici-
pating a universal diffusion of the knowledge
of God and of his Son Jesus Christ, to the extent
that the religion of the Bible shall become the
religion of mankind throughout the earth. But
when shall this better day dawn? By what agen-
cies shall it be brought about ?
(1) Difference of Opinion. The great divi-
sion of the Church is into classes known as Pre-
tnillcnarians and I'osl-millenarians— a division
which does not follow denotiiinational lines or
imply serious differences upon evangelical doc-
trines or on questions of vital piety an<l practical
godliness. It is a difference in belief as to
whether Christ's second coming will take place
at the beginning or the ending of the millennial
period; and, of course, it involves different ideas
of the character of the millennium — for a millen-
nium with Chri.st present in person, with the
saints of all ages living in the resurrection state,
is widely different from one where Christ reigns
spiritually in the hearts of his people, who yet
live in their mortal bodies while he remains in
heaven. It is to this division of sentiment our
minds are turned in considering the second com-
ing of the Son of man. Will he come in person
and raise the righteous dead, and establish a literal
kingdom in this world, and reign a thousand
years, and thus subdue the world to himself? Or
will he come at the end of time and raise the
dead and judge the world, and thus finish the
history of earthly life by introducing the eternal
state of retribution? Pre-millennialists assert the
former, and Post-millennialists the latter.
(2) Basis of Pre-millennial Theory. The
Pre-millennial advent theory is based entirely
upon a Scripture which is acknowledged by all to
be very obscure, in addition to being found in
the book of Revelation, in the midst of symbols
extremely difficult of explanation and application
(Rev. XX :i, 8).
It is assumed by some that the "angel" which
had "the key of the bottomless pit, and the great
chain in his hand," was none other than Christ
himself. But there is absolutely no intimation
whatever in this celebrated passage of Scripture,
that Christ descends from heaven at the beginning
of this "thousand years."
(3) Condition of the World. But what of the
millennium, if the idea of the coming of Christ at
the imprisonment of Satan be abandoned ? To
state precisely the condition of the world at the
coming of Christ, whether that coming be at the
beginning or ending of the millennium in ques-
tion, is one of the most difficult tasks the exposi-
tor of the Scriptures is called to perform. Turn
as he will, there are seeming contradictions to be
encountered. To admit this is due to candor, and
where it is not admitted we suspect the presence
of prepossessions unfavorable to impartial exe-
gesis.
(4) Two Classes of Texts. There are two
classes of Scripture to be considered — those pas-
sages that represent the carelessness and worldli-
ness of the unbelieving and unready, and those
that describe the universal triumph of the Gospel,
and the prosperity of the Church in the latter
days. By looking only at one class we get dis-
torted views.
(/) First Class. Some of the first class look
as if the world were never darker or more for-
getful of God than in the hour when the Son of
man shall come "as a thief in the night." "But
as the days of Noah were, so shall also the com-
ing of the Son of man be." "Then shall two
be in the field; the one shall be taken, and the
other left. Two women shall be grinding at the
mill ; the one shall be taken, and the other left."
This shows that some will be going on in the
ordinary pursuits of life, forgetful of spiritual
things, as at the present time, and as in the time
before the Flood. And that question in the parable
of the widow and the unjust judge, "Nevertheless,
MILLENNIUM, VIEWS ON THE
1166
MINIAMiN
when the Son of man cometh, shall he find faith
on the earth?" looks in the same direction, and
seems to suggest a doubt whether any will be
found faithful. But these relate to the unbeliev-
ing. They give the worldly side of the picture.
There is no doubt that "the day of the Lord"
will come unawares upon many, and surprise them
in their sins.
(2) The Other Side. But there is another side.
The Church is to grow, and spread far and wide
her holy influences, so as to leave the unthinking
worldliness of the age without excuse. "This
Gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in all
the world for a witness unto all nations." "The
mountain of the Lord's house shall be established
in the top of the mountains, and all nations shall
flow unto it." The name of Christ shall be
known from the rising of the sun unto the going
down thereof. The knowledge of God shall cover
the earth. "For the earth shall be full of the
knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the
sea." The time will come when it shall be said,
"The kingdoms of this world are become the
kingdoms of our Lord, and of his Christ ; and
he shall reign forever and ever." What, then,
must be the conclusion from this seeming con-
trariety of description?
In all probability, some of the passages relating
to the glory of the latter days, in their ultimate
meaning, look to the condition of things in the
regenerated earth, beyond the conflagration.
(5) Better Things. And yet, as we have said,
we cannot explain the Scriptures without antici-
pating a day of better things for the Church
than has been realized. The imprisonment of
Satan denotes curtailment of his power, and in-
creased restraint upon his actions, possibly to the
extent of hindering his access to men in this
world. This will be great gain in advantage
for the truth. It will give the Grspel access to
the heart, impeded only by the opposition of the
depravity within. Under such conditions, the
relative power of the Gospel will increase ; the
accumulated evidences of its divinity will shine
out with a luster unseen before ; and the quick-
ened activities of Christian people will add to
its efficiency, as its conquests are extended, and
its victories multiplied. But will every living
soul be converted? We dare not assume this.
The universal spread of the Gospel neither implies
the removal of depravity from human nature nor
the submission of every sinner to the sway of
divine grace. Men will still be descended from
Adam, born after the flesh, and need to be
"born again." But Christian intelligence will ban-
ish superstition. Idolatry will cease. Apostate
churches will be reformed or destroyed. False
religions will be overthrown. Enlightened gov-
ernments, permeated with Christian principles,
will displace tyrannies, and religious liberty will
become the heritage of all the nation.s. This
much may be expected, and such a millennium
will be indescribably glorious. But the old fight
with inward corruption will go on. Carnality, and
selfishness, and pride, and love of the world, and
love of power, will struggle for the mastery, call-
ing for watchfulness and self-denial, and keeping
up all the conditions of a real probation. And
some will be overborne. Infidelity will find vo-
taries. Men of evil passion will love darkness
rather than light. Such will shut iheir eyes to
the brightest beams of the brightest day of Gospel
light, and when Satan is loose, they will be ready
to join in the battle against the truth. Thus, in
the final dav of the Lord's coming, will worldli-
ness and sin be found in the earth. So we read
the prophecies. But we "see through a glass
darkly." The best lights that reach our vision
disclose only the mountain peaks of the land
ahead. The valleys and plains of the landscape
lie beneath the mists. We must wait till proph-
ecy materializes into history, and then the morning
star shall give place to the risen sun. S. M. M.
mCILLET (mil'let). See Dokhan.
lyirLIiO (mil'lo), (Heb. with the article, X'V??n
ham-)nil-lo' , heights).
This word denotes 'fullness,' and is applied to
a mound or rampart, probably as being filled up
with stones or earth. Hence it is the name given
to
1. Part of the citadel of Jerusalem, probably
the rampart (2 Sam. v:9; i Kings ix:is, 24; xi:
27; I Chron. xi:8; 2 Chron. xxxii:5). In the
last of these texts, where David is said to have
restored or fortified Millo 'of (not 'in') the city
of David, the Sept. has t6 otoXtj/jm" t^s TriSXews,
'the fortification of the city of David.'
2. The fortress in Shechem. 'All the men of
Shechem, and all that dwelt in the house of Millo ;'
that is. in the castle or citadel (Judg. ix:i6, 20),
probably the place where Joash was killed (2
Kings ,xii :2o).
MILIiSTONE (mll'ston'). See Mill.
MINA (mf'na), so rendered in the margin (Luke
xix:i3) of the Greek y-voi, but in the text as "pound."
(See Weights and Measures.)
MINCHAH (min'kah), the Hebrew name of the
bloodless offerings (meal, cakes, etc.), presented in
the Temple. (See Offering.)
MINCING (min'sing), (Heb. I^V, taw-faf , Is.
iii:i6), to take short steps, just putting the heel of
one foot against the toe of the other. The prophet
condemns the effort of women old in years and
sin to imitate the movements of children.
MINES, MINING (rains, min'ing), (Job xxviii
i-ii R. v.). See Copper; Iron; and other metals.
MINGLED PEOPLE (min'g'ld pe'p'l), (Heb.
2"^, ay'r-eb, mixture).
"Mingled people" are such as originally be-
longed to different tribes or nations (Jer. xxv :20,
24; 1:37; Ezek. xxx:5). The "mixed multitude"
that attended the Hebrews in their departure from
Egypt were Arabs, Egyptians, Lybians, etc. They
first tempted the Hebrews to despise the manna
(Num. xi:4). They generally either died in the
wilderness, returned to Egypt, or settled in Arabia.
The mixed multitude which Nehemiah separated
from the Jews were the Philistines, Ammonites,
Moabites, and others who had come and inter-
married among them (Neh. xiii:3).
God "mingled" the Jews' adversaries when he
raised up many at once (Is. .xixili). His "ming-
ling the Egyptians until the Egyptians", and
"mingling a perverse spirit among them" denotes
his kindling of civil wars among them (Is. xix:2,
14). The Romans "mingled themselves with the
seed of men." but did not cleave to them: they
dwelt in the same countries with the Goths, Huns,
and other invaders of the empire; but they never
had a heartiness of affection for them (Dan.
ii:4.V)-
MINIAMIN (min-i-a'mtn), (Heb. T^t?^, mitt-
yaw-meen' , from the right hand).
1. A Levite who had charge of the free-will
offerings in the Temple and distributed them
among the families of the sacerdotal order in the
time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi:i5), B. C. 726.
MINISTER
nr,7
MIRACLES
2. A priest who returned from captivity with
Zerubbabcl, and joined in the celebration over the
completion of the walls (Kch. xii:i7, 41). The
name is elsewhere given as Miamin (xii:s), or
Mijamiii (x:7).
MINISTER (mTn'Is-ter), one who acts as a lesser
(from minus or minor) or inferior agent, in obe-
dience or subservience to another, or who serves,
officiates, etc., as distinguisihed from the master,
magister (frotn magis), or superior.
1. The words so translated in the, Old Testa-
ment are ^T'j'^i nies/i-aw-rayth' .und ' '-\,pel-akh' ,
(Chald.), and in the New, JiaKoros, dee-ak' o-nos,
servant, and \nft)ptTri%, hoop-ay-ret' ace, under-
iaborer. Moses and his minister, Joshua, are men-
tioned in Exod. xxiv:i3.
2. It is applied to Elisha as minister to Elijah
(2 Kings vi:l5; Sept. lei-toor-gos' , \eiTovpy6s,
fublic servant; comp. 2 Kings iii:ii; I Kings
xix:2i). Persons thus designated sometimes suc-
ceeded to the office of their principal, as did Joshua
and Elisha. The word is applied to the angels
(Ps. ciii:2i, public servants; comp. Ps. civ :4 ;
Heb. i:7; and see Stuart's Comment, in loc.).
Both the Hebrew and Sept. words are applied to
the Jews in their capacity as a sacred nation,
'Men shall call you the ministers of our God" (Is.
Ixi :6) ; to the priests (Jer. xxxiii :2i ; Ezek. xliv :
II ; xlv :4; Joel i :9).
The Greek word is continued in the same sense
in Luke i :23, and applied to Christian teachers
(Acts xiii:2; Rom. xv:i6; and to Christ, Heb.
viii :2) ; to the collectors of the Roman tribute,
in consequence of the divine authority of political
government, 'they are God's ministers' (Xeiroup7o().
It was applied by the Athenians to those who ad-
ministered the public offices {XeiTovpylai) at their
own expense (Boeckh).
3. (I) The word SidKovoi, dee-ak' on-os, 'minis-
ter,' is applied to Christian teachers (I Cor. iii:5;
2Cor. iii:6; vi:4; xi :23 ; i Thess. iii :2) ; (2) to
false teachers (2Cor. xi:i5) ; to Christ (Rom. xv:
8,16; Gal. ii:i7; (3) to heathen magistrates (Rom.
xiii:4) ; in all which passages it has the sense of
a minister, assistant, or servant in general, as in
Matt. xx:26; but it means a particular sort of
minister, 'a deacon,' in Phil. i:i; I Tim. iii:8,
12). The term JidKovoi, dee-ak-on- oi, ministers,
denotes among the Greeks a higher class of serv-
ants than the dao'loi, SoCXoi, slaves (Ahen. x:i92;
B. comp. Xen. /. c. Buttm. Lexic. i:220; comp.
Matt. xxii:i3, and Esth. i:3; ii:2; vi:3). (4)
iwriph-tit, hoop-ay-ret' ace, helper, is applied to
Christian ministers (Luke 1:2; Acts xxviiiO; 2 Cor.
iv:I). Josephus calls Moses rhv mrr]p{T-r\v GfoC,
Gods helper, Antiq. iii:i-4. Kings are so
called in Wisd. vi:4. (5) The word denotes, in
Luke iv:20, the attendant in a synagogue who
handed the volume to the reader, and returned it
to its place. (6) In Acts xiii :5 it is applied to
'John whose surname was Mark.' in his capacity
as an attendant or assistant on Barnabas and
Saul. It primarily signifies an under-rower on
board a galley, of the class who used the longest
oars, and consequently performed the severest
duty, as distinguished from the llirnn-ee'tacc
IpavlTi)!, the rower upon the upper bench of the
three, and from the hoi-naw'tay, 0! foDroi, sailors,
or the ep-ee-bat'ay, iTi^irat, marines (Dem. 1209.
II, 14; comp. also 1208, 20; 1214, 23; 1216, 13;
Pol. i, 25, 3) ; hence iii general a hand, agent,
minister, attendant, eitc. J. F. D.
TttJNNI (min'ni), (Heb. "^r, min-ttee', division)
S4»» -4«»WKNIA.
MINNITH (rain'nitb), (Meb. ^'■>'<^, min-necth'.
distribution), a town in the country of the Ammon-
ites (Judg. xi:33), celebrated (or the excellence ot
its wheat, which was exported to the markets of
lyre (Ezek. xxvii;i7).
It still existed in the age of Eusebius (our Roman
miles from Heshbon, on the road to Philadelphia.
The Sept. seem to have found difficulty in this
name. In Judg. xi 133 they substitute the name
of the Arnon, and in Ezek. xxvii:l7 they render
it by fivpov, 'myrrh.'
It was probably located about four Roman
miles east of Heshbon, now thought to be Mineh,
where there are traces of terraces and walls.
MINSTREL (mia'strel),(Heb.l"'iP,w^«-a^-,^a>'«',
one striking the harp; Or. aiXrir-qs, ow-lay-taee' , a
musician).
Perhaps the minstrel which Elisha called for,
to allay his ruffled spirit with a tune, might be
one of the singers of the Temple, who played to
him one of David's Psalms (2 Kings iii:i5).
From minstrels playing at the death of Jairus's
daughter, it seems, that the Jews had introduced
the heathenish custom of diverting themselves on
occasion of mortality; and which still appears in
foolish light-wakes and reveling dirges (Matt, ix:
2i). Brown.
MINT (mint). See Heduosmon.
MIPHKAD (ralph'kad), (Heb. "E?^, mtf-kawcf,
appointment, census), a gate at Jerusalem (Neh.
iii. 31), probably identical with the prison gate
(Nell. xii:39), under the bridge over the Tyropceon
valley.
MIRACLES (mir'a-k'ls), (Lat. miraculum, frona
iinrari. to wonder).
God sees fit to carry on his common operations
un established and uniform principles.
(1) The Laws of Nature. These principles,
whether relating to the physical or moral world,
are called the laxus of nature. And by the laws
of nature the most enlightened philosophers and
divines have understood the uniform plan accord-
ing to which, or the uniform manner in which,
God exercises his power throughout the created
universe.
This uniform method of divine operation is evi-
<lently conducive to the most important ends. It
manifests the immutable wisdom and goodness of
God, and, in ways too many to be here specified,
promotes the welfare of his creatures. SVithout
the influence of this uniformity, rational beings
woi'ld have no effectual motive to effort, and the
affairs of the universe, intelligent and unintelli-
gent, would be in a state of total confusion. And
this general fact may he considered as a sufficient
reason why God, in the common course of his
providence, has adopted a uniform method of
operation in preference to any other.
(2) Divine Interposition. But if. in con-
ducting the affairs of his great empire, God sees,
in any particular case, as good a reason for a
dcvia,lion from this uniform order, as there is
generally for uniformity, that is. if the glory of
his attributes and the good of his creatures re-
quire it — and no one can say that such a case may
not occur — then, unquestionably, the unchangeable
God will cause such a deviation ; in other words,
will work miracles.
It is admitted that no man. apart from the
knowledge of facts, could ever, by mere reason-
ing, have arrived at a confident belief, that the
conjuncture supposed would certainly occur. But
to us, who know that mankind are so depraved
MIRACLES
1168
MIRACLES
and wretched, and that the efforts of human wis-
dom to obtain relief have been in vain, the im-
portance of a special divine interposition is very-
apparent. And being informed what the plan is,
which a merciful God has adopted for our recov-
ery to holiness and happiness, and being satisfied
that this plan, so perfectly suited to the end in
view, could never have been discovered by man,
and never executed, except by a divine dispensa-
tion involving miracles, we conclude that the
introduction of a new and miraculous dispensa-
tion was in the highest degree an honor to God
and a blessing to the world.
(3) Revelation. The method of divine ap-
pointment, as set forth in the sacred volume, is
that of making a revelation to a number of in-
dividuals, who are to write and publish it for the
benefit of the world. This revelation to individ-
uals is made in such a manner as renders it cer-
tain to their minds, that the revelation is from
God. But how can that revelation be made avail-
able to others? It will not answer the purpose
for those who receive it merely to declare that
God has made such a revelation to them, and
authorized them to proclaim it to their fellow
creatures. For how shall we know that they
are not deceivers? Or if their character is such
as to repel any suspicion of this kind, how shall
we know that they are not themselves deceived?
(4) Attestation. Have we not a right, nay,
are we not bound in duty, to ask for evidence?
But what evidence will suffice? The reply is ob-
vious. The revelation, in order to be of use to
us, as it is to those who receive it directly from
God, must not only be declared by them to us,
but must have a divine attestation. In other
words, those who declare it to us must show,
bv some incontestable proof, that it is from God.
Such proof is found in a miracle. If an event
takes place which we know to be contrary to the
laws of nature, we at once recognize it as the
special act of him who is the God of nature, and
who alone can suspend its laws, and produce
effects in another way. The evidence of a direct
interposition of God given in this way is irresist-
ible. No man, no infidel, could witness an ob-
vious miracle, without being struck with awe,
and recognizing the finger of God.
It is clear that no event which can be ac-
counted for on natural principles, can prove a
supernatural interposition, or contain a divine
attestation to the truth of a prophet's claim. But
when we look at an event which cannot be traced
to the laws of nature, and is clearly above them,
such as the burning of the wood upon the altar
in the case of Elijah's controversy with the false
prophets, or the resurrection of Lazarus, we can-
not avoid the conviction, that the Lord of heaven
and earth does, by such a miracle, give his testi-
mony, that Elijah is his prophet, and that Jesus
is the Messiah. The evidence arising from mir-
acles is so striking and conclusive, that there is
no way for an infidel to evade it, but to deny
the existence of miracles, and to hold that all the
events called miraculous may be accounted for
according to the laws of nature.
(5) Uniform Experience. Hume arrays uni-
form experience against the credibility of miracles.
But the shallow sophistry of his argument has
been fully expo>ied by Campbell, Paley and many
others. We inquire what and how much he
means by uniform e.rperience. Does he mean his
own experience? But because lie has never wit-
nessed a miracle, does it follow that others have
not? Does he mean the uniform experience of
the greater part of mankind? But how does he
know that the experience of a smaller part has
not been different from that of the greater part?
Does he mean, then, the uniform experience of
all mankind in all ages? How, then, does his
argument stand? He undertakes to prove that
no man has ever witnessed or experienced a mir-
acle, and his real argument is, that no one has
ever witnessed or experienced it. In other words,
to prove that there has never been a miracle, he
asserts that there never has been a miracle. This
is the nature of his argument — an instance of
petitio principii, to which a man of Hume's logical
powers would never have resorted, had it not
been for his enmity to religion.
(6) Genuineness. The miraculous events re-
corded in the Scriptures, particularly those which
took place in the times of Moses and Christ, have
all the marks which are necessary to prove them
to have been matters of fact, and worthy of full
credit, and to distinguish them from the feats
of jugglers and impostors. This has been shown
very satisfactorily by Leslie, Paley, Douglas, and
many others. These miracles took place in the
most public manner, and in the presence of many
witnesses; so that there was opportunity to sub-
ject them to the most searching scrutiny. Good
men and bad men were able and disposed to ex-
amine them thoroughly, and to prove them to have
been impostures, if they had been so.
A large number of men of unquestionable hon-
esty and intelligence constantly affirmed that the
miracles took place before their eyes. And some
of these original witnesses wrote and published
histories of the facts, in the places where they
were alleged to have occurred, and near the time
of their occurrence. In these histories it was
openly asserted that the miracles, as described,
were publicly known and acknowledged to have
taken place; and this no one took upon him to
contradict, or to question. Moreover, many per-
sons who stood forth as witnesses of these mir-
acles passed their lives in labors, dangers, and
sufferings, in attestation of the accounts they
delivered, and solely in consequence of their be-
lief of the truth of those accounts; and, from
the same motive, they voluntiirily submitted to
new rules of conduct ; while nothing like this is
true respecting any other pretended miracles. (See
Paley's Evidences.)
(7) Wicked Spirits. It has been a long agi-
tated question, whether miracles have ever been
wrought, or can be consistently supposed to be
wrought, by apostate spirits.
It is sufficient to say here, that it would be
evidently inconsistent with the character of God
to empower or to suffer wicked beings to work
miracles in support of falsehood. And if wicked
spirits in the time of Cfirist had power to pro-
duce preternatural effects upon the minds or bodies
of men, and if those effects are to be ranked
among real miracles (which, however, we do not
affirm), still the end of miracles is not contra-
vened. For those very operations of evil spirits
were under the control of divine providence, and
were made in two ways to subserve the cause of
Christ. First, they furnished an occasion, as
doubtless they were designed to do, for Christ to
show his power over evil spirits, and, by his su-
perior miracles, to give a new proof of his Mes-
siahship. Secondly, the evil spirits themselves
were constrained to give their testimony, that
Jesus was the Christ, the Holy One of Israel.
(8) Close of Dispensation. As to the time
when the miraculous dispensation ceased, wc
can only remark that the power of working
miracles, which belonged preeminently to Christ
MIRAGE
1169
MIRROR
and his apostles, and, in inferior degrees, to many
other Christians in the apostolic age, subsided
gradually. After the great object of supernat-
ural works was accomplished in the establishment
of the Christian religion, with all its sacred truths,
and its divinely appointed institutions, during the
life of Christ and his apostles, there appears to
have been no further occasion for miracles, and
no satisfactory evidence that they actually oc-
curred. Wardlaw, On Miracles, 1852, N. Y. ;
Trench, Miracles of Our Lord; Evans, Christian
Miracles, Lond., 1861 ; McCosh, The Supernat-
ural in Relation to the Natural; Mozley, Lectures
on Miracles (Bampton, 1865) ; Mountford. Mir-
acles, Past and Present (Boston, 1870) ; Upham,
Star of Our Lord (N. Y., 1873) ; Fowle, Religion
and Science (1873); Christlieb. Mod. Doubts,
1874; Smith, First Lines of Christian Theol.
L. W.
of Kadesh-barnea (Num. xx:l), where her sepul-
cher was still to be seen in the time of Eusebius.
2. Son of Mered, a man of Judah, a descendant
of Caleb and Ezra (i Chron. iv:i7), B. C. about
1658.
MmHA (mir'ma), (Heb. '^91^, meer-maw' , de-
ceit), a chief of the tribe of Benjamin; the son of
Shaharaim by Hodesh (I Chron. viii:lo). B. C.
after l6i2.
MIKBOK,(mir'rer),(Heb. '"'?"3^, war-aa/', Exod.
xxxviii;8; "^1, reh-ee' , Job xxxviiilS).
In the first of these passages the mirrors in the
possession of the women of the Israelites, when
they left Egypt, are described as being of brass ;
for 'the laver of brass, and the foot of it,' are
made from them. In the second, the firmament is
compared to 'a molten mirror.' In fact, all the
MIRACLES IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE.
MIRACLES.
PLACE.
RECORD.
The outpouring of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost.
Miracles by the apostles
Lame man cured
Death of Ananias and Sapphira
Apostles delivered from prison
Miracles by Stephen
Miracles by Philip
/Eneas made whole
Dorcas restored to life
Peter delivered from prison
Ely mas struck blind
Miracles by Paul and Barnabas
Lame man cured
Paul restored
Unclean spirits cast out
Paul and Silas delivered from
Special miracles
Eutychus restored to life
Paul unhurt by a viper
Father of Publius and many others healed.
prison .
Jerusalem
erusalem
Jerusalem
Jerusalem
erusalem
erusalem
Samaria
Lydda
Joppa
Jerusalem
Paphos
Iconium
Lystra
Lystra
Philippi
Philippi
Ephesus
Troas
Melita
Melita
Acts ii:l-ll
Acts ii:43; v:I2, if, 16
Acts iii:7
Acts v:I, 10
Acts v:I9
Acts vi:8
Acts viii;6, 7, 13
Acts ix:34
Acts ix:40
Acts xii:6-IO
Acts xiii:ll
.\cts xiv:3
Acts xiv:lo
Acts xiv:20
Acts xvi:i8
Acts xvi:25, 26
Acts xix:ll, 12
Acts xx:io-l2
Acts xxviii:5
Acts xxviii:8, 9
(For Table Miracles of Jesus Christ, see Appendix, p. 54.)
SHRAGE (me'razh'), an optical illusion fre-
quently witnessed in the East (Heb. ^^Y, shaw-
rawb' , "parched ground," Is. xxxv:7; "heat,"
xlix:io). (See Parched Ground.)
MIRIAM (mir'i-am), (Heb. '"tI^, meer-yawm' ,
bitterness; Sept. Ma/jid/n, Mariam ; Josephus, Mo/jt-
i^M), Mariamne).
!• Sister of Moses and Aaron, and supposed
to be the same that watched her infant brother
when exposed on the Nile ; in which case she
was probably ten or twelve years old at the time
(Exod. ii :4. sq.). When the Israelites left Egypt,
Miriam naturally became the leading woman
among them., She is called 'a prophetess' (Exod.
xv:20). After the passage of the Red Sea, she
led the music, dance and song, with which the
women celebrated their deliverance (Exod. xv :
20-22). The arrival of Moses' wife in the camp
seems to have created in her an unseemly dread
of losing her influence and position, and led her
into complaints of and dangerous reflections upon
Moses, in which Aaron joined. For this she was
smitten with leprosy, and, although healed at the
intercession of Moses, was excluded for seven
days from the camp (Num. xii ; Deut. .xxiv:^).
Her death took place in the first month of the
fortieth year after the Exodus, at the encampment
74
mirrors used in ancient times were of metal ; and
as those of the Hebrew women in the wilderness
were brought out of Egypt, they were doubtless
of the same kind as those which have been found
in the tombs of that country, and many of which
now exist in our museums and collections of
Egpytian antiquities. These are of mixed metals,
chiefly copper, most carefully wrought and highly
polished; and so admirably did the skill of the
Egyptians succeed in the composition of metals
that this substitute for our modern looking-glass
was susceptible of a luster which has even been
partially revived at the present day in some ot
those discovered at Thebes, though buried in the
earth for so many centuries. The mirror itself
was nearly round, and was inserted in a handle
of wood, stone, or metal, the form of which
varied according to the taste of the owner. (See
Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, iii :384-386.)
The metal of which the mirrors were com-
posed, being liable to rust and tarnish, required
to be constantly kept bright (Wisd. vii:26: Ec-
clus. xii :ii). This was done by means of pounded
pumiee-st«ne. rubbed on with a sponge, which
was generally suspended from the mirror. "The
obscure image produced by a tarnished or im-
perfect mirror appears to be alluded to in I Cor.
xiii:i2. (Smith, Bib. Diet.) (See Glass; Look-
ing-glass.)
MISCHIEF
1170
MITHREDATH
MISCHIEF. Several words in the Scriptures
are thus rendered;
1. Rah (Heb. '^\ bad, evil, sorrow, adversity,
affliction, etc. (Exod. xxxii:l2, 22; I Sam. xxiiirg
2 Sam xvi:8; i Kings xi;25, etc).
2. Aw'ven (Heb. 1^?, perhaps panting), to ap-
ply oneself in vain, and applied to idolatry, wicked-
ness, injustice, etc. (Ps. lv:io; lxii;3; Ezek. xi:2).
3. Aw-sone' (Heb. V'^?, meaning harm, hurt),
(Gen. xlii:4, 38; Exod. xxi;22, 23; xxxii:l2, 22).
4. Aiv-mawl' (Heb. '??, toil, wearing effort),
worry of mind, undue strain of the body, or wrong-
doing as resulting in sorrow, trouble, etc. (Ps. vii:
14, 16; xciv;2o; Prov. xxiv:2; Is. lix. 4).
5. Hrad-ee-oorg-ee' a (Gr. fifSiovpyia, ease in do-
ing, cunning, overreaching, unscrupulousness (Acts
xiii:io, R. V. "villainy").
Figurative, (l) To imagine mt'sc/tze/ against
God is to contrive methods of dishonoring him
(Hos. vii:i5). (2) Wicked men have mischief
under their tongue, in their heart, and are in
readiness to utter words, tending to their own
or others' hurt (Ps. x:7). (3) They sleep not
except they have done mischief, and caused some
to fall ; they daily hurt somebody, and are never
more delighted than when so employed (Prov.
iv:i6 and vi:i8 and x:23 and xxiv:2). (4)
Their mischief returns on their head, and the
mischief of their lips consumes them, when their
purposes, endeavors, and speeches, designed for
the hurt of others, turn to their own ruin, as
happened in the case of Haman (Ps. yii:i6 and
lii:2). Mischievous, is what tends or intends to
hurt (Ps. xxi:li; Prov. xxiv:8).
MISGAB (mis'gab), (Heb. ^Jpa, mis-gawb' ,
height), a city of Moab, on the line of march of the
invading Assyrians (Jer. xlviiirl), but not identified.
MISHAEL (mTsh'a-el), (Heb. S'"^^^ ,77tee-shaw-
ale' , who is like God?)
1. One of the three companions of Daniel,
who were cast into the burning furnace by
Nebuchadnezzar, and were miraculously deliv-
ered from it (Dan. iii: 13-30). The Chaldaean
name was Meshach (Dan. i:;). B. C. about 580.
2. One of those who stood at Ezra's left when
he expounded the law to the people (Neh. viii:4),
B. C. 410.
3. A T.pvite, son of Uzziel, and grandson of
Kohath (Exod. vi:22). He, with his brother
Elzaphan, were ordered by Moses to bury the
bodies of the two men who were struck dead
for oflrering strange fire (Lev. x:4), B. C. 1657.
Perhaps the same two are intended in Num. ix :6.
IflSHAIi (rai'shal), (Heb. ''?'?'?, mish-awr , de-
pression).
A city of Asher, yielded to the Levites of the
family of Gershom (l Chron. vi:74), is said by
Eusebius to have been in the vicinity of Mount
Carmel near the sea. In Josh, xix :26, it is called
Misheal, and in xxi :30, Mishal. Not identified.
MISHAM (mi'sham), (Heb. 2^:"y^, mish-awm' ,
purification or swift going), a Benjamite, son of
Elpaal, and one of the restorers of Ono and Lod
(i Chron. viii:i2), B. C. after 1612.
MISHEAL (mi'she-al), (Josh. xix:26). See Mis-
hal.
MISHMA (mish'ma), (Heb. ^'^"4'?, mish-maw'.
lame or report).
!• A Simeonite, son of Mibsam (l Chron. iv:
25, 26), B. C. before 1053.
2. Fifth son of Ishmael, and head of an
Arabian tribe (Gen. xxv:i4; i Chron. i:3o). A
trace of the name is perhaps to be found in the
Jebel Misma, between Damascus and Jarif, or the
one 150 miles east of Taima.
MISHMANNAH (mish-man'nah), (Heb. ^^I^'??.
}>iish-man-?iaiv' , strength, fatness, vigor), a Gadite
who came to David at Ziklag (I Chron. xii;io)
B. C. about 1061.
MISHNAH (mish'nah). See TALMUD.
MISHBAITES (mlsh'ra-ites), (Heb. 'i'Tf'?^-
kam-mish-ratu-ee'), the inhabitants of a place
founded by one of the families of Kirjath-jearim,
but not otherwise mentioned (I Chron. ii:53).
MISPERETH (mis'pe-reth), (Heb. '^'1?'?. mis-
peh-retli' , writing), one of those who returned from^
the captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii 7); else-
where (Ezra ii:2) MiZPAR.
MISREPHOTH-MAIM (mis're-photh-ma'ira),
(Heb. ^".^ ^''^''^^, mis-re/-o/A' j>!aA'}'zm, b\irn'mg
of waters), a place or district near Sidon (Josh. xi;8;
xiii:6). The name means 'burnings of water,'
which Kimchi understands of warm baths ; but
more probably it means burnings by or besides the
water — either lime kilns or smelting furnaces, sit-
uated near water (Gesenius). It is probably cor-
rectly identified with el Musheirifeh, about eleven
miles north of Acre, near the sea.
MIST (mist), (Heb. "'i'?, ade,Q<ixv. ii:6), an ascend-
ing vapor, fog or cloud suspended in the atmos-
phere (Job xxxvi;27).
MITE (rait), (Gr. XeirTi>»,/^/-fo«', thin, scale-like).
A small piece of money, two of which made a
KoSpdwijs, a quadrans — four of the latter being
equal to the Roman as. The as was of less weight
and value in later than in early times. Its origi-
nal value was 3.4 farthings, and afterwards 2%
farthings. The latter was its value in the time
of Christ, and the mite being one-eighth of that
sum, was little more than one-fourth of an Eng-
lish farthing, or an eighth of a cent. It was the
smallest coin known to the Hebrews (Luke xii :
59). (See Weights and Measures.)
MITER (mi'ter).
1. Mits-nek'fetk (Heb. f^?.^V^, tiara, Exod.
xxviii:4, 37, 39; xxix:6, etc). The turban or head-
dress of the high priest.
2. Tsaw-neef (Heb. T^?, headdress, Zech. iii:;
only); translated "diadem," (Job xxix.14), "hood,"
(Is. iii:23). (See Crown; Dress.)
MITHCAH (mlth'kah), (Heb. '^^9^, mith-kaw' ,
sweet place, or sweetness), one of the encamp-
ments of the Israelites (Num. xxxiii:28, 29). See
Wandering, The.
MITHNITE (mUh'nite), (Heb. "^'7^, mith-nee'),
the appellation of Joshaphat, one of David's body-
guard (l Chron. xi:43), probably meaning the in-
habitant of a place or member of a tribe by the
name of Methen of which there is no other notice.
MITHREDATH (mith're-dath), (Heb. '^1?'7'?>
mith-fed-awth' , given by Mithra, the sun god).
1. The treasurer of Cyrus, king of Persia, who
was ordered to return the sacred vessels of the
Jews to the chief Sheshbazzar (Ezra l;8), B. C. 536.
2. A Persian governor of Samaria, who joined
in urging Artaxerxes Longimanus to prevent the
jews from rebuilding the walls of lerusalem (Ezra
•V 7), B. C. 522.
MITYLENE
1171
MlZRAIM
MITYIiENE (mit'y-le'ne), (Gr. MiTi/Xi)nj, mit-oo-
iay'nay).
The capital of the isle of Lesbos, in the ^gean
Sea, about seven miles and a half from the op-
posite point on the coast of Asia Minor. It was
a well-built town, but unwholesomely situated.
It was the native place of Pittacus, Theophanes,
Theophrastus, Sappho, Alcseus, and Diophanes.
St. Paul touched at Mitylene in his voyage from
Corinth to Judaea (Acts xx:i4). It does not ap-
pear that any Christian church was established at
this place in the apostolic age. No mention is
made of it in eccelsiastical history until a late
period ; and in the second century heathenism was
so rife in Mitylene that a man was annually sacri-
ficed to Dionysus. In the fifth, sixth, seventh
and eighth centuries, we, however, find bishops of
Mitylene present at several councils (Magdeburg,
Hist. Eccles. Cent., ii:i95; v:6; vi:6; vii :4, 253,
254; viii:6). Mitylene still exists, and has given
its name, in the form of Mytilni, or Metelin, to
the whole island ; but it is now a place of no im-
portance under Turkish rule. The people are
chiefly Greek. (See Harper, Class Diet.)
MIXED MARRIAGES, i. e., between Jews
and Gentiles, were strictly forbidden by the Mo-
saic law. (See Marriage.)
MIXED MULTITUDE (Heb. 2"!?, ay'reb, mix-
ture). See Mingled People.
MIZAR (mi'zar), (Heb. "^i'V?, }>tits-ar' , little,
small); probably a summit of Lebanon, east of the
Jordan, where David retreated from the rebellion
of Absalom (Ps. xlii;6). Site not known.
MIZFAH (miz'pah), (Heb. '"'??'?, tniis-paw',
watch-tower), is the name of several towns and
places in lofty situations whether furnished with a
watch-tower or not.
!• A town or city in Gilead (Judg. x:l7; xi :
II, 34; Hos. v:i). The place originated in the
heap of stones set up by Laban, and to which
he gave his name (Gen. xxxi:4g). Some con-
found this with the Mizpeh of Gilead in Judg.
xi:29; but it is better to distinguish them (see
Mizpeh, 3).
2. A city of Benjamin, where the people were
wont to convene (Josh. xviii:26; Judg. xx:i, 3;
xxi:i; i Sam. vii:s-i6; x:i7, sq.). It was after-
wards fortified by Asa, to protect the borders
against the kingdom of Israel (l Kings xv:22; 2
Chron. xvi:6). In later times it became the resi-
dence of the governor under the Chaldaeans (Jer.
xl :6, sq.; comp. Neh. iii 7, 15, 19). In one place
the name occurs with e, Mizpeh (Heb. ' '??*?«
inits-peh'). Its position is nowhere mentioned in
Scripture or by Josephus, but it could not have
been far from Ramah, since King Asa fortified it
with materials taken from that place : and that it
was situated on an elevated spot is clear from its
name — Neby Samwil (Prophet Samuel) — which,
although somewhat distant from Er-Ram, Dr.
Robinson {Researches, ii :I44) inclines to regard
as the probable site of Mizpah, especially as in i
Mace, iii :46 it is described as 'over against Jeru-
salem,' implying that it was visible from that city,
which is true of Neby Samwil. This place is now
a poor village, seated upon the summit of an ele-
vated ridge. It contains a mosque, now in a state
of decay, which, on the ground of the apparently
erroneous identification with Ramah, is regarded
by Jews, Christians and Moslems as the tomb of
Samuel.
"Grove, Stanley, Bonar, Major Wilson and
Others would identify Mizpah with Mount Scopus,
one of the summits just north of Jerusalem, in
the continuation of the Olivet range. From this
place the traveler gets a very complete view of
the Holy City, and from there the emperor Titus
looked down upon it. Not far away is the mod-
ern village of Shafat. Conder notes that a part
of the ridge is called Arkilb es-Siiffa, or, "the
ridge of the view." Eusebius and Jerome located
Mizpah near Kirjath-jearim, and Conder notes
a ■ S/ul/a immediately south of Kuryet el-Anab
(Kirjath-jearim), a name having exactly the
same meaning with Mizpah — viz., "place of view."
Conder also says that there is a place called
U}nni Siiffa, equivalent to the Hebrew Mizpah,
existing on the road from Samaria to Jerusalem,
which would be a suitable position for the Miz-
pah of Jeremiah (xl, xli), which is not necessarily
the Mizpah of Samuel {Quarterly, 1876, p. 171).
But his final conclusion is that Mizpah and Nob
are identical. Whether the Mizpah of Hosea
(v:i) was in Benjamin or in Gilead is uncertain"
(Schaff, Bib. Diet.). (See Mizpeh.)
MIZPAR (miz'par), (Ezra ii:2). See MlSPER-
ETH.
MIZPEH (miz'peh), (Heb. '"'IJ^'P, tnits-peh,
feminine form).
This name has the same meaning and applica-
tion as Mizpah, and is borne by several pla.ces
mentioned in Scripture.
1. A town in the plains of Judah (Josh, xv:
38). Eusebius and Jerome identify it with a place
which, in their time, bore the name of Mapha, on
the borders of Eleutheropolis southward, on the
road to /Elia or Jerusalem ; perhaps the modern
Tell cs-SaUch (Robinson, Researches, ii :362 flf.).
2. The place more usually called Mizpah, in the
tribe of Benjamin, is once called Mizpeh (Josh.
xviii:26). (See Mizp.\h 2.)
3. Mizpeh of Galilee, through or by which
Jephthah passed in his pursuit of the Ammonites
Mizpeh (The Watch-Tower of Benjamin).
(Judg. xi:29). Some think it the same with
Mizpah, i ; and it is possibly the same with the
Ramath-mizpeh of Josh, xiii :26.
4. K valley in the region of Lebanon (Josh.
xi:8; comp. xi:3). Not identified.
5. A town of Moab, to which David took his
parents that they might avoid the persecutions
of Saul (i Sam. xxii:3).
MlZRAIM (mtz'ra-Tra), (Heb. °"!^V?, mits-rah'-
yim, or Land of Mizraim), the name by which,
in Scri])ture, Egypt is generally designated, ap-
parently from its having been peopled by Mii-
raim, the son of Ham (Gen. x). "rhis ancient title
MIZZAH
1172
MOABITES
is still preserved in Misr, the existing Arabic name
of tlie country. (See Egypt.)
MIZZAH (miz'zah), (Heb. '^P, miz-zaw' , fear),
son of Reuel, son of Esau by Bashemath; a cliief
of an Edomite tribe (Gen. xxxvi:3, 4, 13, 17; I
Chron. 1:37). B. C. after 1927.
MNASON (na'son), Gr. Mi/d<rmv, mnah'sohlt, re-
minding), an 'old disciple" with whom St. Paul
lodged when at Jerusalem in A. D. 58 (Acts
xxi:i6).
He seems to have been a native of Cyprus, but
an inhabitant of Jerusalem, like Joses and Bar-
nabas. Some think that he was converted by
Paul and Barnabas while at Cyprus (Acts xiii :9) ;
but the designation 'an old disciple,' has more
generally induced the conclusion that he was con-
verted by Jesus himself, and was perhaps one of
the seventy.
SIOAB (mo'ab), (Heb. "^W'"^, mo-awb' , from
father), son of Lot and his eldest daughter (Gen.
xix:30-38). He was born about the same time as
Isaac, and became the founder of the Moabites.
MOABITES (mo'ab-ites), (Heb. '5?''^, mo-aw-
bee' ; ^'^^''^ , >/io-aw-te£?M'), a tribe descended from
Moab, the son of Lot, and consequently related to
the Hebrews (Gen. xix;37).
(1) Territory. Previous to the exodus of the
latter from Egypt, the former, after expelling the
original inhabitants, called Eminis (Gen, xiv:5;
Deut. ii:li), had possessed themselves of the
region on the east of the Dead Sea and the
Jordan, as far north as the river Jabbok. But
the northern, and indeed the finest and best,
portion of the territory, viz., that extending from
the Jabbok to the Arnon, had passed into the
hands of the Amorites, who founded there one
of their kingdoms, with Heshbon for its capital
(Num. xxi:26). Og had established another at
Bashan. Hence at the time of the Exodus the
valley and river Arnon constituted the northern
boundary of Moab (Num. xxi:i3; Judg. xi:i8;
Joseph. Antiq. iv:S, i). As the Hebrews ad-
vanced in order to take possession of Canaan,
they did not enter the proper territory of the
Moabites (Deut. ii:g; Judg. xi:i8), but conquered
the kingdom of the Amorites (a Canaanitish
tribe), which had formerly belonged to Moab;
whence the western part, lying along the Jor-
dan, frequentlv occurs under the name of 'plains
of Moab' (Deut. i:s).
(2) Moab and Israel. The Moabites, fearing
the numbers that were marching around them,
showed them at least no kindness (Deut. xxiii 14) ;
and their king (Balak) hired Balaam to utter
prophetic curses, which, however, were converted
into blessings in his mouth (Num. xii sg.). The
Gadites now took possession of the northern
portion of this territory, which the Amorites had
wrested from the Moabites, and established them-
selves there ; while the Reubenites settled in
the southern part (Num. xxxii:34; comp._ Josh,
xiii, which, however, differs somewhat in the
designation of particular towns).
We see the first hostilities breaking out in the
beginning of the period of the Judges, when the
Hebrews had been for a long time tributary to the
Moabites, but threw off their yoke under Ehud
(Judg. iii :l2-3o). Towards the end of this period,
however, peace and friendship were restored, mu-
tual honors were reciprocated (as the history of
Ruth shows), and Moab appears often to have
afforded a place of refuge to outcasts and emi-
grant Hebrews (Ruth i:i; comp. I Sam. xxii:
3, 4; Jer. xl:ii; Is. xvi:2). After Saul had
waged successful war against them (i Sam. xiv:
47), David made them tributary (2 Sam. viii :2,
12; xxiii :20). The right to levy this tribute
seems to have been transferred to Israel after the
division of the kingdom ; for upon the death of
Ahab (about B. C. 896) they refused to pay the
customary tribute of 100,000 lambs and as many
rams (2 Kings i:i; iii 14; comp. Is. xvi:l).
Jehoram (B. C, 896), in alliance with Judah and
Edom, sought indeed to bring them back to their
subjection. The invading army, after havingf
been preserved from perishing by thirst through
the intervention of Eligha, defeated the Moabites
and ravaged the country; but, through the strange
conduct of the king, in offering up in sacrifice his
son (Mesha), were induced to retire without com-
pleting the object of the expedition. The Moabites
deeply resented the part which the king of Judah
took in this invasion, and formed a powerful con-
federacy with the Ammonites, Edomites, and
others, w'ho marched in great force into Judaea,
and formed their camp at Engedi, where they
fell out among themselves and destroyed each
other through the special interposition of Provi-
dence, in favor of Jehoshaphat and his people (2
Kings iii :4, sq.; comp. 2 Chron. xx:i-3o). (See
Elisha; Jehoram; Jehoshaphat.) Under Je-
hoash (B. C. 849) we see them undertake incur-
sions into the kingdom of Israel, and carry on
offensive war against it (2 Kings xiii:2o).
Though the subsequent history of Israel often
mentions the Moabites, yet it is silent respecting
a circumstance which, in relation to one passage,
is of the greatest importance, namely, the re-
conquest of the territory between the Arnon and
the Jabbok, which was wrested from the Moabites
by the Amorites, and afterwards of the territory
possessed by the tribes of Reuben and Gad. This
territory in general we see, according to Is. xvi,
in the possession of the Moabites again. Even
Selah, the ancient capital of the Edomites, seems
likewise, from Is. xvi :i, to have belonged to them,
at least for a time. The most natural supposition
is that of Reland (Palastina, p. 720), Paulus
(Clavis, p. no), and Rosenmiiller {in loc), that,
after the carrying away of those tribes into cap-
tivity, the Moabites occupied their territory; as it
is expressly stated (Jer. xlix:i-5) that the Am-
orites intruded themselves into the territory of
the captive Gadites, as the Edomites did in re-
spect to the Jews at a later period (Joseph, De
Bell. Jtid. V. 79),
(3) irnder Nebuchadnezzar. Still later, un-
der Nebuchadnezzar, we see the Moabites acting
as the auxiliaries of the Chald.-eans (2 Kings
xxiv:2), and beholding with malicious satisfac-
tion the destruction of a kindred people (Ezek.
xxv:8-Il); yet, according to an account in Jo-
sephus (Antiq. x.g. 7). Nebuchadnezzar, when
on his way to Egypt, made war upon them, and
subdued them, together with the Ammonites, five
years after the destruction of Jerusalem.
(4) National Hostility. That continual wars
and contentions must have created a feeling of
national hostility between the Hebrews and the
Moabites, may be readily conceived. This feeling
manifested itself on the part of the Hebrews,
sometimes in bitter proverbs, sometimes in the
denunciations of the prophets; on the part of the
Moabites in proud boastings and expressions of
contempt (Is. -xvi:6).
Among the prophecies, however, that of Balaam
(Num. xxii-xxiv) is, above all, remarkable, in
which this ancient prophet (who withal was not
an Israelite), hired by Moab to curse, is impelled
MOABITES
1173
MOABITE STONE
Dy the Divine Spirit to bless Israel, and to an-
nounce the future destruclion of Moab by a
mighty hero in Israel (Num. xxiv:i7). It is a
genuine epic representation worthy of tlie greatest
poet of any age. Nor should we overlook the
song of triumph and scorn respecting Moab, sug-
gested by Heshbon. and obscure only as to its
origin (Num. xxi:i7-3o). Among the later proph-
ets, Amos (ii:i-3) predicts their destruction in
consequence of their cruelty to the king of Edom ;
probably with reference to the war recorded in 2
Kings iii, when the Edomites were confederate
with the Hebrews; although the particular in-
stance of cruelty is not there specified. Zcphaniah
(ii:8-lo) condemns them to punishment for their
scorn and contempt of Israel. Jeremiah rcoeats
the denunciation of evil predicted by Zephaniah,
for the most part in the words of Numbers and
Isaiah (Jer. xlviii ; comp. also ix:26; .xxv:2i);
and Ezekiel threatens them with punishment for
their malicious joy at the overthrow of Judxa
(xxv:6-il). Moreover, the subjection of Moab
finds a place in every ideal description of splendid
wars and golden ages predicted for Israel (Is. xi :
14; XXV :io; Ps. lx:8). 'Moab is my wash-pot'
(Ps. Ixxxiii:6).
(5) After the Exile. After the Exile, an in-
timate connection between the two nations had
found place by means of intermarriages (Ezra
ix:i, sg.; Neh. xiii:i), which, however, were
dissolved by the theocratic zeal of Ezra. The
last (chronologically) notice of the Moabites
which occurs in Scripture is in Dan. xi :4I, which
contains an obscure intimation of the escape of
the Moabites from the overthrow with which
neighboring countries would be visited ; but Jo-
sephus, in the history of Alexander Jannaeus, men-
tions the cities between Arnon and Jabbok under
the title of cities of Moab (Antiq. xiii:i5).
Thenceforth their name is lost under that of the
Arabians, as was also the case with Ammon and
Edom.
From Burckhardt (Travels in Syria), Robin-
son and others, we learn that in the land of Moab,
whicli lay to the east and southeast of Jud^a, and
which bordered on the cast, northeast and partly
on the south of the Dead Sea, the soil is rather
more diversified than that of Ammon ; and, where
the desert and plains of salt have not encroached
upon its borders, of equal fertility. There are
manifest and abundant signs of its ancient im-
portance. The whole of the plains are covered
with the sites of towns on every eminence or spot
convenient for the construction of one; and as
the land is capable of rich cultivation, there can
be no doubt that the country now so deserted,
once presented a continued picture of plenty and
fertility (Irby and Mangles, p. 378). The form of
fields is still visible, and there are remains of
Roman highways which are in some places com-
pletely paved, 'and on which there are milestones
of tlie times of Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Sev-
erus, with the numbers of the miles legible upon
them. Wherever any spot is cultivated the corn
is luxuriant; and the frequency and in many in-
stances the close vicinity of the sites of ancient
towns prove that the population of the country
was formerly proportioned to its fertility (Irby
and Mangles, pp. 377, 378. 456. 460).
(6) Prophecies Fulfilled. It was in its state
of highest prosperity that the prophets foretold
that the cities of Moab should become desolate,
without any to dwell in them ; and accordingly
we find, that although the sites, ruins and names
of many ancient cities of Moab can be traced,
not one of them exists at the present day as ten-
anted by man. Porter indicates how completely
those various prophecies have been fulfilled, but
some of his statements require confirmation. From
Salcah he saw upward of thirty deserted towns
(Jer. xlviii :i5-24). The neglected and wild vine-
yards and fig trees are rifled by the Bedouins every
year in their periodical raids (verses 32, i;^). The
inhabitants hide themselves in the mountain-fast-
nesses, oppressed by Che robbers of the desert
on. the one hand and the robbers of the govern-
ment on the other (verses 28, 44). Cyril (3ra-
hani, who explored this region, found cities with
buildings in a good state of preservation, yet
everywhere uninhabited. "In the whole of these
vast plains, north and south, east and west, deso-
lation reigns supreme." The long-predicted doom
of Moab is now fulfilled, and the forty-eighth
chapter of Jeremiah is verified on the spot by
the traveler. There are twenty-seven references
to Moab in this chapter, and one hundred and
twenty-one in the Scriptures.
The argument for the in.spiration of the sacred
records deducible from this, among other facts
of the same kind, is produced with considerable
force by Dr. Keith in his work on Prophecy.
Gesenius, Comment, on Is. xv, xvi ; Introduct.
translated by W. S. Tyler, with Notes by Moses
Stuart, in Biblical Repos. for 1836. vol. vii, pp.
107-124; Keith's Evidence from Prophecy, pp.
153-165; and Land of Israel, 279-295; Pictorial
Bible, Notes to Deut. ii :2 ; Is. xvi, xvii ; Jer. xliii.
(See Rose. The Afghans the Ten Tribes; SchafF
Bib. Diet.)
MOABITESS (mo'abl-tess), (Heb. '?«<'i'5, mo-aw-
bee' , feminine of Moabite), a Moabitish woman
(Ruth i:22; ii:2i; iv:5, 19; 2 Chron. xxiv:26).
MOABITE STONE (rao-ab-Ite ston).
(1) How Discovered. This wonderful monu-
ment of the times of the events recorded in the
nr!'4*7X'«'«4.^j.i-ir.N"
Tbe Moabite Slooe.
Book of Kings was discovered by a missionary
by the name of F. Klein, in August, 1868. When
on his way to the Bekka, a friendly sheik drew
NiOABITE STONE
1174
MODERATE, MODERATION
his attention to a black basalt stone in the vicinity
of his tent at Dibon.
(2) Dimensions. This stone was about three
feet and ten inches in height, two feet in breadth,
and fourteen and a half inches in thick-
ness. It was rounded both at the top and bot-
tom to nearly the shape of a semicircle, and con-
tained an inscription on one side consisting of
thirty-four lines.
(3) Inscription Secured. Mr. Klein tried to
obtain it for the museum of Berlin, but nego-
tiations progressed slowly, and in the meantirne
squeezes were taken of the inscription. This
was most fortunate, for the Bedouins of the coun-
try, rather than give it up, broke the stone by
building a fire under it, and then pouring cold
water upon it, after which they distributed the
frag:nents among themselves, to be used as amu-
lets and charms. Happily, however, more than
half of the inscription remained intact, and the
squeezes and copies which had been obtained
nearly supply the lacunae in the text, as may be
seen from an inspection of the original monu-
ment now in the museum of the Louvre.
(4) Lajiguage. The language of the inscrip-
tion is almost identical with the ancient Hebrew,
and shows that in the tenth century before Christ
(the period to which it belongs) the Israelites
and Moabites had a common language. This in-
dicates that they sprang from a common ances-
try. There was, however, considerable dissim-
ilarity between the characters in which this lan-
guage was inscribed by the two nations, in con-
sequence of t;heir long separation from each other.
Still they bear an essential relationship which may
be readily recognized.
(5) By Whom Erected. The tablet tells its
own story, and shows that it was erected by
Mesha, king of Moab, in order to recount a vic-
tory which he obtained over the Israelites. Many
of Mesha's exploits are recounted, and the names
of various places are given which he claimed to
have either built or destroyed (B. C. 900). The
Moabites fought many a battle with Israel, but
Mesha, like the other. heathen kings, records only
his victories. This record, however, fills up a gap
in the brief account we have in the Books of the
Kings concerning the wars between Mesha and
Israel especially during the reign' of King Omri.
The Moabites had been reduced to subjection
by David, but after the separation of the king-
doms, they apparently regained their independ-
ence. During the reigns of Jeroboam and Ahab
they were again tributaries. But after the death
of Ahab, they again rebelled against the king of
Israel, as we learn from 2 Kings iii 14. The suc-
cessful insurrection here referred to, in Biblical
history, is recorded by Mesha himself on the
Moabite stone, and his victory is ascribed to
Chemosh, who is called "the god of Moab," and
referred to in i Kings xi 7 as "Chemosh the
abomination of Moab."
(6) Names Recorded. The stone record gives
the names of persons, places and events, which
are also given in the Books of Kings and Chron-
icles, together with others which are supplement-
ary. Jehovah is recognized as the God of Israel.
Chemosh is worshiped as the god of Moab, and
we find also tlie names of Dilion (Num. xxxii :34),
Ncbo. Baal-Mcon (Josh. xiii:i7), Ataroth (Num.
xxxii :34), and others, besides Horonaim (Is. xv :
5) and the River Arnon (Josh. xiii:l6).
This monument has attracted much attention
in the world of scholars, and the literature con-
nected with it is very extensive, there being eight
or more volumes devoted to the subject, besides
a multitude of papers which have been contriouted
to various periodicals published in English,
French, Italian, German, Hebrew and Greek.
Hopes were entertained that other tablets of
that character might be found, but Palmer, who
investigated every written stone reported by the
Arabs, came to the conclusion that there does
not remain above ground a single inscribed stone
of any importance.
(7) Bibliography. The bibliography connected
with the Moabite stone is very extensive. A
full translation of the inscription, except the two
broken lines, has been made by Dr. A. Neubauer
and published in Records of the Past, vol. ii (Bag-
ster & Sons, London). See also Higher Criti-
cism and the Monuments, by A. H. Sayce. There
are books published upon this subject by Cler-
mont, Ganneau, Ginsburg, Hitzig, Kaempf.
Schlottman. Vogiie and others, besides an enor-
mous number of contributions by various authors
to periodicals in English, French, Italian, German,
Greek and Hebrew.
IffOABITISH (mo'ab-i'tish), pertaining to Moab
(Ruth ii:6).
MOADIAH (rao'a-di'ah), (Heb. '^'I^''^, moh-ad-
yaw, festival of Jab; Neh. xii:i7). (See Maadiah).
MOCK, MOCKING (raok, mo'king). Several
Hebrew and Greek words are thus translated.
1. //aw-f/ia/' {Heh. ^^'7, to deceive; Judg. xvi:
10, 15; Job xiii:g).
2. Kaw-las' (Heb. ^^1+, to laugh in scorn or con-
tempt; I Kings xviii:27; 2 Kings ii:23; Ezek. xxii:5).
3. Loots (Heb. yib; Gr. ^uKTTjpffw, mook-tay-rid' -
.sa;/ to scoff, deride, to mock at any one; Prov. xiv;
9; xx:i; Gal. vi:7).
4. Tsaiu-khak' (Heb. pO?, to jest with or play
with females, Gen. xix:i4; to toy, caress, ravish,
or abuse. Gen. xxxix:i4, 17).
5. Law-ag" (Heb. ^?7, to scoff, scorn, etc., 2
Chron. xxx:lo; Job xxi:3; Prov. i:26).
6. Aw-lal' (Heb. '.??", to abuse or insult another;
Num. xxii:29; Jer. xxxviiiilg).
7. Saw-khak' (Heb. F- V, derision, scorn, deri-
sive laughter; Lam. 1:7).
8. Emp-aheed' 20 (Gr. ifiiral^w, to trifle with ;
Matt. ii:i6; xxilg; xxvii:29; Luke xviii:32; xxiii:
11.36).
9. Khlyoo-ad! zo (Gr. XXeuafw, to shoot out the
lip; Acts xvii:32).
Figurative, (i) GoA " mocks at men' s fear"
when he brings judgment upon them (Prov. 1:26).
(2) (jod is "not mocked;" he will not be deceived
or jested with (Gal. vi:7). (3) Men "mock"
God, when in words or behavior they jest at his
being, his purposes, words, works, ordinances,
ministers or people (Job. xiiiip). (4) Wine is
a "mocker," and strong drink is "raging;" if
drunk to excess, it deceives men, promising them
enjoyment, while it lands them in disgrace and
violence (Prov. x.x:i).
MODEBATE, MODERATION (mod'er-at,
mod'er-a'shun), (Gr. eirieiit^s, ep-ee-i-kace' , fairness,
gentleness, Phil. iv:5: translated "patient," I Tim.
iii:3 ; "gentle," Tit. iii;2; i Peter ii:l8); moderate,
in general, is to abate; to keep in due bounds. To
"moderate threatening," is to restrain it within
due bounds (Eph. viig). Our " moderation should
be known to all men, because the Lord is at
band:" we should exercise tenderness and gentle-
MOLADAH
1175
MONEY
ness toward all men, and irc.it Uiciii with kindness
and respect; and bear injuries (Phil. iv;5).
MOLADAH (mSra-dah), (Heb. •"'iV''^. mo-law-
daw', birth).
A city first given to Judah, and afterward to
Simeon (Josh. xix:2; i Chron. iv:28). It was in
the southerly part of Judah. The place was re-
occupied after the exile (Neh. xi:26). It is iden-
tified with Milh (Robinson, 11:621), seven and a
half miles southwest of Arad, and fourteen south-
east of Beershoba. (Stewart, Tcnl and Khan, p.
217). There are ruins of a fortified town, two
wells, one with water at the depth of forty feet ;
and the wells are surrounded with marble troughs.
Arab tradition says that Abraham dug these wells
and watered his flocks here.
MOLE (mol), (Heb. 1^0, khaf-ore' , Arabic,
khuU/, Lev. xi:30, in our version 'weasel ').
Akhough the similarity of sound in names is
an unsafe ground to depend upon when it is ap-
plied to specific animals, still, the Hebrew and
Syriac appearing likewise to imply creeping into,
creeping underneath by burrowing — characteris-
tics most obvious in moles — and the Arabic de-
nomination being undoubted, dialed may be as-
sumed to indicate the above animal, in preference
to chiiisciiu'th, which, in conformity with the opin-
ion of Bochart, is referred to the diamclcon. This
conclusion is the more to be relied on as the ani-
mal is rather common in Syria, and in some
places abundant. Zoologists have considered the
particular species to be the Talpa Europtca, which,
under the name of the common mole, is so well
known as not to require a more particular de-
scription. The ancients represented the mole to
have no eyes ; which assertion later scientific writ-
ers believed they had disproved by showing our
species to be possessed of these organs, though
exceedingly small. Nevertheless, recent observa-
tions have proved that a species, in other respects
scarcely, if at all, to be distinguished from the
common, is totally destitute of eyes, and conse-
quently has received the name of Talt>a ccrca. It
is to be found in Italy, and probably extends to
the East, instead of the Etiropcca. Moles must
not, however, be considered as forming a part of
the Rodent order, whereof all the families and
genera are provided with strong incisor teeth, like
rats and squirrels, and therefore intended for sub-
sisting chiefly on grain and nuts ; they are on the
contrary supplied with a great number of small
teeth, to the extent of twenty-two in each jaw —
indicating a partial regimen : for they feed on
worms, larvae, and underground insects, as well
as on roots, and thus belongs to the insectivorous
order; which brings the application of the name
somewhat nearer to carnivora and its received
interpretation 'weasel.' C. H. S.
MOLECH (mS'lek), (Heb. 1^^!^, ha-nw'hk, the
ruler), always with the article, except in 1 Kings
xi:7.
Molech is chiefly found in the Old Testament
as the national god of the .\mmonites, to whom
children were sacrificed by fire. There is some
difficulty in ascertaining at what period the Israel-
ites became acquainted with this idolatry: yet
three reasons render it probable that it was be-
fore the time of Solomon, the date usually as-
signed for its introduction. Nevertheless, it is for
the first time directly stated fhat Solomon erected
a high-place for Molech on the Mount of Olives
(l Kings xi:7); and from that period his wor-
ship continued uninterruptedly there, or in To-
phet. in the valley of Hinnom. until Josiah defiled
both places (2 Kmgs xxiii:io, 13). Jehoahaz,
however, the son and successor of Josiah, again
'did what was evil in the sight of Jehovah, ac-
cording to all that his fathers had done' (2 Kings
xxiii:32). The same broad condemnation is made
against the succeeding kings, Jehoiakim, Jchoia-
chin, and Zedekiah ; and Ezckiel, writing during
the captivity, says, 'IDo you, by offering your gifts,
and by making your sons pass through the fire,
pollute yourselves with all your idols m>i/i7 this
day, and shall I be enquired of by you ?" (xx :3i ).
After the restoration all traces of this idolatry
disappear.
It has been attempted to explain the terms in
vVhich the act of sacrificing children is described
in the Old Testament so as to make them mean
a mere passing between two fires, without any
risk of life, for the purpose of purification. This
theory — which owes its origin to a desire in some
Hebrew writers to lessen the mass of evidence
which their own history offers of the perverse
idolatries of the Jews — is effectually declared un-
tenable by such passages as Ps. cvi:38: Jer. vii :
.^i ; Ezek. xvi:20; xxiii:37; the last two of which
may also be adduced to show that the victims
were slaughtered before they were burnt.
The Rabbins tell us that the idol was made of
brass and placed on a brazen throne, and that
the head was that of a calf with a crown upon it.
The throne and image were made hollow, and a
furious fire was kindled within it. The flames
penetrated into the body and limbs of the idol;
and when the arms were red-hot, the victim was
thrown into them, and was almost immediately
burned to death, while its cries were drowned
by drums. J. N.
MOLID (mo'lid), (Heb. ""'^^S, mo-leed', beget-
ter), a man of Judah, son of Abishur and .^bihail
(l Chron ii:29), B. C. after 1612.
MOLOCH (mo'16k), (Amos v:26; Acts vii:43).
See Molech.
MOLTEN IMAGE (mol't'n im'aj). See Calf;
Imagp:.
MOLTEN SEA (mol'fn se). Sec LaveR.
MOMENT (mo'mfnt), (Heb. ^'i^, reh'gah,\ntis..
Num. xvi;2i, 45; Job xx:;; I's. xxx:5, etc.; Gr.
47-o/uos, at'o»i-os, indivisible, l Cor. xv:j2; vapa^pviw,
fiar-ar hroo-eh' o, to flow by, 2 Cor. iv:l7; ariyii-fi,
sitg-may', a point, Luke iv:;), an instant, the
smallest interval of time.
MONEY (raun'j>), (Heb. 'I?.?, keh-sef , silver).
This term is used to denote whatever com-
modity the inhabitants of any country may have
agreed, or are compelled to receive as an equiva-
lent for their labor and in exchange for other
commodities. Etymologists differ respecting its
derivation. Bouterouc contends that it is derived
from moncre, because the stamp impressed on the
coin indicates its weight and fineness (Rfchcrchcs
stir Ics Moimoycs dc France) : and Suidas (s. v.
MoiHjTo), that it originated in the circumstance Of
silver having been first coined at Rome in the tem-
ple of Juno Moncta.
(1) Various Commodities. Different com-
modities have been used as money in the primi-
tive state of society in all countries. Those na-
tions which subsist by the chase, such as the an-
cient Russians and ithe greater part of the North
.American Indians, use the skins of the animals
killed in hunting as money (Storch. Traiie d'
Economic Politique, tome i). In a pastoral state
of society cattle are chiefly used as money. Thus,
MONEY
1176
MONEY
according to Homer, the armor of Diomede cost
nine oxen, and that of Glaucus one hundred
(Iliad, vi:235). The etymology of the Latin word
pecunia, signifying money, and all of its deriva-
tives.affords sufficient evidence that cattle (pecus)
were the first money of the Romans. They were
also used as money by the Germans, whose laws
fix the amount of penalties for particular of-
fenses to be paid in cattle (.Slorch, /. f.). In agri-
cultural countries corn would be used in remote
ages as money, and even at the present day it is
not unusual to stipulate for corn rents and wages.
Various commodities have been and are still used
in different countries. Smith mentions salt as the
common money of Abyssinia (Wealth of Na-
tions, 1:4). A species of cypraa called the cow-
rce, gathered on the shores of the Maldive Islands,
and of which 6,400 constitute a rupee, is used in
making small payments throughout India, and is
the only money of certain districts in Africa.
Dried fish forms the money of Iceland and New-
foundland ; sugar of some of the West India
Islands; and among the first settlers of America
corn and tobacco were used as money (Holmes'
American Annals). Smith mentions that, at the
time of the publication of the Wealth of Nations,
there was a village in Scotland where it was cus-
tomary for a workman to carry nails as money to
the baker's shop or the alehouse (i :4).
(2) Commerca A long period of time must
have intervened between the first introduction of
the precious metals into commerce, and their be-
coming generally used as money. The peculiar
qualities which so eminently fit them for this pur-
pose would only be gradually discovered. They
would probably be first introduced in their gross
and unpunfied state. A sheep, an ox, a certain
quantity of corn, or any other article, would after-
wards be bartered or exchanged for pieces of gold
or silver m bars or ingots, in the same way as
they would formerly have been exchanged for
iron, copper, cloth, or anything else.
Weighing Money.
(3) "Values Estimated by Weight. The mer-
chants would soon begin to estimate their proper
value, and, in effecting exchanges, would first
agree upon the quality of the metal to be given,
and then the quantity which its possessor had be-
come bound to pay would be ascertained by weight.
This, according to Aristotle and Pliny, was the
manner in which the precious metals were orig-
inally exchanged in Greece and Italy. The same
practice is still observed in different countries. In
many parts of China and Abyssinia the value of
gold and silver is always ascertained by weight
^Goguet, De I'Origine des Loix, etc.). Iron was
the first money of the Lacedaemonians, and copper
of the Romans.
In the sacred writings there is frequent men-
tion of gold, silver, and brass, sums of money,
purchases made with money, current money, and
money of a certain weight. Indeed, the money
of Scripture is all estimated by weight. 'Abra-
ham weighed to Ephron the silver which he had
named in the audience of the sons of Heth. four
•hundred shekels of silver, current money with the
merchant' (Gen. xxiii:i6). The brethren of
Joseph carried back into Egypt the money 'in
full weight' which they had found in their sacks
(Gen. xliii:2l). The golden earring presented
by Abraham's steward to Rebekah weighed half
a shekel, and the two bracelets for her hands were
ten shekels weight of gold' (Gen. xxiv:22). In
paying for the field of Hanameel, Jeremiah
'weighed him the money, even seventeen shekels
of silver' (Jer. xxxiirp). Amos represents the
merchants of Israel as 'falsifying the balances by
deceit' (viii:s). The shekel and the talent do
not appear to have been originally fixed and
stamped pieces of money, but simply weights
used in traffic. Hence, 'thou shalt not have in
thy bag divers weights, a great and a small'
(Deut. XXV : 13). It was customary for the Jews
to have scales attached to their girdles for weigh-
ing the gold and silver they received ; but the
Canaanites carried them in their hands.
(4) Pieces of Money. There is no direct allu-
sion in the sacred writings to coined money as
belonging to the Jewish nation. In Gen. xxxiii 119
Jacob is said to have bought a part of a field
'for an hundred pieces of money;' and the friends
of Job are said to have given him each 'a piece
of money' (Job xlii:ii). The term in the orig-
inal is kesitoth, and is by some thought to denote
'sheep' or 'lamb ;' by others a kind of mon'ey hav-
ing the impression of a sheep or lamb; and by
others again a purse of money. The most correct
translation may be presumed to be that which
favors the idea of a piece of money bearing some
stamp or mark indicating that it was of the value
of a sheep or lamb. The name shekel, first used
to indicate a weight, might afterwards be applied
to a piece of money. According to Arbuthnot
3.000 of these shekels were equal to a talent. Some
allegorical device would naturally suggest itself as
the most appropriate for being impressed upon
pieces of gold or silver of a given weight and fine-
ness; and as in the patriarchal ages property con-
sisted chiefly of flocks and herds, no better em-
blem could be used than that of a lamb, with
which it is imagined the pieces of money alluded
to may have been impressed.
(5) Early Coins. Maurice, in his Antiquities
of India (vol. vii), bears testimony to the fact
that the earliest coins were stamped with the
figure of an ox or sheep. In the British Museum
there is a specimen of the original Roman As,
the surface of which is nearly the size of a brick,
with the figure of a bull impressed upon it. Other
devices would suggest themselves to different
nations as arising out of, or connected with, par-
ticular places or circumstances, as the Babylonish
lion, ^gina's tortoise, Boeotia's shield, the lyre of
Mytilene, the wheat of Metapontum. On some of
the reverses of the Roman large brass may be de-
ciphered, 'Valor standing full armed; Honor
robed and chapleted; Happiness crowned with
obliviscent poppies; Concord with extended hand,
and the horn of plenty in her bosom ; Hope
tripping lightly, and smiling on a flower-bud;
Peace offering the olive branch ; Fortune resting
on a rudder ; Military Faith stretching forth his
consecrated standard ; Abundance emptying her
cornucopia; Security leaning on a column; Mod-
MONEY CHANGER
1177
MONOTHEISM
esty veiled and sitting; Piety taking her gift to
the altar; Fruitfulncss.in the midst of her nurse-
lings; Equity adjusting her scales; Victory with
wings and coronal and trumpet ; Eternity holding
the globe and risen phiienix : or better, seated on
a starry sphere; Liberty with cap and staff; Na-
tional Prosperity sailing as a good ship before
the favoring gale; and Public Faith with joined
hands clasping between them the palms of success,
and the caduceus of health' (Quiirlcrly Review,
vol. Ixxii, p. 358). Religion would also at an early
period claim to be distinguished, and accordingly
the efiigies of Juno, Diana, Ceres, Jove. Hercules,
Apollo, Bacchus, Pluto, Neptune, and many other
of the heathen deities are found impressed upon
the early coins. The Jews, however, were the
worshipers of the one only true God; idolatry was
strictly forbidden in their law; and therefore
their shekel never bore a head, but was impressed
simply with the almond rod and the pot of
manna.
(6) Roman Coinage. The first Roman coin-
age took place, according to Pliny {Hist. Nat.
xxxiii:3), in the reign of Servius Tullius, about
550 years before Christ ; but it was not until Alex-
ander of Macedon had subdued the Persian mon-
archy, and Julius Cresar had consolidated the Ro-
man empire, that the image of a living ruler was
permitted to be stamped upon the coins. Previous
to that period heroes and deities alone gave cur-
rency to the money of imperial Rome.
Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria, is represented
to have granted to Simon Maccabasus the privi-
lege of coining money in Judxa (i Mace. .xv.:6).
This is considered to be the first mention of He-
brew money, properly so called. It consisted of
shekels and demi-shekels, the third part of a
shekel, and the quarter of a shekel, of silver.
From the time of Julius Caesar, who first struck
a living portrait on his coins, the Roman coins run
in a continued succession of so-called Cresars,
their queens and crown-princes, from about B. C.
48 down to Romulus Augustulus, emperor of the
West, who was dethroned by Odoacer about A. D.
475 (Quarterly Rcvieit.', ut supra).
After its subjugation by Rome much foreign
money found its way into the land of Judaea. The
piece of tribute money, or coin mentioned in Luke
XX :24, as presented to our Savior, bore the image
and superscription of the Roman emperor, and it
is reasonable to suppose that a large quantity of
Roman coins was at that time in circulation
throughout Jud.-ea. G. M. B.
MONEY CHANGER {mmj chan'jer), Or.
Ko\Xii/3i(r7-i)s, kol-loo-bis-tace' , dealer in coin; Kcpimr-
urriis, ker-mat-is-tace' , money broker, from Kipt">;
kcr'iiiah, a small coin.
It is mentioned by Volncy that in Syria, Egypt
and Turkey, when any considerable payments are
to be made, an agent of exchange is sent for, who
counts paras by thousands, rejects pieces of false
money, and weigh all the sequins either sepa-
rately or together. It has hence been suggested
that the 'current money with the merchant,' men-
tioned in Scripture (Gen. xxiii:i6). might have
been such as was approved of by competent
judges whose business it was to detect fraudulent
money if offered in payment. The Hebrew word
sochcr signifies one who goes about from place
to place, and is supposed to answer to the native
exchange-agent or money-broker of the East, now
called sliroff. It appears that there were bankers
or money-changers in Jud.-ea. who made a trade of
receiving money in deposit and paying interest
for it (Matt. XXV :27). Some of them had even
established themselves within the precincts of the
temple at Jerusalem (xxi:i2), where they were
in the practice of exchanging one species of money
for another. Persons who came from a distance
to worship at Jerusalem would naturally bring
with them the money current in their respective
districts, and it might therefore be a matter of
convenience for them to get this money exchanged
at the door of the temple for that which was cur-
rent in Jerusalem, and upon their departure to
receive again that species of money which circu-
lated in the districts to which they were journey-
ing. These money-changers would, of course,
charge a commi^sion upon all their transactions
but from the observation of our Savior, when he
overthrew the tables of those in the temple, it may
be inferred that they were not distinguished for
honesty and fair dealing: 'It is written, my house
shall be called the house of prayer, but, ye have
made it a den of thieves' (verse 13). G. M. B.
' J)
"^^Qkm^-
Money Changer.
MONEY, LOVE OF (miin'J, IQv 6v), (Gr. 0<\ap-
•)ivpla,Ji/-ar-ffoo-rff'a/i, i Tim. vino), covetousness
or avarice. (See Covetousness.)
MONEY, PIECE OF (mfin'y, pes fiv"). (Gen.
xxxiiiiig; Jobxiii:! I, etc.). See Money, Weights
AND Measures.
MONOTHEISM (mon'O-the-tz'm).
(1) The worship of the one God was a primeval
principle beginning with the very dawn of human
history. As surely as God was first, so surely
must the pure worship have preceded the various
forms of idolatry. It was man's recognition of a
higher Power when dominion was given "over all
(he earth." But man sinned and went away from
God ; It v;as disobedience first, and then murder.
Polygamy came next and polytheism was not far
behind the other transgressions. There is no in-
stance in the world's history where monotheism
has been evolved from polytheism or idol wor-
ship. Dr. Frank B. Jevons says : "Indeed, if we
base ourselves upon evolutionary principles, we
may safely say that whatever may have been the
genesis and history of monolheisin, one thing is
certain, namely, that it cannot have been devel-
oped out of polytheism" (Introduction to the His-
tory of Relii;io)i, p. 387).
The further we go back among the earliest
mythologies, the nearer we come to the primitive
principle. When the Hindus first come within
the range of history their devotions are paid to
earth and air and sea. the sun is praised, and the
rain implored ; their gods arc few in number. In
the early Vedic age there were only seven promi-
nent deities, but polytheism rapidly developed
upon the soil of India until her pantheon con-
tained millions of gods.
(2) The more modern polytheism of Rome or
even of ancient Greece need hardly be examined,
hut in Egypt there was at first only one Horus.
In later periods, however, this one deity had de-
MONOTHEISM
1178
MONOTHEISM
veloped into twelve, each one representing a dif-
ferent conception, but all of them having been
evolved from the first. Dr. Wiedmann gives the
names of twelve or more different Horuses who
were worshiped in different localities, and some-
times several of them were adored in the same
temple.
Many eminent Egyptologists, including Mari-
ette, Brugsch, and Renouf, claim that the earliest
monuments show the primitive religion of the
Nile valley to have been monotheism. It is
claimed that when the Egyptians moved into the
Nile a thousand years before Menes, th-y had
only one God, and that was Nu. Surely this name
is very nearly akirt to Ann, who is described upon
the tablets as the supreme God of ancient Accad.
Maspero and others take exceptions to the mon-
otheistic theory, but all Egyptologists agree that
there are comparatively few divinities mentioned
in the beginning of monumental history, and that
the number steadily increases, until during the
Roman era they became almost numberless. All
agree that in the earliest forms of worship among
the Egyptians there are no such traces of super-
stition as in the later eras.
Maspero writes as follows: "Ancient tradi-
tion affirms that the earliest Egyptian temples con-
tained neither images nor inscriptions, and, in
point of fact, the temple of the Sphinx is bare"
(Maspero, Archeology, p. 86).
Up to this time the temple of the Sphinx was
the only one of that earliest time which had been
uncovered, but at Medum, in 1891, Dr. Petrie dug
up a temple which was even more ancient, and it
is a very suggestive fact that in this early sanctu-
ary, so simple and massive in its construction,
"no sign of an idol, or statue, or magical text,
was discovered." (Petrie, Medum, London, 1892.)
It is also true that the earliest writings of the
Egyptians, as "The Precepts of Phath Hotep,"
are much higher in moral tone than the mass of
their later productions.
That the people of Egypt were at one time wor-
shipers of the true God is evident from the proph-
ecy of Isaiah. He says: "And the Lord shall
smite Egypt and heal it, and they shall return
even to the Lord, and he shall heal them" (Is.
xix:22). The Hebrew word which is here ren-
dered "return" is translated by the word return,
or its equivalents, 815 times in the Old Testament,
so there is no room for philological dispute on
this important point.
In the valley of the Euphrates the same rule
obtains in relation to the multiplication of deities.
(3) It is thoug;ht that the worship of Hea, "the
god who determines destinies," is a corruption of
the worship of the God of Abraham, for Ea is
another form of El, and the followers of Ea were
evidently monotheists. In relation to monotheism
in the valley of the Euphrates, Mr. Hormuzd Ras-
sam, the eminent archseologist, who is a native of
Assyria, claims that the early Assyrians were wor-
shipers of the true God, and he bases his claim
largely upon his own discoveries. {Trans. Vic.
Inst., vol. xiii, pp. 190, 214 ; also vol. xxv, p.
121.)
This early worship, however, as in the case of
the Egyptians, was soon corrupted, and at length
the Assyrians counted no less than 300 spirits of
heaven and 600 of earth.
These examples among the oldest systems of
polytheism show how "development" is related to
this subject.
(4) In the American Journal of Theology G. M.
Grant calls attention to the valued work by Dr.
Jevons, above cited, and says: "Totemism, that
is, the belief which identified with the divine a
species of animals or plants which was regarded
as the ancestor of the tribe, is the earliest form
of religion known to science. It may be added
that the worship originally accorded to the whole
species was, after a time, appropriated to one in-
dividual of the species. As to this faith, while no
authority now accepts Mr. Spencer's theory that it
originated in the worship of ancestors, it is ad-
mitted that the religious belief in the pre-toteni-
istic stage is entirely a matter of conjecture."
(5) Dr. Jevons, however, argues with great abil-
ity that pre-totemism must have been a simple
monotheism. He takes issue with those who
maintain that, as monotheism is the highest form
of belief, it must have developed from the lower
forms of totemism and polytheism through inter-
mediate stages.
He strongly insists that the highest must have
been implicit in consciousness from the beginning,
and also that evolution and progress are two very
different things; that evolution is constant but
progress very rare Indeed, "evolution may well
be, from a religious point of view, one long pro-
cess of degeneration." Progress is certainly as
exceptional in religion as in other things, and
where it takes place it must be due to exceptional
causes. "If evolution takes place, something must
be evolved ; and that something, as being continu-
ously present in all the different stages, may be
called the cuniinuum of religion."
(6) Again he says. "We must remember that
the facts of consciousness were the same for early
as for civilized man, but they were not yet dis-
criminated. They swam before man's untrained
eye, and ran into one another. But, even so, all
was not untrained chaos for man. In the outer
world of his experience the laws of nature, which
are God's laws, worked with the same regularity
then as now. In the world of his inner experi-
ence, God was not far from him at any time. If
his spiritual vision was dim, his consciousness
of God was at least so strong, to start with, that
he has never since ceased seeking after Him.
The law of continuity holds of religions as of
other things."
(7) Dr. Jevons argues that polytheism was de-
veloped, not from monotheism, but from totemism.
When man realized that the union of the human
with the divine had been broken, it was felt that
some outward act was needed which would re-
establish the connection, and totem animals were
offered in sacrifice. The totem being supposed to
share the common life of both parties, and to be
capable of exercising an influence over both, and
the blood covenant being the only means known
of effecting a union with any one external to the
tribe, the sacrifice of the totem and the common
sacramental meal were originated. The universal-
ity of the practice is the most conclusive testimony
of the ineradicable craving of man's heart for un-
ion and communion with God, and to the con-
sciousness that on such union alone can right rela-
tions with our fellows be based. Dr. Jevons says:
"The whole human race for thousands of years
has been educated to the conception that it was
only through a divine sacrifice that perfect union
with God was possible for man. At times the sac-
ramental conception of sacrifice appeared to be
about to degenerate entirely into the gift theory :
but then, in the sixth century before Christ, the
sacramental conception woke into new life, this
time in the form of a search for a perfect sacri-
fice— a search which led Clement and Cyprian to
try all the mysteries of Greece in vain. But of all
the great religions of the world, it is the Christian
MONSTERS
1179
MONTH
church alone which is so far heir of all the ages
as to fulfill the dumb, dim expectation of man-
kind ; in it alone the sacramental meal commem-
orates by ordinance of its founder the divine sac-
rifice which is a propitiation for the sins of all
mankind."
(8) Dr. Jevons' argument against the derivation
of monotheism from polytheism is very forcible,
and even those who dissent from it are forced to
acknowledge that Jewish monotheism was due to
a peculiar cause, whether that cause be called a
special revelation or greater power of insight on
the part of the prophets of Israel.
Among this people there was no real develop-
ment of polytheism, although there were trans-
gressions of God's law by their falling into the
customs of the heathen around them; we find evi-
dence of the occasional worship of the powers of
nature side by side with the spiritual faith of their
fathers. This was Syncretism, or the attempted
union of such opposite forces as the worship of
God and Baal. Faith in Jehovah as the God of
Israel was pure monotheism, and it was connected
with that perfect conception of God which was
afterwards revealed in the Christ.
Dr. Jevons says : "The monotheism of the
Jews is a unique and solitary phenomenon in the
history of religion. Nowhere else in the world
has the development of religion culminated in
monotheism" (p. 388).
"The tendencies which have been supposed in
polytheism to make for monotheism have always
been purely pantheistic; speculative rather than
practical, metaphysical rather than religious ; and
as being metaphysical speculations have always
been confined to the cultured few, and have never
even leavened the polytheism of the masses" (p.
389).
"Pantheism is the philosophical complement of
first extending until the Babylonian captivity; the
second until one or two centuries after the de-
struction of Jerusalem by the Romans; and the
third from the adpotion of the calendar of Rabbi
Hillel the younger (1. c. from about the middle
of the fourth century of our era) until the present
time.
(1> First Period. In the first period the
months are, as a rule, mentioned by their numeri-
cal designation only — as 'the first month,' 'the sec-
ond,' etc. We have no explicit indication of the
number of days in a month, nor of the number of
months in a year; the 27th day and the nth
month being respectively the highest mentioned
(Gen. viii:i4; Deut. i:3); unless 1 Kings iv:7 be
considered to prove that the year had 12 months.
Nevertheless, the two Hebrew terms for month
— literally new moon, thence month, from a root
signifying to be new; and moon, and thence month
— afford some proof that the months were meas-
ured by the moon (comp. Ps. civ:9).
(2) Second Period. In the second period we
find, in part, a continuation of the previous meth-
od, with sorpewhat more definite statements (for
instance, i Chron. xxvii clearly proves that the
year had twelve months), and, in part, the adop-
tion of new names for the months ; but the co-
existence of both these systems is not easily ex-
plained. For, whereas Zechariah, Ezra, Nehe-
miah, and Esther, introduce the seven new names
— Shebat, Chisleu, Adar, Nisan, Elul, Tebeth, and
Sivan — all the other canonical books written after
the restoration do nothing more than enumerate
the months, without any name, in the order of
their succession. Although only the above-men-
tioned seven names occur in the Old Testament,
yet there is no manner of doubt that the Jews at
the same time adopted the entire twelve names, of
which the following is a table :
Civil.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
v.,
VI.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
Sacred.
Nisan, or Abib
Zif, or Ziv
Sivan
Tammuz
Ab
Elul
Tishri, or Ethanim. .,
Bui
Kisleu. or Chisleu
Tebeth
Shebat.
Adar
Beginning with the New Moon,
March, or April. Neh. ii:l.
April, or May. i Kings vi:i.
May, or June. Esth. viiirg.
June, or July.
July, or August.
August, or September. Neh. viilj.
September, or October. I Kings viii:2.
October, or November, i Kings vi:38.
November, or December. Neh. i;i.
December, or January. Esth. ii:l6.
January, or February. Zech. i:y.
February, or March. Esth. iii:7.
a pantheon; but the spirit which produced the
monotheism of the Jews must have been some-
thing very different" (p. 390).
Those who claim that monotheism did gener-
ally develop from polytheism will be obliged to
reckon with the arguments and with the stubborn
facts which nre presented by Dr. Jevons and other
competent .scholars. (See An Introduction to
the History of Religion, by Frank Byron Jevons,
M. A., Litt. D., London, Methucn & Co.. 1897;
see, also. The Am. four, of Theol., p. 1,002, sq.)
(Sec Semitic Religion.)
MONSTERS (mon'sters), (Hcb. Tr?, tan-neen' ,
Stretched out), perhaps the sea serpent or other
formidable sea animal. Others suppose it to be
the jnckal from its running with outstretched neck
and body (Lam. iv:3, R. V. "jackal.")
MONTH (ratinth), (Hcb. '^"1", kho' desk, the new
moon).
It is expedient to distinguish three periods in
the Jewish mode of denoting dates by months ; the
In the same manner as the Old Testament con-
tains no indication of the mode of intercalation,
when yet it is certain that some mode must have
been used, so also it does not mention by what
method the commencement and conclusion of
every month were ascertained in cither of these
periods. According to the Talmud, however, it is
certain that, in the second period, the commence-
ment of the month was dated from the time when
the earliest visible .appearance of the new moon
was announced to the Sanhedrim, that, if this hap-
pened on the 30th day of the current month, that
month was considered to have ended on the pre-
ceding 29th day, and was called deficient; but, if
no announcement was made on the ,30th day, that
day was reckoned to llie current month, which was
in that case called full, and the ensuing day was
at once considered to be the first of the next
month. Further, as the cloudy state of the
weather sometimes hindered the actual sight of
the new moon, it was an established rule that no
year should contain less than four, and more than
MONUMENTS
U80
MOON
eight, full months. It is generally assumed^ al-
though without express warrant, that the com-
mencement of the month was determined in the
same way in the first period; but it is very prpb-
able, and the Mosaic festivals of the new moon
seem to be some evidence for it.
(3) Third Period. With regard to the third
period, it is not necessary to say more here than
that, as the dispersion of the Jews rendered it im-
possible to communicate the intelligence of the
visible appearance of the new moon, they were ob-
liged to devise a systematic calculation of the
duration of their months; but that they retained
the above-mentioned names for the months, which
are still lunar months, of the mean duration of 29
days, 12 hours, 44 seconds; and that when they
were no longer able to regulate the epochs of their
festivals by the agricultural year of Palestine, they
came, for some such reasons as those assigned by
Michaelis, to place every month earlier by one
lunation than it had been in the first two periods,
so that their Nisan now most nearly coincided
with March. The rabbinical writers, therefore,
who maintained that the ancient Nisan likewise
began with the new moon of March, were mainly
led into that opinion by the practice existing in
their own time. (See Year.) J. N.
MONTTlffENTS (mon'o-m^nts), (Heb. 1?°, so'-
bek, copse), the incorn ct translation in Is. lxv:4,
for "secret places," as in the R. V.
In general, they denote anything that brings the
past to remembrance. The monuments among
which idolaters lodged were either tombs or idol
temples, by sleeping in which they hoped to have
fellowship with the idol or the departed spirit in
dreams and visions (Is. lxv:4).
MOON (moon), (Heb. OD', yaw-ray' akh, pale-
ness; '^??:, leb-aw-naw' , used figuratively in Is.
xxiv;23; xxx:26; Gx. (si\i)vi], sel-ay'nay).
The worship of the heavenly bodies was among
the earliest corruptions of religion, which would
naturally take its rise in the eastern parts of the
world, where the atmosphere is pure and trans-
parent, and the heavens as bright as they are
glowing. In these countries the moon is of ex-
ceeding beauty. If the sun 'rules the day,' the
moon has the throne of night, which, if less gor-
geous than that of the sun, is more attractive, be-
cause of a less oppressively brilliant light, while
her retinue of surrounding stars seems to give a
sort of truth to her regal state, and certainly adds
not inconsiderably to her beauty.
(1) Early Worship. The moon was therefore
worshiped as a goddess in the East at a very early
period; in India under the name of Maja; among
the Assyrians as Mylitta; with the Phoenicians
she was termed Astarte or Ashteroth, who was
also denominated the Syrian mother. The Greeks
and Romans worshiped her as Artemis and Diana.
Job (xxxi:26) alludes to the power of the moon
over the human soul : 'If I beheld the sun when it
shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and
my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth
hath kissed my hand ; this also were an iniquity,
for I should have denied the God that is above.'
The moon, as being mistress of the night, may
well have been considered as the lesser of the two
great lights of heaven (Gen. i:i6). It was ac-
cordingly regarded in the old Syrian superstition
as subject to the sun's influence, which was wor-
shiped as the active and generative power of na-
ture, while the moon was reverenced as the passive
and producing power. The moon, accordingly,
was looked upon as feminine. Herein Oriental
usage agrees with our own. But this usage was
by no means universal.
(2) Egyptian Conception.. The Egyptians
represented their moon as a male deity, Ihoth ;
and Wilkinson (^Anc. Egypt, v :$) remarks that
'the same custom of calling it male is retained in
the East to the present day, while the sun is con-
sidered feminine, as in the language of the Ger-
mans. Ihoth, in the character of Lunus, the
moon, has sometimes a man's face, with the cres-
cent of the moon upon his head supporting a disk.
Plutarch says the Eg>'ptians 'call the moon the
mother of the world, and hold it to be of both
sexes ; female, as it receives the influence of the
sun ; male, as it scatters and disperses through the
air the principles of fecundity.' In other countries
also the moon was held to be hermaphrodite. An-
other pair of dissimilar qualities was ascribed to
the moon — the destructive and the generative
faculty — whence it was worshiped as a bad as
well as a good power.
(3) Queen of Heaven. The epithet 'queen of
heaven' (Horace, siderum rcgina) appears to have
been very common. Nor was it, any more than
the worship of the moon, unknown to the Jews,
as may be seen in a remarkable passage in Jere-
miah (xliv:i7), where the Israelites (men and
women, the latter exert most influence) appear
given over to this species of idolatry : 'We will
certainly burn incense to the queen of heaven,
and pour out drink-offerings unto her, as we have
done, we and our fathers ; for then had we plenty
of victuals, and we were well, and saw no evil. But
since we left off to burn incense to the queen of
heaven, we have wanted all things.' The last
verse of the passage adds to the burnt-offerings
and drink-offerings, 'cakes to worship her.' Vows
were also made by the Jews to the moon, which
superstition required to be fulfilled (verse 25).
(4) Baneful Influence. The baneful influence
of the moon still finds credence in the East. Moon-
light is held to be detrimental to the eyes. In Ps.
cxxi :6 we read, 'The sun shall not smite thee by
day, nor the moon by night ;' so that the impres-
sion that the moon may do injury to man is
neither partial nor vague. Rosenmiiller {Mcrgen-
land. iv, 108) refers this to the cold of night,
which, he says, is very great and sensible in the
East, owing, partly, to the great heat of the day.
If this extreme (comparative cold is considered in
connection with the Oriental custom of sleeping
sub divo, out of doors, a la belle etoile, on the flat
roofs of houses, or even on the ground, without
in all cases sufficient precautionary measures for
protecting the frame, we see no difficulty in un-
derstanding whence arose the evil influen,ce
ascribed to the moon.
On the influence of the moon on man, see Hayn,
De Planetar, in Corp. hum. iniluxu; and Kretsch-
mar, De Astror. in Corp. hum. Imperio, Jena,
1820; also Came, Leb. und Sittcn im Morgeid. i,
72- J- R- B.
Figurative. In the figurative language of
Scripture the moon is frequently noticed as pre-
saging events of the greatest importance through
the temporary or permanent withdrawal of its
light (Is. xiii:io; Joel ii:3i; Matt. xxiv:29; Mark
xiii :24. The church is likened to the moon; how
comely, useful, and illuminating to the world in
the dark night of time ! how only illuminated by
Jesus the Sun of righteousness shining on her!
and how changing her militant state and condi-
tion! (Cant, vino; Is. lx:2o). It is symbolical of
coming judgments, becoming as blood (Rev. vi :
12). In the passage, "And there appeared a great
wonder in heaven ; a woman clothed with the sun,
MOON, NEW
1181
MORAVIAN CHURCH IN U. S.
and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a
crown of twelve stars" (Rev. xii:i), the meaning
appears to be that she is clothed with light from
head to feet. The whole then becomes the figure
of the Church illuminated with the truth and
glory of God.
MOON, NEW (mo5n nu). See FESTIVALS.
M0R(m6r),(Heb. Ti"!, wc'r, distilling), sometimes
written Mur, is the well-known substance Myrrh.
(1) It is the exudation of a little known tree
found in Arabia, but much more extensively in
Abyssinia. It formed an article of the earliest
commerce, was highly esteemed by the Egyptians
i.nd Jews, as well as by the Greeks and Romans,
as It still is both in the East and in Europe. The
earliest notice of it occurs in Exod. xxx 123, 'Take
thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh
(morderor) 500 shekels.' It is afterwards men-
tioned in Esther ii:i2, as employed in the purifi-
cation of women ; in Ps. xlv :8, as a perfume, 'AH
thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cas-
sia;' also in several passages of the Song of Solo-
mon. "I will get me to the mountain of myrrh, and
to the hill of frankincense' iv :6) ; 'My hands
dropped with myrrh, and my fingers with sucet
smelling myrrh' v:s). We find it mentioned in
Matt. ii:ii, among the gifts presented by the wise
men of the East to the infant Jesus — 'gold, and
frankincense, and myrrh.' It may be remarked as
worthy of notice, that myrrh and frankincense are
frequently mentioned together. In Mark xv -.23,
we learn that the Roman soldiers 'gave him
(Jesus) to drink wine mingled with myrrh; but
he received it not.' The Apostle John (xix {39)
says. 'Then came also Nicodemus, and brought a
n.ixture of myrrh and aloes (see Ahalim), about
an hundred pound weight,' for the purpose of
embalming the body of our Savior.
(2) Though myrrh seems to have been known
from the earliest times, and must consequently
have been one of the most ancient articles of com-
merce, the country producing it long remained un-
known. It is collected in small kid-skins, and
taken to Errur, whence the Hurrah merchants, on
their way from Shoa, convey it to the great an-
nual market at Berbcrah from whence great quan-
tities are shipped for India and Arabia.' When
the Portuguese first entered these seas, gold dust,
ivory, myrrh, and slaves formed the staple com-
merce of Adal. Though there is no doubt that
the largest quantity of myrrh has always been ob-
tained from Africa, yet it is equally certain that
some is also procured in Arabia. Mr. Johnson, in
his recently published Travels in Abyssinia (i.
249), mentions that 'Myrrh and mimosa trees
abounded in this place' (Koranhedudah in Adal).
The former he describes as being a low, thorny,
ragged-looking tree, with bright-green trifoliate
leaves ; the gum exudes from cracks in the bark of
the trunk near the root, and flows freely upon the
stones immediately underneath. Artificially it is
obtained by bruises made with stones. The natives
collect it principally in the hot months of July and
August, but it is to be found, though in very
small quantities, at other times of the year.
(3) Several kinds of myrrh were known to the
ancients, and in modern commerce we have Turk-
ish and East Indian myrrh, and different names
used to be, and arc still applied to it, as red and
fatty myrrh, myrrh in tears, in sorts, and myrrh
in grains. In the Bible also several kinds of
myrrh are enumerated, respecting which various
opinions have been entertained.
(4) Myrrh, it is well known, was celebrated in
the most ancient times as a perfume, and a fumi-
gant, as well as for its uses in medicine. Myrrh
was burned in their temples, and employed in em-
balming the bodies of the dead. It was offered
in presents, as natural products commonly were
in those days, because such as were procured from
distant countries were very rare. The ancients
prepared a wine of myrrh, and also an oil of
myrrh, and it formed an ingredient in many of the
Myrrh.
most celebrated compound medicfnes, as the
Theriaea, the Mithridata, Mantis Dei, etc. Even
in Europe it continued to recent times to enjoy the
highest medicinal reputation, as it does in the East
in the present day. From the sensible properties
of this drug, and from the virtues which were
ascribed to it, we may satisfactorily account for
the mention of it in the several passages of Scrip-
ture which have been quoted. (See Myrrh.)
J. F. R.
MOKASTHITE (mo'ras-thite).(Heb. ''?''?^'^, »?i7
rash-tee'), an inhabitant of Moresheth-Gath (Jer.
xxvi:i8; Mic. i:l).
MORAVIAN CHURCH IN THE T7NITED
STATES.
(1) Founding and Characteristics. This
church was known as the United Brethren before
the term Moravian Church came into vogue. The
latter appellation is derived from the land in
which the church in question was formerly the
chief representative of the evangelical faith, and
from which refugees came to Saxony in 1722, to
accomplish its resuscitation after it had been al-
most extirpated by persecution. Evangelical loy-
alty to the essentials of the Christian faith, com-
bined with an unwillingness to bind men's con-
sciences to the exact phraseology of a humanly
constructed creed in reference to mysteries of the
truth, and an exaltation of the value of devout
Christian life above professed adherence to sym-
bols apprehended by the intellect, have been char-
acteristic of the Moravian Church from the first,
and, since 1732. it has realized that its special call-
ing is to carry the gospel to the neglected hea-
MORAVIAN CHURCH IN U. S.
1182
MORAVIAN CHURCH IN U. S.
then, whilst in home lands its members fraternize
with all who love the Lord Jesus in sincerity.
In accordance with these characteristics and
purposes the Moravian Church has consistently
shunned every effort at proselytism in Christian
lands, though it has freely expended men and
means to foster vital religion within state
churches in Europe, without seeking to withdraw
members from fellowship in those churches.
Founded by spiritual descendants of John Hus
in Bohemia in 1457, the Moravian Church was
almost extirpated in consequence of the Thirty
Years' War, although it had previously spread
widely throughout Bohemia, Moravia, Poland and
Prussia.
Providentially resuscitated in Saxony during
the years from 1722 to 1727 by refugees who were
harbored on the estates of Count Zinzendorf, him-
self destined to become identified with it as a
future bishop, its attention was turned to America
by two causes. Persecutions at home suggested
the wisdom of securing an asylum where religious
liberty might be enjoyed; the possibility of inau-
gurating missions amongst the Indians and the
negro slaves became a call of duty. "From the trus-
tees of Georgia (.^ount Zinzendorf obtained a grant
of 500 acres of land on the Ogeeche River, and
Spangenberg another of fifty acres, forming part
of the present site of Savannah. In the spring of
I735> the latter began a settlement, on his tract,
with a number of Moravians." {Moravian Man-
ual, pp. 38, 39.) This settlement proved a failure,
largely owing to the war between England and
Spain. The remnant of the Moravian colonists
in Georgia, in 1740, came to Philadelphia as pas-
sengers in George Whitefield's sloop. "At the
invitation of Whitefield they proceeded in May to
the Forks of the Delaware, the present Northamp-
ton County, where he had purchased a domain
of 5,000 acres, embracing what is now Upper Naz-
areth Township, and began to build a large house
destined to be a school for negro children. Ere
long, however, doctrinal differences, fostered by
the inhabitants of the Scotch-Irish settlements,
produced an open rupture between the Moravians
and Whitefield. who ordered them to leave his
land forthwith. In this extremity Bishop Nitsch-
mann came from Europe commissioned to begin
a settlement in Pennsylvania. Ten miles to the
south of Whitefield's domain, he purchased an
extensive tract, on the Lehigh River." (Mora-
vian ManKol, p. 40.) The settlement founded here
was named Bethlehem. "It was originally in-
tended as a center for the Indian Mission" — be-
gun in 1740 at Shekomeko near the Stissik Moun-
tains, between New York and Connecticut. "But
other immigrants having arrived from Germany,
a church settlement was organized. June 25, 1742,
strictly on the plan of those established by Zin-
zendorf in his native land, with all their appliances
of exclusivism." (Moravian Manual, p. 40.) In
addition to maintaining an Indian mission, which
spread in New York, Connecticut, Pennsylvania,
and later in Ohio, an extensive itineracy was un-
dertaken amongst white settlers — Germans. Swedes
and English, as well as amongst the negro slaves;
but no effort was made to extend the Moravian
Church as such amongst those who had not been
identified with it in Europe. Rather were appli-
cants for admission to fellowship discouraged, it
being the aim of the Moravian evangelists to pro-
mote vital Christianity and not to build up a sect.
Just here the Moravians failed to recognize the
difference between the religious characteristics of
this land free from the trammels of a state church
and their old conditions of operation in Europe ;
and this feature largely accounts for the numerical
weakness of the Moravian Church in America
to-day. Between the years 1742 and 1748 the Mo-
ravians in Pennsylvania devoted themselves, aside
from their mission amongst the Indians, to an ef-
fort to bring about an organic union amongst the
German-speaking Christians of the colony, no
German denomination having as yet effected act-
ual organization. But this laudable effort failed.
(2) Denominational Form. Accordingly, the
Moravian Church in America was compelled to
recognize the leadings of Providence and assume
definite denominational form. Its leaders chose
to bring the groups of affiliated persons in seven
of the original thirteen states into as close an
affinity as possible with the German congregations
of the church in Europe, and to model their life
after the pattern of the exclusive settlements of
the Unity there, so as to constitute the Moravian
villages spiritual retreats cut off from the rest of
the world, where pious souls might cultivate their
own Christian life and be mutually helpful in
promoting growth in grace. In 1753 a tract was
purchased in North Carolina, and here, too, the
life in Pennsylvania was duplicated, the chief cen-
ters now being Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz in
Pennsylvania, and after 1766 Salem in North Car-
olina.
(3) Moravian Villages. The following were
the characteristics of the Moravian villages:
"None but members were allowed to hold real
estate, although others might lease houses. In
each settlement there was a public inn and one or
more mercantile establishments or trades, belong-
ing to the church, the profits of which went to-
wards its support. This arrangement did not ex-
clude private enterprise and trades, of which there
were many. The settlements were governed by
a council called the "Board of Overseers," elected
by the adult male members of the church. At
the head of a council stood a Deacon, who bore
the title of 'Warden,' and was its executive offi-
cer. On business of importance a general meet-
ing of the adult male members was convened.
The purpose of this exclusive system was to
keep out of the congregation, as much as possi-
ble, the follies and sins of the world, and to pro-
mote sober, righteous and holy living. By the
blessing of God this was accomplished in a great
degree. The peculiar institutions belonging to a
settlement were the Brethren's, Sisters' and Wid-
ows' Houses. In a Brethren's House unmarried
men lived together, and carried on various trades
and professions, the profits of which were applied
to the support of the establishment and of the
church in general. A Sisters' House was inhab-
ited by unmarried women who engaged in differ-
ent kinds of work. In each house there was a
common refectory, dormitory and prayer-hall.
Daily religious services were held. There was
nothing monastic in the principles underlying
these establishments, or in the regulations by
which they were governed. The inmates were al-
most invariably such as had no other homes, and
stayed in them at their own option, gaining an
honest and decent livelihood, and enjoying the ad-
vantage of regular religious instructions. In many
instances they were training schools for mission-
aries. A Widows' House was a home for indi-
gent or other widows, supplying the inmates with
all the comforts which they needed at moderate
charges, and enabling the poorest to live in a re-
spectable manner. Each house had a spiritual
and temporal superintendent — females in the case
of Sisters' and Widows' Houses." (Moravian
Manual, pp. 55 and 56.)
MORAVIAN CHURCH IN U. S.
1183
MORAVIAN CHURCH IN U.S.
(4) Independence of American Province.
Up to the middle of the present century, when
this whole system was abolished, the Moravian
Church in America practically formed merely an
outpost of the Moravian Church in Germany. Con-
stitutional changes were effected in 1857. Since
then the American province of the church is in-
dependent so far as its own internal administra-
tion is concerned, and has pursued a natural pol-
icy of church extension. It now has congrega-
tions in Pennsylvania, New York^ New Jersey,
Maryland, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Missouri, Kansas, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North
Dakota, North Carolina, Virginia, Indian Terri-
tftry, and Alberta Territory, Canada. The entire
membership in America numbers 22,345. There
are two provincial synods in America, which elect
"provincial elders" as the executive boards, hav-
ing headquarters at Bethlehem, Pa., and Salem,
N. C. But the American Moravian Church forms
an organic whole in union with the Moravian
bodies in Great Britain and on the continent of
Europe. The highest legislative body is the Gen-
eral Synod, meeting once in ten years, and con-
stituted of representatives of the three provinces
and of the missions among the heathen which con-
stitute the joint enterprise of the entire Moravian
Church. The General Synod reviews the life,
regulates the statements of doctrine, orders the
ritual — liturgical in form, elects bishops, receives
a report of the entire management of the missions.
and elects the mission board, which has its head-
quarters at Berthelsdorf.
(5) Missions. The missions amongst the hea-
then, with an entire membership of about 95,000,
are divided into the following missionary prov-
inces : Greenland, Labrador, the Indian mission
in North America, Alaska, Jamaica, the eastern
islands of the West Indies, Nicaragua, Demerara,
Surinam, Cape Colony, Kaffraria, German East
Africa, Victoria, North Queensland, the Western
Himalayan, and the Leper Hospital in Jerusalem.
More than 400 missionaries, foreign and native,
are employed. Last year the cost was $404,282.50.
In addition a work of evangelization is carried on
in Bohemia and Moravia, in which all the "prov
inces" participate.
(6) Doctrines. The doctrinal standpoint of
the Moravian Church is thus set forth by the Gen-
eral Synod:
(i) Tlie Doctrines of the Moravian Church.
We esteem every truth revealed to us by God as
a precious treasure, and heartily believe that such
a treasure dare not be let go, even though we
could thereby save our body or our life (Luke
ix:24). But most especially do we affirm this of
that one doctrine which the Renewed Brethren's
Church has from the beginning regarded as her
chief doctrine, and over which she has hitherto,
by God's grace, kept guard as a priceless jewel:
That "Jesus Christ is the propitiation for our sins,
and not for ours only, but also for the whole
world" (l John ii:2). For "Him who knew no
sin, God made to be sin on our behalf; that we
might become the righteousness of God in Him"
(2 Cor. v:2i); or, as we sing in one of our
hymns :
Whosoever believeth in Christ's redemption.
Will find free grace and a complete exemption
From serving sin !
(2) With this our leading doctrine, the follow-
ing facts and truths, clearly attested by Holy
Scripture, are linked in essential connection, and
therefore constitute, with that leading doctrine.
the most prominent and main features of our un-
derstanding and our proclamation of the way of
salvation :
(a; The doctrine of the total depravity of our
human nature; i. c., that since the Fall there is
no heahli in man, and that he has no powers left
by which to save himself (John iii:6; Rom. iii:
23; vii:i8; i:i8-32; iii:9-i8; Eph. ii:8-i3).
(b) Ihe doctrine of the love of God, the Father,
to the fallen human race, according to which he
"chose us in Christ, before the foundation of the
world," and "so loved the world that he gave
his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth
in Him should not perish, but have eternal life"
(Eph. i:3, 4; " :4 ; John iii:i6; i John iv:9).
(c) The doctrine of the real Godhead and the
real humanity of Jesus Christ; i. e., that the only
begotten Son of God, he by whom all thines in
heaven and earth were created, forsook the glory
which he had with the Father before the world
was, and took upon him our flesh and blood, that
in all things he might be made like unto his breth-
ren, yet without sin (John i:i-3; i:i4; xvii:5;
Phil. ii:6, 7; Heb. ii:i4, 17; iv:is; Col. i:i7-i9;
1 John V :2oJ.
(d) The doctrine of our reconciliation to God
and our justification before him through the sac^
rifice of Jesus Christ, i. e., that Christ "was de-
livered up for our trespasses, and was raised
for our justification," and that alone by faith in
him "we have through his blood forgiveness of
sin," "peace with God," and freedom from the
service of sin (Rom. iii :24, 25; v:i; I Cor. i:30;
Heb. ii;i7; ix:i2; I Peter i:i8, 19; I John i:9;
2 Cor. v:i8, 19).
(e) The doctrine of the Holy Ghost and the
operations of his grace, i. e., that without him
we are unable to know the truth ; that it is he
who leads us to Christ, by working in us the
knowledge of sin and faith in Jesus, and that he
"bcareth witness with our spirit that we are chil-
dren of God" (John xvi:8-ii, 13, 14; i Cor. xii :
3 ; Rom. viii :i6).
(f) The doctrine of good works as the fruit of
the Spirit, i. e., that in them faith manifests itself
as a living acting power, which induces us, out
of love and gratitude to him who died for us,
willingly to follow the commandments of God
(John xiv:i5; Rom. vi:ii-i4; i Cor. vi:2o; Gal.
v:6, 22-24; 1 John v:3-s; Eph. ii:8-io; James
ii:i7).
(g) The doctrine of the felloivship of believers
one U'ith another, i. e., that they are all one in
Christ Jesus, the Head of his body, and are all
members one of another (John xvii :2i ; Matt,
xxiii :8; Eph. iv:4).
(h) The doctrine of the second coming of the
Lord in glory, and of the resurrection of the dead,
unto life or unto judgment (Acts i:ii; John vi:
40; xi:25, 26; iii:36; v:25-29; I Thess. iv:
14-17).
(3) Whilst we do not draw up and set forth
these truths and our acceptance of them in a
strictly formulated creed, our apprehension of the
chief substance of Christian doctrine has found
in a special way its expression in what has been
solemnly declared by our church, year by year,
for more than 100 years past, in our Litany on
Easter morning. — Results of the General Synod
of the Brethren's Unity, 1889, pp. 13-15.
(7) No Organic tTnion. That the .American
Moravian Church will in the near future unite
organically with any other American church is
very unlikely. She cannot do so without detri-
ment to her chief form of usefulness, which she
shares with the European divisions of the Mora-
MORDECAl
1184
MOREH
vian Church— the work of evangelization amongst
the heathen. At the same time she is ready to
fellowship with evangelical believers of every
name. J- "^- ^■
HOBDECAI (mor'de-kai), (Heb. '?""'?, mor-
dck-ah'ce, supposed to come from the Persian
word, meaning Utile man, tnannikin ; or, accord-
ing to others, from the idol Merodach, thus signi-
fying o votary of Merodach, or a worshiper of
Mars. The last supposition is not unlikely, see-
ing that Daniel had the Chaldean name of Bel-
shazzar ; Sept. MapSoxaios, mar-doh-kai os).
1. Esther's uncle. He was the son of Jair,
of the tribe of Benjamin, descended from one of
the captives transported to Babylon with Jehoia-
chin (Esth. ii:5). He was resident at Susa, then
the metropolis of the Persian empire, and had un-
der his care his niece Hadessa, otherwise Esther,
at the time when the fairest damsels of the land
were gathered together, that from among them a
fitting successor to queen Vashti might be selected
for king Ahasuerus. Among them was Esther,
and on her the choice fell; while, by what man-
agement we know not, her relationship to Morde-
cai, and her Jewish descent, remained unknown
at the palace. The uncle lost none of his influence
over the niece by her elevation, although the seclu-
sion of the royal harem excluded him from direct
intercourse with her.
(1) In the King's Service. He seems to have
held some office about the court ; for we find him
in daily attendance there, and it appears to have
been through this employment that he became
privy to a plot of two of the chamberlains against
the life of the king, which through Esther he made
known to the monarch. This great service was
however suffered to pass without reward at the
time.
(2) Jews Threatened. On the rise of Haman
to power at court, Mordecai alone, of all the
nobles and ofiicers who crowded the royal gates,
refused to manifest the customary signs of hom-
age to the royal favorite. It would be too much
to attribute this to an independence of spirit,
which, however usual in Europe, is unknown in
Eastern courts. Haman was an Amalekite; and
Mordecai brooked not to bow himself down before
one of a nation which from the earliest times had
been the most devoted enemies of the Jewish peo-
ple. The Orientals are tenacious of the outward
marks of respect, which they hold to be due to
the position they occupy; and the erect mien of
Mordecai among the bending courtiers escaped
not the keen eye of Haman. He noticed it, and
brooded over it from day to day ; he knew well the
class of feelings in which it originated, and— re-
membering the eternal enmity vowed by the Is-
raelites against his people, and how often their
conquering sword had all but swept his nation
from the face of the earth — he vowed by one great
stroke to exterminate the Hebrew nation, the fate
of which he believed to be in his hands. The
temptation was great, and to his ill-regulated mind
irresistible. He therefore procured the well-
known and bloody decree from the king for the
massacre of all the Israelites in the empire in one
day. When this decree became known to Mor-
decai, he covered himself with sackcloth and
ashes, and rent the air with his cries. This being
made known to Esther through the servants of
the harem, who now knew of their relationship,
she sent Hatach, one of the royal eunuchs, to de-
mand the cause of his grief; through that faithful
servant he made the facts known to her, urged
upon her the duty of delivering her people, and
encouraged her to risk the consequences of the at-
tempt. She was found equal to the occasion. She
risked her life by entering the royal presence un-
called, and having by discreet management pro-
cured a favorable opportunity, accused Haman to
the king of plotting to destroy her and her people.
His doom was sealed on this occasion by the
means which in his agitation he took to avert it ;
and when one of the eunuchs present intimated
that this man had prepared a gallows fifty cubits
high on which to hang Mordecai, the king at once
said, 'Hang him thereon.'
(3) Exaltation. This was, in fact, a great ag-
gravation of his offense, for the previous night,
the king, being unable to sleep, had commanded
the records of his reign to be read to him ; and
the reader had providentially turned to the part re-
cording the conspiracy which had been frustrated
through Mordecai. The king asked what had
been the reward of this mighty service, and being
answered 'nothing,' he commanded that any one
who happened to be in attendance without, should
be called. Haman was there, having come for
the very purpose of asking the king's leave to hang
Mordecai upon the gallows he had prepared, and
was asked what should be done to the man whom
the king delighted to honor. Thinking that the
king could delight to honor no one but himself, he
named the highest and most public honors he
could conceive, and received from the monarch the
astounding answer, 'Make haste, and do even so
to Mordecai that sitteth in the king's gate !' Then,
was Haman constrained, without a word, and w ith
seeming cheerfulness, to repair to the man whom
he hated beyond all the world, to invest him with
the royal robes, and to conduct him in magnificent
cavalcade through the city, proclaiming, 'Thus
shall it be done to the man whom the king de-
lighteth to honor.' After this we may well be-
lieve that the sense of poetical justice decided the,
perhaps till then, doubtful course of the king, when
he heard of the gallows which Haman had pre-
pared for the man by whom his own life had been
preserved.
Mordecai was invested with power greater than
that which Haman had lost, and the first use he
made of it was, as far as possible, to neutralize or
counteract the decree obtained by Haman. It
could not be recalled, as the kings of Persia had no
pow-er to rescind a decree once issued ; but as the
altered wish of the court was known, and as the
Jews were permitted to stand on their defense,
they were preserved from the intended destruc-
tion, although much blood was, on the appointed
day, shed even in the royal city. The Feast of
Purim was instituted in memory of this deliver-
ance, and is celebrated to this day (Esth. ii :$ ; x).
(See Purim). B. C. 479.
2. A Mordecai, who returned from the exile
with Zerubbabel, is mentioned in Ezra ii .2 and
Neh. vii 7 ; but this cannot well have been the
Mordecai of Esther, as some have supposed. (B.
C. 536.)
MOREH (mo'reh), (Heb. •^T^, mo-re h' , teach-
ing).
1. A name, perhaps derived from a Canaanitish
chief, and given to the oak tree or grove near
Shechem, where Abraham halted when he entered
Canaan (Gen. xii:6; Deut. xi :29, 30). He erected
an altar to Jehovah, who appeared to him here.
No doubt Jacob here buried the amulets and idols
which his family brought from Haran ; and here
Joshua erected a monument commemorating the
covenant which the people renewed there. Here,
too, the men of Shechem came to make Abimelech
king (Gen. xxxv:4; Josh. xxiv:26">.
2. A hill in the valley of Jezreei where the Mid-
MORESHETH-GATH
1185
MORTIFICATION
ianites and Amalekites encamped before the at-
tack by Gideon (Judg. vii:i). It is perhaps the
same as Little Hermon, eiglu miles northwest of
Mount Gilboa.
MORESHETH-GATH (m6r'esh-eth-gath),(Heb.
^i '"^yv'"'^, nw-reh' sheth gatk, possession of
Oath), a place named with towns in the low
country of Judah, where Micah, the prophet, was
born or lived (Mic. i:i4; i:i; i:i3-i5; Jer. xxvi:
18). Jerome locates it near Eleutheropolis. (See
Robinson ii, 423).
MORIAH (mo-ri'ah), (Heb. ^T^'^, mo-ree-yaw' ,
seen or chosen of Jehovah), one of the hills of
Jerusalem, on which the temple was built by Solo-
mon (2 Chron. iii:i).
The name seldom occurs, being usually included
in that of Zion, to the northeast of which it lay,
and from which it was separated by the valley of
Tyropccon (Joseph. Antiq. viii, 3-9). (See Jeru-
salem.) The Land of Moriah. whither Abraham
went to offer up Isaac (Gen. xxii:2), is generally
supposed to denote the same place, and may at
least be conceived to describe the surrounding dis-
trict. The Jews themselves believe that the altar
of burnt-offerings in the temple stood upon the
very site of the altar on which the patriarch pur-
posed to sacrifice his son. (See King; Jerusa-
LE.M, 8.)
UOKNING (morn'ing), (Heb. ''|53, 60'ker, Gen.
1:5, sy., Gr. irpata., pro-ee'ah. Matt. xxi:l8), the early
part of the day immediately following sunrise.
(See Day.)
Figurative, (i) The morning is represented
as having eyelids, to represent the first appearance
of the rising light in the reddish sky (Job xli :
18) ; as having wings, to denote the quick spread
of light (Ps. cxxxix 19) ; and as having a womb
from which the dew is produced (Ps. cx:3). (2)
"Every morning," is daily; often (Ps. Ixxiii:i4).
(3) "In the morning," is early; seasonably; ear-
nestly; suddenly (Ps. v :3 ; xxx:5). (4) To exe-
cute judgment "in the morning," is to do it read-
ily, and as seasonably and speedily as possible
(Ps. ci:8; Jer. xxi:i2). (5) To "eat in the
morning," denotes unseasonable and intemperate
eating and drinking; luxury (Eccl. x:i6; Jer.
v:8). (6) The church is likened to the "morn-
ing" (Cant, vi :io). (7) A state of grace is called
a "morning." It comes after a sad night of sin
and misery; and how happily is one awakened,
enlightened and refreshed by the gradual increase
of its spiritual discoveries, and application of
heart-warming love, till it issue in the high day
of eternal happiness! (Is. viii:2o). (8) A sea-
son of prosperity or gospel opportunity, is called
a "morning;" it comes after a night of distress,
or dark ignorance ; and how delightful and re-
freshing! (Is. xxi:i2). (9) The general resur-
rection is called a "morning;" after a night of
darkness and deathful sleep, how shall men be
awakened by the last trumpet, enlightened by the
glory of, and manifold discoveries made by, the
Son of man ! and into what an everlasting day it
ushers the saints! (Ps. xlix:i2). (10) Fearful
judgments are likened to the "morning" (Ezek.
vii 7, to).
MORNING SACRIFICE (morn'ing sak'rl-flz).
See Priest, Hebrkw Priesthood.
MORNING STAR (raom'Ing star). See As-
tronomy.
MORNING WATCH (m6rn'Ing woch). See
Watch.
K
MORROW (m6r'r6). The translation of several
Hebrew and Greek words:
1. Maw-khar (Heb. "'P'?). deferred (Exod:
viii: 10, sq.; ix:6; xix:io; Num. xvi:7, 16; Josh.
V :n, 12, etc.).
2. Bo'ker (Heb. "'P^J, early dawn, break of
day (Lev. xxii:30; Num. xvi :$ ; xxii:4i, etc.).
3. Hex-ace (Gr. e|^si, successive (Acts xxv:!7).
4. Ow'ree-on (Gr. aipiov), breeze, i. e., morning
air (Matt. vi:30, 34; Luke x:35; xii:28; xiii:32, 33;
Acts XXV ;17, 22, etc.).
6. Ep-ow'ree-on (Gr. iiiaxiiHov), the following
day (Mark xi:i2; Acts x :9, 23; xxiii:32; xxv:
23). (See Day.)
MORSEL (mor'sel), (Heb. ^^, path, bit; Gr.
^piiff-is, bro'sis, eating, either the act or that which
is eaten).
1. A small piece of bread (Ps. cxlvii :I7) ; comp.
Judg. xix:s; Ruth ii:i4; i Sam. xxviii:22; i
Kings xvii:ii).
2. A meal of meat (Heb. xii:i6). "Better is a
dry morsel with quietness than a house full of
sacrifices with strife." Better is the meanest fare,
in a state of peace with God, and in the enjoyment
of peace of conscience, and of true peace with
men, than the most abundant and delicate provis-
ion without it (Prov. xvii:i).
MORTAL (mor'tal), (Heb. '^H?!, en-oshe'), a
term ernployed to denote a human being (Job
iv:l7). The Greek Br^rb^ (thnay-tos' , liable to die)
is applied to man's natural body as compared with
the body hereafter to be assumed (Rom. vi:i2;
I Cor. xv:53, 54; 2 Cor. iv:li).
MORTALITY (mor-tai'I-ty), (Gr. e«n-4i, thnay-
tos', 2 Cor. v:4), subjection to death.
It is the wish of St. Paul that death may be
annihilated by life (comp. 2 Tim. i:io). "The
appearing of our Savior Jesus Christ, who hath
abolished death, and hath brought life and im-
mortality to light through the gospel."
MORTAR (raor'ter).
1. (Heb. ''I?, aw-favjr'), properly dry earth or
dust; from a root "?J\ aw-far', to be pale or whit-
ish (Lev. xiv:42,45). It may be either a cement
of lime and sand (Gen. xi:3; Ex. i:l4), or mud or
clay used like cement for building purposes (Lev.
xiv:42, 45). In Ezek. xiii:io, "untempered mortar"
means mortar without straw. In Babylon where
clay and lime were scarce bitumen was used in
place of mortar.
2. (Heb. '^?"^, med-o-kaw' , Num. xi:8; '^"??5.
wa/{'-/aj'.s/(', hollow, Judg. xv;i9; Prov. xxvii:22), a
hollow vessel of wood, stone, or metal, used for
reducing grain and spices by means of a pestle
(Num. xi:8; Prov. xxvii:22). The Arabs of the
present day use the stone mortar for grinding
grain.
MORTGAGE (raor'gaj), (Heb. 3^!?, aw-rab' , to
give security, to pawn, Neh. v:3), a lien upon real
estate fur debt. In I Sam. xvii:l8 it is translated
"pledge," and in Prov. xvii:l8 "surety."
MORTIFICATION (mor' ti-fl-ka'shQn), any
severe penance observed on a religious account.
The mortification of sin in believers is a duty
enjoined in the sacred Scriptures (Rom. viii:i3;
Col. iii:5). It consists in breaking the league
with sin; declaration of open hostility against it;
and strong resistance of it (Eph. vi:io, etc.; Gal.
v:24; Rom. viii:i3). The means to be used in
this work are not macerating the body, seclusion
MOSERA
1186
MOSES
from society, our own resolutions; but the Holy
Spirit is the chief agent (Rom. viii:i3), while
faith, prayer and dependence are subordinate
means to this end. The evidences of mortification
are not the cessation from one sin, for that may
be only exchanged for another; or it may be re-
nounced because it is a gross sin ; or there may
not be an occasion to practice it ; but if sin be
mortified, we shall not yield to temptation ; our
minds will be more spiritual ; we shall find more
happiness in spiritual services and bring forth
the fruits of the Spirit.
MOSEBA (rao-se'ra), (Heb. 'I^P'^, mo-say-raw',
chastisement), a station of the Israelites near
Mount Hor (Num. xxxiii:3o; Deut. x:6). In the
last passage the name appears in the plural, Afose-
rotb. (See Wandering, The.)
HOSEBOTH (mo-se'roth), (Heb. Hll^ltt ^o-
ser-othe' , correction), a station of the Israelites
named between Hashmonah and Bene-jaaken
(Num. xxxiii;30, 31); same as Mosera.
MOSES (mo'zez), (Heb. ^f^, tno-sheh').
1. JWame and Family, The lawgiver of Is-
rael. He belonged to the tribe of Levi, and was
a son of Amram and Jochebed (Exod. vi:20).
According to Exod. ii:io, the name'^V^ , Mosheh,
means drawn out of water. Even ancient writers
knew that the correctness of this interpretation
could be proved by a reference to the Egyptian
language (comp. Joseph. Antiq. ii, q, 6; contra
Apionem, i, 31 ; Philo, ii, 83, etc., ed. Mang). The
name contains also an allusion to the verb to be,
extracted, pulled out. Hence it appears that Mo-
sheh is a significant memorial of the marvelous
preservation of Moses when an infant, in spite of
those Pharaonic edicts which were promulgated
in order to lessen the number of the Israelites.
It was the intention of divine Providence that
the great and wonderful destiny of the child
should be from the first apparent ; and what the
Lord had done for Moses he intended also to ac-
complish for the whole nation of Israel.
This table shows the pedigree of Moses :
Lsvi
I
Gershon
Kohath
I
Amram = Jochebed
Merari
Hut — Miriam Aaron = Elisbeba Moses = Zipporab
I
Nadab Abihu Eleazar Ithamar Gershom Eliezer
I I
Phineas Jonathan
2. Personal History. His life falls naturally
into three divisions, of forty years each, accord-
ing to the account preserved in Stephen's speech
(Acts vii:23, 30, 36).
(1) Birth. Moses was born in the dark hour
of Hebrew story when a son was an object of the
murderous search of the Egyptian spies. His
father was Amram, his mother Jochebed ; his
tribe was Levi, and this fact may have determined
the choice of Levi for the priesthood. Moses was
the youngest child of the family ; Miriam was the
oldest, and Aaron came between. For three
months his parents hid the babe, but at last it was
no longer possible, and Jochebed, with a trem-
bling heart, but it may be with a dim conscious-
ness that God had great things in store for him,
laid him in the little basket of papyrus she had
deftly woven, pitched with bitumen within and
without, and, carrying it down to the brink of one
of the canals of the Nile, she hid it among the
flags. The child was tenderly watched "afar off"
by Miriam, who, less open to suspicion than the
mother would be, stood to see what would be
done to him. The daughter of the Pharaoh, the
oppressor, came to the sacred river to bathe, at-
tended by her maidens, who, surprised to find the
basket, which had providentially floated down to
the princess' bathing place — or had Jochebed pur-
posely put it there? — call the attention of their
mistress to the discovery. The basket is fetched
by one of them, and when opened a little babe,
evidently one of the Hebrews' children, but ex-
ceedingly fair, is revealed to view. The woman-
heart of the princess, who was a childless wife
according to tradition, yearned over the little one.
Her yearning was of God. Then Miriam drew
near, gathered from the conversation that the
child's life was to be spared, proposed to get a
nurse for him among the Hebrew women, and
thus it came to pass that Jochebed again had her
child at her breast, but this time as his hired nurse.
Pharaoh's daughter called him Mosheh, because
she drew him out of the water. She took care to
have him instructed in all the sciences then known
in Egypt. In his earliest years, Jochebed and
Amram, no doubt, took care to instruct him in
the Hebrew language, and in the principles of the
true religion, and in the knowledge of the prom-
ises that God had made concerning Israel.
(2) Life in Egypt. The second division of
Moses' life was totally diiTerent in its character
from the first. Moses, at the age of forty, is
learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The
adopted grandson of the Pharaoh, initiated in the
secrets of the priests, to whose order he belonged,
he had a brilliant and useful worldly career be-
fore him. Had he remained in his advantageous
surroundings, he would have been one of the
great Egyptian sages — probably the greatest of
them all. But God intended him to occupy a
much more exalted position. There was needed
by him a period of meditation. He must be cut
off from books, and by direct contact with nature
in all her moods learn what books cannot give.
Being divinely instructed that he was to be the
deliverer of Israel, he went to visit his brethren
at their hard labor. Observing an Egyptian cru-
elly abusing a Hebrew, and going to murder him,
he hastened to them, assistejtthe Hebrew, killed
the Egyptian, and hid his body in the sand.
Next day he observed two Hebrews at variance,
and begged the faulty person not to hurt his
brother. The fellow insolently replied, "Who
made you a ruler or judge over us? will you kill
me, as you did the Egyptian yesterday ?" Finding
that his slaughter of the Egyptian was divulged,
he fled into the country of Midian, on the Red
Sea. It is probable that the murder was intended
to impress upon the Hebrews his desire to help
them — that he, the king's son, would be their de-
liverer ; for it seems impossible to resist the con-
clusion that the pious teachings of his mother
had not been forgotten, and that many prayers
had been put up by him, as he determined to be
his brethren's savior. But we see now that it
was no wonder that this attempt at an insurrec-
tion proved abortive, and likewise that Moses had
much to learn before he could properly lead the
great Exodus.
(3) In the Wilderness. Moses fled from the
prominence, the refinement, and the luxury of the
court to the obscurity, the roughness, and the pov-
erty of the wilderness. Sitting down by a well.
MOSES
U87
MOSES
the seven daughters of Jcthro came up to it with
their (locks; they had scarcely tilled the troughs
with the water which they drew, when some bar-
barous fellows came up. and would have the
water to their flocks. Moses assisted the dam-
sels, and drove away the injurious shepherds.
Jethro had no sooner heard of his kindness to his
daughters, than he ordered him to be called in,
and get a refreshment. Moses hired himself to
fted Jcthro's flock, and received his daughter
Zipporah in marriage, by whom he had two sons.
The first he called Gershom, to denote his being a
stranger in that place ; the other he called Eliezcr,
lo denote that his God n'os his help (Exod. ii ;
Acts vii:20-29; Heb. xi :24, 25, 26).
At last the king of Egypt, by whose daughter
Moses had been educated, was dead ; but the
bondage of the Hebrews still continued under their
new tyrant.
(4) The Burning Bush. As Moses one day
led his flocks near to the north or west side of
Sinai, the Lord appeared to him in a bush burn-
ing, but not consumed. Moses, astonished, went
near to see the miracle. The Lord spake to him
out of the bush, and bade him put otf his shoes
before he came any nearer, as the spot was sacred
by the presence of God. He then declared himself
■ o be the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; and
that from regard to his promise, and to the groans
of his oppressed people he now intended to de-
liver them, and bring them into Canaan, by Moses
as the instrument. Moses began to excuse him-
self, as the Hebrews would not believe that he had
a mission. God promised him his presence, and
bade him tell the Hebrews that the Great I Am,
who is being itself, and gives being to his crea-
tures, and fulfills every promise, had sent him to
inform them of their approaching deliverance;
and assured him that they then would believe
him. He ordered him to go to Pharaoh, and, in
the name of Jehovah, to require him to let the
Hebrews go three days' journey into the Arabian
Desert, to offer a solemn sacrifice to the Lord.
Meanwhile he told him that Pharaoh would not
grant this request, till he and his country should
be almost ruined by fearful plagues. Moses still
excusing himself, God encouraged him by a four-
fold sign: His rod was turned into a serpent, to
signify what plagues it would bring on the Egyp-
tians. It was returned to a rod, to mark how useful
it would prove for the support of the Hebrews. To
mark how easily God would weaken the power
of the Egyptians, and strengthen the Israelites,
^Ioses■ hand, being put into his bosom, became
leprous, white as snow ; and again returned into
his bosom, became sound as the other. These
miracles he was ordered to repeat before the He-
brews, for the confirmation of his" mission ; and
if necessary, to add the taking of water out of the
river, and it should become blood. Moses then
urged that he had not a ready utterance of speech,
and begged to be excused, and urged the Lord
would send some more proper person. Offended
with his unbelief, God told him that he could
qualify him with speech; and that Aaron, who
was just coming to meet him. should be his as-
sistant and spokesman. Moses being at last per-
suaded, went and obtained the leave of his father-
in-law to go and visit his parents in Egypt. He
took his wife and children along with him. As
they were in an inn by the way. an angel threat-
ened to slay Moses, it is supposed on account of
his neglect to circumcise his child, or children.
To prevent his death, Zipporah took a sharp stone,
and having cut off her child's foreskin, cast or
laid it at the feet either of her husband or of the
child, and said that now she had preserved his
life by bloodshed, and he or his son was now her
bloody bridegroom. Zipporah and her children
returned to her father; but Moses pursued his
course into Egypt, and was met by Aaron his
brother. They told the Hebrews what God had
said, and showed them the signs; the people be-
lieved and were filled with joyful expectation of
deliverance (E.xod. iii, iv).
.(5) In Qoshen. Arrived at Goshen, Moses
and Aaron at once began the discharge of their
commission. But their primary efforts only in-
creased the subject people's burdens, and the two
brothers were wellnigh in despair. Then began
the series of miraculous visitations recounted in
Exod. vii-xii. The last of the plagues when the
firstborn of the Egyptians were slain caused
Pharaoh's servants to influence him to give the
Hebrews their dismission. By the sprinkling of
the blood of the Passover lambs on the doorposts
and upper lintels, they had their families protected
from the destroying angel (Exod. v-xii; Deut. iv:
34, and xi :3 ; Heb. xi:23-2g).
3. The Exodus. The third period begins with
the Exodus. The Hebrews having taken their de-
parture from Egypt in great haste, and having car-
ried along with them a good part of the wealth of
the Egyptians, took their journey to the south-
east. Pharaoh and his people repented of letting
them go; and with a mighty army pursued them,
and almost overtook them on the west «f the Red
Sea. The Hebrews murmured against Moses, for
bringing them out of Egypt. Moses prayed to the
Lord for deliverance. By God's direction, he
stretched his rod over the Red Sea, and it (where
perhaps about eighteen miles broad), parted asun-
der, and gave the Hebrews an easy passage. By
taking off the wheels of their chariots, and darken-
ing their way, the Lord retarded the march of the
Egyptians ; and when the Hebrews were all over,
and the Egyptians all in the channel, Moses, at
God's direction, stretched his rod to the sea, and
it, moved by a strong wind, suddenly returned,
and drowned the host. (See Meneptah, Inscrip-
tions OF.) On the east side of the sea, Moses
and the men. and Miriam and the women of
Israel, sung a song of praise for their miraculous
deliverance.
(1) Waters of Marah. Directing their course
to the southeast, the Hebrews were three days
without water; and when they found some in
Marah. it was so bitter they could not drink it,
they murmured against Moses, saying he had
brought them into the wilderness to kill them
with thirst. Moses cried to God for their relief;
and God showed him a tree (perhaps the bitter
Ardiphine), and he cast it into the waters and
they became sweet. Marching thence, they came
to Elim, where were twelve fountains of excellent
water, and seventy palm-trees.
(2) Quails and Manna. On the fifteenth day
of the second month, which was the thirty-first
from their departure, they came to the wilder-
ness of Sill : their food was quite spent, and now
they murmured again, saying that Moses had
brought them into the wilderness to kill them with
hunger. Moses cried to the Lord. That very
night a multitude of quails fell about their tents;
.tikI next morning the manna, which continued
with them forty years, began to fall.
(3) Rephidim. When they came to Rephi-
dim. Moses, by God's direction, smote a rock with
his rod, and thence came water, whose streams
seem to have followed them about thirty-nine
years. Here, chiefly by Moses' intercession, and
by his holding up the rod of God in his hand, the
MOSES
1188
MOSES
Amalekites were defeated ; and to commemorate
the victory, Moses reared up an altar, and called
it Jehovali-nissi, that is The Lord is my banner.
While they tarried here, Jethro brought Moses his
wife and children ; and to ease him of his great
burden in judging the people, advised him to ap-
point heads of thousands, hundreds, and fifties,
and tens; and let these judge all the lesser causes.
This measure, being approved by God, was im-
mediately put in execution (Exod. xiii-xviii ;
Deut. xi:4; Josh. xxiv:5-7; Neh. ixig-is; Ps.
Ixxviii :ii-29; cv ■.26-43; cvi:7-i4; cxxxv: 8, 9,
and cxx.xvi :ii-l5).
(4) Mount Sinai. On the first day of the third
sacred month, the Hebrews came to Sinai. On this
mount. God had told Moses the Hebrews would
serve him. When Moses first ascended the mount,
God told him his intention to enter into a cove-
nant with the people. When Moses rehearsed
this to the people, they professed their readiness
to do whatsoever the Lord should command them.
When Moses returned to the mount, and repre-
sented their ready compliance with the divine will,
God ordered him down to direct the people to
sanctify themselves, and wash their clothes, as,
on the third day. God would descend on the
mountain, and enter into covenant with them.
After they had purified themselves, flames from
the top of the mount, and terrible claps of thun-
der, made all the congregation, Moses not ex-
cepted, to tremble and quake ; and all the country
about shook and was illuminated. Boundaries
were fixed around the mount, that neither man
nor beast might touch it ; and all were com-
manded not to gaze, as if curious to behold any
corporeal similitude of God amidst the fire. With
an audible voice, that all Israel might hear, God
proclaimed the covenant relation between him and
them, and the ten summary precepts of the moral
law, in a manner adapted to every particular
person. The terrible thunders so frightened the
Hebrew assembly that they begged the Lord
would speak his mind only to Moses, and Moses
declare it to them. Moses returned to the mount,
and there received a variety of political and cere-
monial laws.
Descending, he erected twelve pillars for the
twelve tribes, and offered by the hands of some
young men. burnt-offerings and peace offerings on
an altar erected of rough stones. The half of the
blood he sprinkled on the altar; with the other
half he sprinkled the book in which he had writ-
ten the laws he had received, and the people.
After which, he and Aaron, and his sons, and
seventy of the elders of Israel, went a little way up
the mount, and feasted before the s'ymbols of the
presence of God. Thus was the covenant solemnly
ratified (Exod. xix-x.xiv; Deut. iv-v).
(5) Divine Directions. Leaving Aaron and
Hur, and the seventy elders, to govern the people,
Moses took Joshua along with him, at least part
of his way, and went up to the mount, where they
continued without any food for the space of forty
days. God then gave Moses directions concern-
ing the formation of the ark. altars, vails, curtains,
candlestick, and other things pertaining to the
tabernacle; and concerning the priests' garments,
and their consecration, and concerning burnt-
offerings, incense, and perfume, and concerning
the Sabbath ; and ordered Bezaleel and Aholiab
to frame the work of the tabernacle.
(6) The Golden Calf. After giving to him
the two tables of stone, on which the ten com-
mandments had been divinely inscribed, he bade
him go down hastily, as the Hebrews had already
broken their engagements, and were worshiping
a golden calf. He offered to make Moses' family
a great nation, if he would but forbear interceding
for his .guilty brethren. Moses fell on his face
before the Lord, and begged he would not destroy
them, as they were his covenant people. When
he came down from the mount, and observed
iheir idolatry, his holy zeal was so excited, that
he threw down the tables of the law, and broke
them to pieces before them, as a token of their
breaking God's covenant, and exposing themselves
to be broken in his wrath. He took their idol-
calf and reduced it to powder, and caused the
idolaters to drink the water, with the dust mixed
with it, as a token that their guilt should be
punished.
(7) Destruction of Idolaters. After sharply
rebuking Aaron, his brother, for his part in their
sin, he placed himself at the door of a tent, which
he erected without the camp, and bade all that
detested this idolatry to come to him. Three
thousand Levites quickly joined him. These he
ordered to go through the camp, and slay every
man his friend, or near kinsman, who had been
active in the idolatry. After representing to the
people the greatness of their sin. he returned
to the mount, and fasted and prayed for the space
of forty days. He begged that if God would
not forgive the Hebrews' sin. he himself might
be blotted out of the book of providential preser-
vation, and not live to see them ruined, or have
the honor of his family established on their ruin.
God replied, he would only cut off from life in
that quarrel, such as had offended ; Moses con-
tinued his intercession, till God promised his
presence; promised, and gave him a signal mani-
festation of his mercy, goodness, and equity.
Whereupon Moses begged that God would glorify
the exceeding riches of his grace, in going up
with them, though they were a most rebellious
and stiff-necked people.
After hewing two new tables of stone, Moses re-
turned again to the mount ; and continuing there
forty days, came down with the moral law divinely
inscribed on the tables. His face shone with
the reflection of the divine glory. When he knew
this, he covered his face with a vail, that the
Hebrews might converse with him (Exod. xxv-
xxxiv ; Deut. xi-x).
(8) The Tabernacle. The tabernacle was now
to be reared by voluntary contribution. The peo-
ple brought materials, till Moses restrained them.
Every male paid half a shekel as the ransom
money of his soul. After six months' work the
tabernacle was finished, everything being exactly
according to the direction of God by Moses.
After divine directions issued therefrom concern-
ing the various offerings, Aaron and his sons were
consecrated to the service of it, and then a num-
ber of other ceremonial laws were by God uttered
therefrom. (See Leviticus.)
An account of the Hebrews was then taken, and
all were directed in their station and work, and
their princes offered the oblations for the dedica-
tion of the tabernacle.
(9) Subsequent History. He then received
the "spiritual statute book" of Israel as the con-
gregation of Jehovah (Lev. ch. i-vii), and con-
secrated Aaron and his sons for the priesthood
(Lev. ch. viii-ix). Judgment was executed upon
Nadab and .Abihu (ch. .x) and further regulations
promulgated (ch. xi-xxvii). After this Moses
numbered the people (Num. ch. i), arranged the
order of the tribes in the camp and on the march
(ch. ii), numbered the Levites and arranged for
their special calling (ch. iii-iv), gave directions
respecting unclean persons, trespass, Nazarites,
etc. (ch. v-vi), received the dedicatory gifts from
MOSES
1189
MOSES
the princes of the tribes (ch. vii), consecrated the
Levites (ch. viii), and prepared for the onward
journey (ch. ix-x:io).
Mention is made of Moses securing, by prayer,
the quenching of the tire at Taberah (xi:l-3);
Moses' complaint of the burden of his charge
and the appointment of seventy elders (xi:io-3o) ;
the sedition of Miriam and Aaron (ch.xii) ; the
sending out of the spies (ch. xiii-xiv) ; the rebel-
hon of Korah, Dathan and Abiram (ch. xvi) ; the
death of Miriam and Aaron, and the smiting of
the rock at Meribali (ch. xx) ; the plague of ser-
pents (ch. xxi) ; the appointment of Joshua by
Moses as his successor (ch. xxvii) ; the assign-
ment of their inheritance to the Reubenites and
Gadites (ch. xxxii) ; the appointment of commis-
sioners to divide the Promised Land.
(10) Final Instructions. The eleventh month
of the fortieth year of the Hebrews' travels was
now begun. Moses finding that no intercession
with God could procure for him an entrance into
the Promised Land, and knowing that his end drew
near, rehearsed to the Hebrews a summary of
what God had done for them, and a number of the
laws he had given them, with some additional
ones, and caused them to renew their solemn cove-
nant with God. He also set before them the mani-
fold blessings which would attend their obedience,
and the curses that would follow on their dis-
obedience. He left a written copy of his law, to
be placed at the side of the ark ; and ordered the
reading of it to the people at their public meet-
ings, especially on the year of release. After giv-
ing Joshua a solemn charge with respect to his
behavior, he composed a sublime ode that repre-
sented the excellency of God. their duty to him,
and their danger if they apostatized from it. He
then blessed the tribes of Israel ; that of Simeon
(perhaps because it was the most guilty in the
Midianitish whoredom and idolatry) only ex-
cepted, and concluded with a lofty commendation
of (jod, as the source of true happiness.
(11) Death. This finished, he went up to the
top of Pisgah, where God strengthened his sight
to take a clear view of the whole of the western
Canaan. His natural strength was no way abated,
but, perhaps, in a trance of wonder at the good-
ness of God, he breathed out his last. To in-
timate the future burial of his ceremonial law,
and to hinder the Hebrews from idolizing hjs
relics, the Lord buried him in the valley over
against Bethpeor ; but his grave could never be
found.
As Thomas Fuller quaintly says, "God buried
also his grave." The familiar lines of Mrs. C. F.
Alexander's ode, "The Burial of Moses," may be
appropriately quoted here :
"And had he not high honor?
The hillside for his pall.
To lie in state while angels wait.
With stars for tapers tall ;
And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumes.
Over his bier to wave;
And God's own hand, in that lonely land.
To lay him in his grave."
4. Character. Three qualities give him im-
mortal interest and prominence.
(1) Faith. By faith he esteemed "the reproach
of Christ greater riches than the treasures in
Egypt" (Hel). xi:26). "Never more alluring
prospects opened up before any man than those
which the wcirld held out to him. The throne of
the greatest monarchy of his age was within his
reach. All that wealth could procure, or pleasure
bestow, or the greatest earthly power command,
was easily at his call. But the glory of these
things paled in his view before the more excel-
lent character of those invisible honors which Ciod
set before him. This faith sustained him in the
solitudes of Midian and animated him amidst all
the conflicts attendant on the Exodus and all the
difficulties that confronted him in the wilderness.
This faith gave him courage in the hour of dan-
ger and calmness in the time of trial."
(2) Prayerfulness. "In every time of emer-
gency his immediate resort was to Jehovah. He
was not speaking to a stranger, but was like a
son making application to his father, and so he
never pleaded in vain." His was the prayer of
faith.
(3) Humility. "He coveted no distinction and
sought no prominence; his greatness came to him,
he did not go after it. And his humility was
allied with or flowed naturally out into two other
qualities, disinterestedness and meekness. (See
Num. xi :29 and xii :3 for striking illustrations).
He gave up his own ease and comfort to secure
the emancipation of his people ; and while labor-
ing night and day for them, he had no thought
whatever of his own interests. His office brought
him no emolument." In this he was like Ne-
hemiah. He was free from all charge of nepot-
ism. His meekness was shown in silently listen-
ing to complaints against himself. He appealed
unto God for vindication and approval.
In addition must be mentioned his eminent serv-
ices as lawgiver. It is indeed a vexed question
how much credit should be given to him as the
publisher of a code marked throughout by "Thus
saith the Lord." We are safe in saying that the
Law, as we have it recorded in the Scriptures,
was divinely inspired, and that Moses made the
record as directed of the Lord. The Decalogue
is a moral miracle in ancient legislation, and re-
tains its power to this day in all Christian lands.
(See Law.)
The only blot upon this beautiful character is a
lack of patience or self-control, but this was more
evident in the earlier portion of his life, nor was
it prominent enough to belie his eulogy.
Dr. Wm. W. Taylor.
5. Writings. To Moses we owe that impor-
tant portion of Holy Scripture, the Pentateuch,
which makes us acquainted with the creation of
the world, the entrance of sin and death, the first
promises of redemption, the flood, the peopling of
the postdiluvian earth, and the origin of nations,
the call of Abraham, and the giving of the law.
We have, indeed, in it the early history of religion,
and a key to all the subsequent dispensations of
God to man. The genuineness and authenticity of
these most venerable and important books have
been established by various writers ; but the fol-
lowing remarks upon the veracity of the writings
of Moses have the merit of compressing much ar-
gument into few words :
(1) Minuteness of Detail. There is a mi-
nuteness in the details of the Mosaic writings,
which bespeaks their truth; for it often bespeaks
the eye-witness, as in the adventures of the wilder-
ness; and often seems intended to supply direc-
tions to the artificer, as in the construction of the
tabernacle.
(2) Touches of Nature. There are touches of
nature in the narrative which bespeak its truth,
for it is not easy to regard them otherwise than
as strokes from the life ; as where "the mixed
multitude,'' whether half-castes or Egyptians, are
the first to sigh for the cucumbers and melons of
Egypt, and to spread discontent through the camp
MOSES
1190
MOSES, SONG OF
( Num. xi :4) ; as the miserable exculpation of him-
self which Aaron attempts, with all the cowardice
of conscious guilt ; "I cast into the fire, and there
came out this calf;" the fire, to be sure, being in
the fault (Exod. xxxii:24).
(3) Unexpected Incidents. There are certain
little inconveniences represented as turning up un-
expectedly, that bespeak truth in the story ; for
they are just such accidents as are characteristic
of the working of a new system and untried ma-
chinery. What is to be done with the man who is
found gathering sticks on the Sabbath day?
(Num. xv:32). (Could an impostor have de-
vised such a trifle?) How is the inheritance of
the daughters of Zelophehad to be disposed of,
there being no male heir? (Num. xxxvi :2) —
either of them inconsiderable matters in them-
selves, but both gK'ing occasion to very important
iaws; the one touching life, and the other prop-
erty.
(4) Simplicity of Story. There is a simplicity
in the manner of Moses, when telling his tale,
which bespeaks its truth ; no parade of language,
no pomp of circumstance even in his miracles, a
modesty and dignity throughout all. Let us but
compare him in any trying scene with Josephus ;
his description, for instance, of the passage
through the Red Sea (Exod. xiv), of the murmur-
ing of the Israelites and the supply of quails and
manna, with the same as given by the Jewish his-
torian, or rhetorician we might rather say, and the
force of the observation will be felt.
(5) Candor. There is a candor in the treat-
ment of his subject by Moses, which bespeaks his
truth; as when he tells of his own want of elo-
quence, which unfitted him for a leader (Exod.
iv:io), his own want of faith, which prevented
him from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx :
12), the idolatry of Aaron his brother (Exod.
xxxii:2i), the profaneness of Nadab and Abihu,
his nephews (Lev. x), the disafifection and pun-
ishment of Miriam, his sister (Num. xii:i).
(6) Disinterested Conduct. There is a disin-
terestedness in his conduct, which bespeaks him to
be a man of truth; for though he had sons, he ap-
parently takes no measures during his life to give
them offices of trust or profit ; and at his death
he appoints as his successor one who had no
claims upon him, either of alliance, of clanship, or
of blood.
(7) Prophetic Passages. There are certain
prophetical passages in the writings of Moses,
which bespeak their truth ; as, several respecting
the future Messiah, and the very sublime and
literal one respecting the final fall of Jerusalem
(Deut. xxviii).
(8) Key to Tradition. There is a simple key
supplied by these writings, to the meaning of many
ancient traditions current amongst the heathens,
though greatly disguised, which is another cir-
cumstance that bespeaks their truth: as, the
golden age; the garden of the Hesperides; the
fruit-tree in the midst of the garden which the
dragon guarded; the destruction of mankind by a
flood, all except two persons, and those, righteous
persons ; the seventh day a sacred day ; with many
others, all conspiring to establish the reality of the
facts which Moses relates, because tending to show
that vestiges of the like present themselves in the
traditional history of the world at large.
(9) Concurrence with New Testament. The
concurrence which is found between the writings
of Moses and those of the New Testament be-
speaks their truth, the latter constantly appealing
to them, being indeed but the completion of the
system which the others are the first to put forth.
Surely it is a very improbable thing that two dis-
pensations, separated by an interval of some fifteen
hundred years, each exhibiting prophecies of its
own, since fulfilled, each asserting miracles of its
own, on strong evidence of its own, and each with
such individual claims to belief, should also be
found to stand in the closest relation to one an-
other, and yet both turn out impostures after all.
(10) Purity. Above all, there is a comparative
purity in the theology and morality of the Penta-
teuch, which argues not only its truth, but its high
origin ; for how else are we to account for a sys-
tem like that of Moses, in such an age and amongst
such a people; that the doctrine of the unity, the
self-existence, the providence, the perfections of
the great God of heaven and earth should thus
have blazed forth (how far more brightly than
even in the vaunted schools of Athens at its most
refined era!) from the midst of a nation of them-
selves, ever plunging into gross and groveling
idolatry ; and that principles of social duty, of
benevolence, and of self-restraint, extending even
to the thoughts of the heart, should have been
the produce of an age, which the very provisions
of the Levitical law itself show to have been full
of savage and licentious abominations? (See
Exod. iii:i4; xx:3-i7; Lev. xix:2, i8; Deut. vi :
4; .XXX :6.) Such are some of the internal evi-
dences for the veracity of the books of Moses.
(See Pentateuch.)
6. Later Scripture illusions, (i) Moses
was a type of Christ. The parallel is readily traced,
"As Moses, in the early part of his career, refused
the Egyptian monarchy because it could be gained
to him only by disloyalty to God, Jesus turned
away from the kingdoms of the world because
they were offered on condition that he would wor-
ship Satan; as Moses became the emancipator of
his people, so was Jesus; as Moses, penetrating to
the soul of the symbolism of idolatry, introduced a
new dispensation wherein symbolism was allied to
spirituality of worship, so Jesus, seizing the spirit-
uality of the Mosaic system, freed it from its
national restrictions, and ushered in the day when
the true worshiper would worship the Father any-
where ; as Moses was preeminently a lawgiver, so
Jesus, in his Sermon on the Mount, laid down a
code which not only expounds but fulfills the
Decalogue ; as Moses was a prophet, so Jesus is
the great Prophet of his Church ; as Moses was a
Mediator, so Jesus is the Mediator of the new
covenant, standing between God and man. and
bridging, by his atonement and intercession, the
gulf between the two. We cannot wonder, there-
fore, that in the vision of the Apocalypse they who
have gotten the victory over the beast and his
image are represented as singing the song of
Moses the servant of God, and the song of the
Lamb (Rev. xv :3." (2) In Jude 9 is an al-
lusion to an altercation between IVJichael and Satan
over the body of Moses. It probably refers to a
lost apocryphal book, mentioned by (jrigen, called
the '.'\scension, or Assumption, of Moses' (Smith,
Bib. Diet.).
MOSES, BOOKS OF. See Pentateuch.
MOSES, LAW OF. See Law.
MOSES, SONG OF.
This wonderful ode Celebrates more fitly the
miraculous deliverance of the children of Israel
from Egyptian bondage. It is the national an-
them, the Te Deum of the Hebrews. It sounds
through the psalms of Israel, through the thanks-
giving hymns of the Christian Church, through
the touching songs of liberated slaves, and it will
Rivell the harmony of the saints in heaven. Allu-
sion to it is made in Rev. xv:2, 3: "They stand
MOST HIGH
1191
MOTHER
on the sea of glass mingled with fire . . . and
sing the song of Moses the servant of God."
MOST HIGH (most hi), (Heb. 1''^?, el-yone',
lofty), a name given to Jehovah as supreme and
all-glorious (Gen. xiv:iC; Ps. vii:i7; ix:2, etc.).
MOST HOLT (most holy). See Holiness.
MOTE (mot), a particle of dust, or other matter.
Small sins are likened to "motes in the eye"; they
are very troublesome to an awakened and tender
conscience, and greatly mar our looking on God as
our sun and shield (Matt. vii;3).
MOTH (moth), (Heb. ^y, awi^), occurs in Job
iviig; xiii;28; xxvii:i8; Is. \.q\ li:8; Hosea v:i2;
Matt. vi:i9, 20; Luke xii:33; Ecclus. xix:3, xlii:i3.
There is no Biblical insect whose identity is bet-
ter ascertained. The following allusions to the
moth occur in Scripture: To its being produced
in clothes, "for from garments cometh a moth'
(Ecclus. xlii:i3); to its well-known fragility,
'mortal men are crushed before the moth' (Job
iv:i9), literally, 'before the face of the moth,' but
which words really mean 'like as the moth is
crushed.' The allusion to 'the house of the moth'
(Job xxvii:l8) seems to refer plainly to the silky
spindle-shaped case, covered with detached hairs
and particles of wool, made and inhabited by the
larva of the Tinea sarcitella; or to the felted case
or tunnel formed by the larva of the Tinea pel-
lionetla; or to the arched gallery formed by eat-
ing through wool by the larva of the Tinea tapet-
sella. References occur to the destructiveness of
the clothes-moth : 'As a garment that is moth-eaten'
(Job xiii:28); 'the moth shall eat thein up' (Is.
1 rg) ; 'the moth shall eat them up like a garment'
(li:8) ; "I will be to Ephraim as a moth,' z. ?.,will
secretly consume him (Hos. v:l2); comp. Matt.
vi : 19, 20 ; Luke xii .33 ; James v :2, metaphorically ;
and Ecclus. xix:3, 'Moths and worms shall have
him that cleaveth to harlots,' but the better read-
ing is a^Trri, 'rottenness.' Since the 'treasures' of
the Orientals, in ancient times, consisted partly of
'garments, both new and old' (Matt, xiii :52 ; and
comp. Josh. vii:2i ; Judg. xiv:i2), the ravages of
the clothes moth afforded them a lively emblem of
destruction. Their treasures also consisted partly
of corn laid up in barns, etc. (Luke xii:i8, 24) ;
and it has been supposed that the Greek word,
translated ' rust, ' joined with the tr-Z/t, sayce,
moth, in Matt. vi:i9, 20, refers also to some
species of moth, etc., probably in the larva state,
which destroys corn. Kuinoel says the 'cureulio,
or korn-wurm.' the larva of the Tinea granella,
is injurious to corn.
Moths, like fleas, etc., amid other more imme-
diate purposes of their existence, incidentally
serve as a stimulus to human industry and clean-
liness; for, hy a remarkable discrimination in her
instinct, the parent moth never deposits her eggs
in garments frequently overlooked or kept clean.
Indeed, the most remarkable of all proofs of ani-
mal intelligence is to be found in the larv?e of
the water-moth, which get into straws, and ad-
just the weight of their case so that it can always
float ; when too heavy they add a piece of straw
or wood, and when too light a bit of gravel
(Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
vol. i, p. 42). J. F. D.
Figurative, (i) Secret influences that insensibly
consume men's character or estate are likened
to a "moth" (Is. 1:9; li:8). (2) God likens him-
self to a "moth and rottenness," because by his
judgments he gradually and insensibly weakened
the Jews, and rendered them contemptible (Hos.
v:i2). (3) The wicked man builds his house
"as a moth" ; he builds it by covetousness and
anxious care; imagines his lot agreeable but how
easily do the judgments of God burn or shake him
out of it! (Job xxvii:i8). (4) Man's beauty,
glory and wealth waste like "a moth," are secretly
and insensibly, but quickly, consumed (Ps. xxxix:
MOTHER (muth'er), (Heb. CX, ame ,■ Gr. n^riip,
tttay'tare), the name regarded by many lexicog-
raphers as a primitive, miitating the earliest lisp-
ing of an infant; they compare it with the Greek
lidfifia, mama,- Sanscrit, md, ambi ; Copt., mau ;
English and French, mama; German, amme,
(nurse), etc.
The ordinary applications of the word require
no illustration; but the following points of He-
brew usage may be noticed : When the father
had more than one wife, the son seems to have
confined the title of 'mother' to his real mother,
by which he distinguished her from the other
wives of his father. Hence the source of Joseph's
peculiar interest in Benjamin is indicated in Gen.
xliii :29, by his being 'his mother's son.' The
other brethren were the sons of his father by other
wives. Nevertheless, when this precision was not
necessary, the stepmother was sometimes styled
mother. Thus Jacob (Gen. xxxvii:io) speaks of
Leah as Joseph's mother, for his real mother had
long been dead. The stepmother was, however,
more properly distinguished from the womb-
mother by the name of 'father's wife.' The word
'mother' was also, like father, brother, sister, em-
ployed by the Hebrews in a somewhat wider sense
than is usual with us. It is used of a grand-
mother (i Kings xv:io), and even of any female
ancestor (Gen. iii:20). (See Woman.)
Figurative. The designation of mother is
symbolically applied: (i) To the true church; she
is Christ's "mother," as he assumed our nature
in connection with her, and was one of her mem-
bers (Cant. iii:ii). She is the "mother" of be-
lievers ; in h«r, and by her ordinances, they are
spiritually born, nourished, protected, and directed
(Cant. i:6; iii:4). She "is free," now delivered
from the bondage of ceremonies ; and her true
members are freed from the broken Law, and the
slavery of sin and Satan. She is "from above" ;
is of a heavenly origin, frame and tendency;
and her true members have their conversation in
heaven (Gal. iv:26; Phil. iii:2o). (2) To the
kingdom of Judah, or family of David, which
produced these wicked oppressors, Jehoahaz, Je-
hoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah (Ezek. xix).
(3) To a metropolis, or capital city of a country
or tribe; and then the inhabitants, villages, or
lesser cities, are called "daughters" (2 Sam. xx :
19; Jer. 1 :i2). (4) 'The /'ar/i;i|' of the way, at the
head of two ways' (Ezek. xxi:2i) is in the He-
brew 'the mother of the way.' because out of it
the two ways arise as daughters. (5) In Job i :2I,
the earth is indicated as the common 'mother to
whose bosom all mankind must return.' (6) To
any female superior in age, station, gifts, or grace,
or who deals tenderly with one. Deborah was a
"mother in Israel;" with tenderness and valor .she
judged, instructed, and governed that people
(Judg. v.y). The mother of Rufus was a mother
to Paul; kindly cared and provided for him (Rom.
xvi:i3). (7) The saints are Christ's "mother,"
"s'Sters," and "brethren"; he is formed in their
hearts, by their spiritual union to him. and their
receiving out of his fullness; and there is a dearer
intimacy and relation between him and them than
lutwocii the nearest relatives on earth (Matt, xii:
49. 50).
MOTIONS
1192
MOUNT OF BEATITUDES
MOTIONS (rao'shuns), ( Gr. Tri.6riixa, path' ay-
mah).
This word signifies suffering, sorrow, misfortune,
calamity (Rom. viii:i8; 2 Cor. i:6; Col. i:24, etc.),
also an affection, passion. The "motions of sin"
(Rom. vii:5) are the inward passions of which the
sins are the actual consequence.
MOULDY (mold'y), (Heb. ~9}, nik-kood' , crum-
bled). Josh, ix :s, 12, refers rather to the crum-
bling of bread.
MOUNT (mount), (Heb. 2?)?, moois-tsawb' , a
Station, Is. xxix;3; ' v?^, so-lel-aw' , Jer. vi:6), a
mound or rampart tlirown up for a siege.
MOUNTAIN (moun'tin).
(1) Dean Stanley gives (Sinai and Palestine)
the following list, quoted in Ayre's Treasury of
Bible Kiio-u'lcdgc, of Hebrew words used in refer-
ence to mountams or hills. It will be noticed the
majority are in common use with us:
"Head, rosh (Gen. viii:5; Ex. xix:2o; Deut.
xxxivii; I Kings xviii:42; A. V. 'top'). Of a
hill, Gibeali (Ex. xviiig, 10.
"Ears, aznoth, Aznoth-tabor (Josh. xix:34); pos-
sibly in allusion to some projection on the top of
the mountain.
"Shoulder, chatiph (Deut. xxxiii : 12 ; Josh, xv :
8; xviii:i6, 'side'), all referring to the hills on
which Jerusalem is placed. Josh. xv:io, 'the side
of Mount Jearim.'
"Side, tzad (see the word for the 'side' of a
man in 2 Sam. ii:l6; Ezek. iv :4, etc.). Used in
reference to a mountain in I Sam. xxiii 126 ; 2 Sam.
xiii :34.
"Loins or flanks, chisloth, Chisloth-tabor, Josh.
xix:i2, and occurs also in the name of a village,
probably situated on this part of the mountain,
Ha-cltesulloth, i. e., the 'loins' (Josh. xix:i8).
"Rib, tzilah. Only used once, in speaking of the
Mount of Olives (2 Sam. xvi:i3), and there
translated 'side.'
" Back, shechem. Probably the root of the
name of the town Shechem, which may be de-
rived from its situation, as it were, on the back
of Gerizim.
"Elbow, amniah. The same word as that for
'cubit.' It occurs in 2 Sam. ii :24 as the name of a
hill near Gibeon.
"Thigh, yarchah (see the word for the 'thigh'
of a man in Judg. iii:i6, 21). Applied to Mount
Ephraim (Judg. xix:i. 18), and to Lebanon (2
Kings xix :23 ; Is. xxxvii:24). Used also for the
'sides' of a cave (i Sam. xxiv:3).
"The word translated 'covert' in I Sam. xxv .'20
is sHIier, from StI/kar, to hide, and probably re-
fers to the shrubbery or thicket through which
Abigail's path lay. In this passage 'hill' should
be 'mountain.' "
(2) The mountains mentioned in Scripture are
noticed under their different names, and a general
statement with reference to the mountains of
Palestine is given under that head.
The most famous mountains mentioned in Scrip-
ture are. Scir. in Idumaea : Horeb. near Sinai, in
Arabia Pctraea; Sinai, in Arabia Petrrea; Hor, in
Idumea ; Gilboa. south of the valley of Jezrcel ;
Nebo, a mountain of Abarim ; Tabor, in Lower
Galilee; En-gedi. near the Dead sea; Libanus and
Anti-Libanus; Gerizim. in Samaria; Ebal, near to
Gerizim ; Gilead. beyond Jordan ; Amalek, in
Ephraim ; Moriah, where the temple was built ;
Paran, in Arabia Petraea; Gahash. in Ephraim;
Olivet; Pisgah. beyond Jordan; Hermon. bevond
Jordan, near Libanus; Carmel, near the Mediter-
ranean sea,' between Dora and Ptolemais.
Figurative. In Scripture the governing part of
the body politic appears under symbols of different
kinds. If the allegory or figurative representation
is taken from the heavens, the luminaries denote
the governing body ; if from an animal, the head or
horns ; if from the earth, a mountain or fortress ;
and in this case the capital city or residence of the
governor is taken for the supreme power. These
mutually illustrate each other. For a capital city
is the head of the political body; the head of an
ox is the fortress of the animal ; mountains are the
natural fortresses of the earth ; and therefore a
fortress or capital city, though seated in a plain,
may be called a mountain. Ilius the words head,
mountain, hill, city, horn, and king are used in
a manner as synonymous terms to signify a king-
dom, monarchy, or republic, united under one gov-
ernment, with only this difference, that it is to be
understood in different respects ; for the term
head represents it in respect of the capital city ;
mountain or hill in respect of the strength of the
metropolis, which gives law to, or is above, and
commands, the adjacent territory. When Dav.d
says, 'Lord, by thy favor thou hast made my
mountain to stand strong' (Ps. xxx;7), he mean,
to express the stability of his kingdom.
The detailed symbolical allusions are herewith
given: "Mountains" and "hills" are used to repre-
sent: (i) The people that dwell in a mountainous
and hill country (Ezek. vi :2, 3). (2) The temple
which was built on the top of a hill (Is. xxx:29;
Jer. xvii ;3. 26). (3) The church of God. typi-
fied by Mount Zion, and which is firmly settled,
conspicuous, and useful in the world (Ps. ii:5;
Is. ii :2) ; and which, as a great "mountain," shall
fill the whole earth, when all nations shall be
gathered to Christ (Dan. ii :3s, 45). (4) The
ordinances of Christ, which elevate his people
heavenward, and afford them much rich and me-
dicinal provision for their soul (Cant. ii:8; iv:6;
Joel iii:i8). (5) Men high in station, powei
and authority, as magistrates in the state, and
apostles and ministers in the church (Ps. I.xxii'.^;
Is. xliv :23 ; lv:i2). (6) Powerful hindrances
and provocations, and enemies of gospel influence,
and of the people of Christ (Is. xl :4 ; xli:is;
xlix:ii). (7) The places where idols were wor
shiped, which were often on hills and high places
(Ezek. xviii :6, 11). (8) Idols worshiped in
these places, or anything we tru.st in instead of
God (Jer. iii:23), (g) The heavens, which are
higher than mountains (Ps. cxxi:i). (10) God,
who is likened to the "mountains round about Jeru-
salem," as he is the sure defense and protector of
his people, and the source of all their consolation
(Ps. cxxv:2). (11) Samaria is called a "moun-
tain," because built on a hill (Amos iv:i; vi:.l).
(12) Babylon, or the Chaldean monarchy, is also
called a "mountain" because of its lofty build-
ing and great power; "a destroying mountain,"
bfcausc it overwhelmed and destroyed the nations
around ; and a "burning mountain." because at
last burnt with fire, and the debris looked like a
burnt "mountain" (Jer. Ii:25; Is. xiii:2). (See
B.\RYI.ON.')
MOUNTAIN OF THE AMOBITES (moun'-
trn ov the Sm'o-rites), (Heb. "'^'-^v' -, har haw-
em-o->ri''\, a plac^ mentioned (Deut. i:iQ, 20) in
connection with the WANiit.:RiN(;. It is probably
the i>hice nnvv called A'ltkl) esSu/f/i \ni\\e ran^e
of hills tli.it liiirders the pl.iteau ct-tih.
MOUNT EPHRAIM. Sec Ephraim.
MOUNT OF BEATITUDES (mount 6v be-at'-
T-tiids).
The mount upon which the great sermon was
MOUNT OF CONGREGATION
1193
MOURNING
delivered (Matt, v) may be the heights which
are now known as the "Horns of Hattin," Kurun
Hattin, near Capernaum, and on the west of the
Lake of Galilee.
MOTTNT OF CONGREGATION (mount 6v
k6n'gre-ga'shuni,(Heb. '^}! ''^ ~^, har mo-aiie' ),mcn-
tioned (Is. xiv:l3) in connection with the King of
Babylon. It probably corresponds to the Persian
el-Burj, or the Greek Olympus as the home of the
gods. (See Congregation, Mount of the.)
MOUNT OF CORRUPTION (mount 6v kor-
rup'shun). See Corruption.
MOUNT OF THE AMALEKITES (mount 6v
the am'a-lek-ites), (Heb. "h- ?^!'? '-. har haw-am-
avj-liiy-kee'), a place in the tribe of Ephraim (Judg.
xii:i5) where a branch of that clan apparently set-
tled.
MOUNT OF THE VALLEY (mount 6v the
vai'h), (Heb PP^'t '-, har haw-ay' tnek), a district
in the tribe of Reuben east of the Jordan (Josh.
xiii:ig). in the "valley" of Ghor or the Jordan.
MOURNING (morn'Ing), (Heb. ^2X aw-bal' , la-
ment, mourn).
This head embraces both the outward expres-
sions of sorrow for the dead, referred to in the
Scriptures, and those expressions which were in-
tended to exhibit repentance, etc. These subjects
will be pursued according to Townsend's chrono-
logical arrangement, and since they nearly ap-
proximate, will be pursued together.
(1) Occasions. The earliest reference to any
kind of mourning is that of Job, who, being in-
formed of the destruction of his children as the
clima-x of his calamities, 'arose, rent his mantle,
shaved his head, and fell down upon the ground
and worshiped' (Job i:20), and uttered senti-
ments of submission (ver. 21), and sat down
among the ashes (ch. ii;8). His friends came
to liim by an appointment among themselves to
mourn with him and comfort him (ver. 11) ; they
lifted up their voices and wept upon seeing his
altered appearance ; they rent every man his man-
tle and sprinkled dust upon their heads towards
heaven (ver. 12), and sat down with him on the
ground seven days and seven nights, waiting
till his grief should subside before they com-
menced their office as mourners. Job then be-
wails aloud his unhappy condition (ch. iii). In
ch. xvi:iS, 16, reference is made to the customs
of placing sackcloth next the skin, defiling the
head with dust, and suffering the face to be be-
grimed with weeping. Clamor in grief is referred
to (ii:i2, 13; xix:7); it is considered a wicked
man's portion that his widows shall not weep at
his death (xxviiiis'). Upon Job's recovery from
his afflictions all his relatives and acquaintances
bemoan and comfort him concerning his past suf-
ferings ; which seems to have been a kind of con-
gratulatory mourning, indulged in order to
heighten the pleasures of prosperity by recalling
associations of adversity (ch. xlii:u). Indeed,
the expressions of affectionate joy and grief
nearly coincide. Joseph fell upon his brother Ben-
jamin's neck and wept (Gen. xlv;i4; comp. Acts
^■^•'■2,7. 38. and (Jen. l:i). However it is to be
accounted for, in the course of the book of Job
nearly all the chief characteristics of Eastern
mourning arc introduced. This will appear as we
proceed. The next instance is that of Abraham,
who came to mourn and weep for Sarah (B. C.
1871), words which denote a formal mourning
(Gen. xxiii:2). Days of mourning are referred
to in regard to the expected death of Isaac (Gen.
xxvii:4i). These appear generally to have con-
sisted of seven, as for Saul (i Sam. xxxkij; seo
Judith xvi:24; comp. Ecclus. xxii:i2).
(2) Modes. Weeping appears either as one
chief expression of mourning or as the general
name for it. Hence when Deborah, Rebecca's
nurse, was buried at Bethel under an oak, at this
period, the tree was called Allon-bachuth, the oak
of weeping (Gen. xxxv:8). The children of Is-
rael were heard by Moses to weep throughout
their families, every man in the door of his tent
(Num. xi:io; comp. xiv:i; xxv:6). So numer-
ous are the references to tears in the Scriptures
as to give the impression that the Orientals had
them ever ready at command (comp. Ps. vi:6).
The woman washed our Lord's feet with tears
(Luke vii:38; comp. Ecclus. xxviii:i7). Weep-
ing, with lifting up of the voice, occurs in Ruth
1:9; I Sam. xi:4; 2 Sam. iii :3i ; xiii :36. Their
excitableness appears otherwise; they shout for
joy and howl for grief, even the ministers of the
altar (Joel i;i3; Micah i :8, etc.).
Reuben rends his clothes upon finding Joseph
gone (Gen. xxxvii:29) and uttered lamentations
(ver. 30). Jacob rends his clothes and puts sack-
cloth upon his loins, and mourns for his son many
days; his sons and his daughters rise up to com-
fort him, and he gives utterance to his grief;
'thus his father wept for him' (Gen. xxxvii :34,
35)- Joseph's brothers rend their clothes (Gen.
xliv:i3); and this act, as expressive of grief
or horror, occurs in multitudes of passages down
to the last age of the Jewish empire (Acts xiv :
14).
Scarcely less numerous are the references to
sackcloth on the loins as an expression of mourn-
ing; we have even lying in sackcloth (l Kings
xxi:27), and sackcloth upon both man and beast
at Nineveh (Jonah iii:8).
Joseph's brethren fell to the ground before him
in token of grief (Gen. xliv:i4j; and this, or
lying, or sittmg on the ground, was a common
token of mourning (comp. Ps. xxxv:i4; i Sam.
xxv:24; Is. iii :26; xlvii :i ; Ezek. xxvi :l6, etc.).
The next incident in the history of the subject
is the mourning for Jacob by the Egyptians,
which was conducted, no doubt, by professional
mourners during threescore and ten days (Gen.
1:3), called the days of mourning (ver. 4), though
most likely that computation includes the process
of embalming (.Wilkinson's Manners and Customs
cf the .Inctent ib'gj/'/ia;.j, v. 454, 459). It seems
to have amounted to royal mourning, doubtless
out of regard to Joseph. The mourning for Jo-
seph's father was renewed by Joseph's command,
with a very great and sore lamentation, upon the
funeral cavalcade having arrived in Canaan, and
continued seven days (ver. 10). The vehemency
of ih.'it mourning seems to have surprised even
the Canaaniles, who in consequence named the
place where it was held Abel-mizraim, or the
mourning of the Egyptians (ver. n). When the
children of Israel mourned under the threat of
the Divine displeasure, they did not put on their
ornaments (Exod. xxxiii:4; comp. Joel. ii:i6;
Ezek. xxiv:i7). At the giving of the law the
modes of mourning were regulated by .several
enactments. The prophet Joel commanded a
fast as part of a national mourning. A fast is
proclaimed to all the inhabitants or visitors at
Jerusalem (Jer. xxxvi'9; comp. Zech. vii:s).
Fasting is practiced at Nineveh as part of a public
humiliation (Jonah iii:5). In our Lord's lan-
guage, 'to fast' and 'to mourn' are the same thing
(Matt. ix:l5). Public humiliations attended with
religious assemblies and prayers (Joel ii:i6, 17) ;
MOURNING
1194
MOURNING
with fasts (Is. lviii:3); see all these united (i
Mace, iii :44, 47, 48). The first complete descrip-
tion of mourning for the dead occurs in 2 Sam.
iii :.U, 35-
(3) Forbidden Modes. It was forbidden the
Jews to make cuttings in their flesh for the dead
(Lev. xix:28). The ancient Egyptians, accord-
ing to Herodotus, did not cut themselves (ii:6l) ;
it was a Syrian custom, as appears from the
votaries of Baal (i Kings xviii:28) ; nor were the
Jews allowed to make any baldness between their
eyes for the dead (Deut. xiv:i). The priests
were forbidden to uncover the head in mourning
(Lev. x:6), or to rend their clothes, or to con-
tract the ceremonial defilement involved in mourn-
ing except for their nearest kindred (Lev. xxi :
1,4); but the high-priest was entirely forbidden
to do so even for his father or his mother (ver.
11). and so was the Nazarite (Num. vi:7). These
prohibitions respecting the head and the beard
(Lev. xix:27) seem to have been restricted to
funeral occasions, as the customs referred to were
lawfully practiced on other sorrowful events
(comp. Ezra ix:3; Job i:2o; Is. xxii:l2; Jer.
vii:29; Micah i:i6). Even the food eaten by
mourners was considered unclean (comp. Deut.
xxvi :i4. with Hos. ix:4; Ezek. xxiv:i7).
(4) Days of Mourning. The Jews were com-
manded to afflict their souls on the Day of Atone-
ment (Lev. xxiii:27), and at the Feast of Trum-
pets (Num. xxix:7). All the house of Israel
mourned for Aaron thirty days (Num. xx:29).
The beautiful captive, whom the law permitted
Mourning at Grave.
to marry, was required first to bewail her father
and mother a full month, and the requisitions
that she should shave her head and pare her nails
have been by some considered signs of mourning
(Deut. xxi:ii. 13). The Israelites wept for Mo-
ses thirty days, called the days of weeping and
mourning for Moses (Deut. xxxiv:8), B. C. I4SI-
Joshua and the elders of Israel put dust upon
their heads at the defeat of Ai, and fasted (Josh.
vii:6). as did the eleven tribes after the defeat at
Gibeah, and wept (Judg. xx:26), as did all the
Israelites at the command of Joshua, on which
occasion it is said 'thoy drew water and poured
it out before the Lord' (i Sam. vii:6; comp.
Ps xxii:i4).
(5) Elegies by the Prophets. Elegies were
composed by the prophets on several disastrous
occasions (Ezek. xxi-iii-iS; xxvii:i-36; Amos
v:i, etc.). In Ps. xxxv, which is ascribed to Da-
vid, there is a description of the humiliations
practiced by the friends of the sick, in order to
procure their recovery. Samuel was honored with
a public mourning by the Israelites (i Sam. xxv :
I), B. C. 1058. Upon the death of Saul, David
wrote an elegy (2 Sam. 1:17-27). This, like that
upon the death of Abner, seems to be a poetical
description of the character of the departed, like
the dirge for an Egyptian king.
(6) Various Expressions of Grief. Lifting up
hands seems to have been an expression of grief
(Ps. cxli :2 ; Lam. i:i7; Ezra ix:5). Messengers
were sent to condole with survivors ; thus David
sent such to Hanun, king of .'\mmon, upon the
death of his father (2 Sam. x:i,2) ; 'Many of the
Jews came to comfort Martha and Mary' (John
xi:ig) ; "A great company of women attended our
Lord to the cross, bewailing and lamenting him'
(Luke xxiii:27); 'Much people' were with the
widow of Nain (Luke vii:i2). Indeed, if persons
met a funeral procession they were expected to
join it — a custom which is thought to illustrate St.
Paul's words, 'Weep with them that weep' (Rom.
xii :i5). Bathsheba mourned for Uriah (2 Sam. xi :
26). David, in deprecation of the death of his
son by her, prayed to God for the child, fasted,
and lay all night upon the earth. Ashes were
often laid on the head in token of mourning; thus
'Tamar put ashes on her head, rent her garment,
and laid her hand upon her head, and went on
crying' (2 Sam. xiii:i9, 20; comp. Is. lxi:3; 2
Esdras ix:38). They even wallowed in ashes
(Ezek. xxvii:3o). Mourning apparel is first men-
tioned in 2 Sam. xiv :2, where it appears that the
wearer did not anoint himself with oil (comp.
Matt. vi:i7).
(7) Hired Mourners. The first reference to
hired mourners occurs in Eccles. xii:5. "The
mourners go about the street." They are certamly
alluded to in Jer. ix: 17-20, 'the mourning women'
(probably widows, comp. Ps. Ixxviii:64; Acts ix :
39), answering to the Prirficcs of the Romans
(comp. Hor. Ars Poet: 429). Another reference
to them occurs in 2 Chron. xxxv :2S ; comp. Jo-
seph. De Bell. Jud. iii -.g, 5. The greater number
of the mourners in ancient Egypt were women, as
in the modern East. Mourning for the dead was
conducted in a tumultuoi^ manner ; they also
wept and wailed greatly (Mark v:38). Even de-
vout men made great lamentations (Acts viii:
2).
(8) Other Signs of Mourning. Among other
signs of mourning they shaved the head, and even
tore off the hair (Amos viii:io; Micah i:i6; Is.
XV :2; xxii:i2; Jer. vii:29). Ezra plucked off the
hair of his head and of his beard (Ezra ix:3;
Wailing with Tabrets.
Joseph. Antiq. xvi 7, 5). The Jews went up to the
housetops to mourn (Is. .\v:2, 3; xxii:i) ; and so
did the Moabites (Jer. xlviii :37, 38; Judith viii:5)..
MOUSE
1195
MOZA
_ney also made cuttings in their hands (Jer.
xlviii :37, 38); they smote upon the thigh (Jer.
xxxi:i9; Ezek, xxi:i2); on the breast (Nahum
ii:7; Luke xviii:i3; xxiii:48; they smote both
hands together (Num. xxiv:io), stamped with the
foot (Ezek. vi:ii), bowed down the head (Lam.
ii:lo), covered the lips (Micah iii:7), the face (2
Sam. xix:4), and the head (2 Sam. xv:3o), and
went barefoot (2 Sam. xv:30). Neighbors and
friends provided food for the mourners (2 Sam.
'■'■35; Jer. xvi:7; comp. Ezek, xxiv:l7) : this was
called 'the bread of bitterness,' 'the cup of consola-
tion.' In later times the Jews had a custom of
giving bread to the poor, at funerals, and leaving
it for their use at tombs, graves, etc., which re-
sembles the Roman visccratio (Tobit iv:i7;
Ecclus. XXX :8). Women went to tombs to in-
dulge their grief (John xi:3l). J. F. D.
MOUSE (mous), (Heb. '|?i', ak-bawr' , the corn
eater), perhaps generically including aliarbai or
jerboa, ox parah of the Arabs.
The word occurs where, it seems, the nomencla-
ture in modern zoology would point out two spe-
cies of distinct genera (Lev. xi:29; i Sam. vi :4,
S, n, 18; Is. Ixvi:i7). It is likely that the He-
brews extended the acceptation of the word ak-
haiur, in the same manner as was the familiar cus-
tom of the Greeks, and still more of the Romans,
who included within their term mus, insectivora
of the genus sorex, that is 'shrews' ; carnivora,
among which was the Mustela ermuiea, 'stoat' or
'ermine,' their Mus ponticus; and in the system-
atic order Rodentia, the tiiuridcr, containing My-
oxus glis or fat dormouse, Dipus jaculus or
Egyptian jerboa ; Mus, rats and mice properly so
called, constituting several modern genera ; and
cricetus or hamster, which includes the marmot or
Roman Mus Alpinus.
In the above texts, all in i Sam. vi apparently
refer to the short-tailed field-mouse, which is still
the most destructive animal to the harvests of
Syria, and is most likely the species noticed in
antiquity and during the Crusades; for, had they
been jerboas in shape and resembled miniature
kangaroos, we would expect William of Tyre to
have mentioned the peculiar form of the de-
stroyers, which was then unknown to Western
Europe; whereas, they being of species or appear-
ance common to the Latin nations, no particulars
were required. But in Leviticus and Isaiah, where
the mouse is declared an unclean animal, the spe-
cies most accessible and likely to invite the appe-
tite of nations who, like the Arabs, were apt to
covet all kinds of animals, even when expressly
forbidden, were, no doubt, the hamster and the
dormouse ; and both are still eaten in common
with the jerboa, by the Bedouins, who are but
too often driven to extremity by actual want of
food. C. H. S.
MOUTH (mouth), (Heb. ^?. peA).
The ordinary applications of this word, com-
mon to all languages, require no explanation ; but
the following somewhat peculiar uses mav be
noted : 'Heavy-mouthed,' that is, slow of speech,
and so translated in Exod. iv:io; 'smooth mouth'
(Ps. lv:2i), that is, a flattering mouth; so also
'a mouth of deceit' (Ps. cix:2). The following
are also remarkable phrases : 'To speak with one
mouth to mouth,' that is, in person, without the in-
tervention of an interpreter (Num. xii:8; comp.
I Kings viii :is ; Jer. xxxii :4). 'With one mouth,'
that is, with one .voice or consent (Josh. ix:2: i
Kings xxii:i3; 2 Chron. xviii:i2). 'With the
whole mouth,' that is, with the utmost strength of
voice (Job xix:i6; Ps. Ixvi:i7). 'To put words
into one's mouth,' that is, to suggest what one
shall say (Exod. iv:i5; Num. xxii:38; xxiii :s. 12;
3 Sam. xir: 19, etc.). 'To be in one's mouth,'
is to be often spoken of, as a law, etc. (Exod. xiii :
9; comp. Ps. v:io; xxxviii:is). The Hebrew
also says, 'upon the mouth,' where we say, and
indeed our translation says, in or into the mouth
(e. g. Nahum iii:l2) ; that which is spoken is also
said to be 'upon the mouth,' where we should say,
'upon the lips' (as in 2 Sam. xiv:3). 'To. lay
the hand upon the mouth' is to be silent (Judg.
xviiing; Job xxi :$ ; xl:4; comp. Prov. xxx :32),
just as we lay the finger on the mouth to enjoin
silence. 'To write from the mouth of any one' is
to do so from his dictation (Jer. xxxvi -.4, 27, 32 ;
xlv:i).
The mouth, as the organ of speech, also signifies
the words that proceed out of it, which in the
sacred style are the same as commands and ac-
tions. Hence, for a person or thing to come out
of the mouth of another is to be constituted or
commanded to become an agent or minister under
a superior power ; this is frequent in the Revela-
tion (Rev. xvi:i3, 14; i:i6: xi :4, 5; xii:is; ix:
19). The term mouth is not only applied to a
speech or words, but to the speaker (Exod. iv:i6;
Jer. XV :i9), in which sense it has a near equivalent
in our expression 'mouth-piece.'
MOWING (mo'ing), (Heb. '3, gase; literally,
fleece, something cut; rendered "mown grass" in
Ps. lx.\ii:6i. On account of the heat haymaking,
as we understand it, is not known in Palestine.
The "King's mowings" (Amos vii:i) probably
refers to some rights of pasturage. The term
"mower" (Heb. ""^P,, kaiv-tsar' , to dock off, Ps.
cxxix:7) is usually rendered in the A. V. "reaper."
(See Shaw's Travels, p, 138.)
MOZA (mo'za), ,(Heb. **V"''^, mo-tsaw' , going
forth).
1. The second mentioned of the three sons of
Caleb by a concubine Ejihah (i Chron. ii:46), B. C.
after 1037.
2. Son of Zimri, a descendant of Jonathan (I
Chron. viii:36, 37; ix:42, 43), B. C. after 1037.
MOZAH
1196
MUSIC
2I0ZAH (mo'zah), (Heb. •''V'^. mo-haw', an
issuing of water).
One of the cities given to Benjamin (Josh.
xviii:26). Hac-Chephirah, with which the place
is mentioned, has been identified with Kefir, two
miles east of Zaio; but no more accurate loca-
tion of Mozah has been made.
arUTFLER (muffler). (Yith.^)'£?.,rak-al-aw),
long veils, more costly than the ordinary veils (Is.
iii;i9), covering the whole face except the eyes.
MtTLBERRY - TREE (miirber-rj-tre), (Heb.
'*?^, baw-kaw' , baka tree). (See Baca.)
MTILE (mul). (Heb. "'31. fieh'red). Two other
words are so translated in the A. V., viz.: ^^"^"^t
reh'kesh (marg., i Kings iv:28, R. V., "swift
steeds"), and ^'^''..,yeh'meem{,Qie.n. xxxvi:24, R.V.,
"hot springs").
A granivcrous animal, the offspring of the horse
and the ass. It was used for transportation
(2 Sam. xiii:2Q; 2 Kings v;l7; I Chron. xii:40).
Asses were exported by the Armenians and pur-
chased by the Tyrians (Ezek. xxvii:l4).
MTTNITION (raa-nish'iin), (Heb. 1'^'?, maw-
tsode' , spying).
1. A watch-tower (Is. xxix7); spoken symboli-
cally of Mount Zion (verse 8).
2. A stronghold, fortress (Is. xxxiii:i6; Heb.
''^'p, mets-ad', a movmtain fastness).
3. A fortress (Nah. ii:i; Heb. '^'^'^'9,maw-tsore',
something surrounded or hemmed in).
anjPPIM (mup'pim), (Heb. D"?'?, moop-peem',
wavings), according to Gen. xlvi:2i, a son of Ben-
jamin, but from parallel accounts he seems to be
the son of Becher, son of Benjamin. Probably the
same as Shephuphan (i Chron. viii:5), Shupham
(Num. xxvi:30), and Shuppim (i Chion. vii:l2).
MTJRDER (mflr'der), (Heb. ^T}, raw-tsakh'. to
killj.
1. The unlawful taking away of a person's life
(Mark xv7).
2. Hatred of, and cruelty to our neighbor, in
thought, word, or deed (Matt xix:i8; i John
iii:i5). The voluntary killing of any person, ex-
cept in lawful war, execution of public justice,
or necessary self-defense, hath been peculiarly
marked out by the vengeance of God. Cain, the
first murderer, was preserved as a monument of
the divine indignation (Gen. iv:i5). No sacrifice
was accepted for this sin ; no money was to ran-
som the life of the guilty. Suppose he fled to
God's altar for protection, he was to be dragged
thence and executed (Gen. ix:6; Num. xxxv :27-
31 ; Ps. Ii:i6).
If a man had ever so involuntarily and acci-
dentally slain his neighbor, the law demanded
that the involuntary manslayer be banished from
his native abode, and confined to a city of refuge
till the death of the high-priest ; aiid if found
without it by the slain person's friend, might be
put to death (Num. xxxv; Deut. xix). If a
body was found murdered in the field, and the
murderer unknown, the rulers of the next city
slew a heifer, and with washing of hands, sol-
emnly protested their innocence of the crime and
their ignorance of the actor; and with the priests
or Levites present, begged that the Lord would
not lay the sin to the charge of the land (Deut.
xxi:i-8).
In regal times the duty of execution of justice
on a murderer seems to have been assumed to
some extent by the sovereign, as well as the privi-
lege of pardon (2 Sam. xiii:j9; xiv:/, 11; i Kings
ii:34). It was lawful to kill a burglar taken at
night in the act, but unlawful to do so after sun-
rise (Exod. xxii:2, 3), (Smith, Bib. Did.; Jahn,
Arch.; Keil, Arch.; Brown, Bib. Diet.).
MXTRRAIN (miir'rin). See Plagues OF EGYPT.
MTTSE (muz), (Heb. ^'"^, see'akh, to dwell in
memory upon the past; to ponder, Ps. cxiiii:;), to
meditate, reflect. In Luke iii:i5 the Greek terra
6iaXo7ifo^at (dee-al-og-ict zoni-ahee) means io judge,
reaspit, deliberate. (See Musing.)
MTJSHI (mu'shi), (Heb. "?'''2, nioo-shee' , sensi-
tive), a Levite, second son of Merari, and founder
of a house by his name (Ex. viiig; Num. iii:2o; i
Chron. vi;lg, 47; xxiii:2i; xxiv:26), through his
three sons (I Chron. xxiii:23; xxiv:3o; Num. iii:33;
xxvi:58), B. C. after 1856.
MTJSHITE (mu'shite), (Heb. moo-shee', as above),
a descendant of Mushi (Num. iii:33; xxvi:58).
UTTSIC (mu'zlk), (Heb. "'9?, zeh-mawr').
It seems probable that music is the oldest of all
the fine arts. It is more than any other an im-
mediate work of'nature. Hence we find it among
all nations, even those which are totally ignorant
of every other art.
(1) Early Inventions. Some instruments of
music are named in Scripture even before the
deluge, as being invented by Jubal, one of Cain's
descendants (Gen. iv:2l); and some will regard
this as confirmed by the common opinion of the
Orientals. Chardin relates that the Persians and
Arabians called musicians and singers Kayiie,
or 'descendants from Cain.' The instruments in-
vented by Jubal seem to have remained in use
after the flood, or at least the names were still
in use, and occur in the latest books of the Old
Testament. Music, in practical use, is almost
constantly mentioned in connection with the song
and the dance (Gen. xxxi:27; Exod. xv:2o),
and was doubtless employed to elevate the former
and regulate the latter. Women especially are
seen to have employed it in this connection from
the earliest times (Exod. xv:20; Judg. xi:34;
I Sam. xviii:6). At a later period we trace the
appearance of foreign girls in Palestine, as in
Greece and Italy, who visited the towns like the
Bayaderes of the present day (Is. x.xiii:i6). Mu-
sic was also through all periods used in social
meetings, and in public rejoicings (l Kings i:40;
Is. v:i2; xiv:ii; xxiv:8; Amos vi:5; Amos v:
23; I Mace. ix:39; Judith iii:8).
(2) Connected with Worship. By David mu-
sic was variously and conspicuously connected
with the temple worship (i Chron. xxv:i); in
particular, the Levites, in their several choirs,
performed their music divided into different
classes at the great sacrifices (2 Chron. xxix :
25; xxx:2i; xxxvns). The prophets also ap-
pear to have regarded music as necessary to their
services (i Sam. x:5); and they used it some-
times for the purpose, apparently, of bringing
their minds into the frame suited for prophetic
inspirations (2 Kings iiias). In the case of
David playing before Saul, we have marked an
interesting evidence that the effect of music in
soothing the perturbations of a disordered intel-
lect, was well known among the Hebrews (l Sam.
xvi :i6).
With respect to the nature of the Hebrew
music, it was doubtless of the same essential
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
1197
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
character as that of other ancient nations, and
of all the present Oriental nations ; consisting
not so much in harmony (in the modern sense
of the termj , as in unison or melody.
(3) Melody. The old, the young, maidens,
etc., appear to have simg one part. I'he beauty
of their music consisted altogether in melody.
The instruments by which, in singing, this melody
«as accompanied, occupied the part of a sus-
tained base; and, if we are disposed to apply
in this case what Niebuhr has told us, the beauty
of the concerts consisted in this — that other per-
sons repeated the music which had just been
sung, three, four, or five notes, lower or higher.
Such, for instance, was the concert which Miriam
held with her musical fellows, and to which the
'toph,' or tabret, furnished the continued base ;
just as Niebuhr has also remarked of the Arabian
women of the present day, 'that when they dance
or sing m their harem, they always beat the
corresponding time upon this drum {Rciscb. i:
l8i). To this mode of performance belongs the
24th Psalm, which rests altogether upon the va-
ried representation; in like manner, also, the 20th
and 21 St Psalms. This was all the change it
admitted; and although it is very possible that
this monotonous, or rather unisonous music,
might not be interesting to ears tuned to musical
progressions, modulations, and cadences, there is
something in it with which the Orientals are well
pleased.
Music of this description could easily dispense
with the compositions which mark the time by
notes ; and the Hebrews do not appear to have
known anything of musical notation ; for that the
accents served that purpose is a position which
yet remains to be proved. At the best, the accent
must have been an very imperfect instrument for
this purpose, however high its antiquity.
The Hebrew music is judged to have been of a
shrill character; for this would result from the
nature of the instruments — harps, flutes, and cym-
bals— which were employed in the temple service.
The manner of singing single songs was, it
seems, ruled by that of others in the same meas-
ure, and it is usually supposed that many of the
titles of the Psalms are intended to indicate the
names of other songs according to which these
were to be sung. (See P.salms, Book of.)
The allusions to music in the Scriptures are so
incidental and concise that it will never be possible
to form out of them a complete or connected view
of the state of musical science among the ancjent
Hebrews. The little knowledge which has been
realized on the subject has been obtained chiefly
through the patient labors and minute investiga-
tion of Cahnet. Forkel. PfeilTer, Jahn, Winer, De
Wctte and others.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS (mu'zt-kol In'-
stru-menls).
It is less difficult to determine the genera! char-
acter of the Hebrew instruments of music, than to
identify the particular instruments which are
named in the Hebrew Scriptures. We see certain
instruments different from our own in use among
the modern Orientals, and we infer that the He-
brew instruments arc probably not unlike these.
When, however, we endeavor to identify with
these a particular instrument named by the He-
brews, our difficulty begins; because the Hebrew
names are seldom to be recognized in those which
they tioiv bear, and because the Scripture affords
us little information respecting the form of the
instruments which it mentions.
The matter naturally arranges itself under the
following heads —
I. Stringed Instruments.
II. Wind Instruments.
III. Instruments of Percussion.
1. Stringed Instruments. At the head of the
stringed instruments we must place the ""J /;«-
nore', which is rendered 'harp' in the Authorized
Version.
(1) The Harp. The invention and first use of
this instrument are ascribed to Jubal (Gen. iv :
21) ; and Laban names it among the instruments
which should have celebrated the departure of his
son-in-law (Gen. .xxxi:27). In the first ages the
kinnor was consecrated to joy and exultation;
hence the frequency of its use by David and others
in praise of the Divine Majesty. It is thought
probable that the instrument received some im-
provements from David (comp. Amos vi:5). In
bringing back the ark of the covenant (l Chron.
xvKs;, as well as afterwards, at the consecration
of the temple, the kinnor was assigned to players
of known eminence, chiefly of the family of Jedu-
thun (i Chron. xxv:3).
The sorrowing Jews of the captivity, far re-
moved from their own land and the shadow of the
sanctuary, hung their kin-nores upon the willows
by the waters of Babylon, and refused to sing the
songs of Zion in a strange land (Ps. cxxxvii:2).
Many other passages of similar purport might be
adduced in order to fix the uses of an instrument,
the name of which occurs so often in the Hebrew
Scriptures. They mostly indicate occasions of
joy, siich as jubilees and festivals. Of the instru-
ment itself the Scripture affords us little further
information than that it was composed of the
sounding parts of good wood, and furnished with
strings. David made it of the berosh wood (see
Bergs h) ; Solomon of the more costly algum (2
Sam. vi:5; i Kings x:i2); and Josephus men-
tions some composed of the mixed metal called
electrum. He also asserts that it was furnished
with ten strings, and played with a plectrum
(Antiq. vii:i2, 3) ; which, however, is not under-
stood to imply that it
never had any other
number of strings, or
was always played with
the plectrum. David cer-
tainly played it with the (
hand (i Sam. xvi:23;
xviii:io; xixtg), and it
was probably used in
both ways, according to
its size.
That this instrument
was really a harp is now
very generally denied ;
and Pfeiffer, Winer, and
other writers on the sub-
ject conclude that it was
a kind of guitar, and
there is therefore little
room to doubt that the guitar was known to the
Hebrews and probably in use among them. Not-
withstanding this kind of evidence, the editor of
the Pictorial Bible (on Ps. xliii:4) ventured to
suggest the greater probability that the lyre, in
some of its various kinds, was denoted by the
word kin-nore; and subsequent inquiry has tended
to establish this conclusion as firmly perhaps as
the nature of the subject admits.
(2) Psaltery. Nay'-bel (Heb. '35 ,) is the next
instrument which requires notice. The word is
rendered 'psaltery' in the Authorized Version. As
to when this instrument was invented, and when
it came into use among the Hebrews, nothing can
Wind Instruments and
Sistruni.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
1198
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
be determined with certainty. The first mention of
it is in the reign of Saul (l Sam. x:s), and from
that time forward we continue to meet with it in
the Old Testament. The use of the instrument
prevailed particularly in the public worship of God.
David's own instrument was the kin-nore; but he
neglected not the nay'-bel. It was played upon
by several persons in the grand procession at the
removal of the ark (l Chron. xv:i6; xvi:5) ; and
in the final organization of the temple music it
was entrusted to the families of Asaph, Heman,
and Jeduthun (i Chron. xxv:i-7).
Out of the worship of God, it was employed at
festivals and for luxurious purposes (Amos vi:s).
In the manufacture of this instrument a constant
increase of splendor was exhibited. The first we
meet with were made simply of the wood of the
berosh (2 Sam. vi :$ ; I Chron. xiii:8), others of
the rarer algum tree (i Kings x:l2; 2 Chron. ix :
II); and some perhaps of metal (Joseph. Aniiq.
i :8, 3), unless the last is to be understood of par-
ticular parts of the instrument.
Conjectures respecting the probable form of this
instrument have been exceedingly various. Pass-
ing by the eccentric notion that the nay'-bcl was
a kind of bagpipe, we may assume from the evi-
dent tendency of the Scriptural intimations, and
from the general bearing of other authorities, that
it was composed of strings stretched over a
wooden frame. This being assumed or granted,
we must proceed to seek some hint concerning
its shape; and we find nothing more tangible than
the concurrent testimony of Jerome. Isidorus, and
Cassiodorus, that it was like the Greek letter A in-
verted V-
We are, however, far from thinking that the
nay'-bel was always of this shape. It appears to
us to be a general name for various of the larger
stringed instruments of the harp kind, and also to
denote, in a more special sense, one particular
sort; in other words, that the nay'-bel was an in-
strument of a prin-
cipal species, the
name of which was
applied to the
whole genus. In
fact, we have the
names of several
instruments which
are generally con-
ceived to be differ-
ent varieties of the
nay'-bel. Before
proceeding to
these, we must ex-
press an opinion
that one of these
kinds, if not the
principal kind, or
the one most fre-
quently denoted by
the word, was the
ancient harp, agreeing more or less with that rep-
resented in the Egyptian monuments.
(3) Awsore (^^'^?), occurs as an instrument in
only a few places, and never but in connection
with the nay'-bel, except in Ps. xxxiii:2; Ps. cxliv:9.
(4) Stringed Instruments ('^'f^?, git'tith), a
word which occurs in the titles to Ps. viii, Ixxxi,
Ixxxiv, and is generally supposed to denote a
musical instrument. From the name it has been
supposed to be an instrument which David brought
from Gath ; and it has been inferred from Is.
xvi:lo that it was in particular use at the vintage
season. If an instrument of music, it is remark-
Egyptian Harp.
able that it does not
occur in the list of
the instruments as-
signed by David to
the temple musi-
cians; nor even in
that list which ap-
pears in verses i and
2 of Ps. Ixxxi, in tlie
title of which it is
found. The supposi-
tion of Gesenius, that
it is a general name
for a stringed instru-
?>te?tt, obviates this
difficulty.
(5) Strings (D'^?^.
min-neem' ),vih.ich oc-
curs in Ps. cl:4 only, ^Mp
is supposed by some fe=
to denote a stringed
instrument, but it
Assyrian Harps.
seems merely a poetical allusion to the siritigs
of any instrument.
(6) Sackbut (**??^, sab-bek-aiv'), an instru-
ment rendered 'sackbut,' and which occurs only
in Dan. iii :5, 7, 10, 15. It seems to have been
a species of harp or lyre, and, as some think, was
only a species of the way' -^^/.distinguished by the
number of its strings.
Stringed Instrnments, Cymbals, Etc.
(7) Greek Psaltery iX'^^i^^,pes-an-tay-ree?i'),
the ipoKT'lipMv or psaltery of the Greeks; it occurs
only in Dan. iii :y, 10, 15, where it is supposed to
represent the Hebrew nay'-bel.
(8) Lute (Heb. n^n:5_ makh-al-ath'), which
occurs in the titles of Ps. liii and Ixxxviii, is
supposed by Gesenius and others to denote a kind
of lute or guitar, which instrument others find
in the minnim above noticed. We should not
like to affirm that instruments of this kind are
represented by either of these words — not that
we doubt whether the Hebrews had such instru-
ments, but because we are not satisfied that these
are the precise words by which they were de-
noted.
2. Wind Instruments. There is, happily, less
difficulty with respect to instruments of this class
than with respect to stringed instruments. The
most ordinary division of these is into trumpets
and pipes, of which the Hebrews had both, and
of various kinds.
(1) Horn (I'l?., keh'ren, 'horn'), sometimes, but
not often, occurs as the name of a musical in-
strument (Josh, vi :s ; i Chron. xxv :5 ; Dan. iii:
5, 7, 10, 15). Of natural horns, and of instru-
ments in the shape of horns, the antiquity and
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
1199
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
general use are evinced by every extensive col-
lection of antiquities. It is admitted that nat-
ural horns were at first used, and that they at
length came to be imitated in metal, but were
still called horns. This use and application of
the word are illustrated in our 'cornet.' It is
generally conceived that rams' horns were the
instruments used by the early Hebrews, and
these are, indeed, expressly named in our own
and many other versions, as the instruments used
at the noted siege of Jericho (Josh. vi:5); and
the horns are those of the ram, which Josephus
assig^ns to the soldiers of Gideon (,Antiq. v :6, 5;
comp. Judg. vii:i6).
(2) Trumpet ( ^?'2', sho-fawr"), which is a far
more common word than keren, and is rendered
'trumpet' in the Authorized Version.
This word seems, first, to denote horns of the
straighter kind, including, probably, those of neat
Ancient Horns and Curved Trumpets.
cattle, and all the instruments which were even-
tually made in imitation of and in improvement
upon such horns. It is, however, difficult to draw
a distinction between it and the kehren, seeing
that the words are sometimes used synonymously
Thus that which is called 'a jobel-horn' in Josh,
vi :5, is in the same chapter (verses 4, 6, 8, 13)
called 'a jobel-horn trumpet.' Upon the whole,
we may take the sho-fazv/, however distinguished
from the kch'ren, to have been that kind of horn
(3) Straight Trumpet. Another instrument
was khals-o-tseraw' , '"'"V'^D. . This was the
straight trumpet, different from the sho-fawr',
which was more or less bent like a horn. There
has been various speculation on the name ; but we
are disposed to assent to the conclusion of Ge-
senius that it is an onomatopoetic word, imitating
the broken pulse-like sound of the trumpet, like
the Latin taratanlara, which this word would
more resemble if pronounced as in Arabic, kada-
derah. Among the Israelites these trumpets were
a divine regulation, Moses having been expressly
directed how to make them (Num. x:2). They
were of pure beaten silver, but the particular form
does not appear in Scripture. When, however,
riches departed from Palestine, trumpets of baser
metal were used (2 Kings xii:i3), althoug:h prob-
ably a certain number of silver were still pre-
served. They were used in calling the congrega-
tion together for sacrifices, and in battle (Hos.
v:8). The tone of this trumpet, or rather the
noise made by blowing on it, was very variable,
and is distinguished by different terms in Scrip-
ture.
(4) JubUee Triimpet. Yo-daW (Heb. ^?'''')-
There has been much speculation concerning this
term, which the reader may find in ample abun-
dance in Bochart (Hieros. i:436). It seems now
to be agreed that the word does not denote a sep-
arate instrument, but is an epithet applied to the
trumpets with which the jubilees were proclaimed,
i. e., the ';w^i7ft'-trumpet ;' and as the same trum-
pets were used for signals and alarms, 'the alarm-
trumpet, the alarm-horn.' This name for the
sound of music is supposed to be derived from
Jubal, the inventor of instruments of music.
Wind instruments of softer sound next require
attention. The first and principal of these is the
(5) Pipe (''I'}.,
or horn-shaped trumpet which was best known
to the Hebrews. The name sho-fawr' means
bright or clear, and the instrument may be con-
ceived to have been so called from its clear and
shrill sound, just as we call an instrument a
'clarion,' and speak of a musical tone as 'brilliant'
or 'clear.' In the service of God this sho-fawr'
or trumpet was employed only in making an-
nouncements, and for calling the people together
in the time of the holy solemnities, of war, of
rebellion, or of any other great occasion (Exod.
xix:i3; Num. x:io; Judg. iii:27; i Sam. xiii:3:
2 Sam. xv:io; 2 Chron. xv:i4; Is. xviii:3).
khaw-leel'), the meaning of
which is bored through, and denotes a pipe, per-
forated and furnished with holes. There are but
five places where it occurs in the Old Testament
( I Sa m. X : 5 ; I
Kings i:4o; Is. v:i2;
xxx:29; Jer. xlviii:
36); but the Greek
ai\bs occurs in the
New Testament
(Matt. ix:23), and
in the Apocryphal
books (1 Mace, iv:
54; ix:39; Judith iii:
8). It would seem
to have come
rather late into use
among the Heb-
rews, and probably
had a foreign ori-
gin. The passages
,.„._. to which we have
Assyrian and Egypt.an Trumpets. referred will indi-
cate the use of this instrument or class of in-
struments; but of the form we can only guess
by reference to those of the ancient Egyp-
tians, which are very similar to those still in
use in Western Asia. The pipe is, however, rarely
introduced in the Egyptian sculptures, and does
not seem to have been held in much estimation.
The principal are the single and double pipes.
The single pipe of the Greeks is allowed to have
been introduced from Egypt (J. Pollux, Orxom.
iv:io; Athenaeus. Deipnos, iv), from which the
Jews probably had theirs. It was a straight tube,
"without any increase at the mouth, and when
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
1200
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
played was held with both hands. It was usually
of moderate length, about eighteen inches, but
occasionally less, and sometimes so exceedingly
long and the holes so low that the player was
obliged to extend his arms to the utmost. Some
had three holes, others four, and actual specimens
made of common reed have been found tVVilkin-
son. Ancient Egyptians, iirjog).
The double pipe was formed with two of such
tubes, of equal or unequal lengths, having a com-
mon mouth-piece, and each played with the corre-
sponding hand. They were distinguished as the
right and left pipes, and the latter, having but few
holes and emitting a deep sound, served as a base ;
the others had more holes and gave a sharp sound
( Plin. Hist Nat. xvi:36). This pipe is still used
in Palestine.
From the references which have been given it
will be seen that the pipe was, among the Jews,
chiefly consecrated to joy and pleasure. So much
was this the case that in the time of Judas Mac-
cabseus the Jews complained 'that joy was taken
from Jacob, and the pipe with the harp (Kiffdpa)
ceased' (i Mace. iii:45). It was particularly used
to enliven the periodical journeys to Jerusalem to
attend the great festivals (Is. xxx :29) ; and this
custom of accompanying traveling in companies
with music is common in the ILast at this day
(Harmer, Observatt. ii:i97; to which add Tour-
nefort. Voyage du Levant, iiiilSg). Athenaeus
iv:l74) tells us of a plaintive pipe which was in
use among the Phoenicians. This serves to illus-
trate Matt. ix:23, where our Savior, finding the
flute-players with the dead daughter of the ruler,
orders them away, because the damsel was not
dead ; and in this we also recognize the regulation
of the Jews, that every one, however poor he
might be, should have at least two pipes at the
death of his wife (Lightfoot Hor. Hebr. ad Matt.
ix:23). (See Mourning.)
(6) Flute (Chaldee, T'"'?^. mash-ro-kee' ;
a musical pipe). This word occurs four times
in Daniel (ch. iii :5, 7. lo. IS), but nowhere else,
and appears to be the Chaldsean name for the
flute with two reeds, of which we have already
spoken.
k////////////
Ancient OrRan.
(7) Orgran (Heb. '^}^^,oo-ga'wb'), is the word
rendered 'organ' in our version. This and the
kinnor are the instruments whose invention is
ascribed to Jubal (Gen. iv:2i), and higher an-
tiquity cannot therefore be claimed for any in-
strument. There are only three other places in
which it is mentioned in the Old Testament — two
in the book of Job (xxi:i2, xxx:3l). and one
in the Psalms (cl:4). The organon simply de^
notes a double or manifold pipe; and hence in
particular the Pandaean or shepherd's pipe, which
is at this day called a 'mouth-organ' among our-
selves. Formerly it was called simply 'organ,'
and 'mouth' has been added to distinguish it from
the comparatively modern instrument which has
usurped the more simple designation of 'organ.'
Our translators are thus not chargeable with
the obscurity which has since arisen, for they,
by the word 'organ,' intended to indicate no other
instrument than this.
This antiquity corresponds with the Scriptural
intimation concerning the %tgab, and justifies us in
seeking for the syrinx among the more ancient
instruments of the Orientals, especially as it is still
common in Western Asia. Niebuhr saw it in the
hands of a peasant at Cairo {Reisebeschr. i:i8l) ;
and Russell, in his Nat. Hist, of Aleppo (i:lS5,
156), says that 'the syrinx or Pan's pipe is still
a festival instrument in Syria; it is known also in
the city, but very few performers can sound it
tolerably well. The higher notes are clear and
pleasing, but the longer reeds are apt, like the
dervise flute, to make a hissing sound, though
blown by a good player. The number of reeds
of which the syrinx is composed, varies in differ-
ent instruments from five to twenty-three.' The
classical syrinx is usually said to have had seven
reeds (Virg. Eel. ii), but we find some in the
monuments with a greater number, and the shep-
herd of Theocritus (Id. viii) had one of nine
reeds.
3. Instruments of Percussion. Instrtiments
of percussion, or such as give forth their sounds
on being struck or shaken.
(1) Timbrel C^ri, lop/i, or /o/e), seems to have
denoted primarily the tambourine, and gener-
ally all instruments of the drum kind which
were in use among the Israelites. There is not
the slightest doubt about this instrument. All
the translations and lexicons agree in this one
point, and we have, besides, the actual evidence
of existing instruments of this kind among the
Arabians, bearing the same name in the forms of
doff and adufe. The topli was known to the
Jews before they quitted Syria (Gen. xx.xi 127) ;
it is also mentioned by Job (x.xi:i2), and it is
the first instrument named after the exode, being
that with which Miriam led tl\e dances with which
the daughters of Israel celebrated the overthrow
of Pharaoh (E.xod. xv:2o). It was employed by
David in all the festivities of religion (2 Sam.
vi:5). Isaiah adduces it as the instrument of
voluptuaries, but left in silence amid wars and
desolations (Is. xxiv:8). The occasions on which
it was used were mostly joyful, and those who
played upon it were generally females (Ps. l.xviii :
25), as was the case among most ancient nations,
and is so at the present day in the East. It is
nowhere mentioned in connection with battles or
warlike transactions.
Whether the Israelites had drums or not does
not clearly appear, and in the absence of evidence
pro or con it is useless to speculate on the subject.
If they had, they must be included under the
general name of loph. The ancient Egyptians had
a long drum, very similar to the tom-toms of
India. It was about two feet or t.wo feet and a
half in length, and was beaten with the hand.
The case was of wood or copper, covered at
both ends with parchment or leather, and braced
with cords extended diagonally over the exterior
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
1201
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
of the cylinder. It was used chiefly in war.
There was another larger drum, less unlike our
own; it was about two feet and a half long by
about two feet broad, and was shaped much like
a sugar-cask. It was formed of copper, and cov-
ered at the ends with red leather, braced by catgut
strings passing through small holes in its broad
Timbrel.
margin. This kind of drum was beaten with
sticks. It does not appear on the monuments,
but an actual specimen was found in the excava-
tions made by D'Athanasi, in 1823, and is now
in the museum at Paris.
Another species of drum is represented in the
Egyptian paintings, and is of the same kind
which is still in use in Egypt and Arabia, under
the name of the darabooka drum. It is made of
parchment stretched over the top of a funnel-
shaped case of metal, wood, or pottery. It is
beaten with the hand, and when relaxed, the
parchment is braced by exposing it for a few
moments to the sun, or the warmth of a fire.
This kind of drum claims particular attention
from its being supposed to be represented on
one of the coins ascribed to Simon Maccabxus.
(2) Bells. Pah-am-one' (Heb. pi'S). This
name nowhere occurs but with reference to the
small golden appendages to the robe of the high-
priest (Exod. xxviii :33 ; xxxix:25), which all
versions agree in rendering 'bells,' or 'little bells.'
(3) Cymbals. Three Hebrew words are trans-
lated cymbals in most versions, except in Zech.
xiv:20, where they are rendered 'bells' — the 'bells
of the horses.' If the words, however, denote
cymbals in other places, they cannot well denote
a different thing here.
There is an important passage (Ps. cl:5),
'Praise him with tlie clear cymbal, praise him with
the resounding cymbal,' which clearly points to
two instruments under the same name, and leaves
us to conclude that the Hebrews had both hand-
cymbals and finger-cymbals (or castanets), al-
though it may not in all cases be easy to say
which of the two is intended in particular texts.
Cymbals figure in the grand procession at the
removal of the ark (l Chron. xiii :8) ; other
instances occur of their being used in the wor-
ship of God (Neh. xii :27; Ps. cl:5; I Chron.
xv:i6); and the illustrious Asaph was himself a
player on the cymbal (i Chron. xvi:5). The
sound of these instruments is very sharp and
piercing, but it does not belong to fine, speaking,
expressive music. Hence Paul could describe it
by the word dXaXdfoi/, 'clanging' (i Cor. xiii:l).
(4) Triangle {Heh.°'^^'^. s/!aw/-is/i'im). This
word occurs but once, viz.. in i Sam. xviii :6. and
is there uncertainly rendered, in the Authorized
Version, 'instruments of music,' and in the mar-
76
gin 'three-stringed instruments.' The word is
plural, and means 'threes.' Most writers, pro-
ceeding upon this interpretation, identify it witK
the triangle, which Athenaius (iv:23) alleges to
have been a Syrian invention.
(5) Sistrum (=*4'fi'i^, tnen-ah-an-eem'Y This
is another word which occurs but once in Scrip-
ture (2 Sam. vi;5), where our version translates
it by 'cymbals.' although it has appropriated an-
other word to that instrument. It is now more
Instruments of Percussion. I. 3. 6. Rods of metal charged
with rings, 2. Supposed Hebrew instrument. 4. A kind
of Eastern Cymbal. 5. A pan of sounding metal.
generally thought to denote the sistrum, which
was generally from eight to sixteen or eighteen
Sistra.
inches in length, and entirely of bronze or brass.
It was sometimes inlaid with silver, gilt, or other-
wise ornamented, and being held upright was
shaken, the rings moving to and fro upon the
bars. The last were frequently made to imitate
snakes, or siinoly bent at each end to secure them
from slipping through the holes. Several actual
specimens of these instruments have been found,
and are deposited in the British. Berlin and other
museums. They are mostly furnished with sacred
symbols, and were chiefly used by the priests and
priestesses in the ceremonies of religion, particu-
larly in those connected with the worship of Isis.
MUSING
1202
MYSTERY
MUSING (muz'ing), (Heb. ^'^y}, haw-gheeg' , Ps.
xxxix:3), a figure burrowed from the ferrnentation
or spontaneous combustion of certain articles. In
general it denotes to think, to consider (Ps.cxliii:5).
MUSTARD TREE (raus'terd tre), (Gr. <rhain,
dn'ap-ee). See Sinapi. ,
MXJTHLABBEN (muth-lab'ben), (Heb. 155nTO,
■mooth-lab-bane'). This word occurs in the title of
Ps. ix, and perhaps the most generally accepted
meaning is "with the voice of virgins," indicatmg
Uiat it was to be sung by boys (Ps. ix ; title).
MTJTTER (miit'ter), (Heb. '"'5'?, haw-gaw' , Is.
viii:i9, to speak softly). It seems that anciently
A-izards muttered or talked in a whispering tone,
and peeped to their familiar spirits. (See Magic.)
MUZZLE (raiiz'z'l), (Heb. ^^P, khawsam' ; Gr.
4>i.ii.bw, fee-mo' o, to stop the mouth).
In the East the grain vi'as thrashed by oxen
trampling upon it ; and the command was not to
put anything in or on the mouth of a beast to re-
strain it from eating (Deut. xxv:4). St. Paul
used it to denote (i Cor. ix:9; i Tim. v:i8) that
a laborer was not to be deprived of his wages.
MTKA (my'ra), (Gr. Mi5po, ?noo'rah, ointments),
one of the chief towns of Lycia, in Asia Minor.
It lay about a league from the sea (in N. lat.
36° 18'; E. long. 30°), upon a rising ground, at
the foot of which flowed a navigable river with an
excellent harbor at its mouth (Strabo. xiv, p. 665;
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxii:8). The town now lies
desolate amid magnificent ruins. When Paul was
on his voyage from Csesarea to Rome he and the
other prisoners were landed here, and were re-
embarked in a ship of Alexandria bound to Rome
(Acts xxvii :s).
MYKBH (mer), a gum, the thickened sap of a
'ow thorny tree {Balsamodendron opsobalsamum),
which grows chiefly in Arabia.
Myrrh is sold for medical purposes in small
globules of a white or yellow color, of a strong
and agreeable smell, but a bitter taste. It was an
ingredient of the holy ointment (Ex. xxx:23), and
of the embalming substance (John xix:39). It
was also used as an agreeable perfume (Esth.
ii:i2; Ps. xlv:8; Prov. vii:i7), and a valuable
gift (Matt. ii:ii). In Matt, xxvii :34 it is said
that they gave Jesus to drink vinegar mixed with
gall, which, in Mark xv:23, is called wine mingled
with myrrh. It was probably the sour wine which
the Roman soldiers used to drink mingled with
myrrh and other bitter substances, very much like
the bitters of modern times. (See Mor.)
MTRTIiE (mer'fl). See Hadas.
MYSIA (mj?'si-a) (mizh'l-a),(Gr. Mvaia, moo-see''
ah), a province occupying the northwest angle of
Asia Minor, and separated from Europe only by
the Propontis and Hellespont ; on the south it
joined ^Eolis, and was separated on the east from
Bithynia by the river /Esopus. Paul passed
through this province and embarked at its chief
port, Troas, on his first voyage to Europe (Acts
xvi7, 8).
MYSTERY (mTs'ter-jr), (Gr. /ivar-Zipiov, moos-tay'-
ree-on, secret doctrine). The etymology of this
Greek word, which seems to be the simplest and
most illustrative of its meaning, is that from the
Hebrew to ' hide ' or ' conceal,' whence a covert or
secret place, a secret.
(1) A Revelation. A most unscriptural and
dangerous sense is but too often put upon the
word, as if it meant something absolutely unin-
telligible and incomprehensible ; whereas, in every
instance in which it occurs in the Septuagint or
New 'Testament, it is applied to something which
is revealed, declared, explained, spoken, or which
may be known or understood. This fact will ap-
pear from the following elucidation of the passages
in which it is found. First, it is sometimes used
to denote the meaning of a symbolical representa-
tion, whether addressed to the mind by a parable,
allegory, etc., or to the eye, by a vision, etc.
Thus our Lord, having delivered to the multitude
the parable of the sower (Matt. xiii:3-9), when
the disciples asked him (verse 10) why he spoke to
them in parables, replied, 'Unto you it is given to
know the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven,
but unto them which are without it is not given'
(Mark iv:ll).
(2) Mystery of tbe Woman. Again, 'the mys-
tery or symbolical representation of the woman
upon a scarlet colored beast' (Rev. xvii:3-6), is
also explained, 'I will tell thee the mystery of the
woman,' etc. (xvii:7). When St. Paul, speaking
of marriage, says 'this is a great mystery' (Eph.
v:32), he evidently treats the original institution
of marriage, as affording a figurative representa-
tion of the union betwixt Christ and the church
(Campbell, Dissertation, p. 10, part iii, sec. 9).
The word is also used to denote anything what-
ever which is hidden or concealed, till it is ex-
plained.
(3) Doctrines. Thus the word is used in the
New Testament to denote those doctrines of
Christianity, general or particular, which the Jews
and the world at large did not understand, till
they were revealed by Christ and his apostles,
'Great is the mystejy of godliness,' «'. e., the Chris-
tian religion (i Tim, iii:i6), the chief parts of
which the apostle instantly proceeds to adduce —
'God was manifest in the flesh, justified by the
Spirit, seen of angels,' etc. — facts which had not
entered into the heart of man (i Cor. ii :9) until
God visibly accomplished them, and revealed them
to the apostles by inspiration (verse 10). The
apostle is generally thought here to compare the
Gospel with the greater Eleusinian mysteries.
(4) Mystery of Faith. Thus also the
Gospel in general is called 'the mystery of the
faith,' which it was requisite the deacons should
hold with a pure conscience' (l Tim. iii:9). The
same word is used respecting certain particular
doctrines of the Gospel, as, for instance, 'the par-
tial and temporary blindness of Israel,' of which
mystery 'the apostle would not have Christians'
ignorant (Rom. xi:2S), and which he explains
(verses 25-32). He sty' ,s the calling of the Gen-
tiles a mystery which, in other ages, was not
made known unto the sons of men as it is now
revealed unto the holy apostles and prophets by
the Spirit' (Eph. iii:4-6; comp. i rg, 10, etc.). To
this class we refer the well-known phrase, 'Behold,
I show you a mystery (i Cor. xv:si), we shall all
be changed ;' and then follows an explanation of
the change (verses 51-55). Even in the case of a
man speaking in an unknown tongue, in the ab-
sence of an interpreter, and when, therefore, no
man understood him, although 'by the Spirit he
was speaking mysteries,' yet the Apostle supposes
that the man so doing understood what himself
said (l Cor. xiv:2-4).
(5) Mystery of Iniquity. And in the pro-
phetic portion of his writings 'concerning the mys-
tery of iniquity' (2 Thess. ii:7), he speaks of it
as being ultimately 'revealed' (verse 8) ; and to
complete the proof that the word 'mystery' is used
in the sense of hnotvahle secrets, we add the
words, 'Though / understand all mysteries' (l
Cor. xiii:2). The Greeks used the word in the
same way. Thus Menander, 'Tell not your secret
to a friend' (p. 274, line 671, ed. Clerici).
NAAM
1203
NAARAH
N
NAAM (na'amK (Heb. Di'i, nah'am, pleasant
ness), one of the three sons ol Caleb, son of Je-
phunneh (i Chron. iv:is), B. C. about i6i8.
NAAMAH (na'a-raah), (Heb. ■"'?J'A nah-am-aw' ,
pleasant).
1. A daughter of Lamech and Zillah, and sister
of Tubal-cain (Gen. iv:22), B. C. about 3549.
2. An Ammonitess, one of the wives of Solo-
mon, and mother of Rehoboani(i Kings xiv:2i).
3. A town in the low country of Judah, which
has not been fully identified. It is proposed, how-
ever, to identify Naamah with Nii-neh, which is a
small mud village on low ground six miles south
of Ludd, (Lydda). (C. Warren in Hastings'
Did. of Bib.)
NAAMAN (na'a-man), (Heb. WX nah-am-
awn', pleasantness; Sept. Noi/iii', naiman).
I. (1) Commander of Syrian Armies. He was
the commander of the armies of Damascene Syria,
in the time of Joram, king of Israel. Through his
valor and abilities Naaman held a high place in
the esteem of his king Benhadad.
(2) A Leper. Although he was afflicted with
leprosy, it would seem that this did not, as among
the Hebrews, operate as a disqualitication for pub-
lic employment. Nevertheless the condition of a
leper could not but have been in his high place
both afflicting and painful ; and when it was heard
that a little Hebrew slave-girl, who waited upon
Naaman's wife, had spoken of a prophet in Sa-
maria who could cure her master of his leprosy,
ilie faint and uncertain hope thus offered was
eagerly seized ; and the general obtained permis-
sion to visit the place where this relief was to be
sought. Benhadad even furnished him with a
letter to his old enemy, King Joram. But this
letter merely stated that Naaman had been sent
for him to cure, and the king of Israel rent his
clothes in astonishment and anger, suspecting that
a request so impossible to grant involved a studied
insult or an intention to fix a quarrel upon him
with a view to future aggressions.
When tidings of this affair reached the prophet
Elisha, he desired that the stranger might be sent
to him. Naaman accordingly went, and his splen-
did train of chariots, horses, and laden camels
filled the street before the prophet's house. As a
leper. Naaman could not be admitted into the
house; and Elisha did not come out to him as he
expected, and as he thought civility required ; but
he sent out his servant to tell him to go and dip
himself seven times in the Jordan, and that his
leprosy would then pass from him. He was, how-
ever, by this time so much chafed and disgusted
by the apparent neglect and incivility with which
he had been treated, that if his attendants had not
prevailed upon him to obey the directions of the
prophet, he would have returned home still a leper.
(3) The Jordan. But he went to the Jordan,
and having bent himself seven times beneath its
waters, rose from them clear from all leprous
stain. His gratitude was now proportioned to his
previous wrath, and he drove back to vent the
feelings of his full heart to the prophet of Israel.
(4) Converted to the God of Israel. He
avowed to him his conviction that the God of
Israel, through whom this marvelous deed had
been wrought, was great beyond all gods ; and he
declared that henceforth he would worship him
only, and to that end he proposed to take with
him two mules' load of the soil of Israel where-
with to set up in Damascus an altar to Jehovah.
This shows he had heard that an altar of earth
was necessary (Exod. xx:24) ; and the imperfect
notions which he entertained of the duties which
his desire to serve Jehovah involved, were natural
in an uninstructed foreigner. He had also heard
that Jehovah was a very jealous God, and had
forbidden any of his servants to bow themselves
down before idols ; and therefore he expressed to
Elisha a hope that he should be forgiven if. when
his public duty required him to attend his king to
the temple of Rimmon, he bowed with his master.
The grateful Syrian would gladly have pressed
upon Elisha gifts of high value, but that holy man
resolutely refused to take anything, lest the glory
redounding to God from this great act should in
any degree be obscured.
(5) Oehazi. His servant, Gehazi, was less
scrupulous, and hastened with a lie in his mouth
to ask in his master's name for a portion of that
which Elisha had refused. The illustrious Syrian
no sooner saw the man running after his chariot
than he alighted to meet him. and, happy to re-
lieve himself in some degree under the sense of
overwhelming obligation, he sent him back with
more than he had ventured to ask (2 Kings v),
B. C. about 850. Nothing more is definitely known
of Naaman. According to the Midrash, Naaman
was the man who 'drew his bow at a venture' at
the battle of Ramoth-Gilead (1 Kings xxii:34).
(6) Character. "Naaman's appearance through-
out the occurrence is most characteristic and con-
sistent. He is every inch a soldier, ready at once
to resent what he considers a slight cast either on
himself or the natural glories of his country, and
blazing out in a moment into sudden 'rage,' but
calmed as speedily by a few good-humored and
sensible words from his dependents, and after the
cure has been effected evincing a thankful and
simple heart, whose gratitude knows no bounds,
and will listen to no refusal" (McC. and S. Cyc).
2. The second son of Bela. son of Benjamin
(Gen. xlvi:2i). He was apparently exiled by Bela
(I Chron. viii :4, 7), though head of the family of
Naamites (Num. xxvi :4o) ; perhaps the same as
Uzzi (i Chron. vii:?), B. C. after 1856.
NAAMATHITE (na'a-ma-thite), (Heb. 'n^i'i.
nahai)i-atc-thee"\, an epithet of Zophar, one of
Job's friends (Job ii:li; xi:i; xx:i; xliitg). The
name is unknown elsewhere. The place was j>rob-
ably situated in Arabia. It indicates a town m the
Shephelah in Josh. xv:4l.
NAAMITES (na'a-mTtes), (Heb. "''?l!i, nah-am-
ee' . the Naanii), the name given to the family de-
scended from Naaman son of Bela (Num. xxvi 140;
I Chron. viii:4).
NAARAH (na'a-rah), (Heb. '^']T±, nah-ar-aw',
a girl), the wife of Ashur, of the tribe of Judah, by
whom he had four sniis (r Chron. iv:5, 6), B. C,
1618. (See Naakan and Naarath.)
NAARAI
1204
NADAB
NAAKAI (na'a-rai), (Heb. '"^?:d, nah-ar-ah'ee,
boyish), son of Ezbai, and one of David's valiant
men (I Cliron. xi:37), B. C. about 1015. Tlie name
is probably incorrectly written Paarai (2 Sam.
xxiii:35).
NAASAN (na'a-ran), (Heb. X$^, nah-ar-awti' ,
boyish, juvenile, puerile), a town on the south-
eastern border of Ephraim, between Bethel and
Jericho (I Chron. vii:28). The name is Naarath
(Josh. xvi:7).
NAARATH (na'a-rath), (Heb. ^"^T^, nah-ar-
a7L>' , a girl, handmaid).
A city of Ephraim (Josh. xvi:7), about five
miles distant from Jericho, the Naaran of I Chron.
vii :28. Eusebius speaks of it as Oorath, a village
five miles from Jericho, and Josephus mentions
that Herod drew ofT part of the waters from the
village of Neara to water the palm trees he had
planted. Conder, therefore, suggests that the site
of Naarath is to be found in erAiijeh, near Jeri-
cho, where are a ruin and remains of an ancient
aqueduct.
NAASHON (na-ash'on), (Heb. T''^'~i,«a/fe-4-j>4(?«^',
oracle), (Ex. vi:23). See Nahshon.
NAASSON (na-as'son), (Gr. Naaa-criiv, nah-as-
sone'). Matt. i:4; Luke iii:32; the Greek form of the
name Nahshun.
NAAZTTZ or NAATZTJTZ (na'az-uz or na-atz-
utz), (Heb. Y'^'i?^, nah-ats-oots'), occurs only in two
passages of Isaiah, in both of which it is translated
'thorn' in the Authorized Version.
Thus (chap. vii:i8, 19), 'Jehovah shall hiss
for the fly that is in the uttermost part of the
rivers of Egypt, and for the bee that is in the
land of Assyria ; and they shall come, and shall
rest all of them, in the desolate valleys, and
in the holes of the rocks, and upon all the thorns'
(naazuzim ) . By some this has been translated
crevices; but that it is a plant of some kind is
evident from chap. Iv:i3 — 'Instead of the thorn
(naacnz) shall come up the fir-tree, and instead
of the briar shall come up the myrtle-tree.' This
might be a species of acacia, of which many species
are well known to be abundant in the dry and
barren parts of Syria, Arabia and Egypt. (See
Thorns and Thistles.) J. F. R.
NABAIi (na'bal), (Heb. ^^i, naw-i/aw/" , stupid,
foolish; Sept. Ha^dX, Jiada/').
A descendant of Caleb, dwelling at Maon, and
having large possessions near Carmel of Judah, in
the same neighborhood. He had abundant wealth,
being the possessor of 3.000 sheep and 1,000 goats,
but his churlish and harsh character had not been
softened by the prosperity with which he had
been favored. He was holding a great sheep-
shearing of his numerous flocks at Carmel — which
was a season of great festivity among the sheep-
masters of Israel — when David sent some of his
young men to request a small supply of provi-
sions, of which his troop was in great need. He
was warranted in asking this, as, while Nabal's
flocks were out in the desert, the presence of
David and his men in the neighborhood had ef-
fectually protected them from the depredations
of the Arabs. But Nabal refused this applica-
tion, with harsh words, reflecting coarsely upon
David and his troop as a set of worthless rene-
gades. On learning this. David was highly in-
censed, and set out with his band to avenge the
insult. But his intention was anticipated and
averted by Nabal's wife Abigail, who met him on
the road with a. most acceptable supply of provi-
sions, and by her consummate tact and good
sense mollified his anger, and indeed caused him
in the end to feel thankful that he had been
prevented from the bloodshed which would have
ensued. When Nabal, after recovering from the
drunkenness of the feast, was informed of these
circumstances, he was struck with such intense
terror at the danger to which he had been ex-
posed that 'his heart died within him, and he
became as a stone;' which seems to have been
the e.xciting cause of a malady that carried him
off about ten days after. David, not long after,
evinced the favorable impression which the good
sense and comeliness of Abigail had made upon
him by making her his wife, B. C. 1061 (i Sam.
xxv). (See Abigail.)
NABATH.a:ANS (nab'a-the'anz),(i Mace. v:25,
ix:35). See Nebaioth.
NABOTH (na'both), (Heb. ^'^^, >iaw-6oiA',
fruit, produce).
An inhabitant of Jezreel, who was the possessor
of a patrimonial vineyard adjoining the garden of
the palace which the kings of Israel had there.
King Ahab had conceived a desire to add this
vineyard to his ground, to make of it 'a garden of
herbs,' but found that Naboth could not, on any
consideration, be induced to alienate a property
which he had derived from his fathers. This gave
the king so much concern that he took to his
bed and refused his food; but when his wife, the
notorious Jezebel, understood the cause of his
trouble, she bade him be of good cheer, for sAe
would procure him the vineyard. Sometime after
Naboth was, at a public feast, accused of blas-
phemy, by an order from her under the royal
seal, and, being condemned through the testi-
mony of false witnesses, was stoned to death, ac-
cording to the law, outside the town (Lev. xxiv:
16; Num. xv:30). By a custom, which had grown
up, his estate was forfeited to the crown.
When Ahab heard of the death of Naboth — •
and he must have known how that death had been
accomplished, or he would not have supposed
himself a gainer by the event — he hastened to
take possession. But he was speedily taught that
this horrible crime had not passed without notice
by the all-seeing God, and would not remain un-
punished by his justice. The only tribunal to
which he remained accountable pronounced his
doom through the prophet Elijah, who met him on
the spot, 'In the place where dogs licked the blood
of Naboth, shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine'
(l Kings xxi ; xxii:34-38; 2 Kings ix:30-37).
NACHON (na'chon), (Heb. T^}, naw-kone' ,
prepared).
The floor of Nachon is the name given to the
threshing-floor near which Uzzah was slain, for
laying his hand upon the ark (2 Sam. vi:6). It
is doubted whether this be a proper name, denot-
ing the owner of the floor, or merely an epithet
applied to it, i. e., 'the prepared floor,' which in
that case it would signify.
NACHOK (na'chor), (Gr. Naxiip, nay-kore,
an ancestor of Jesus, Luke iii:34; Josh. xxiv:2).
(See Nahor.)
NADAB (na'dab), (Heb. 2^:, naw-dawb, lib-
eral; Sept. NoSd/S, nah-dab' , Nadab).
1. The eldest son of Aaron, who, with his
brother Abihu. was slain for offering strange fire
to the Lord (Exod. vi:23). (See Abihu.)
2. Son of Jeroboam, and second king of Israel.
He ascended the throne upon the death of his
father (B. C. 913), whose deep-laid, but criminal
NADABATH
1206
NAHOR. CITY OF
and dangerous policy, he followed. He was en-
gaged in the siege of Gibbethon, a city of the
Levites (of which the Philistines had obtained
possession), when he was slain in the camp in a
conspiracy formed against him by Baa:;ha, one of
his officers, who mounted the throne in his stead.
He reigned two years (i Kings xiv:20; xv:
25-28).
3. The first of the two sons of hammai, of
Judah (i Chron. ii :28, 30), B. C. after 1618.
4. One of the eight sons of Jehiel, founder of
Gibeon (I Chron. viii:3o; ix:36), B. C. about
1013.
NADABATH ( nad'a-bath ), an unidentified
place east of the Jordan (i Mace ix:37).
NAGGE (nag'ge), (Gr. THayyal, nang-gah-ee' , for
Heb. '^^■', no'gah, l Chron. iii:/), son of Maath,
an ancestor of Christ in the maternal line (Luke
iii:25), correspoi'ding to Neariah of i Chron. iii:22,
23. (B.C. 350.)
NAHALAL (na-ha'iai) (Heb. 'ini, nah-hal-
aivl'), a town in the tribe of Zcbuhm(Josh xix:l5),
which was assigned to the Levites (Josh xxi:35i,
but of wliich Zebulun was slow in dis]>ossessing
the Canaanites (Judg. i:30). It has been identified
with Ma/ilul and ' Ain MAliil, four miles northeast
of Nazareth.
NAHAXIEL (na-ha'li-el), (Heb. "^^^'^Hi, nakh-
al-ee-ale', valley of God), an encampment of the
Israelites in the wilderness (Num. xxi:l9), prob-
ably on one of the northern tributaries of the
Arnon. Not identified. (See Wandering, Thk).
NAHAIiLAL (na-hal'lal), {Josh. xxi:35). See
Nahalal.
NAHALOI. (na-ha'I61), (Heb.'^^L'.^, nah-hal-olc\
a form of Nahalal (Judg. i:30). A Levitical city in
Zebulun, retained by the Canaanites, near Kattath
and Dininah. Now called JMahlut.
NAEA]yi(na'hara),( Heb. '--^, nakh' am, conso-
lation>, according to the A. V. a brother of Hodiah,
the second wife of Mered (I Chron. iv:i()). B.C.
after 1612, or else the father of Keilah, the Gar-
mite.
NAHAMANI (na-ham'a-ni) (Heb. N^??^, nakh-
am-ij'a'-ncc, comforter or compassionate), one of
the Jews or twelve heads of the Jewish community
who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel
(Xeh. vii:7), I!. C. 536.
NAELARAI (na-har'a-i), (l Chron. xi:39). See
Nahari.
TJATTATt.ATM (na'ha-ra'im). See Aramnaha-
RAIM.
NAHABI (na'ha-ri), ( Heb. 'T!"?, nakh-ar-
ali'ee, snorcr), a Berothite chieftain under David,
and Joab's arm<>r-l)carcr (2 S.un. xxiii;37; I Chron.
xi:39). B. C. 1013.
NAHASH (na'hash), (Heb. ™^i, naw-khawsh,
a serpent).
1. A person named only in 2 Sam. xvii :25 ; and
as he is there described as the father of Abigail
and Zeruiah, who are elsewhere called the sisters
of David, this must have been either another
name for Jesse, or. as some suppose, of a former
husband of David's mother. Three answers may
be given to the puzzling question: (i) The uni-
versal tradition of the rabbis, that Nahash and
Jesse were identical. (2) The explanation first
put forth by Dr. Stanley, that Nahash was the
king of the Ammonites, and that the same woman
had first been his wife or concubine — in which
capacity she had given birth to Abigail and
Zeruiah — and afterward wife to Jesse, and the
mother of his children. (3) A third possible ex-
planation is that Nahash was the name, not of
Jesse, nor of a former husband of his wife, btlt
of his wife herself (Smith, Bib. Diet.).
8. King of the Ammonites, noted for the bar-
barous terms of capitulation which he offered to
the town of Jabesh-Gilead. and for his subsequent
defeat by Saul. (See Jabesh.) It was natural
that the enemy of Saul should be friendly to
David; and we find that he did render to the
latter, during his persecutions, some acts of kind-
ness, which the monarch did not forget when he
ascended the throne of Israel (2 Sam. x:2; I
Chron. xix :2).
NAHATH (na'hath), (Heb. ^^l, nakh'ath, rest,
quiet).
1. The first of the four sons of Reuel, son of
Esau, and an Edomite duke or prince (Gen.
xxxvi:i3, 17), B. C. 1890.
2. A Kohathite Levite, ancestor of the prophet
Samuel (i Chron. vi:26), B. C. 1280. The same
as Tohu (i Sam. i:i) and Toah (l Chron. vi:34).
3. A Levite who had charge of the sacred
tithes and offerings under Hezekiah (2 Chron.
xxxi :i3). B. C. 725.
NAHBI(nah'bl), ( Heb. '^ni, nakh-bee' , hidden),
a son of Vophsi, sent as a representative of the
tribe of Naphtali to explore the land of Canaan
(Num. xiii;l4), B. C. 1657.
NAHOB (na'hor), (Heb. ''^'^J, naw-kAore' .snort-
ing).
1- The better form is Nachor, as in Luke iii 134,
son of Serug, and father of Terah, the father of
Abraham (Gen. xi:22-2s). He lived 148 years
(B. C. before 2300).
2. Grandson of the preceding, being one of
the sons of Terah, and brother of Abraham. Na-
hor espoused Milcah his niece, daughter of his
eldest brother Haran (Gen. xi:27-29). Nahor did
not quit his native place. 'Ur of the Chaldees,'
when the rest of the family removed to Haran
(Gen. .xi:30) ; but it would appear that he went
thither afterwards, as we eventually find his son
Bethuel, and his grandson Laban, established
there (Gen. .xxvii :43 ; xxix:5).
NAHOB, CITY OF.
To Biblical students, Haran is best known as
the city of Nahor, the designation which it re-
ceives in Gen. .xxiv:io. It was the city where
Abraham's brother Nahor lived with his son
Laban, where Terah and Abraham made their
home after they left the land of the Chaldees,
where Terah died, and whence Abraham was
called to go into Canaan. As the city of Abra-
ham's sojourn, it has interest by no means sec-
ond to Ur of the Chaldees. Assyrian studies have
given great interest to this country, and Schrader,
Hommel, Delitzsch and Wincklcr have, during
the last few years, devoted much investigation
to this region. A paper on Haran, published
this year by the latter scholar, is especially im-
portant.
Haran is cal'ed Charran in the Sentuagint, and
Harran with the rough H in the Babylonian in-
scriptions. It was evidently an important place
commercially, as its hieroglyph is made by two
roads crossing, implying that it was the crossing-
place of two caravan routes. It was the chief
city of what was called Mesopotamia, not so
much because it lay between the Tigris and the
NAHOR, CITY OF
1206
NAHSHON
Euphrates, a? because it was included in the an-
gle between the two rivers, Euphrates and Habor,
the principal affluent of the Euphrates. In its
widest extent Mesopotamia did not include the
whole of the region between the Tigris and the
Euphrates, only this northern, or rather middle
part, while the southern part was Babylonia, and
we might call Padan-Aram, North Mesopotamia.
We are apt to think of Nineveh and Babylon
as the two great capitals of the East, and to sup-
pose that in old times there were no great king-
doms but the two of which they were the cap-
itals. This is a great mistake. Assyria was of im-
portance only for some six or eight hundred
years, before and after which it did not exist,
nor did its capital city. We now know that, for
at least a thousand years before there was any
Nineveh, Harran, a more correct form than Haran,
was one of the most powerful capitals of the
East.
The oldest capital of Southern Babylonia was
Ur. Its age goes back perhaps 4000 years B. C.
It was nearly or quite 4000 B. C. when the South-
ern Babylonian power arose, and it extended its
power and culture all the way to the Phcenician
Coast. Seals belonging to this chiliad have been
found even in Cyprus. The astrological tablets
ascribed to the ancient Sargas I, whose date is
put at 3800 B. C, mention the lands of the West
and distinctly refer to Harran. Cedar wood was
rafted down the Euphrates in the time of Gudea.
about 3500 B. C, brought from the region 01
Mount Lebanon or Amanus.
From its own monuments we know nothing of
the history of Mesopotamia, and its chief city,
Harran. None of the mounds in this region have
as yet been excavated ; what we know of these
important sites is wholly from the records of the
neighboring kmgdoms.
From these we learn that the title "Kings of the
World," the favorite designation of the kings of
Assyria, was first assumed by the kings of Harran
and adopted by Ramfnan-Niraril, about 1400 B. C.
on his conquest of what had been the much more
powerful kingdom whose capital was Harran.
This was a chiliad of great importance in eastern
history. It was between 2000 and 1000 B. C. that
the Kassites conquered and held Babylonia, that
the Hittites and the Aramians took possession
of Syria, that the Assyrian empire was estab-
lished, and that the Egyptians made their great
campaigns in Asia. It was in the latter part of
this period that Assyria finally conquered the
earlier kingdom of Mesopotamia and took Har-
ran.
To Sin, the moon god of Harran, the Assyrians
gave the second place of honor in their pantheon,
next after their own god, Assur. This shows
the influence of Harran and the honor in which
it was held.
When Shalmaneser II (800 B. C.) wished to
restore the kingdom of Assyria to the power
it had held 500 years before under Shalmaneser I,
he rebuilt the temple of Sin at Harran, regard-
ing it as a royal city. A curious illustration of
the honor in which Harran was held is supplied by
an inscription of the time of Assur-bani-pal, the
last great king of Assyria. A scribe, Marduk-
sum-usser, writes to the king:
"When the father of the king, my lord, made
an expedition into Egypt, he went to the temple
in Harran, built of cedar wood. Sin was sitting
on his throne with his head bowed. Two royal
crowns were on his head. Nusku waited upon
him. The father of the king, my lord, entered in.
"Sin raised his head and spoke: 'Go forward,
and thou shalt conquer the land.'
"He went forward, and he conquered Esrypt-
The remaining lands which Assur and Sin have
not conquered will the king, the lord of kings,
conquer. By the command of Assur, Sin, Shamas
(Chemosh) and the other gods shall he sit on
a throne of generations."
If Assur, the god of Assur, the first capital of
Assyria, was put at the head of the Assyrian
pantheon, Sin was put next, because Assyria did
not become a kingdom until it had incorporated
Mesopotamia, with its capital city, Harran, and
adopted its god Sin.
After the fall of Assyria, Mesopotamia, of
course, fell to Babylonia. When the last king of
Babylon, Nabonidus, was in danger of losing
Mesopotamia by the inroad of the Scythians, who
had already invaded Media and Assyria, he at-
tempted to propitiate the gods by rebuilding the
temple of Sin in its old glory.
We find, then, that in the very oldest times
known to us there was in Mesopotamia, or that
northern part of Mesopotamia included in the
angle of the Euphrates and the Habor valleys,
called in Genesis Padan-Aram, or Plain of Aram,
a kingdom whose capital city was Harran, the
Biblical Haran. The difference in spelling comes
from the fact that the Hebrew language cannot
double the letter r. We find its tutelary god wor-
shiped in Babylonia as early as 3500 B. C. We
find it mentioned several times in an astrological
work which was in existence in the second chiliad
B. C. When the Assyrian power arose it became
united with the latter, and was so in the time of
Shalmaneser I, about 1300 B. C. The advance
of the Hittite and other powers reduced the
realm of Assyria, but Tiglath-pileser I (about
1 100 B. C.) again extended his limits so that Meso-
potamia was permanently incorporated with As-
syria until the overthrow of the empire by Nabo-
polassar.
Assyria gave no especial culture to the world,
but borrowed what she had from Babylonia and
Padan-Aram, both older kingdoms, with estab-
lished art and religion, and it was by union with
the latter and by its help that Assyria conquered
all the regions about, north to the Black Sea and
west to the Mediterranean. (See Assyria, Lit-
erature; Assyrian and Babylonian Libraries.)
This gives us a new point of view to consider
the development of civilization in the 'entire re-
gion occupied by the Phoenicians, Syrians and
Hittites, including the descendants of Abraham.
We see what a distinguished political ancestry
the Hebrew had, coming first from Ur of the
Chaldees, the capital of the earliest South Baby-
lonian kingdom, and then from Harran, the cap-
ital of the nearly equally old and powerful Meso-
potamian kingdom. From these two cities he
brought the best education and civilization of the
ancient world ; and we can see how reasonable
it was for Abraham. Isaac and Jacob to seek wives
for their sons among their own kindred, instead of
among the inferior races around them. {City of
Nahor, by William Hayes Ward, D. D., Hom.
Rev., Oct., 1894.) (See Haran.)
'^A.'BSKO'S(nah'shon),(\\eh.\'^'^^,nakh-skone',
enchanter), from which he is called Naason in the
genealogies of Christ in Matt. i:4; Luke iii:32, son
of Aminadab, and prince or chief of the tribe of
Judah, at the time or the exode (Num. v.j; 'i\:y, vii:
12, 17; x:l4).
The chiefs of tribes, of which Nahshon was one,
took an important and leading part in the affairs
of the Israelites, as described in the article Tribes.
(B. C. 1657.)
NAHUM
1207
NAIL OF THi: FINGER
NAHTTM (na'hum), (Heb. Ol"^, nakh-oom' , con-
solation), the seventh of the minor prophets,
according to the arrangement of both the Greek
and Hebrew, but the sixth in point of date, was a
native of Elkosh, a village of Galilee (Jerome's
Prc\. to his Continent.).
He prophesied in Judah after the deportation of
the ten tribes, and soon after the unsuccessful
irruption of Sennacherib (ch. 1:11-13; ":•. 14).
consequently towards the close of the reign of
Hezekiah. Attempts have been made to fix the
date with precision, from the allusion to the de-
struction of No-Ammon or 1 hcbes in Egypt (ch.
iii :8) ; but as it is uncertain when this event took
place. Eichhorn and others have conjectured that
it was near the beginning of the reign of Heze-
kiah, or about B. C. 735, as about this time Sar-
gon, king of Assyria, waged an unsuccessful war
for three years against Egypt (Is. xx). (See
Egypt.)
NAHUM, PBOPHECY OF.
(1) Contents. The contents of the prophecy of
Nahum are as follows: Chap. 1:2-7. The destruc-
tion of Nineveh and of the Assyrian monarchy is
depicted in the liveliest colors, together with the
relief of Judah from oppression. The destruction
of Nineveh is detailed with still greater particu-
larity in the third chapter; which has induced
some to suppose that the prophet refers to two
different events — the sack of Nineveh by the
Medes, B. C. 867, in the reign of Sardanapalus.
and its second and final destruction, under Chy-
niladan, by Cyaxares the First and Nabopolassar
(B. C. 606). Those who suppose that two events
are here alluded to, conclude that Nahum must
have prophesied before the first destruction of
Nineveh, or about B. C. 877. It is, however, ob-
served by Jahn (Introd.) that it is evident from
ch. i ;9-ii, 14 ; ii :i, 14, where the Hebrews are rep-
resented as oppressed by the Assyrians, and the
irruption of Sennacherib is mentioned as having
already taken place, that there is but one event re-
ferred to, namely, the last destruction of Nineveh.
De Wette remarks that Nahum could not have
alluded to the historical circumistances under
which Nineveh was taken by Cyaxares and Na-
bopolassar (B. C. 625, 603, or 600), as at that time
Babylon, not Assyria, was formidable to the Jews,
but that perhaps he was led to prophesy by the
liberation of the Medes (from the Assyrians), and
'their election of a king, in the person of De-
joces.'
The beauty of the style of Nahum has been uni-
versally felt. It is classic, observes De Wette, in
all respects. It is marked by clearness, by its
finished elegance, as well as by fire, richness and
originality. The rhythm is regular and lively.
(2) Style. The whole book is remarkably co-
herent, and the author only holds his breath, as it
were, in the last chapter. Jahn observes that the
language is pure, with a single exception (ch.
iii :i7), that the style is ornate, and the tropes bold
and elegant (rendering it, however, necessary for
the reader to supply some omissions; see ii:8;
iii:3. 16); and that the descriptions of the di-
vine omnipotence, and of the destruction of Nine-
veh, are resplendent with all the perfection of
oratory. No one, however, has entered more fully
into the beauties of the prophet Nahum than the
accomplished Eichhorn, who conceives that the
most striking characteristic of his style is the
power of representing several phases of an idea
in the briefest sentences, as in his description of
God, the conquest of Nineveh, and the destruc-
tion o4 No-Ammon 'The variety in his manner
of presenting ideas discovers much poetic talent in
the prophet. The reader of taste and sensibility
will be affected by the entire structure of the
poem, by the agreeable manner in which the ideas
are brought forward, by the flexibility of the ex-
pressions, the roundness of his turns, the delicate
outline of his figures, by the strength and delicacy,
and the expression of sympathy and greatness,
which diffuse themselves over the whole subject.
He does not come upon you roaring and violent,
nor yet softly and lightly. Here there is some-
thing sonorous in his language, there something
murmuring; and with both there alternates some-
what that is soft, delicate and melting, as the
subject demands. This is not possible for a poet
of art, but only for the poet of nature" (De
Wette's liitrod. English transl.). (Edwards, Moles
in Bib. Sacr. 1848, p. 551 sq. ; Keil, Inter. O. T.)
NAIL (nail). There are two Hebrew words
thus translated in the Auth. Vers., which it may
be well to distinguish:
1. O^'tyaw'/hatfe'), which usually denotes a peg,
pin. or nail, as driven into a wall (Ezek. xv:3;
Is. xxii:25); and more especially a tent pin
driven into the earth to fasten the tent (Exod.
xxvii:i9; xxxv:i8; xxxviii :3i ; Is. xxxiii:2o;
liv:2). Hence, to drive a pin, or to fasten a nail,
presents among the Hebrews an image of a fixed
dwelling, a firm and stable abode (Is. xxii:23).
It was a tent pin which Jael drove into the temples
of Sisera (Judg. iv:2l, 22).
2. ("^'?F5, mas-mare'), which, with some varia-
tions of form, is applied to ordinary and orna-
mental nails. It always occurs in the plural, and
is the word which we find in i Chron. xxii :3 ; 2
Chron. iii:9; Is. xli:7; Jer. x:4; Eccles. xii:ii.
Nails are mentioned in the accounts of the cruci-
fixion (John XX :2S ; Col. ii:i4).
Figurative, (i) Eliakim, and Jesus Christ, as
prefigured by him, are likened to a "nail in a .'ture
place, for hanging of vessels on," which is typical
of something firm and strong. God made Eliakim
the Jewish minister of state, and on him did the
subordinate rulers and the people depend. God
established Jesus in the oflice of Mediator, and on
him do all the persons of the elect, and all their
privileges, graces, and duties, and all the oracles
of God, and ordinances and government of the
church depend (Is. xxii:23-25), (2) The "nail"
that came forth of Judah is either Zerubbabel,
Nehemiah, or the Maccabees, who established the
Jewish state; or rather Jesus Christ, who connects
and establishes his church, and bears her and all
her concerns (Zech. x:4). (3) The words of
the wise are as "nails fastened ;" the truths of God
fixed in the heart remain there perpetually, and
make the soul cleave to Jesus, and his church and
ordinances (Eccles. xii:li). (4) The "nails of
brass," which Daniel's fourth beast had. denotes
the covetou.s robbery and ravage of the Romans,
and their power to retain their conquered prov-
inces (Dan. vii:i9). (s) Christ's "nailing" of the
ceremonial law to his cross imports, that by his
death he fulfilled the signification thereof, and has
abolished its binding force (Col. ii:i4).
NAIL OF THE FINGER (nal 6v the 6n'ger,)
(Heb. ir^-V, tsip-po'ren, Deut. xxi:i2), like cutting
the hair, the paring of the nails— both signs of
purification — was a symbol of a captive slave
passing out of servitude and being received into
communion with the covenant nation.
In Jer. xvii :i (marg.) "nail" is the rendering of
the same Hebrew word, and means the "point"
NAIN
1208
NAMES
of a stylus or a metallic pen. In Dan. \v.33; vii :
19 (Chald. ''?'?, tef-ar'), occurs of the claws of a
bird or beast (Mc. & S. Bih. Cy.; Barnes, Bib.
Diet.).
NAIN (na'in), (Gr. NofK, nah-in', pleasantness,
beauty), a town of Palestine, mentioned only in
the NewTestament, as the place where Jesus raised
the widow's son to life (Luke vii:ii-i7).
Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. title "Nain")
describe it as not far from Endor. As its name
has always been preserved, it was recognized by
the crusaders, and has been often noticed by trav-
elers up to the present day. It has now dwindled
to a small hamlet called Ncin, which is situated
about three miles south by west from Mount
Tabor. Another Nain in the south of_ the land
east of the Jordan was fortified by Simon Bar
Giora (Joseph. Wars of the Jezvs, \v :g, 4).
"The story of Nain has been told in the sim-
plest and most touching manner by the evangelist.
Every word is a picture." (Hugh MacMillan,
Hastings' Bib. Diet.). The place where the
young man was raised to life is beautiful, over-
looking the great plains of Esdraelon. the wooded
hills of Galilee. The snow-capped Hermon and
Lebanon ranges are in full view. A small mod-
ern church has been built on the site of the old
city.
NAIOTH (na'yoth), (Heb. ^'}l, nev-aw-yoth' ,
dwellings).
A place in or near Ramah, where Samuel abode
with his disciples (l Sam. xix : 18, 19, 22, 23;
XX :i). Naioth does not appear to have been a
distinct town or village ; and we are willing to
accept the explanation of R. Isaiah and other Jew-
ish commentators, who state that Ramah was the
name of a hill, and Naioth of the place upon it.
NAKED (na'ked), (Heb. '^37*, er-vaw' , nudity;
Gr. fiii.w>,ffoom'7ios), 'naked' in our Bibles, does
not in many places mean absolute nakedness.
(1) Nudity. It has this meaning in such pas-
sages as Job i:2i; Eccles. v:i5; Mic. i:8; Amos
ii:i6).
(2) Ragged or Poorly Clad. But in other
places it means one who is ragged or poorly clad
(John x.xi:7; Is. lv.iii:7), in the same sense as
yviivbs in James ii:l5; which does not indeed
differ from a familiar application of the word
'naked' among ourselves.
(3) Slightly Clad. A more peculiar and
Oriental sense of the word is that in which it is
applied to. one who has laid aside his loose outer
garment, and goes about in his tunic. When,
therefore, Saul is described as having lain down
'naked' (l Sam. xix:24), we are to understand
that he had laid aside his flowing outer robe, by
which his rank was most indicated, and was
therefore a king 'naked' or undressed.
(4) Naked and Barefoot. It was thus that
Isaiah went 'naked' and barefoot (Is. xx:2; comp.
John xxi:7). The point of the expression may be
the better apprehended when we mention that per-
sons in their own houses freely lay aside their
outer garment, and appear in their tunic and gir-
dle; but this is undress, and they would count it
improper to appear abroad, or to see company in
their own house, without the outer robe.
Figurative, (i) Destitute of innocency, holi-
ness and righteousness, inherent or imputed, and
hence exposed to shame and misery (Rev. iii:l7,
18). (2) Deprived of the divine favor and pro-
tection, and ready to be a prey to their ene-
mies (Exod. xxxii:25; 2 Chron. xxviii:i9). Be-
fore the fall there was no sinful, shameful, or
hurtful nakedness ; as there were no sinful dis-
positions, no part of the human body was im-
proper for view ; but sin entering, they knew they
were naked, that they were become unholy and
unrighteous ; and they needed a covering for those
parts of their body afterwards called "naked-
ness" (Gen. iii:7, 10, 11; ix:22). (3) The
"nakedness" of the soul lies in being without holi-
ness and righteousness, but sinful before God
(Rev. iii:i8). (4) The "nakedness" of a land, is
the poverty, weakness and ruinous condition
thereof; or its shameful wickedness (Ezek. xvi :8,
36, 37). (5) Going "naked" or almost so, was
an emblem of distress and deprivation of comfort
(Is. XX .-3 ; Mic. i :8).
NAIHES (nams), (Heb. D©, shame; Gr. tvofw.,
on-om-ah).
It is so interesting, as well as useful, to know
the original signification of proper names, that a
careful investigation of their nature has many
advantages. The chief use, however, which ac-
crues from an accurate knowledge of them is,
that we are by their means enabled to attain a
more lively apprehension of the truth of ancient
history.
i. Two Classes. There are two chief classes
of proper names, those of men, and those of
everything besides man. as beasts, places and
festivals. Those of the latter class are much
jiore durable in their form, as man alone is al-
ways changing; they are also important for his-
tory, and it is desirable to ascertain, as far as
possible, their original signification. But the
proper names of the changeable races of men are
in a much higher degree those in which history
reflects itself in its vicissitudes; they also consti-
tute the more numerous class. For these reasons
we confine ourselves at present to the proper
names of men, as it is beyond our present scope
to treat the entire subject.
2. Simplicity in Use 0/ Names. The first fact
that strikes us, on a general view of them all, is
that the ancient Hebrews always retained the
greatest simplicity in the use of names. In real-
ity, there is always only one single name which
distinguishes a person. Where it is necessary, the
name of the father is added; sometimes that of
the mother instead, in case she happens to be
more celebrated; or the line of descent is traced
farther back, often to the fourth generation, or
even farther. Mere epithets, like 'David the king,'
'Isaiah the prophet,' always express the actual
and significant dignity of a man. The instances
in which a person receives two names alternately,
as Jacob-Israel, Gideon-Jerubbaal (Judg. vi-ix),
are casual and rare, and are not to be ascribed to
a general custom of the people.
3. Three Periods. When v>'e, then, consider
proper names with reference to the grand distinc-
tion of times, we are able to discover in their vary-
ing use nearly the same three periods as those
which mark the history of this people in all other
respects. These are the three periods which are
most simply defined by the three different names
of the nation which prevailed in each — the He-
brews, as they were called in early times, grad-
ually adopted the name of Israelites in the middle
period, and exchanged this name, in the third, for
that of lews. It is a remarkable, but neverthe-
less true, coincidence that, just as the name of
the nation varies in these three periods, the color
of the names of individuals changes in like man-
ner, according to the difierent tendencies char-
acterizing the timeb.
NAMES
1209
NAMES
(1 7 First Period. In the first period, which,
for reasons adduced below, we here limit by the
commencement of the Mosaic religion, we are able
to see the whole process according to which names
are formed among this people; the distinct char-
acter of the formation of names which was estab-
lished in this primitive tmie, continues essentially
the same in the succeeding period, while the ele-
ments of which names are formed undergo a par-
tial change. For this reason we may explain the
laws of this formation in terms of merely general
application. Now names are either simple or
compound words, or also words which arise from
either of these kinds by derivation.
(a) The simple names exist in great abundance,
and their signification as to the mere word itself,
is generally evident; as 'judge;' the h&t'm dexter,
an ancient name, according to Gen. xlvi:io; I
Chron. ii:27; 'desired,' also an ancient name ac-
cording to Gen. xlvi:io; comp. xxxvi:37; 'hero,' I
Kings iviig. Thus most of them express an hon-
orable sense ; although examples are not wanting
of the direct contrary, as 'crooked' (2 Sam. xxiii :
26).
(b) The compound names, however, are more
important for history, because they express more
complete and distinct ideas than the simple names.
Some of them are altogether isolated, as prop-
er'y 'serpent's mouth,' the grandson of Aaron;
the son of Jacob; Oholiab (Exod. xxxi:6),
'father's tent,' a name resembling the Greek Pa-
trocles. But most of them bear a general re-
."»mblance to each other, and follow in shoals
"ertain dominant opinions and customs; and these
1st are what we must particularly consider here.
A great number of them owe their origin to the
relations of the house, as the sense of the first
word of the compound shows. Most of these
have the word abi, 'father,' for their first member,
as Abiezer, Abital, Abigail. The prevalent opin-
ion among modern scholars respecting this class
is that they are really epithets, which have after-
wards, as it were casually, become proper names ;
that Abigail, for example, is literally 'father of
joy,' or 'whose father is joy,' that this means
cheerful, and thus became a proper name.
Another but a smaller class consists of names
compounded with ^i', (zw, 'people,' resembling the
many Greek compositions with Xo6s lah-os' , peo-
ple, and StJamjs, liay'mos; and just as in Greek
ifiiwi, dcme, is placed first or last (Demosthenes,
Aristodemos), so also CJJ is at one time found
in the first, and at another in the last place; only
that, according to the laws of the Semitic lan-
guage, the sense of one of these positions is ex-
actly the reverse of the other.
Most of the compound names, however, rather
endeavor to express a religious sense, and there-
fore often contain the divine name. As compound
names evidently became very general, it is not
surprising that, in the infinite multiplication of
names to correspond with the infinite multitude of
persons, some proper names were at length
formed which solely consist of two names of
God himself, expressing, as it were, the ineffably
holy name to which the person dedicates himself,
as Abiel and Eliab. nay, even Eliel (i Chron.
v:24; viii:20; 2 Chron. xxxi:i3).
Lastly, many proper names have assumed the
derivative syllable ;, or «z (which appears to be
only dialecticaliy different from ;, and is chiefly
frequent in the later periods) ; and we must cer-
tainly consider that, in some cases, this syllable
may possibly form mere adjectives, and therewith
simple names, as 'trueman,' from 'truth,' and
Bar:Hlai, 'Iron,' or 'Ironman,' the name of a cele-
brated Gileadite family (Ezra ii :6l ; 2 Sam. xvii:
V)-
(2) Second Period. This is the whole prin-
ciple which regulates the formation of Hebrew
names, both as it manifests itself in the earliest
times, and as it extends into the succeeding
periods, in which it receives new impulses, and
undergoes modifications of color but not of sub-
stance.
For if we inquire what new element the Mosaic
period introduced into names, we find that, on
the whole, it is only the influence of the new
religion which manifests itself in the strongest
characters, and causes extraordinary innovations.
It is not in the Psalms only and other books
that we discovei" how deeply this religion affected
men ; we may also infer it from the names which
became current in that period. Nay, it is only
these words of common life which render it
evident to our senses with what a power this
religion penetrated all the depths of the national
mind, and how zealously every man in Israel
endeavored 'to glory in the name of Jahve,' ac-
cording to the words of the prophet (Is. xliv:5;
comp. Ps. cv:3).
As the whole national life was renovated by
so influential a new religion, the mode of giv-
ing names returned to its primitive state, since
not only were new names created, but entire sen-
tences, of the shortest compass, expressing the
mighty thoughts which agitated the times, were
also applied as names.
(3) TMrd Period. This is the type and fash-
ion of the names as late as the times after the
first destruction of Jerusalem. The influence of
the dispersion among foreign nations may, in-
deed, be immediately traced in the new names
which allude to the captivity, as the name of
Zerubbabel (the leader of the restoration), which
is a contraction of ^?? ^^I, ser-00-baw-bel, means
'scattered to Babylon.' Yet this foreign influence
is but transient ; and in the centuries immediately
succeeding the Exile, in which the last books of
the Old Testament were written, we find, on the
contrary, that the ancient mode of giving names
is preserved almost unchanged.
In this respect, however, there is a total differ-
ence in the times between the close of the Old
and the beginning of the New Testament. For
after a purely learned study of the Old Testament
had sprung up, and the whole nation only con-
tinued to exist in its sacred books, they delighted
to give their children the ancient Scriptural
names ; nay, they sought out such names as had
only been common in the times before Moses, and
had become obsolete in the long interval : names
like Jacob, Joseph. Maria. But while these dead
names were revived and zealously sought out, the
capability for forming new ones became gradually
weaker. And, as the love of novelty still oper-
ated, and as the people lost their independence
more and more, many foreign names became fa-
vorites, and were used equally with the old Bib-
lical names. In this manner the form of names
had, by the time of the New Testament, reached
a state of development which nearly resembles
that prevalent among ourselves.
Lastly, with regard to the Biblical names of in-
dividuals belonging to the less eminent nations
with which the Israelites were surrounded, such
as the Edomites, Phcenicians, Damascenes, etc.,
their formation indeed is generally very like that
of the Hebrew names, inasmuch as all these na-
tions spoke a Semitic language ; but the materials
of which they are formed are so different, that
NAMES
1210
NAPHTALI
one can almost recognize these foreign nations by
their mere names. Thus names hke Hadad, Ben-
liadad, Hadad-c::cr, are quite strange to the Israel-
ites, and refer to the tribes to the east of Pales-
tine where a god named Hadad was worshiped.
G. H. A. V. E.
4. Words Most Frequently Compounded.
There are some words which appear more fre-
quently in compounds of proper names than oth-
ers, and to which we will refer in passing. Beer^
means "well" (Beersheba) "well of the oath"
(Gen. xxi:3i) ; Beth means "house" (Bethlehem,
"house of bread") ; En means "fountain" (En-gedi,
"fountain of the kid") ; El means "God" (Samuel
"asked of God," I Sam. i :20 ; Elisha, "God is sal-
vation"). On the other hand, Bath means "daugh-
ter" (Bathsheba), while Ben and Bar mean "son"
(Benjamin, Barjonas).
5. Name of God. The Name of God was
held m a peculiar reverence. To such an extent
of superstition is this carried that the modern
Jews never pronounce the word "Jehovah," it be-
ing considered too sacred. In reading the Old
Testament they substitute "Adonai" for it. They
misunderstand the passage in Lev. xxiv:i6, which
forbids the cursing use of "Jehovah," as forbid-
ding the mere naming. An abuse of the name of
God is expressly forbidden in the Decalogue
(Exod. XX 7; Lev. xix:i2). In the New Testa-
ment miracles are performed in the name of Jesus
(Acts iii:6; iv:io), and they who are baptized
are baptized in the name of the Trinity (Matt,
xxviii :i9).
The two special terms used for God by the He-
brews were "Elohim" and "Jehovah" (or "Ja-
veh"). The first contains an allusion to majesty
and power ; the second refers to God's absolute
existence, his eternity and unchangeableness, and
means "I am" Exod. iii:i4). God had not been
known by this name to Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob
(Exod. vi :3).
6. Names of Christ. The many names used
of our Lord are all highly significant. Emmanuel
('God with us") points to his incarnation; Jesus
("Savior") to his mission of salvation; Christ
("Anointed") to his appointment as the promised
Messiah; Son of Man to his humility; Son of
God to his divine origin and character. Atnongst
the manv other names and titles of Christ are
Shiloh (Gen. xl:io), the Wonderful, etc. (Is.
ix:6). Prophet, High Priest, King, the Word
(John i:i, etc.). (Schaflf, Bib. Diet.) (See article
on Jesus Christ; Jesus; God.)
7. yames in General. In general the names
of men denote: (l) That particular designation
by which they are usually called ; (2) The persons
themselves (Luke x:20; Rev. iii:4; xiii:8); (3)
Reputation, good or evil (Deut. xxii:i4; Prov.
xxii:i) ; (4) Honor, glory, renown (Deut. xxvi :
19; 2 Chron, xxvi :8, 15; Zeph. iii :2o) ; (5) Mem-
ory or remembrance (Deut. xxix :2o) ; (6) Pos-
terity, which keeps up one's name or renown
(Deut. XXV 7; Is. I.xvi:22).
Figurative. "Name," when ascribed to God
or Christ, comprehends whatever he makes him-
self known by. The name of God signifies: (i)
himself (Ps. xxix:2; xxxiv:3; lxi:s); (2) his
titles (Exod. iii:i3, 14; vi :3) ; (3) his attributes
or properties (Exod. xxxiii:i9; xxxiv:6, 7; (4)
his word (Ps. v:li; Acts ix:l5) ; (5) his worship
and service (i Kings v:5; Mal. i :6) ; (6) his wijl
and purpose concerning our salvation, and his
grace and mercy therein displayed (Ps. xxii:22;
John xvii :6. 26) ; (7) his power, help, and favor-
able assistance (i Sam. xvii :45 ; Ps. xx:i, 7) ; (8)
his wisdom, power, and goodness, displayed in
the works of creation and providence (Ps. viii:i,
9); (9) his authority, commission (Mic. v:4);
(10) his honor, glory, and renown (Ps. lxxvi:i).
The name of Christ denotes: (i) himself, what
he really is. Wonderful, mighty God, God with
us (Is. vii:i4; ix:6); (2) his titles, as Savior,
Prophet, Priest, King, etc. (Matt, i :2i ; Rev. xix:
16) ; <3) his authority and commission (Matt, vii :
22; Acts iv:7) ; (4) his word and gospel, and the
profession thereof (Matt. x:22; xix:29; Acts ix:
15; Rev. ii:i3) ; (S) his exaltation to the highest
honor, power and glory, as our Mediator (Phil.
ii:9, 10).
Other Uses. God's "name" is in Christ ; his
nature and authority are in him ; he has sent him
to be our Redeemer ; and by his execution of his
ofiice is his honor chiefly exalted (Exod. xxiii :
21). To be baptized "in the name" of the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost, or of Jesus, is to be baptized
by the warrant and authority, and into the pro-
fession, faith, and obedience of these divine per-
sons, as one God (Matt, xxviii :i9; Acts xix:5).
To trust or believe "in the name of God" or
"Christ," is to credit his word, and rely on his
perfections, titles, and relations, as a certain
ground of our receiving all blessings and salvation
from him (John iii:i8). To "name the name of
Christ," is openly to profess that we are his, and
to regard his honor and service (2 Tim. ii:i9).
The "new name" that Christ gives, and writes on
his people, is the "redeemed of the Lord," the
"righteousness of God in him," etc., which an-
swers to their new covenant state, and their new
nature ; and in heaven their character is riiade
gloriously to appear (Rev. ii:i7; comp. Is. lxi:6).
God's changing the "name of his church" denotes
his changing her condition from distress and grief,
to happiness and joy (Is. Ixii :3, 4). The saints
pray and do all "in the name of Christ" when
they do it in the faith of his promise, in obedience
to his command, and with a total dependence on
his righteousness and intercession for acceptance
(John xiv:i3; Col. iii:i7).
NAOMI (na-o'mi), (Heb. '^J?^, nd-om-ee\ my
pleasantness, delight), wife of Elimelech of Beth-
lehem, and mother-in-law of Ruth, in whose history
hers is involved. (B. C. about 1322-1312.)
Her two sons were Mahlon and Chilion. With
her hu.sband and sons, because of a famine in her
own country, she went to Moab, where they died.
Returning to her native land, she was accom-
panied by Ruth, who became the wife of Boaz.
Upon her return she replied to those asking her,
"Is this Naomi?" "Call me not Naomi; call me
Mara; for the Almighty hath dealt very bitterly
with me." (See Ruth).
NAPHISH (na'phish), (Heb. 1^*??, naw-feesk'
refreshed), one of the twelve sons of Ishmael
(Gen. xxv:is; I Chron i:3i), B. C. after 1077. The
clan which he founded is classed among the
Hagarites, who were defeated by the tribes east of
the Jordan (l Chron. v:i8-22).
"In all probability it is the descendants of this
clan who are mentioned among the Nethinim in
Ezra ii :50, as 'the children of Nephusim,' and
the Nephishesim" (Neh. vii:52). (J. A. Selbie,
Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
NAPHTALI (naph'ta-If), (Heb. "7??^, naf-taw-
lee' , my wrestling).
1. The sixth son of Jacob, and his second by
Bil'hah, Rachel's handmaid, born B- C. 1747, in
Padan-Aram ; also the tribe of Israel descended
from him. Nothing of his personal history is
recorded. In the testamentary blessing of Jacob
NAPHTUHIM
1211
NATHANAEL
Naphtali is described (Gen. xlix:2i), as translated
in the Auth. Vers., 'a hind let loose, he givclh
goodly words.' The Sept. translators, however,
must have found the words rendered 'hind' and
"words' different, for they render the verse,
'Naphtali is a goodly tree (terebinth or oak) that
puts forth lovely branches.' We certainly incline
to this view of the text ; the metaphor which it
involves being well adapted to the residence of the
tribe of Naphtali, which was a beautiful woodland
country, extending to Mount Lebanon, and pro-
ducing fruits of every sort. With this interpre-
tation, better than with the other, agrees the bless-
ing of Moses upon the same tribe : 'O Naphtali,
satisfied with favor, and full with the blessing
of the Lord, possess thou the west and the south'
(Deut. xxxiii:23). When the Israelites quitted
Egypt, the tribe of Naphtali numbered 53,400
adult males (Num. i:43), ranking sixth in popu-
lation among the tribes; but at the census taken
in the plains of Moab it counted only 45,400
(Num. xxvi:50), being a decrease of 8,000 in one
generation, whereby it became the seventh in
point of numbers. The limits of the territory as-
signed to this tribe are stated in Josh. xix:32-39,
which show that it possessed one of the finest and
most fertile districts of Lpper Galilee, extending
from the Lake Gennesareth and the border of
Zebulun, on the south, to the sources of the Jor-
dan and the spurs of Lebanon on the north, and
from the Jordan, on the east, to the border? of
Asher on the west. But it was somewhat slow
in acquiring possession of the assigned territory
(Judg. i:33). The chief towns of the tribe were
Kedesh, Hazor, Harosheth, and Chinnereth. which
last was also the name of the great lake after-
wards called Gennesareth. In the Hebrew history
Naphtali is distinguished for the alacrity) with
which it oljeyed the call to arms against the op-
pressors of Israel when many other tribes held
back (Judg. iv;io; v:i8; vi :3s ; vii:23). In the
time of David the tribe had on its rolls 37,000
men fit for military service, armed with shields
and spears, under a thousand officers (l Chron.
xii:34).
2. The mountainous district which formed the
main part of the territory of Naphtali (Josh, xx :
7) ; answering to "Mount Ephraim" and "Mount
Judah."
NAPHT'CTHIM (naph'tu-hlra), (Heb. O^OPPi.
nnf-too-khee7n' , Gen. x:i3), a Hamitic race, named
third among the seven peoples descended from
Mizraim, the second son of Ham (l Chron. i:ll).
NAPKIN (nap'kin), is the translation of the
Qx.ao\ih6.fi.ov,soo-(iar'ce-on, Luke xix;2o; John xi:44;
xx:/. It is rendered handkerchief in Acts xix:i2,
which see.
NAIICISS'08 (nar-cis'sus), (Gr. N(ip<ciir<ros, nar'-
kis-!,os), a person of Rome, apparently of some
consequence, to the believers of whose household
St. Paul sent his greetings (Rom. xvi:ll).
Many commentators have supposed this person
the same Narcissus who was the freedman and
favorite of the Emperor Claudius (Suet. Claud.
28; Tacit. Annal. xii:i7). A. D. 55. He was
said by Pseudo-Hippolytus to be bishop of Athens,
but without foundation.
NABD(nard). See Nerd; Spikenard; Stacte.
NATAF (na-taf), (Heb. "I^^, nawtaivf), occurs
only once in Scripture, and is translated 'stacte'
in the Authorized Version (Ex. xxx:34).
The Greeks called stakte a species of Storax
gum, which Dioscorides describes as transparent
like a tear and resembling myrrh. This agrees
well with the Hebrew name. But Storax does not
appear to us to be more satisfactorily proved to
be nataf than the former ; Slactc is probably
myrrh, and its Hebrew original in the above pas-
sage, naw-tawf, signifying drops, probably refers
to myrrh in tears. The same word (Job xxxvi :
27) is used for drops of water.
NATHAN (na'than), (Heb. ]^i, naw-lhawn' ,
given).
i. A Prophet of the Time of DaVid. When
that monarch conceived the idea ot building a
temple to Jehovah, the design and motives seemed
to ^lathaIl so good that he ventured to approve of
it without the divine authority; but the night fol-
lowing he received the divine command, which
prevented the king from executing this great work
(2 Sam. vii :2, sq.; l Chron. .xvii).
(1) Nathan and David. Nathan does not
again appear in the sacred history till he comes
forward in the name of the Lord to reprove
David, and to denounce dire punishment for his
frightful crime in the matter of Uriah and Bath-
sheba. This he does by exciting the king's in-
dignation, and leading him to condemn himself,
by reciting to him the very striking parable of the
traveler and the lamb. Then, changing the voice
of a suppliant for that of a judge and a commis-
sioned prophet, he exclaims, 'Thou art the man!'
and proceeds to announce the evils which were to
embitter the remainder of his reign (2 Sam. xii:l,
sq.; comp. Ps. li). The lamentations of the re-
pentant king drew forth some mitigation of pun-
ishment ; but the troubled history of the remainder
of his reign shows how completely God's righteous
doom was fulfilled. The child conceived in adul-
tery died ; but when Bath-sheba's second son was
born, the prophet gave him the name of Jcdidiah
{beloved of Jehovah), although he is better known
by that of Solomon (2 Sam. xii :24, 25). He
recognized in this young prince the successor of
David; and it was in a great measure through his
interposition that the design of Adonijah to seize
the crown was unsuccessful (l Kings i :8, .•:</.).
(2) Death. Nathan probably died soon after
the accession of Solomon, for his name does not
again historically occur. It is generally supposed
that Solomon was brought up under his care. His
sons occupied high places in this king's court (l
Kings iv:5). He assisted David by his counsels
when he reorganized the public worship (2 Chron.
xxix:25); and he composed annals of the times
in which he lived (l Chron. xxix:29; 2 Chron.
ix :29) ; but these have not been preserved to us.
In Zechariah (xii:i2) the name of Nathan oc-
curs as representing the great family of the proph-
ets.
2. Son of Altai, of the house of Jerahmeel of
Judah (I Chron. ii:36), B. C. after 1612.
J. A man of Zobah of Syria, and father of one
and brother of another of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii:36; I Chron. xi:38).
4. The third child born to David in Jerusalem
(2 Sam. v:i4). Through him Mary, the mother
of Jesus, was descended from David (Luke iii:
31). He was perhaps the father of Solomon's of-
ficers, Azariah and Zabud (i King iv:5), B.C. 1032.
5. A chief man in the company which returned
from captivity with Ezra on his second expedition
(Ezra viii:l6), B. C. 459.
6. A son of Bani, who divorced his foreign
wife (Ezra x:39).
NATHANAEL (na-th5n'a-el), (Gr. HaOam^X,
nath-an-ah-ale' , given of God), a person of Cana
in Galilee, who, when informed by Philip that the
NATHAN-MELECH
1212
NATIONS, DISPERSION OF
Messiah had appeared in the person of Jesus of
Nazareth, asked, 'Can any good thing come out of
Nazareth?'
But he nevertheless accepted Philip's laconic
invitation, 'Come and see!' When Jesus saw him
coming he said, 'Behold an Israelite indeed, in
whom is no guile.' Astonished to hear this from
a man to whom he supposed himself altogether
unknown, he asked, 'Whence knowest thou me?'
And the answer, 'Before that Philip called thee,
when thou wast under the fig-tree, I saw thee,
wrought such conviction on his mind that he at
once exclaimed. 'Rabbi, thou art the son of God,
thou art the king of Israel' (John 1:45-51). It is
clear, from the effect, that Nathanael knew by
this that Jesus was supernaturally acquainted with
his disposition and character, as the answer had
reference to the private acts of devotion, or to
the meditations which filled his mind, when under
the fig-tree in his garden. It is questioned whether
Jesus had actually seen Nathanael or not with
his bodily eyes. It matters not to the result ; but
the form of the words employed seems to suggest
that he had actually noticed him when under the
fig-tree, and had then cast a look through his in-
ward being. All the disciples of John the Baptist
named in the first chapter of St. John became
apostles; and St. John does not name Bartholo-
mew, nor the other evangelist Nathanael in the
lists of the apostles (Matt. x:3; Mark iii:i8;
Luke vi:i4); besides, the name of Bartholomew
always follows that of Philip ; and it would appear
that Bartholomew (son of Tholmai) is no more
than a surname. (See Bartholomew.)
NATHAN-MELECH (na'than-me'lech), (Heb.
^2P"1'!!]?, neth-an'meh'lek, the king is giver), a
eunuch in the court of Josiah dwelling in the pre-
cincts of the temple (2 Kings xxiiiai), B. C. 628.
NATIONS, DISPERSION OF (nashiins, dis-
per-shun 6v).
Under this or some similar designation, it has
been the prevalent opinion that the outspreadhig,
which is the entire subject of Genesis, ch. x. and
the scattering narrated in ch. xi:i-g, refer to the
same event, the latter being included in the for-
mer description, and being a statement of the
manner in which the separation was effected.
From this opinion, however, we dissent.
1. Two Accounts. An unbiased reading of the
text appears most plainly to mark the distinctness,
in time and character, of the two narratives. The
first was universal, regulated, orderly, quiet, and
progressive: the second, local, embracing only a
part of mankind, sudden, turbulent, and attended
with marks of the divine displeasure.
(1) Of Noah's Sons. The former is intro-
duced and entitled in these words : — 'Shem, and
Ham, and Japheth ; — these are the three sons of
Noah ; and from them was the whole earth over-
spread.' After the mention of the sons of Japheth
it is added, 'From these the isles of the nations
were dispersed, in their lands, each to its lan-
guage, to their families in their nations.' A for-
mula somewhat differing is annexed to the de-
scendrnts of Ham : 'These are the sons of Ham,
(accoiding) to their families, to their tongues,
in their lands, in their nations.' The same phrase
follows the enumeration of the house of Shem :
and the whole concludes with, 'These are the
families of the sons of Noah, (according) to their
generations, in their nations; and from these the
nations were dispersed in the earth after the
Flood' (Gen. ix:i9; x :5, 20, 31, 32).
(2) After the Confusion of Tongues. The
second relation begins in the manner which often,
in the Hebrew Scriptures, introduces a new sub-
ject. We shall present it in a literality even ser-
vile, that the reader may gain the most prompt
apprehension of the meaning. 'And it was {col-
ha-aretc) all the earth (but with perfect pro-
priety it might be rendered M« whole land, coun-
try, region, or district) ; lip one and words one
(t. e. the same, similar). And it was in their
going forwards that they discovered a plaiii in the
country Shinar; and they fixed (their abode)
there.' Then comes the narrative of their resolv-
ing to build a lofty tower which should serve as a
signal-point for their rallying and remaining
united. The defeating of this purpose is ex-
pressed in the anthropomorphism, which is char-
acteristic of the earliest Scriptures, and was
adapted to the infantile condition of mankind.
'And Jehovah scattered them from thence upon
the face of the whole earth (or land), and they
ceased to build the city' ch. xi :2-9. (See Anthro-
pomorphism ; Babel, Tower of. Also J. Pye
Smith' iScrzpiur-e and Geology, lect. vii, where this
characteristic of primeval style is investigated).
2. Ancient History. 'The most ancient his-
tory of the human race, perhaps in the world, is
a work in Hebrew ;' of which the initial portions
(Gen. i, ii) are 'a preface to the oldest civil history
now extant; we see the truth of them confirmed
by antecedent reasoning, and by evidence in part
highly probable, and in part certain ; but the con-
nection of the Mosaic history with that of the
gospel, by a chain of sublime predictions unques-
tionably ancient, and apparently fulfilled, must in-
duce us to think the Hebrew narrative more than
human in its origin, and consequently true in
every substantial part of it; though possibly ex-
pressed in figurative language (referring to the
accounts of the creation and the fall). It is no
longer probable only, but it is absolutely certain,
that the whole race of man proceeded from IrAn
(the proper and native name of Persia and some
connected regions), as from a center, whence they
migrated at first in three great colonies ; and that
those three branches grew from a common stock,
which had been miraculously preserved in a gen-
eral convulsion and inundation of this globe (Sir
William Jones, On the Origin and Families of
Nations, Works, ed. by Lord Teignmouth, 8vo.
ill :I9I-I96).
From the study of this interesting fragment of
antiquity, the following observations have pre-
sented themselves :
(1) Nations in Time of Moses. The enumer-
ation comprises only nations existing in the age
of Moses, and probably of them only the most
conspicuous, as more or less connected with the
history of the Israelites. Many nations have been
formed in subsequent times, and indeed are still
forming, by separation and by combination ; these
can be considered only as included on the ground
of long subsequent derivation. Such are the
populations of Eastern Asia. Medial and South
Africa. America and Australasia.
(2) Partial Table of Nations. It cannot be
affirmed with certainty that we are here presented
with a complete Tabic of Nations, even as ex-
isting in the time of Moses. Of each of the sons
of Noah, it gives the sons; but of their sons
(Noah's great-grandsons) it is manifest that all
are not mentioned, and we have no possible
means of ascertaining how many are omitted.
Thus, of the .sons of Japheth, the lines of Gomer
and Javan only are pursued; Magog, Madai, Tu-
bal, Mcshccli, and Tiras are' dropped without any
mention of their issue ; yet we have evidence that
nations of great importance in the history of man-
NATIONS, DISPERSION OF
1213
NATIONS. DISPERSION OF
':ind have descended from them. Ham had four
sons ; of three of them the sons, or rather clannish
or national descendants, are specified ; but to
Phut, the fourth, no posterity is assigned. Shem
had five sons, but the descendants of only two of
them are recorded. It cannot be supposed that
those whose sequence is thus cut oflf, died without
children; for, as we shall presently see, nations
of great historical interest may be traced up to
them.
(3) Tribes or Countries. The immediate de-
scendants of Japheth, Ham, and Shem are, ex-
cept in the instance of Nimrod and a few more,
some of which are doubtful, given by names not
personal, but designative of tribes or nations, or
their countries. Thus, all those terminating in the
plural im, and those specified by the gentilitial
adjective, the Jebusite, the Hivite, etc.
(4) Uncertainty of Names. In attaching the
names of nations to those here given, there is
sometimes a deep uncertainty. Resemblances in
orthographical appearance, or in similarity of
sound, are not to be relied on alone ; there must
be accessory and confirmatory evidence.
(5) Reasons for Migration. We are not war-
ranted in supposing that the families, or clans,
or tribes, or however the groups might have been
formed, migrated immediately to their respective
seats, by any sort of general breaking up. This
would presuppose some kind of compulsory en-
forcement, which neither the nature of the case,
nor any intimation in the narrative, warrants us to
assume. We may rather conceive that a diversity
of movements took place, excited by general con-
viction of duty and utility ; guided in a great
measure by patriarchal directions, and strength-
ened by circumstances which would inevitably
occur ; such, on the one hand, as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, local inundations, landslips,
proof of unwholesomeness in marshy districts,
the annoyance of winged insects or other noxious
animals — urging to depart from disagreeable or
dangerous places ; and, on the other hand, at-
tractive peculiarities, new and more convenient
situations for pasturage, better soils for the vari-
ous kinds of agriculture, more pleasing sites for
dwellings, the formation of towns, and the secur-
ity of their inhabitants.
(6) Various Results. The acts of separation
and journeying would have specific differences
of impulse and performance; they would affect
one party and another, more or less, as to time,
numbers and rapidity of movement.
3. Enumeration of Nations. The enumcm-
tion of the nations is as follows:
(1) Sons of Japheth, the lapetus of the
Greeks.
I. GoMER. This name is traced in the Kim-
merii of Homer and Herodotus ; the Gomares
(Toiiaptts, Josephus, Antiq. i:6), whence Kelts,
Gauls, Galatians; the Kymry ; all the Celtic and
Iberian tribes, Welsh, Gaelic, Irish, Breton ; the
Cimmerian Bosphorus, Crimea.
Sons of Gomer :
(1) Ashkenaz, Axeni, inhabitants of the south-
ern coasts of the Euxine Sea, where we find a
country Askania, and a river Askanius, and a
large part of Armenia ; the Basques in the north
of Spain; the Saxons, as the Jews interpret Ash-
kenaz, in Jer. li :27. to be Germany.
(2) Riphath (Diphath, I Chron. i:6, a permu-
tation of D and R. not unexampled). Rifou. east
of the Eu.xine; Tobata and other parts of Paph-
lagonia; Croatia; the Riphasan mountains, a very
obscure name in ancient geography (Strabo, Vir-
gil, Pliny, Mela), referring probably to the great
chains of mountains from the north of Asia west-
wards ( Hyperbora;ans, Stepih. Byzant.), and there-
fore including vague knowledge of the Uralian,
Hartz, and Alpine regions.
(3) Togarmah. Peoples of Armenia and other
parts of the Caucasian region. The Armenian tra-
ditions assign as their ancestor Haik, the son of
Tbrgon and grandson of Noah.
II. Magog. In Ezekiel this seems to be used
as the name of a country, and Gog that of its
chieftain. The Mongoles, Moguls ; the great Tar-
tar nation.
III. Madai. The Medes; people of Iran, to
whom the Sanscrit language belonged ; primeval
inhabitants of Hindustan.
IV. Javan. The Greeks, Asiatic and European,
laones (Homer, Iliad, xiii:685).
Sons of Javan :
(1) Elislia. Greeks especially of the Pelopon-
nesus; Hellas; Elis, in which is Alisium ('AXefo-ioi',
Jtiad, ii, 617).
(2) Tarshish. The east coast of Spain, where
the Phoenician Canaanites afterwards planted their
colony.
(3) Kittim. Inhabitants of the isles and many
■of the coasts of the Mediterranean, particularly
the Macedonians and the Romans, and those far-
ther to the west.
(4) Dodanim (Rhodanim, I Chron. i:7). Do-
dona, a colony from which probably settled at the
mouths of the Rhone, Rhodanus.
To this Javanian (Ionian) branch is attributed
the peopling of 'the isles of the nations' (verse 5),
a frequent Hebrew denomination of the western
countries to which the Israelites, Tyrians, Egyp-
tians, etc., had access by sea.
(2) Sons of Ham. The word signifies heat or
hot, alluding to the climes which the most of his
posterity were to occupy ; it was also an indigen-
ous name of Eg>'pt.
I. CusH. The Ethiopians, first on the Arabian
side of the Red Sea, then colonizing the African
side, and subsequently extending indefinitely to
the west, so that Cushite (Jer. xiii :23) became the
appellative of a negro.
Sons of Cush :
(i) Seba. Joined with Mizraim and Cush (Is.
xliii:3), evidently denoting contiguity and affinity.
This tribe or class is probably referred to Suba, a
native name of Meroe upon the Nile, in the far-
thest south of Egypt, or the beginning of Ethio-
pia.
(2) Havilah. Of this word vestiges are found
in various names of places in Western Arabia, and
the adjacent parts of Africa. It is quite distinct
from the Havilah (Gen. ii :ii) in or near Armenia,
and probably from another (verse 29) in Arabia,
unless we suppose a union of tribes, or one suc-
ceeded by the other.
(3) Sabtah. Sabota or Sabbatha is the name of
an ancient trading town of .Arabia.
(4) Raainah. Sept. Rhcgina (Alex. Rhcgeh-
ma), which, changing « into jj, is the name of a
port which the .Egypto-Grcek geographer Clau-
dius Ptolemy (who flourished in the earlier part
of the second century) places on the Arabian
coast of the Persian Gulf. To this place Dr.
Baumgarten (Kiel, 1843) refers the name; others
take it to be Reama. a town of considerable im-
portance in the southwestern part of Arabia the
Happy, whose inhabitants are remarkably bl.ack ;
mentioned along with Sheba in Ezek. xxvii :22, as
a place of rich Oriental tr.nflic.
Two sons of this Raamah are mentioned. Sheba
and Dedan. We find these in the subsequent
NATIONS, DISPERSION OF
1214
NATIONS, DISPERSION OF
Scriptures distinguished for trade and opulence
(Ps. lxxii:io, 15; i Kings x:i; Is. lx;6; Ezek.
xxvii:i5, 20, 22). Tliey both lie in the western
part of Arabia. The queen of Sheba came to the
court of Solomon. Dedan is not improbably con-
sidered as the origin of Aden, that very ancient
seaport and island at the mouth of the Arabian
Gulf or Red Sea, which has very recently risen
into new importance.
(S) Ninirod, an individual (See Nimrod). He
built, besides Babel, his metropolis, three cities or
towns in the great plain of Shinar — Erech, Ac-
cad, and Calneh. These were probably Aracca,
or Arecha, on the Tigris; (some think Edessa) ;
Sacada, near the confluence of the Lycus and the
Tigris; and the third (Calno, Is. x:9) (Thalonitis
of the Greeks, afterwards called Ctesiphon, but
much obscurity lies upon these conjectures.
II. MiZRAiM, literally the tzvo Egypts, the upper
and the lower ; each was called Misr, a word even
now vernacular in that country. Of his descend-
ants seven are specified under plural national
names, some of which are well ascertained.
(i) Ludim. Ludites, celebrated as soldiers and
archers (Is. Ixvi:i9; Jer. xlvijg; Ezek. xxvii:io;
XXX :5), and in those passages connected with
other peoples known to be African. The Ludim
probably lay towards Ethiopia. They must not be
confounded with the Lydians of Asia Minor (ver.
22).
(2) Ananim. Very uncertain. Bochart sup-
poses them to have been wandering tribes about
the temple of Jupiter Ammon, where was an an-
cient people called Nasamones.
(3) Lehabim. Perhaps inhabitants of a coast-
district immediately west of Egypt. Probably the
Lubim of 2 Chron. xii :3 and Nahum iii 19.
(4) Pathnisim. The people of the Thebaid
(Pathros) in Upper Egypt.
(5) 'Casluhim, out of whom came Philistim.'
A people on the northeast coast of Egypt, of
whom the Philistines were a colony, probably
combined with some of the Caphtorim.
(6) Caphtorim. Inhabitants of the island Cy-
prus.
III. Phut. This word occurs in several Scrip-
ture passages, always in connection with Africa.
Josephus and Pliny mention an African river,
Phutes. The great modern archasologist geogra-
pher, Ritter, says that hordes of people have been
poured out of Futa, in the interior of Africa.
IV. Canaan. His descendants came out of
Arabia, planted colonies in Palestine, and grad-
ually possessed themselves of the whole country.
?Iis children or posterity:
(i) Sidon, his firstborn, founded the city of
that name.
(2) Heth, the ancestor of the Hittites. The re-
maining nine are well known, and are here laid
down in the singular of the patronymic, or patrial
sdjective — the Jebusite. the Emorite (Amorite),
the Girgashite, the Hivite, the Arkite, the Sinite,
the Arvadite, the Zemarite, and the Hamathite.
All are assigned to Palestine, and the boundaries
of the country are precisely laid down.
(3) Shem, though here introduced last, is de-
clared to be the eldest of the three brothers. The
reason of this order evidently is the design of the
historian to pursue the line of the favored people
which the Divine Sovereign would raise up in the
posterity of Shem, and in which, 'when the ful-
ness of the time should come,' 'all the families of
the earth should be blessed.'
Children of Shem embrace:
I. Elam. The ancestor of the Elamites, or
Elymxans, who possessed Elymais, a region be-
tween Susiana and Media, now called Khusistan.
The Japhetian Persians afterwards entered that
region and gained the ascendancy, and subsequently
they were comprehended under the name of Elam.
II. AsHUR, the ancestor of the Assyrians.
III. Arphaxad, a personal name in the Abra-
hamic line. The word, a remarkable compound,
probably denotes Neighboring to the Chasdim,
J. e., Chaldaeans. The name appears in Arrhapa-
chitis, a province in Northern Assyria, the primi-
tive seat of the Chasdim, and near to which, or
in it, Abraham was born.
Children of Arphaxad are named below.
These are chiefly personal, and contribute to
form the sacred pedigree which leads to the Mes-
siah. In this line are mentioned two grandsons :
(1) Peleg, of whom we have treated before, and
(2) Eber. The only circumstance that we can
attach to him is the very important one (which
seems therefore to imply something extraordinary
in his personal history) of being the origin of the
name Ebrew, or as it is commonly written, on
account of the i>, Hebrew, the 'ancient and uni-
versal name of the nation, including Abraham
himself (see Ewald's Hebr. Gramm., translated
by Dr. Nicholson, p. 2, and our article Heber).
Eber's son, Joktan, is recognized as the father of
the numerous tribes of Arabs in Yemen, Arabia
the Happy, so called on account of its spices and
other rich products, and to distinguish it from the
Rocky and the Desert. Of the founders of those
tribes thirteen are specified. The first is evidently
Modad, with the Arabic article ; the second is
Shale ph; and Ptolemy mentions a people of in-
terior Arabia, the Salapeni. Hatsarmaveth is a
fruitful district on the south coast, which still
bears exactly the same name. That name signifies
the Enclosure, Gate, or Court of Death, on ac-
count of its insalubrity, arising from the great
abundance and mixture of powerful odors. Jerach
signifies the moon; and on the west of this region
is a gold-producing tract, in which are the Moun-
tains of the Moon, which yet must be distin-
guished from a group in East Africa, very imper-
fectly known, and called also by Orientals the
Backbone of the World. Hadoram, the Adra-
mites of Ptolemy and Pliny, on the south coast.
Uzal, mentioned in Ezek. xxvii:l9, which should
be translated 'Vedan and Javan (perhaps Yemen?)
from Uzal.' The ancient name of a principal city
of Yemen, now Sanaha. Obal (Ebal in i Chron.
i:22), unknown. Abimael, unknown; the meaning
is, my father Mael, and Bochart adduces the Mali
of Theophrastus and the Minsi of Strabo, a tribe
or tribes in Arabia, as possibly intended. Sheba,
probably indicating an invasion of this tribe upon
the Cushite Sheba and Dedan (Gen. x :/. and see
XXV :3). From such mixtures much embarrass-
ment often arises in ethnography. Sheba and Seba
(x:7) are often mentioned in the Old Testament
as seats of great riches and traffic. Ophir, un-
doubtedly referring to the seaport in South Arabia
so celebrated for its traffic in gold, jewelry, and
fine woods. The same name was probably given
to places in India and East Africa, to which the
mercantile ships of this Arabian Ophir resorted.
A part of the south coast of Arabia is called
Oman, and in it is a town called El-Ophir, with
the article, Havilah ; perhaps the Cushite settlers
were invaded by this Jolctanite tribe. Jobab;
Ptolemy mentions a people, lobaritcF, on the east
coast of Arabia. The r may be a mistake, or a
dialectic variety, for b.
These thirteen tribes seem to have formed the
confederacy of the independent and unconquer-
able Arabs, whose peninsular, desert, and moun-
NATIONS, DISPERSION OF
1215
NATURAL MAN, THE
tainous country defended them from invasion ;
Ishmael and his descendants were united with
them.
Our text concludes with describing a boundary
line for the country of these tribes 'from Mesha
to Sephar.' The former is probably the country
Maishon or Mesene, at the northwest head of the
Persian Gulf; and the latter, on the southwest
coast of Arabia, where is found a Mount Sabber.
rV. LuD. From him the Lydians in Asia Minor
derived their name.
V. Aram. From him the inhabitants of Syria,
Chalonitis, and a considerable part of Mesopo-
tamia were descended.
Children or posterity of Aram:
(i) Us. In the northern part of Arabia, border-
ing upon Chaldaea; the land of Job.
(2) Hul. The large flat district in the north of
Palestine, through which lies the initial course of
the Jordan, even now called the land of Huleh,
and in which is the Lake Hiileh, anciently Me-
rom, amply illustrated by Dr. Robinson, Re-
searches, iii :339-3S7-
(3) Gelher. East of Armenia ; Carthara was a
city on the Tigris.
(4) Mash. A mountain region branching east-
ward from the great Taurus ridge : the Masian
mountains of the Greeks and Romans.
It seems to follow that the only human family
after the flood established themselves in the north-
ern parts of Iran ; that, as they multiplied, they
were divided into three distinct branches, each
retaining little at first, and losing by degrees the
whole of their common primary language, but
agreeing severally on new expressions for new
ideas ; that the branch of Yafet was enlarged in
many scattered shoots over the north of Europe
and Asia, diffusing themselves as far as the
western and eastern seas, and at length, in the
infancy of navigation, beyond them both; that
they cultivated no liberal arts, and had no use of
letters, but formed a variety of dialects, as their
tribes were variously ramified. The children of
Ham, who founded in Iran itself the monarchy
of the first Chaldeans, invented letters, observed
and named the luminaries of the firmament, cal-
culated the known Indian period of 432,000 years,
or 120 repetitions of the saros, and contrived the
old system of mythology, partly allegorical and
partly grounded on idolatrous veneration for their
sages and lawgivers ; and they were dispersed at
various intervals and in various colonies, over
land and ocean. The tribes of Misr, Cush and
Rama settled in Africa and India, while some of
them, having improved the art of sailing, passed
from Egypt, Phoenicia and Phrygia, into Italy and
Greece, which they found thinly peopled by
former emigrants (Japhetians?), of whom they
supplanted some tribes and united themselves with
others; whilst a swarm from the same hive
moved by a northerly course into Scandinavia,
and another, by the head of the Oxus and through
the passes of the Imaus, into Cashgar and
Eighur, Khata and Khoten, as far as the terri-
tories of Chin and Tancut (an ancient division
of China), where letters have been used and arts
immemorially cultivated ; nor is it unreasonable
to believe that some of them found their way
from the eastern isles into Mexico and Peru,
where traces were discovered of rude literature
and mythology analogous to those of Egypt and
India. The old Chaldean empire being over-
thrown by the Assyrians under Cayumers, other
migrations took place, especially into India, while
the rest of Shem's progeny, some of whom had
before settled on the Red Sea, peopled the whole
Arabian peninsula, pressing close on the nations
of Syria and Phoenicia. From all the three fam
ilies were detached many bold adventurers of an
ardent spirit and a roving disposition, who dis-
dained subordination, and wandered in separate
clans till they settled in distant isles or in deserts
and mountainous regions. (Sir Wm. Jones, Dis-
course on the Origin and Families of Nations;
Works, iii:2oi.)
Dr. CTiarles Von Rotteck, Professor of Juris-
prudence in the University of Freiburg, published
in 1826 the ninth and last volume of A General
History of the World. This work has been re-
ceived in Germany with great favor. (See J. Pye
Smith's Scripture and Geology, and a dissertation
by Samuel Forrey, M. D., entitled, The Mosaic
Account of the Unity of the Human Race con-
firmed by the Natural History of the .American
Aborigines, in the American Biblical Repository,
July, 1843.) J. P. S.
NATIVITY OF CHRIST (na-tlv'I-tj?). See
Christ.mas; Jesus Christ.
NATUBAIt (nat'a-ral).
1. (Heb. 05, lay'akk, freshness; Gr. ^i/xwit,
psoo-khee-kos'), having the nature and characteris-
tics of the principle of animal life. It is that
which proceeds from birth and natural causei
(l Cor. xv:44).
2. (Cir.<)>v<!i.Kiii,foo-see-kos', produced by nature).
That which is agreeable to natural design, form, or
inclination (Rom. i:26, 27).
It is recorded of Moses that at his death "his
eye was not dim, nor his natural force abated"
(Deut. xxxiv7). The meaning is his vigor or
strength was fully preserved.
NATURAL HISTORY (nat-yu'ral his-to'ry).
See various articles on Tree; Plant; Shrubs,
etc., treated under specific heads.
NATURAL MAN, THE. "The natural man
receiveth not the things of theSpirit of God, neither
can he know them, because they are spiritually
discerned" (i Cor. ii:i4). (a) Here it is plain
that by "the natural man" is not meant a person
devoid of natural judgment, reason, or conscience,
in which sense the expression is often used
among men. (b) Nor does it signify one who
is enti.'ely governed by his fleshly appetites, or
what the world calls a voluptuary, or sensualist,
(c) Neither does it signify merely a man in the
rude state of nature, whose faculties have not
been cultivated by learning and study, and pol-
ished by an intercourse with society. The apostle
manifestly takes his "natural man" from among
such as the world hold in the highest repute for
their natural parts, their learning and their re-
ligion. He selects him from among the phil-
o.sophcrs of Greece, who sought after wisdom, and
from among the Jewish scribes, who were in-
structed in the revealed law of God (l Cor. i :22,
23). These are the persons whom he terms the
wise, the scribes, the disputers of this world — men
to whom the gospel was a stumbling-block and
foolishness (l Cor. i :20. 23). The natural man
is here evidently opposed to i Trxeu^Ti/tit, "him
that is spiritual," (l Cor. ii:i5), even as the nat-
ural body which we derive from Adam is opposed
to the spiritual body which believers will receive
from Christ at the resurrection, according to i Cor.
XV :44. 45. Now the spiritual man is one who has
the Spirit of Christ dwelling in him (Rom. viiiig),
not merely in the way of miraculous gifts, as
some have imagined (for these were peculiar to
the first age of the Christian Church, and even
then not common to all the saints, nor inseparably
NATURE
1216
NATURE
connected with salvation, I Cor. xiv:i-4), but in
his saving influences of light, holiness and con-
solation, whereby the subject is made to discern
the truth and excellency of spiritual things, and
so to believe, love and delight in them as his true
happiness. If therefore a man is called "spiritual"
because the Spirit of Christ dwells in him, giving
him new views, dispositions and enjoyments, then
the "natural man," being opposed to such, must
be one who is destitute of the Spirit, and of all his
saving and supernatural effects, whatever may be
his attainments in human learning and science.
It is obviously upon this principle that our Lord
insists upon the necessity of the new birth in
order to our entering into the kingdom of heaven
(John iii:3, s). (Watson, Theol. Diet.)
NATUBE (nat'ure), (Gr. yii/eais, ghen'es-is ;
ij>iai.i,foo'sis, genus; Lat. nascor, to be born).
/. Philosophical View. According to its
derivation, nature should mean that which is pro-
duced or born ; but it also means that which pro-
duces or causes to be born. The word has been
used with various shades of meaning, but they may
all be brought under two heads — Natura Natu-
rans, Natura Natxirata.
(1) Natura Naturans. (a) The Author of na-
ture, the uncreated Being who gave birth to every-
thing that is. (b) The plastic nature or energy
subordinate to that of the Deity, by which all
things are conserved and directed to their ends
and uses. (c) The course of nature, or the estab-
lished order according to which the universe is
regulated.
(2) Natura Naturata. (a) The works of na-
ture, both mind and matter, (b) The visible or
material creation, as distinct from God and the
soul, which is the object of natural science.
"The term nature is used sometimes in a wider,
sometimes in a narrower extension. When em-
ployed in its most extensive meaning, it embraces
the two worlds of mind and matter. When em-
ployed in its more restrictive signification, it is a
synonym for the latter only, and is then used in
contradistinction to the former. In the Greek
philosophy, the word <pi<ni was general in its
meaning; and the great branch of philosophy
styled 'physical or physiological' included under
it not only the sciences of matter, but also those of
mind. With us. the term nature is more vaguely
extensive than the terms physics, physical, physi-
ology, physiological, or even than the ad-
jective, natural; whereas, in the philosophy of
Germany, natur and its correlatives, whether of
Greek or Latin derivation, are, in general, ex-
pressive of the world of matter in contrast to the
world of intelligence." (Sir Wm. Hamilton, /??!ii'.s
Works, p. 2i8, note.) (c) Nature as opposed to
art, all physical causes, all the forces which belong
to physical beings, organic or inorganic, (d) The
nature or essence of any particular being or class
of beings ; that which makes it what it is.
2. Nature Used in Tlno Senses. 'The word
nature has been used in two senses — viz., actively
and passively; energetic (forma formans) and
material (.forma formata).
(1) In the first it signifies the inward principle
of whatever is requisite for the reality of a thing
as existent; while the essence, or essential prop-
erty, signifies the inner principle of all that ap-
pertains to the possibility of a thing. Hence, in
accurate language, we say the essence of a math-
ematical circle or geometrical figure, not the na-
ture, because in the conception of forms, purely
geometrical, there is no expression or implication
of their real existence.
(2) In the second or material sense of the word
nature, we mean by it the sum total of all things,
as far as they are objects of our senses, and con-
sequently of possible experience — the aggregate
of phenomena, whether existing for our outer
senses, or for our inner sense. The doctrine con-
cerning nature would therefore (the word physi-
ology being both ambiguous in itself, and already
otherwise appropriated) be more properly entitled
phenomenology, distinguished into its two grand
divisions, somatology and psychology.
3. Course of Nature. "There is no such
thing as what men commonly call the course of
nature, or the power of nature. The course of
nature, truly and properly speaking, is nothing
else but the will of Cod producing certain effects
in a continued, regular, constant, and uniform
manner; which course or manner of acting, being
in every movement perfectly arbitrary, is as easy
to be altered at any time as to be preserved. And
if (as seems most probable) this continual acting
upon matter be performed by the subserviency of
created intelligences appointed for that purpose by
the Supreme Creator, then it is easy for any of
them, and as much within their natural power (by
the permission of God) to alter the course of
nature at any time, or in any respect, as it is to
preserve or continue it" (Fleming, Vocab. of
Phil.).
4. Ambiguity in Use of the Serm "Na-
ture." "The word nature only gives rise to
ambi.guity when we are using it in reference to
questions which touch theology. It then becomes
necessary to ask whether we employ it or under-
stand it in the sense (i) as the complex of the
mechanical and chemical forces of the cosmos, or
in the sense (2) which reckons man's will and
reason as a part of his ^wis, foo'sis), or in the
sense (3) of the true religious conception which
ultimately refers every operation of phenomenal
force to the Agency of the Supreme Mind direct-
ing and ordering it in wisdom" (J. H. Bernard,
Hastings' Bib. Diet.).
5. Scriptural Reference. (1) Nature de-
notes the ordinary course of things which God
has ordained in the world (Rom. i :26, 27).
(2) The light of reason naturally implanted in
our minds (Rom. ii:l4).
(3) Common sense, or the general consent of
nations (i Cor. xi:i4).
(4) The substance or essential parts and prop-
erties (Heb. ii:i6). "For every kind (marg. 'na-
ture') of beasts," etc., "is tamed, and hath been
tamed of mankind" (marg. "nature of man")
(James iii:7).
(5) Birth, or natural descent (Gal. ii:is).
St. Paul in I Cor. xiv:io says: Doth not even
nature itself teach you that, if a man have long
hair, it is a shame unto him? But if a woman
have long hair, it is a glory to her : for her hair
is given her for a covering.
In 4 Mace, v :7 Antiochus recommends Eleazar
to eat swine's flesh on the ground that it is given
us by nature. In both of these cases nature is
spoken of as a unity and is personified.
In Eph. ii 13 it is said : We are "by nature"
children of wrath. Through the gospel promises,
we are made "partakers of a divine nature" ; we
have fellowship with the divine nature, and have
divinely implanted in our souls a principle or habit
of grace, conformed to God, in spiritual knowl-
edge, righteousness, and holiness (2 Pet. i :4) .
Idols are "by nature no gods" ; they have no self-
existence, nothing of the essential perfections of
godhead in them (Gal. iv:8).
MATURE OR FORCE PLASTIC
1217
NAZARETH
NATURE or FORCE PLASTIC (nat'Qre or
force plas'tic), (Gr. TrXdcrcru), plas' so, to form), was the
iianie given by ancient physiologists to a power
to wluch tliey attributed the forniatiiin of the
germs and tissues of organized and living beings.
In opposition to the doctrine of Democritus,
who explained all the phenomena of tialurc by
means of matter and motion, and in opposition to
the doctrine of Strato, who taught that matter was
the only substance, but in itself a living and
active force, Cudworlh maintained that there is a
plastic nature, a spiritual energy, intermediate be-
tween the Creator and his works, by which the
phenomena of nature are produced. To ascribe
these phenomena to the immediate agency of the
Deity would be, he thought, to make the course
of nature miraculous ; and he could not suppose
the agency of the Deity to be exerted directly, and
yet monstrosities and defects to be found in the
works of nattire. How far the facts warrant such
an hypothesis, or how far such an hypothesis ex-
plains the facts, may be doubted. But the hypoth-
esis is not nuich different from that of the anima
tniindi, or soul of matter, which had the counte-
nance of Pythagoras and Plato, as well as of the
school of Alexandria, and later philosophers.
In opposition to this view Boyle maintained that
it was absurd to believe that any subordinate
energy existed between the Creator and his works.
NAUGHTINESS (na'ti-n6s).
1. Heb. 2'', ro'ah, badness, I Sam. xvii:28,
wickedness of heart.
2. '"'t-. hav-vaw' (Prov. xi:6), eagerly desiring-
It denotes "nothing, nothingness;" meaning in the
A. v., "wicked, wickedness" (Prov. vi:i2).
NAUM (na'um), (Gr. Naou/i, nah-oom' ;lor the
Hebrew see Nahum), son of Esli in the maternal
ancestry of Christ (Luke iii:25).
NAVE (nav), (Heb. ^5, gab, hollow or curved),
anything curved or arched. It is applied to the
back of ,in animal (Ezek. x:l2); to a shield (Job
xv:26); to the rim of a wheel (i Kings vii:33).
NAVEIi (na'v'l), (Heb. "W, shore, 1'ly, shaw-
reer' , twisted, as a string). The place of attach-
ment of tlie umbilical cord (Ezek. xvi:4), and used
in general for the abdomen (Job xl:i6; Prov. iii:8).
Figurative. The bodice or vestment of a
woman (Cant. vii:2); so tlie passage is understood
by some cuamientators.
NAVIGATION (nav-i-ga-shun). See Ship.
NAVY (na'vy), (Heb. "■''?, o« ee' , conveyance, I
Kings ix:26, etc.) is used in the sense of fleet.
(.See Sllll'.)
NAZARENE (naz-a-rene'), (Gr, Nafoptji-As, nad-
zar-ay-iws').
An epithet constituting a part of one of the
names given to our Lord. From the number of
times that the epithet is employed, it appears that
it became at the very first an appellation of our
Lord, and was hence applied to designate his fol-
lowers. Considering that the name was derived
from the place where Jesus resided during the
greater part of his life, we see no reason to
think that at first it bore with it, in its applica-
tion to him or his followers, anything of an
offensive nature. Such a designation was in this
case natural and proper. In process of time, how-
ever, other influences came into operation. Naza-
reth was in Galilee, a part of Palestine, which
was held in low esteem for several reasons — its
dialect was provincial ; lying remote from the
77
capital, its inhabitants spoke a strange tongue,
which was n>ugh, harsh and uncouth, having pe-
culiar combinations of words, and words also
peculiar to themselves (Buxtorf, Lex. Talmud;
Mark xiv:70); its population was impure, being
made up not only of provincial Jews, but also
of heathens of several sorts. Egyptians, Arabians,
Phoenicians (Strabo, Geog. xvi:523); its people
were in an especial manner given to be seditious,
which quality of character they not rarely dis-
played in the capital itself on occasion of the
public festivals (Josephus, Wetstcin, as cited in
Schleusner, i. v. roXiXoSos) ; whence may be
seen the point of the accusation made against
Paul as 'ringleader of the sect of Nazarenes' (Acts
xxiv:5). As Galilee was a despised part of Pales-
tine, so was Nazareth a despised part of Galilee,
being a small, obscure, if not mean, place. Ac-
cordingly its inhabitants were held in little con-
sideration by other Galileans, and, of course, by
those Jews who dwelt in Juda:a. Hence the
name Nazarene came to bear with it a bad odor,
and was nearly synonymous with a low, ignorant
and uncultured, if not un-Jewish person (Kuinoel,
in Matt. ii:23). It became accordingly a con-
temptuous designation and a term of reproach
(Wetstein, in Matt. ii:23, 26, 71), and as such,
as well as a mere epithet of description, it is used
in the New Testament. J. R. B.
NAZARETH (naz'a-reth), (Gr. Nofap/P, nad-zar-
etk').
A town in Galilee, in which the parents of
Jesus were resident, and where in consequence
he lived till the commencement of his ministry.
It derives all its historical importance from this
circumstance, for it is not even named in the Old
Testament or by Josephus ; which suffices to show
that it could not have been a place of any con-
sideration, and was probably no more than a vil-
lage.
(1) History. Nazareth is not mentioned in
the Old Testament nor by any classical author,
nor by any writer before the time of Christ. It
was for some unknown reason held in disrepute
among the Jews of Judsea (John 1:46). It was
situated in a mountain (Luke iv :29) within the
province of Galilee (Mark i:9), and near Cana,
as John ii:l, 2, 11 seems to imply. There was
a precipice near the town, down which the people
purposed to cast Jesus (Luke iv:29). It is men-
tioned twenty-nine times in the New Testament
At Nazareth the angel appeared to Mary at the
home of Joseph (Luke i:26; ii:39), and to that
place Joseph and Mary returned after their flight
into Egypt (Matt. ii:23). The hills and places
about the town possess a deep and hallowed inter-
est to the Christian as the home of Jesus during
his childhood and youth, until he entered upon
his ministry, and had preached in the synagogue,
and was rejected by his own townspeople. Even
after Capernaum became "his own city" he was
known as "Jesus of Nazareth" (Matt, xxvi 71-73:
Markxvi:i-6; Actsii:22: iii:6; iv:io; vi:i4),and
his disciples were called "Nazarenes." In the days
of Constantine. Nazareth was peopled by Samari-
tan Jews, but in the sixth century Christian pil-
grimages began to be made to the town. In iioo,
Tancred held Galilee, and Nazareth became the
seat of a Christian bishopric. In 1 160 a council
was held at Nazareth, which made ."Mexander III
pope of Rome. During the Middle Ages Christian
pilgrims frequently visited Nazareth. When the
Turks conquered Palestine, in 1517. the Chris-
tians were driven from the town. In 1620 the
Franciscan monks gained a footliold there, and
began to rebuild the village. At the battle of
NAZARITE
1218
NAZARITE
Mount Tabor, in 1799, Napoleon with his army
encamped near Nazareth.
(2) Present Conditions. The town is now
called En-NAsirah, or Nasrah, and has from 5,000
to 6,000 population, though the Turkish officials
estimate it at 10,000. There are about 2,000 Mo-
hammedans, 2,500 Greeks, 800 Latins, and 100
Protestants. The inhabitants pursue farming,
gardening and various handicrafts, and the village
is quite a center of trade for the adjoining dis-
tricts. The houses are well built. There are
a large Latin church and monastery, a synagogue,
a Greek church, a fine Protestant church under
the care of the English Church Missionary So-
ciety, a Protestant hospital, and a large female
orphanage (completed 1874). The synagogue is
claimed by tradition to be the one in which Christ
taught, but cannot be traced to a date earlier
than A. D. 570. Near the Greek Church of the
A Carpenter's Shop in Nazareth.
Annunciation is a spring called "Mary's Well,"
to which the women resort every evening with
their water-jars for their daily supply, and to
which Mary with her holy Child may have gone.
The women of Nazareth, like those of Bethlehem,
are distinguished for beauty above their sisters
in the East. The brow of the hill over which
the enraged Nazarenes threatened to cast Jesus
is probably near the Maronite church, though tra-
dition places it at the "Mount of Precipitation,'"
two or three miles south of the town (Schaff. Bib.
Did.) The streets are narrow and crooked, and
after rains are often choked with mud and filth.
From the top of the hill behind the town a most
wonderful panorama of Northern Palestine may
be seen. To the north is Lebanon, and high above
all, the white tops of Hermon. In the west may
be seen Carmcl and glintings of the Mediterra-
nean Sea, the bay and the town of Akka ; east
and south are Gilcad, Tabor, Gilboa and the great
plain of Esdraclon.
NAZARITE (naz'a-rite).
(1) Name. (Hcb. "'"I^, naiv-zeer' , and ^'?^
^"'^'?:, neh-zeer' el-o-heem' , Nazarite of God).
The term comes from the verb -?, naw-zar\
to separate; and as such separation from ordinary
life to religious purposes must be by abstinence of
some kind, so it denotes 'to refrain from any-
thing.' Hence the import of the term Nazarite —
one, that is, who, by certain acts of self-denial,
consecrated himself m a peculiar manner to the
service, worship, and honor of God.
We are here, it is clear, in the midst of a sphere
of ideas totally dissimilar to the genius of the
Christian system; a sphere of ideas in which the
outward predominates, in which self-mortification
is held pleasing to God, and in which man's high-
est service is not enjoyment with gratitude, but
privation with pain.
(2) Origin. It may be questioned if at least so
much of this set of notions as supposes the Deity
to be gratified and conciliated by the privationsi of
the creature is in harmony with the ideas of God
which the books of Moses exhibit, or had their
origin in the law he promulgated. The manner in
which he speaks on the subject (Num. vi:i-2i)
would seem to imply that he was not introducing
a new law, but regulating an old custom ; for his
words take for granted, that the subject was gen-
erally and well known, and that all that was needed
was such directions as should bring existing ob-
servances into accordance with the Mosaic ritual.
Winer, indeed, sees, in the minuteness and par-
ticularity of the Mosaic regulations, a pi;oof that
the Nazarite vow was of home origin in Mosaism;
an argument whose force we cannot discern, for a
foreign practice, once introduced, must of neces-
sity be conformed to its new abode.
(3) Meaning of the 'Vow. It is not least
among the merits of Judaism that in general it is
eminently of a practical character. Though ad-
milting a multitude of observances, some of which,
being of a very minute kind, and relating to every-
day life, must have been troublesome, if not vexa-
tious, yet the ordinary current of existence v/as
allowed to run on unimpeded ; energy was not di-
rected from its proper chai;nel ; and life was
spent in the active discharge of those offices which
human wants require, and by which human hap-
piness may be best advanced. There was no
Indian self-renunciation; there was no monkish
isolation ; yet the vow of the Nazarite shows that
personal privations were not unknown in the Mo-
saic polity. This vow we regard as an instance
and an exemplification of that asceticism which,
wherever human nature is left free to develop it-
self, will always manifest its tendencies and put
forth its efifects. No age, no nation, no religion
has been without asceticism. Self-mortification
is, with some minds, as natural as self-enjoymci.t
with others. The proneness to ascetic practices
is a sort of disorder of temperament. It is in part
a question of original constitution. As some in-
dividuals are inclined to melancholy, to brood
over their own states of mind, so they tend to be-
come morbid in their feelings, intensely self-dis-
satisfied, over-thoughtful, full of personal solici-
tudes; then gloomy; then still more dissatisfied
with themselves, till at length they are led to
think that nothing but severe mortifications and
self-inflicted penalties can atone for their guilt,
and placate a justly offended God. This general
tendency of a certain physical temperament may
be checked or encouraged by religious opinions or
social institutions, as well as by the peculiar hue
which the fortune of an age or a country may
bear. The disease, however, is eminently conta-
gious; and if. owing to unknown circumstances,
there was in the days of Moses a tendency, wheth-
er borrowed from Egypt or merely strengthened
by Egyptian practices, which threatened, in its ex-
cess, to become in any degree epidemic, it was
NAZARITE
1219
NEBAIOTH OR NEBAJOTH
wise and patriotic in that lawgiver to take the
subject into his own remedial liands, and to re-
strain and limit to individuals that which might
otherwise infect large classes, if not reach and so
weaken the national mind.
(4) Law of the Nazarite. The law of the
Nazarite, which may be found in Num. vi, is, in
effect, as follows : Male and female might as-
sume the vow ; on doing so a person was under-
Stood to separate himself unto the Lord; this
separation consisted in abstinence from wine and
all intoxicating liquors, and from everything made
therefrom: 'From vinegar or wine, and vinegar
of strong drink; neither shall he drink any liquor
of grapes, nor eat moist grapes or dried' ; he was
to 'eat nothing of the vine-tree, from the kernels
even to the husks.' Nor was a razor to come upon
his head all the time of his vow ; he was to 'be
holy, and let the locks of the hair of his head
grow.' With special care was he to avoid touch-
ing any dead body whatever. Being holy unto
the Lord, he was not to make himself unclean by
touching the corpse even of a relative. Should
he happen to do so, he was then to shave his
head, and offer a sin-offering and a burnt offer-
ing; thus making an atonement for himself, 'for
that he sinned by the dead.' A lamb, also, of the
first year, was to be offered as a trespass-offer-
ing. The days, too, that had gone before his de-
filement were to be lost, not reckoned in the num-
ber of those during which his vow was to last.
On the termination of the period of the vow
the Nazarite himself was brought unto the door
of the tabernacle of the congregation, there to
offer a burnt-offering, a sin-offering, a peace-
offering, and a meat and a drink offering. The
Nazarite also shaved his head at the door of the
tabernacle, and put the hair grown during the
time of separation into the fire which was uuder
the sacrifice of the peace-offerings. 'And the
priest shall take the sodden shoulder of the ram
and one unleavened cake out of the basket, and
one unleavened wafer, and shall put them in the
hands of the Nazarite after the hair of his sep-
aration is shaven; and the priest shall wave them
for a wave-offering.' 'After that the Nazarite
may drink wine.'
(5) Illustrations. There are not wanting in-
dividual instances which serve to illustrate this
vow, and to show that the law in the case went
into operation. Samson's mother took the vow
of a Nazarite that she might have a son. Sam-
son himself was a Nazarite from the time of
his birth (Judg. xiii). In his history is found
a fact which seems to present the reason why
cutting the hair -was forbidden to the Nazarite.
The hair was considered the source of strength ;
it is, in fact, often connected with unusual strength
of body, for the male has it in greater abun-
dance than the female. Delilah urged Samson
to tell her where his strength lay. After a time,
'he told her all his heart, and said unto her,
There hath not come a razor upon mine head, for
I have been a Nazarite unto God from my
mother's womb: if I be shaven, then my strength
will go from me, and I shall become weak, and
be like any other man' (Judg. xvi:i5. sq.) The
secret was re\'ealed ; Samson was shorn and ac-
cordingly lost his strength and his life.
From the language employed by Samson, as
well as from the tenor of the law in this case,
the retention of the hair seems to have been one
essential feature in the vow. It is. therefore,
somewhat singular that any case should have
been considered as the Nazaritic vow in which
the shaving of the head is put forth as the chief
particular. St. Paul is supposed to have been
under this vow, when (Acts xviii:i8) he is
said to have 'shorn his head in Cenchrea. for
he had a vow' (see also Acts xxi:24). The head
was not shaven till the vow was performed, when
a person had not a vow.
Figurative. The vow of the Nazarites indi-
cates an entire consecration of the body to the
Lord, and is in the spirit of St. Paul's exhortation
to present the body a living sacrifice, holy and
acceptable, unto God (Rom. xii:6). It is ex-
pressly said that during the days of his separation
the Nazarite "is holy unto the Lord" (Num.
vi:8).
(1) Were not these Nazarites typical of Jesus
Christ? Altogether holy, he was solemnly devoted
to the service of God. Never was he defiled with
carnal pleasures, nor intoxicated with sinful lusts
or earthly cares ; never was he defiled by irregular
affections towards his nearest relations, nor pol-
luted by his gracious connections with men. His
graces and good works increased more and more,
and his people rooted in him, grow up and flour-
ish in God's holy place. Never did he break his
vow, but finished it in giving himself for an all-
comprehensive offering for us; and in his resur-
rection, laid aside every token of continued sub-
jection to an angry God or broken law, and purges
and inflames the hearts of his people, by his bleed-
ing love. (2) Were not these Nazarites emblems
of ministers and saints, who, denying themselves,
and iTiortifying the deeds of the body, consecrate
themselves to God, renounce this world, and the
pleasures of sin? (Brown, Bib. Diet.)
NEAH (ne'ah), (Heb. ^'^l, nay-atv' , the shak-
ing or settlement), a town of Zebulun on the
southern boundary cf Rimmon (Josh. xix:i3). Por-
ter suggests 'Ain, about three miles northwest of
Nazareth, as its site, but the site is not known.
NEAPOLIS (ne-ap'o-lis),(Gr. NedToXij, neh-ap'o-
Ih, new city), a maritime city of Macedonia, near
the borders of Thrace, now called Napoli.
Paul landed here en his first journey into Eu-
rope (Acts xvi:il). It was situated on a rocky
eminence, the most conspicuous object being a
temple of Diana, which crowned the top of the
hill. The great Roman road Via Egnalia. from
Macedonia to Thrace, passed through Neapolis,
which was eight or ten miles from Philippi. It
is now a Turco-Grecian town of 5,000 or 6,000
population, and called Kavalla; it has numerous
ruins. Another site has been proposed (Eski)
for Neapolis, but the arguments for it are unsat-
isfactory. The Roman name of Shechem was also
Neapolis, but it is not so named in Scripture.
NEARIAH (ne'a-ri'ah), (Heb. 'T:?f, neh-ar-
yaw' , servant of Jehovah).
1. A son of Ishi. and captain of 500 Simeonites
in the time of Hezekiah (l Chron. iv:42), B. C.
715-
2. A son of Shemiah, and descendant of David
(l Chron. iii:22, 23), B. C. 350.
NEBAI (neb'a-i), (Heb. '?"^ iiay-baiu' , fruitful),
one of the chiefs of the people who signed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x:Iq), B.. C. 410.
NEBAIOTH or NEBAJOTH (ne-ba'yoth),
(Heb. •"^'"^t. neh-am-yoth' , fruitfulness).
/. The Firstborn Son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv:
13; I Chron. 1 :2<)) and the prince or .s/;<v'i<' (rendered
by Jerome (pvXapxo^) of one of the twelve Ishma-
elitish tribes, which, as well as the territory they
occupied, continued to bear his name in after
NEBAIOTH OR NEBAJOTH
1220
NEBAIOTH OR NEBAJOTH
times (Gen. xxv:i6; comp. xvii:2o). One of
Esau's wives. Mahalath, otherwise called Bashe-
math, is expressly designated as 'the sister of
Nebaiath' (Gen. xxviii:9; xxxvi:3); and by a
singular coincidence the land of Esau, or Edoni,
was ultimately possessed by the posterity of Ne-
baioth. In common with the other Ishmaelites,
they first settled in the wilderness 'before' (j. e., to
the east of) their brethren, the other descendants
of Abraham ; by which we are probably to under-
stand the great desert lying to the east and south-
east of Palestine (Gen. xxv:i8; xxi:2i; xvi:i2',
and see the article Arabia.) From the refer-
ences of Scripture it is evident that the tribe of
Nebaioth followed for ages the nomadic life of
shepherds.
2. J^ahathxans. This people included a va-
riety of Arab races taking their common name
from the progenitor of the largest or most influ-
ential tribe. Nebaioth, the firstborn of Ishmael.
(1) Invasion of Western Asia. The .success-
ful invasion of Western Asia, first by the Assyr-
ians and afterwards by the Chaldaeans, could not
but afliect the condition of the tribes in Northern
Arabia, though we possess no record of the special
results. The prophet Isaiah, after his obscure
oracle regarding Dumah (ch. xxi:ii, 12), intro-
duces a 'judgment upon Arabia,' i. e.. Desert Ara-
bia, which some suppose to have been fulfilled by
Sennacherib, while others think it refers to the
later events that are foretold by Jeremiah (xlix:
28-33) as befalling 'Kedar and the kingdoms of
Hazor,' in consequence of the ravages of Nebu-
chadnezzar. Be this as it may, we know that when
the latter carried the Jews captive to Babylon,
the Edomites made themselves masters of a great
part of the south of Palestine (see IduMjEA),
while either then or at a later period they them-
selves were supplanted in the southern part of
their own territory by the Nabathoeans.
The territory occupied by the Nabathseans in
its widest sense included the whole of Northern
Arabia from the Euphrates to the Elanitic Gulf
of the Red Sea ; but more strictly taken it denoted
(at least in later times) only a portion of the
southern part of that vast region (Josephus, An-
tiq. i :i2, 4; St. Jerome, Qucest. on Is. xxv :i3; Am-
mianus Marcellinus, xiv:8). We first hear of the
Nabathaeans in history in the reign of Antigonus,
who succeeded Alexander the Great in Babylon,
and died in the year B. C. 301. He sent two ex-
peditions against them ; both were unsuccessful.
(2) Agriculture and Commerce. The Naba-
thaeans were as yet essentially a pastoral people,
though they were likewise engaged in commerce,
which they afterwards prosecuted to a great ex-
tent, and thereby acquired great riches and re-
nown. It was in this way that they gradually
became more fixed in their habits; and, living in
towns and villages, they were at length united
under a regular monarchical government, con-
stituting the kingdom of Arabia, or, more strictly,
Arabia Pctrtea, the name being derived not, as
some suppose, from the rocky nature of the coun-
try, but from the chief city, Petrsea.
(3) Kings of Arabia Petraea. The common
name of the kings of Arabia Petrsa was either
Aretas or Obodas. Even in the time of Anti
ochus Epiphanes (about B. C. 166), we read in 2
Mace. v:8, of an Aretas, king of the Arabians;
?nd from that period downwards they came fre-
quently into contact both with the Jews and Ro-
mans, as may be seen in the hooks of the Maccabees
and the writings of Josephus. When Judas Mac-
cabxus and his brother Jonathan had crossed the
Jordan, they reached after a three days' march
the country of the Nabathaans, who gave them a
very friendly reception (i Mace, v :24, 25; Jo-
seph. Antiq. xii. 8. 3; comp. xiii. 13. 5. 15, and
Dc Bell. Jitd., i. 4. 4. 7). Long before the king-
dom of Arabia was actually conquered by the
Romans, its sovereigns were dependent on the
Roman power. An expedition was sent thither
by Augustus, under yElius Gallus, governor of
Egypt, and a personal friend of the geographer
Strabo, who has left us an account of it. After
various obstacles he at last reached Aeu/ti} Ku/xij
or Albus Pagus, the emporium of the Nabathse-
ans, and the port of Petra, which was probably at
or near Elath (Strabo, xvi 14, 22, 24; Dion Cas-
sius, liii:27; Arrian, Periplus Maris Eryth.). An-
other friend of Strabo, the Stoic philosopher
Athenodorus, had spent some time in Petra, and
related to him with admiration how the inhabit-
ants lived in entire harmony and union under
excellent laws. The kingdom was hereditary :
or at least the king was always one of the royal
family and had a prime minister or vinier,
iirlTpoToi, who was styled tJte /chief's brother.
Pliny also repeatedly speaks of the Nabathseans
(Hist. Nat. V :ii ; vi :28; xii 127) ; and classes along
with them the Cedrei, exactly as Kedar and Ne-
baioth are placed together in Is. Ix :y. Another
Arabian king of the name of Aretas is the one
mentioned by St. Paul (2 Cor. ii:32; comp. Acts
vii 124, 25; Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 5. i). We find
that a former Aretas had been invited to assume
the sovereignty by the inhabitants of Damascus
(Joseph. De Bcll.Jud., i. 4, 7; Antiq. xiii. 15, l) ;
and now, during the weak reign of Caligula, the
same city is seized by another Aretas, and gov-
erned through an ethnarch, as related by Paul.
The kingdom of Arabia Petraea maintained its
nominal independence till about A. D. 105, in
the reign of the Emperor Trajan, when it was sub-
dued by Cornelius Palma, governor of Syria, and
annexed to the vast empire of Rome.
(4) Under the Romans. The Nabathseans
had, as we have seen, early applied themselves to
commerce, especially as the carriers of the prod-
ucts of Arabia, India, and the far-distant East,
which, as we learn from Strabo, were transported
on camels from the above-mentioned Aeuxi} Kwini
to Petra, and thence to Rhinocoloura (El 'Arish)
and elsewhere. 'But under the Roman dominion
the trade of these regions appears to have widely
extended itself, and to have flourished in still
greater prosperity ; probably from the circum-
stance that the lawless rapacity of the adjacent
nomadic hordes was now kept in check by the
Roman power, and particularly by the garrisons
which were everywhere established for this spe-
cific purpose. The country, too, was now ren-
dered more accessible, and the passage of mer-
chants and caravans more practicable, by military
ways.'
From Elath, or Ailah, one great road had its
direction northwards to the rich and central Pe-
tra ; thence it divided, and led on one side to
Jerusalem, Gaza, and other ports on the Mediter-
ranean ; and on the other side to Damascus. An-
other road appears to have led directly from Ailah
along the Gnor to Jerusalem. Traces of these
routes are still visible in many parts.
These facts are derived not from the testimony
of historians, but from the specifications of the
celebrated Tabula Thcodosiana, or Peutingeriana,
compiled in the fourth century. According to this,
a line of small fortresses was drawn along the
eastern frontier of Arabia Petraea, towards the
NEBALLAT
1221
NEBUCHADNEZZAR
desert, some of which became the sites of towns
and cities, whose names arc still extant.
But as the power of Rome fell into decay, the
Arabs of the desert would seem again to have
acquired the ascendency. They plundered the cit-
ies, but did not destroy them ; and hence those
regions are still full of uninhabited, yet stately
and often splendid, ruins of ancient wealth, and
taste, and greatness.
(5) Petra. Even Petra, the rich and impreg-
nable metropolis, was subjected to the same fate;
and now exists, in its almost inaccessible loneli-
ness only to excite the curiosity of the scholar,
and the wonder of the traveler, by 'he singular-
ity of its site, its ruins, and its fortunes.
In the course of the fourth century this region
came to be included under the general name of
'Palestine' ; and it then received the special desig-
nation of Palastino Tcrtia, oi Salutaris. It be-
came the diocese of a metropolitan, whose scat
was at Petra, and who was afterward placed
under the patriarch of Jerusalem.
With the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh
century its commercial prosperity disappeared.
Lying between the three rival empires of Arabia,
Egypt, and Syria, it lost its ancient independence ;
the course of trade was diverted into new chan-
nels ; its great routes were abandoned.
(6) Syria Sobal. At length the entire coun-
try was quietly yielded up to the Bedawees of the
surrounding wilderness, whose descendants still
claim it as their domain. During the twelfth
century it was partially occupied by the Crusaders,
who gave it the name of Arabia Tertia, or Syria
Sobal. From that period it remained unvisited
by Europeans, and had almost disappeared from
their maps, until it was partially explored, first
by Seetzen in 1807, and more fully by Burckhardt
in 1812; and now the wonders of the Wady MiJsa
are familiarly known to all. (Vincent's Com-
merce of the Ancients; Forster's M ohammedanism
Unveiled, and Geography of Arabia; Robinson's
Sketches of Idumcea, in 'Amer. Bib. Repos.', 1833;
and Bibl. Researches, vol. ii.) N. M.
N£BAIiX.AT (ne-bal'lat). (Heb. ^'^^f, neb-al-
lawt' , hard, firm, or secret wickedness), a town of
Dan, occupied by Benjamites after the captivity
(Neh. xi:34). It is now probably Beit Nebala, four
miles northeast of Lydda (Van de Velde, Memoir
P- 336)-
IfEBAT (ne'bat), (Heb. ^??, neb-awt , regard),
a descendant of Ephraim, of the race of Joshua,
and father of Jeroboam, the first king of the ten
tribes (I Kings xi:26; 2 Chron. ix:29), B. C. about
1000.
NEBO (ne'bo), (Heb. "^t. neb-o' , height; .Sc[)t.
Na|3w, nah-boh' ; Nabium, contracted nabu 'the
prophet').
1. The interpreter of the will of Bel-Merodach
of Babylon. He had a shrine at E-saggilla, the
great temple of Bel at Babylon. But his own
temple was E-Zida (now i'lrj-i-Nimriid), in Bor-
sippa, the suburb of Babylon. He was the son
of Merodach and Zarpanit, and the husband of
Tasmit, 'the hearer' (A. H. Sayce, Hastings' Bih.
Diet.)
In later days he was identified with Nusku, a
solar deity of fire. He is mentioned in Is. xlvi:l,
and supposed to have been the symbol of the
planet Mercury, the celestial scribe and interpreter
of the gods, answering to the Hermes and Anubis
of the Egyptians. He was likewise worshiped by
the Sabians in Arabia (Norberg, 0)wmasi. p. 95).
Gesenius traces the name in the Hebrew word
firoplict, an interpreter of the divine will. The
divine worship paid to this idol by the Chaldeans
and As.syrians is attested by many compound
proper names of which it forms a part, as Ncbu-
chadnezzar, ATt'^Mzar-adan, A^c fcushasban ; ijesidcs
others mentioned in classical writers — Afafconedus,
A^afconassar, A'aftKrianus, A^atonabus, A/abopolas-
sar. (Gesenius and Henderson on Is. xlvi:l.)
(See Babylonia and Assyria, Religion of.)
2» A mountain of Moab "over against Jericho,"
from which Moses beheld the Land of Canaan
(,Deut. xxxii :49). "And Moses went up from the
plains of Moab unto the mountain of Nebo, to the
top of Pisgah. . . . and the Lord showed him
all the land of Gilead unto Dan" (Deut. xxxivri).
Nebo was a mountain in the range of mountains
called Abarim. Eusebius says it was shown in
his day on the other side of Jordan, six miles
to the west of Heshbon. If then definitely known,
its location was afterward lost. Of the peaks
in the Abarim range which have been suggested
as Nebo are: Jebel Attarus, but this is not "oyer
against Jericho,"and is too far south; Jcbel Jil' nd
fifteen miles farther north than Jericho, and there-
fore not answering to the Scriptural narrative.
The explorations of De Saulcy, Due de Luynes,
Tristram, Warren, Paine, and Merrill have led to
the conclusion that Nebo was at the northern end
of the Abarim range of mountains, i. e., Jebel Ncb,i.
This mountain was five or si.x miles southwest of
Heshbon, is about 2,700 feet high, and commands
a fine view of the country. Paine appears to ap-
ply Jebel Nebi to the eastern portion of the north-
ern group of peaks, and Jebel Siaghah to the
western portion ; Dr. Merrill claims that the Ar-
abs use Jebel Nebd, Jebel Musa, and Jebel Siag-
hah indiscriminately for this group. While the
discussions respecting Pisgah have been sharp,
the majority of explorers and scholars agree
in identifying Nebo with the northern end of the
Abarim range, Jebel Nebd (Schaft, Bib. Diet.).
With this identification A. T. Chapman, in Hast-
ings' Bib. Diet., agrees. He says: "It has been
questioned whether all the places mentioned in
Deut. xxxiv:i can be seen from any point of the
ridge. The 'hinder sea' in this passage probably
means the Dead Sea, as being behind Moses when
he began his survey, and not the Mediterranean
Sea. (The Prospect from Pisgah, by W. F.
Birch.) (See Pisgah.)
3. A town in the tribe of Judah (Ezra 11:29) ;
or. more fully, in order to distinguish it from the
preceding, 'the other Nebo' (Neh. yii :33). The
name may have, as in the preceding instance,
been derived from that of the idol Nebo; but
more probably from the Hebrew word 'to be
high.* The site of Nebo has been fixed at Beit
NitbA, twelve miles northwest of Jerusalem and
eight from Lydda, or at Nuba, four miles south
of Adullam (Armstrong. Names and Places, etc.;
W. H. Bennett. Hastings' Bib. Diet).
4. A city of Reuben (Num. xxxii :38), taken by
the Moabites, who held it in the time of Jere-
miah (Jer. xlviii:i). The Moabite stone has an
inscription relating to this town. It was eight
miles south of ?Tcshbon ; perhaps el HAbis.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, ( neb-u-kad-nez'zar ),
(Heb. ''^'^'.^.I^^? , neboo-kad-nets-tsar" : and also
~¥'<'5"|5^^^r. neb-oo-kad-rcts-tsar' . Gr. Naj3ouxoS''*<''<>Pf
Nabouchodnosor ; and also '^a^ovKoiplxio(>o%, Nabou-
kndrosoros : Kings, Chronicles, and Daniel; Jer.
xxvii; xxviii; xxxiv:i; xxxix:i: Ezek. xxvi:7; and
Ezra v;i2; written s.X's.o ^^''^"'-'^^ , t"b-oo-kad-re-
tsar', Nebuch.Tdrezzar, generally in Jeremiah, and
in Ezek. xxx:l0).
NEBUCHADNEZZAR
1222
NEBUCHADNEZZAR
(1) King of Babylon. The name of the Chal-
d^ean monarch of Babylon by whom Judah was
conquered, and the Jews led into their seventy
years' captivity. In the Septuagmt version he
is called HapovxoSovliaop, Nabuchodonosor. This
name, Nabuchodonosor, has passed from the Sep-
. tuagint into the Latin Vulgate, and into the au-
thorized English version of the books of Judith
and Tobit. Nabu or Nebo (Is. xlvi:i) was the
name of a Chaldaean deity, supposed to be Mer-
cury, and enters frequently into the composition
of Chaldaean proper names, as Nabopolassar (C(7».
Ptvl); Nabuzar-adan (2 Kings .xxv :8, etc.;;
Samgar-Nebu and Nehiishasban (Jer. x.xxix:3,
13). The name Nebuchadnezzar has been com-
monly explained to signify the treasure of Ncbo,
but, according to Lorsbaoh (Archiv. f. Morgcnl.
Litcratiir), it signifies Nebo, the prince of gods.
The only notices which we have of this monarch
in the canonical writings are found in the books
of Kings, Chronicles, Daniel, and Ezra, and in the
allusions of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel.
From 2 Kings xxiii :29, and 2 Chron. xxxv:20,
we gather that in the reign of Josiah (B. C. 610),
Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt, having approached
by sea the coast of Syria, made a friendly appli-
cation to King Josiah to be allowed a passage
through his territories to the dominions of the
Assyrian monarch, with whom he was then at
war. The design of Pharaoh-necho was to seize
upon Carchemish (Circesium or Cercusium), a
strong post on the Euphrates ; but Josiah, who
was tributary to the Babylonian monarch, op-
posed his progress at Megiddo, where he was de-
feated and' mortally wounded. (See Josi.\H.)
Necho marched upon Jerusalem, and the Jews be-
came tributary to the King of Egypt.
(2) In the Field. Upon this, Nebuchadnezzar,
King of Babylon (2 Kings xxiv:i; 2 Chron.
xxxvi:6, where this monarch's name is for the
first time introduced), invaded Judah, retook Car-
chemish, with the territory which had been wrest-
ed from him by Necho. seized upon Jchoiakim,
the vassal of Pharaoh-necho, and reduced him
to submission (B. C. 607). Jehoiakim was at
first loaded with chains, in order to be led captive
to Babylon, but was eventually restored by Nebu-
chadnezzar to his throne, on condition of paying
an annual tribute. Nebuchadnezzar carried ofif part
of the ornaments of the temple, together with sev-
eral hostages of distinguished rank, among whom
were the youths Daniel and his three friends, Ha-
naniah, Azariah, and Mishael (Dan. i). These
were educated at court in the language and sci-
ences of the Chaldeans, where they subsequently
filled offices of distinction. The sacred vessels
were transferred by Nebuchadnezzar to his tem-
ple at Babylon (Is. xxxix ; 2 Chron. xxxvi:6, 7).
(See Babylon.)
(3) Opposes Egypt. After the conquest of
Judaea, Nebuchadnezzar turned his attention to-
wards the Egyptians, whom he drove out of Syria,
taking possession of all the land between the Eu-
phrates and the river (2 Kings xxiv 7) ; which
some suppose to mean the Nile, but others a
small river in the desert, which was reckoned the
boundary between Palestine and Egypt (Pri-
dcaux's Coitiicctioii).
(4) Capture of Jerusalem. The fate of Jeru-
salem was now rapidly approaching its consum-
mation. After three years of fidelity Jehoiakim
renounced his allegiance to Babylon, and renewed
his allegiance with Necho, when Nebuchadnezzar
sent incursions of .•\ninii>iiilcs, Moabites .and
Syrians, together wiih Chald;tans, to harass him.
At length, in the eleventh year of his reign, he
was made prisoner, and slain (Jer. xxii). (See
Jehoiakim.) He was succeeded by his son Je-
hoiachin, who, after three months' reign, sur-
rendered himself with his family to Nebuchad-
nezzar, who had come in person to besiege Jeru-
salem, in the eighth year of his reign (2 Kings
xxiv:io-i2). (See Jehoiachin.) Upon this oc-
casion all the most distinguished inhabitants, in-
cluding the artificers, were led captive. (See
Captivity.) Among the captives, who amounted
to no less than 50.000, were Ezekiel (Ezek. i:i)
and IMordecai. (See Esther.) The golden ves-
sels of Solomon were now removed, with the royal
treasures, and Mattaniah, the brother of Jehoia-
chin. placed on the throne by Nebuchadnezzar,
who gave him the name of Zedekiah, and bound
him by an oath not to enter into an alliance witli
Egypt. Zedekiah, however, in the ninth year of
his reign, formed an alliance with Pharaoh-ho-
phra, the successor of Necho. Hophra, coming
to the assistance of Zedekiah, was driven back
into Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar, who finally cap-
tured Jerusalem in the eleventh year of Zcdc-
kiah's reign (B. C. 588). (See Zedekiah.) The
Temple, and the whole city, with its towers and
walls, were all razed to the ground by Nebuzara-
dan, Nebuchadnezzar's lieutenant, and the princi-
pal remaining inhabitants put to death by Nebu-
chadnezzar at Riblah. Jeremiah was, however,
spared, and Gedaliah appointed governor. He
was shortly after murdered by Ishmael, a mem-
ber of the royal family, who was himself soon
obliged to take refuge among the Ammonites.
Many of the remaining Jews fled into Egypt, ac-
companied by Jeremiah; those who remained were
soon after expatriated by Nebuchadnezzar, who
depopulated the whole country.
(5) Siege of Tyre. He next undertook the
siege of Tyre (see Tyre), and after its destruc-
tion proceeded to Egypt, now distracted by inter-
nal commotions, and devastated or made himself
master of the whole country from Migdol to
Syene (according to the reading of the Seventy,
Ezek. xxix:lo; xx.x:io), transferring many of the
inhabitants to the territory beyond the Euphrates.
(6) The Prophet Daniel. We have referred
to the captivity of the prophet Daniel, and have
to turn to the book which bears his name for the
history of this prophet, who, from an exile, was
destined to become the great protector of his na-
tion. In the second year of the reign of Nebu-
chadnezzar, Daniel, who was found superior in
wisdom to the Chaldasan magi, was enabled not
only to interpret, but to reveal a dream of Nebu-
chadnezzar, the very subject of which that mon-
arch had forgotten. (See Dream.)
This was the dream of the statue consisting of
four different metals, which Daniel interpreted
as four successive monarchies, the last of wljich
was to be the reign of the Messiah. Daniel was
elevated to be first minister of state, and his
three friends were made governors of provinces.
The history of these events (Dan. ii:4, 8, 9) is
written in the Chaldee language, together with
the narrative which immediately follows (ch. iii),
of the golden statue erected by Nebuchadnezzar
in the plain of Dura, for refusing to worship
which Daniel's three friends were thrown into a
furnace, but miraculously preserved.
(7) Judgment Upon Nebuchadnezzar. The
fourth chapter, also written in Chaldee, contains
the singular history of the judgment inflicted on
Nebucli.-ulMuzzar as a punishment for his pride,
and which is narrated in the form of a royal proc-
lamation from the monarch himself, giving an ac-
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, INSCKirTION OF 1223
NEIJUCHAUKEZZAR
count to his people of his affliction and recovery.
This affliction had been, by the monarch's ac-
count, predicted by Daniel a year before, in the
interpretation of his fearful dream of the tree in
the midst of the earth. While walking in his pal-
ace, and admiring his magnificent works, he ut-
tered, in the plenitude of his pride, the remarkable
words recorded in verse 30: 'Is not this great
Babylon that I have built for the house of the
kingdom, by the might of my power, and for the
honor of my majesty?'
He had scarce uttered the words, when a voice
from heaven proclaimed to him that his kingdom
was departed from him ; that he should be for
seven times (generally supposed to mean years,
although some reduce the period to fourteen
months; Jahn, Introd.) driven from the habita-
tions of men to dwell among the beasts of the
field, and made to eat grass as an ox, until he
learned 'that the Most High rulcth in the king-
dom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will.'
The difficulties attending the nature of the dis-
ease and recovery of Nebuchadnezzar have not
escaped the notice of commentators in ancient as
well as modern times. Origen's supposition that
the account of Nebuchadnezzar's metamorphosis
was merely a representation of the fall of Lucifer,
is not likely to meet with many supporters. Be-
sides Origen's, there have been no less than five
different opinions in reference to this subject. Bo-
din (in Dcinonol.) maintains that Nebuchadnez-
zar underwent an actual metamorphosis of soul
and body, a similar instance of which is given by
Cluvier {Append, ad Epitom. Hist.) on the testi-
mony of an eye-witness. Tertullian (De Panit.)
confines the transformation to the body only, but
without loss of reason, of which kind of met-
amorphosis St. Augustine (De Civ. Dei, xviii:i8)
reports some instances said to have taken place in
Italy to which he himself attaches little credit ; but
Gaspard Peucer asserts that the transformation
of men into wolves was very common in Livonia.
Some Jewish Rabbins have asserted that the soul
of Nebuchadnezzar, by a real transmigration,
changed places with that of an ox (Medina, De
redd in Deitiii fid.) ; while others have supposed
not a real, but an apparent or docetic change, of
which there is a case recorded in the life of St.
Macarius, the parents ox a young woman having
been persuaded that their daughter had been
transformed into a mare. The most generally re-
ceived opinion, however, is that Nebuchadnezzar
latored under that species of hypochondriacal
monomania which leads the patient to fancy him-
self changed into an animal, or other substance,
the habits of which he adopts. Jerome probably
leaned to this opinion. 'Who does not see,' he
observes, 'that madvien live like brute beasts in
the fields and woods, and in what is it wonderful
that this punishment should be inflicted by God's
judgment to show the power of God, and so
humble the pride of kings? Greek and Roman
histories relate much more incredible things, as
of men changed into Scylla, the Chimsra, and
the Centaurs, into birds and beasts, flowers, trees,
stars, and stones?' (in Dan. iv:4). To this dis-
ease of the imagination physicians have given the
name of Lycat>thropy. Zoanthropy, or Insania
Canina. (See Diseases of the Jews, 8.)
W. W.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, INSCRIPTION OF.
The famous inscription of Nebuchadnezzar
which was recovered from the ruins of Babylon
is now in the IniH;i House in Tendon.
(1) Carved tTpon Stone. This long record of
his triumphs has been written upon ten stone
columns and it contains in all five himdred and
eight lines. It was graven apparently by the
king's orders, and it is a wonderful exemplification
of his boast, "Is not this great Babylon that I
have built?"
We have here an authentic relic of the times of
this king, and of the period of the fall of the
Jewish monarchy.
It gives us a wonderful picture of Nebuchad-
nezzar vyith all his pride of position and power,
his passionate devotion to his gods, and his un-
tiring labors in the building of his beautiful capi-
tal. We now have a corroboration of the state-
ments of Jeremiah and Daniel concerning the
gods he worshiped and the city he built, but it is
like the records of Sennacherib and other kings, in
that it omits the story of royal humiliation, and
gives no hint of that severe lesson in which Nebu-
chadnezzar was taught that: "The Most High
ruletli in the kingdoms of men and giveth them
to whomsoever he will."
(2) Contents. We have here only the asser-
tion of his greatness and the wonder of his
achievements. The following extract will give a
general idea of the whole inscription :
"Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, the prince
exalted, the favorite of Merodach, the pontiff su-
preme, the beloved of Nebo .... the chiefest son
of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, am I. . . .
When Merodach, the great lord, lifted up the head
of my majesty, and Nebo, the overseer of the mul-
titude of heaven and earth, a righteous scepter
placed in my hands; himself, the leader glorious,
the open eyes of the gods, the prince Merodach,
my supplications heard and received my prayers.
"I worshiped his lordship. In his high trust, to
far-off lands, a road of hardships I pursued, and
the unyielding I reduced, I fettered the rebels.
The land I ordered aright, and the people I made
to thrive, bad and good among the people I re-
moved (or deported).
Silver, gold, precious stones, whatsoever things
are precious, a large abundance, a rich present to
my city of Babylon, into his presence I brought.
In E-sagilla (the temple of Bel-I\Ierodach) the
palace of his lordship, I wrought repairs. Ekua,
the cell of the lord of the gods, Merodach. I
made to glisten like suns the walls thereof. . . .
The great ramparts of Babylon I finished ; beside
the scarp of its moat, the two strong walls with
bitumen and burnt brick I built, and with the wall
which my father had constructed I joined them
and the city. I carried them round ... I beautified
the road of Ishtar (See Ashtoreth), that hurleth
down them that assail her Strong bulls
of copper, and dreadful serpents, standing upright
on their thresholds. I erected. Those portals for the
gazing of the people, with carven work I caused to
be filled. As an outwork, the wall of Babylon.
unapproachable, a mighty rampart, at the ford of
the sun rising, Babylon I threw around."
There are many glowing descriptions of the
work which he did in beautifying his capital city
and rebuilding the temples of the gods.
"The cedar of the roofing of the cells of Nebo
with gold I overlaid. The silver of the roofing of
the gate of Nana, I overlaid with shining silver.
The bulls, the leaves of the gate of the cell, with
silver I made bright. . . . The house I made
gloriously bright, and with carved work I had it
filled. The temples of Borsippa I made and
filled." (Ball's Translation.) (See Records of
the Past vol. iii. pp. 102-123.)
NEBUCHADREZZAR (neb - u - kad - rfiz'zar).
bee Nebuchadnezzar.
NEBUSHASBAN
1224
NECHO
NEBUSHASBAN ( neb - u - shas ' ban ), ( Heb.
15! = 13j, ncb-oo-shaz-baw7i' , Nebo saves me), Jer.
xxxix;l3, a follower of Nebu.
The name of one of the Babylonian oflRcers sent
by Nebuzar-adan to take Jeremiah out of prison
(B. C. 588). W. W.
"The name Nebushasban occurs in the Assyro-
Babylonian inscriptions under the form of Nabt'i-
Swcibanni, "Nebo Save Me." (T. G. Pmches,
Hastings' Bib. Diet.).
NEBTJZAB-ADAN (neb'u - zar - a'dan), (Heb.
T^^.""-^, neb-oo-zar-ad-a-wn' ,'iieho sends posterity,
2 Kings xxv:8; Jer. xxxixig; xl;i; lii:i2, etc.).
'Nebo is the Lord,' according to the Hebrew;
or, according to the Persian, 'Nebo is wise.' The
name of the captain of Nebuchadnezzar's guard,
who conducted the siege of Jerusalem to a success-
ful issue, the particulars of which are given in 2
Kings xxv:8-2i. He treated Jeremiah with gen-
erous consideration, as Nebuchadnezzar command-
ed (Jer. xxxix:il; xl:i). His speech to Jere-
miah is preserved in Jer. xl :2, sq. When Nebu-
chadnezzar, five years later, besieged Tyre, Neb-
uzar-adan came again to Jerusalem, and carried
ofl seven hundred and forty-five Jews more into
captivity (Jer. lii;30j.
NECHO (ne'ko), (Heb. "'-f, nek-o'), an Egyptian
king, son and successor (according to Herodotus,
ii:i58) of Psammctichus, and contemporary of the
Jewish king, Josiah (B. C. 610).
(1) Army and Fleet. The wars and success
of Necho, in Syria, are recorded by sacred as
well as profane writers. Studious of military re-
nown, and the furtherance of commerce, Necho,
on ascending the throne of Egypt, applied him-
self to reorganize the army, and to equip a power-
ful fleet. In order to promote his purposes, he
courted the Greeks, to whose troops he gave a
post next to his Egyptians. He fitted out a fleet
in the Mediterranean, and another in the Red Sea.
Having engaged some expert Phoenician sailors,
he sent them on a voyage of discovery along the
coast of Africa. The honor, therefore, of bemg
the first to equip an expedition for the purpose
of circumnavigating Africa belongs to Pharaoh-
necho. who thereby ascertained the penuisular
form of that continent, twenty-one centuries be-
fore the Cape of Good Hope was seen by Diaz,
or doubled by Vasco da Gama.
Before entering on this voyage of discovery,
Necho had commenced reopening the canal from
the Nile to the Red Sea, which had been cut many
years before by Sesostris or Rameses the Great.
The work, however, if we may believe Herodotus,
was abandoned, an oracle warning the Egyptian
monarch that he was laboring for the barbarian
(Herod. iiti.sS).
(2) Enters Palestine. Necho also turned his
attention to the Egyptian conquests already made
in Asia ; and, fearing lest the growing power of
the Babylonians should endanger the territories
acquired by the arms of his victorious predeces-
sors, he determined to check their progress, and
to attack the enemy on his own frontier. With
this view he collected a powerful army, and enter-
ing Palestine, followed the route along the sea-
coast of Judaea, intending to besiege the town of
Carchemish on the Euphrates. But Josiah, king
of Judah, ofifcndcd at the passage of the Egyptian
army through his territories, resolved to impede,
if unable to prevent, their march. Necho sent
messengers to induce him to desist, assuring him
that he had no hostile intentions against Judaea,
'but against the house wherewith I have war; for
God commanded me to make haste.' This con-
ciliatory message was of no avail. Josiah posted
himself in the valley of Megiddo. and prepared .to
oppose the Egyptians. Megiddo was a city in the
tribe of Manasseh, between forty and fifty miles
to the north of Jerusalem, and within three hours
of the coast. It is called Magdolus by Herodotus.
In this valley the feeble forces of the Jewish king,
having attacked Necho, were routed with great
slaughter.
(3) Death of Josiah. Josiah being wounded
in the neck with an arrow, ordered his attendants
to take him from the field. Escaping from the
heavy shower of arrows with which their broken
ranks were overwhelmed, they removed him from
the chariot in which he had been wounded, and
placing him in a 'second one that he had,' they
conveyed him to Jerusalem, where he died (2
Kings xxiii :29, sq. ; 2 Chron. xxxv :20, sq.). (See
Josiah.)
Intent upon his original project Necho did not
stop to revenge himself upon the Jews, but con-
tinued his march to the Euphrates.
(4) Overthrow of His Successor. Three
months had scarcely elapsed, when, returning
from the capture of Carchemish and the defeat of
the Chaldseans, he learned that, though Josiah had
left an elder son, Jehoahaz had caused himself to
be proclaimed king on the death of his father,
without soliciting Necho to sanction his taking
the crown. Incensed at this, he ordered Jehoahaz
to meet him 'at Riblah, in the land of Hamath' ;
and having deposed him, and condemned the land
to pay a heavy tribute, he carried him a prisoner
to Jerusalem. On arriving there, Necho made
Eliakim, the eldest son, king, changing his name
to Jehoiakim ; and taking the silver and gold
which had been levied upon the Jewish nation, he
returned to Egypt with the captive Jehoahaz, who
there terminated his short and unfortunate career.
Herodotus says that Necho, after having routed
the Syrians (the Jews) at Magdolus, took Ca-
dytis, a large city of Syria, in Palestine, which,
he adds, is very little less than Sardis (iitisg;
iii:S). By Cadytis there is scarcely a doubt he
meant Jerusalem ; the word is only a Greek form
of the ancient, as well as the modern, name of
that city. (See Pharaoh.) It is, however, to be
regretted that the mural sculptures of Egypt pre-
sent no commemoration of these triumphs on the
part of Nocho; the sole record of him which they
give being the name of Necho, found among the
hieroglyphics in the great hall of Karnak. His
oval also occurs on vases, and some small objects
of Egyptian art.
(5) Defeated by Babylonians. Pleased with
his success, the Egyptian monarch dedicated the
dress he wore to the deity who was supposed to
have given him the victory. He did not long en-
joy the advantages he had obtained. In the fourth
year after his expedition, being alarmed at the in-
creasing power of the Babylonians, he again
marched into Syria, and advanced to the Euphra-
tes. The Babylonians were prepared for his ap-
proach. Nebuchadnezzar completely routed his
army, recovered the town of Carchemish, and,
pushing his conquests through Palestine, took
from Necho all the territory belonging to the Pha-
raohs, from the Euphrates to the southern ex-
tremity of Syria (2 Kings xxiv:7; Jer. xlvi:6; 2
Chron. xxxviig; 2 Kings xxiv:8).
(6) Death. Nebuchadnezzar deposed Jehoia-
ihrn, who had succeeded his father, and carried
the warriors and treasures away to Babylon; a
short time previous to which Necho died, and was
NECK
1225
NEEDLE
succeeded by Psammetichus II. Wilkinson's Anc.
Egyptians, vol. i:i57, sg.).
According to Manetho (Euseb. Chron. Armen.,
1:219), Necho was the si.xth king in the twenty-
sixth dynasty, successor to Psammetichus I., and
as there had been another of the same name, he
was properly Necho the Second. The period of
his reign was, according to Manetho, six, accord-
ing to Herodotus sixteen, years (consult Ges-
enius, Isaiah 1:596). J. R. B.
NECK (nek), (Hebrew usually "T^. o ref , as
Gen. xlix:8, Lev. v:8, nape ; "'^J^, isav-vawr" , as
Gen. xxvii:i6; VJ, ^aa/-r«'«f', properly throat, Is.
iii:i6). That part of an animal body between the
head and shoulders (Judg. v.yi) ; both head and
neck (Dcut. x.xi :4).
Figurative. It denotes the heart ; and so a
"hard." "stiff" or "iron neck," signifies men's ob-
stinacy in their love to, and practice of sin (Neh.
ix:29; Ps. Ixxv :5 ; Is. xlviii:4).
(i) It stands for the whole man; and so to
have a "yoke" or bands on the neck signifies be-
ing in slavery and bondage (Deut. xxviii:48; Is.
lii :2 ; Jer. xxvii:2). (2) Transgressions come
upon, or are wreathed about, the "neck," when
they are punished with bondage and slavery
(Lam. i:i4). (3) The Assyrians "readied even to
the neck"; they almost totally overflowed and
ruined Judah, taking all the cities thereof, but
Jerusalem the capital (Is. viii:8; xxx:28). (4)
The Ammonites "came upon the necks of the
slain" Jews, when they were murdered in like
manner by the Chaldsans (Ezek. xxi:29). (5)
To "lay down the neck," is to be ready to suffer
slavery or death (Rom. xvi:4). (6) God "dis-
covers the foundations unto the neck," when he
utterly unsettles and almost utterly destroys his
enemies (Hab. iii:i3). Brown.
NECKLACE (nek'lace), (Heb "I'?! raw-beed',
binding) is a word which docs not occur in the
A. v., but was in early times, as now, common in
the East.
Necklaces were sometimes made of gold or sil-
ver (Exod. XXXV :22), sometimes of pearls or
jewels, strung on a ribbon (Cant. i:io), hanging
to the breast or girdle. To these were attached
golden crescents (Is. iii:i8; Judg. viii:2i), and
amulets (Is. iii :i8).
The modern Egyptian ladies are very fond of
wearing necklaces of the richest character (Wil-
kinson. Anc. Egypt, i, 339, sq.) (See Precious
Stones.)
NECOTH (nek-oth'), (Heb -"^^'^i^ nek-oth'), this
word occurs twice in the book of Genesis.
(1) A Syrian Product. It indicates a product
of Syria, for in one case we find it carried into
Egypt as an article of conmicrcc. and in another
sent as a present into the same coimtry. It oc-
curs in the same passage as ladanuin, which is
translated myrrh in the Authorized Version. Many
of the same general observations will therefore
apply to both. Necoth has unfortunately been ren-
dered sptcery. This it is not likely to have meant,
at least in the present sense of the term, for such
commodities were not likely to he transported
into Egypt from Gilead, though many Eastern
products were, no doubt, carried north by cara-
vans into Asia Minor, up the Euphrates, and by
Palmyra into Syria. In the present case, however,
all the articles mentioned seem to be products
indigenous in Syria. But it is necessary to attend
strictly to the original names, for we are apt to
be misled by the English translation. Thus, in
Gen. xxxvii :25, we read, 'Behold a company of
Ishmaclites came from Gilead with their camels,
bearing spiccry (necoth), and balm (tscri), and
myrrh (loth), going to carry it down to Egypt.'
To these men Joseph was sold by his brethren,
when they were feeding their flocks at Dothan,
supposed to be a few miles to the north of Se-
baste, or Samaria. It is curious that Jacob, when
desiring a present to be taken to the ruler of
Egypt, enumerates nearly the same articles (Gen.
xliii:ii), 'Carry down the man a present, a little
balm, (tzeri), and a little honey (debash), spices
(necoth) and rnyrrh (loth)
Bochart (Hierozoieon, ii Bk. iv. c. 12) enters
into a learned exposition of the meaning of necoth,
of which Dr. Harris has given an abridged view
in his article on spices.
(2) Various Interpretations. Bochart shows
that the true import of necoth has always been
considered uncertain, for it is rendered hot by
the paraphrast Jonathan, in the Arabic version
of Erpenius, and in Beresith Rabba (sect. 91,
near the end). Others interpret it very differ-
ently. The Septuagint renders it Ovialann, per-
fume, Aquila stora.x, the Syrian version resin, the
Samaritan balsam, one Arabic version khurnoob
or caroh, another sumugha (or gum), Kimchi a
desirable thing. Rabbi Selomo a collection of
several aromatics. Bochart himself considers it
to mean storax. Rosenmiiller, in his Bib. Bot. p.
165, Eng. transl., adopts tragacanth as the mean-
ing of necoth, without expressing any doubt on
the subject. Tragacanth is an exudation from
several species of the genus .4stragalus, and sub-
division tragacantha, which is produced in Crete,
but chiefly in Northern Persia and in Koordistan
in the latter province. Dr. Dickson, of Tripoli,
saw large quantities of it collected from plants, of
which he preserved specimens, and gave them to
Mr. Brant, British consul at Erzeroum, by whom
they were sent to Dr. Lindley. One of these,
yielding the best tragacanth, proved to be A.
gummifer of Labillardicre. It was found by him
on Mount Lebanon, where he ascertained that
tragacanth was collected by the shepherds. It
might therefore have been conveyed by Ishmaelitcs
from Gilead to Egypt. It has in its favor, that it
is a produce of the remote parts of Syria, is de-
scribed by ancient authors, as Theophrastus,
Dioscorides, etc., and has always been highly es-
teemed as a gum in Eastern countries ; it was,
therefore, very likely to be an article of commerce
to Egypt in ancient times. (See Myrrh: Sto-
rax.) J. F. R.
NECROMANCER fngk-ro-man'ser). (from Gr.
vfKpd!, nck-ros' , the dead, and /mmela, wan-tee' ah,
divination; Heb. ^T^:.' •?? '^'i~, do' rashe el-ham-
muv' theem', one who inquires of the dead). (See
DlVIN.ATION).
NEDABIAH (ned'a-bi'ah), (Heb. ^'.^1^1, ned-ah-
yaw' , largess of Jab), the eighth son of Jeconiah, in
the line of David (I Chron. iii;l8), B. C. about 560.
NEEDLE (ne'd'l), (Gr. fiix<t>l%, hraf-ece'), occurs in
Scripture only in tlie proverb, "It is easier for a
camel to go through the eye of a needle," etc.
(Matt. xix:24: Mark x :25 ; Luke xviii:2S). G.
M. Mackic, Hastings' Bib. Diet., says:
"An attempt is sometimes made to explain the
needle's eye as a reference to the small door, a
little over 2 feet square in the large heavy gate
of a walled city. This mars the figure without
materially altering the meaning. There is no
custom of calling this small opening 'the eye' : it
is usually named 'the small door' 'hole' or 'win-
dow.' " (See Camel.)
NEEDLEWORK
1226
NEHEMIAH
NEEDLEWORK (ne'dlwurk), (Heb.'l^r"!, rik-
tnaw' , finely embroidered or variegated work;
Cp"', rok-ame', Exod. xxvi:36; xxvii:l6; xxviii:39;
xxxvi:37; xxxviii:i8; Judg. v:3o; Ps. x!v:i4, a
species of weaving). (See Embroiderer; Weav-
ing.)
NEEDY (ne'dy). See Poor.
NEESING (nez'ing), (Hcb. ■ir?^^, at-ce-shaiu').
Job xli:i8, " By Iiis neesings a light doth sliine."
Neesing\% the older form of the word now writ-
ten sneezing. The Anglo-Saxon verb was niesan,
so that the old form is really nearer the original.
"And waxen in their mirth to neese and swear
A merrier hour was never wasted there."
Shakespeare,
"Wliat a neesing brake
From my Telemachus."
(Chapman, Odyssey, xix732, 736.)
NEGINAH (neg'in-ah), (Ps. Ixi). See Negin-
lOTH.
NEGINIOTH (neg-in'I-oth), (Heb. ^i'Vt, neg-ee-
nawth'), a word which occurs in the titles of sev-
eral Psalms. It is a plural form of Neginah, and
signifies stringed instruments of music, to be
played on by the fingers. The titles of these
Psalms may be translated, A Psalm of David
to the master of music, who presides over lUe
stringed instruments. (See Psalms, Book of.)
NEHELAMITE (ne-hel'a-raite), (Hcb. '^i"A^.
han-nekh-el-aw-tnee' , dreamed), a designation of
the false prophet Shemaiah (Jer. xxix;24, 31, 32),
derived from his native place or from an an-
cestor.
NEHEMIAH (ne-he-mi'ah), (Heb. ^"?C?, nekh-
em-yazu', comforted of Jehovah).
1. The Jewish patriot, whose genealogy is
unknown, except that he was the son of Hachaliah
(Neh. i:i), and brother of Hanani (Neh. vii:2).
Some think he was of priestly descent, because his
name appears at the head of a list of priests in
Neh. x:i-8; but it is obvious, from Neh. ix:38,
that he stands there as a prince, and not as a
priest; that he heads the list because he was head
of the nation. Others with some probability infer,
from his station at the Persian court and the high
commission he received, that he was. like Zerub-
babcl, of the tribe of Judah and of the house of
David (Carpzov, Introductio, etc., P. i, 339).
(1) Appointed Governor. While Nehemiah
was cupbearer in the royal palace at Shushan, in
the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, or
444 years B. C, (see Artaxerxes), he learned
the mournful and desolate condition of the re-
turned colony in Judsea. This filled him with such
deep and prayerful concern for his country, that
his sad countenance revealed to the king his 'sor-
row of heart' ; which induced the monarch to as-
certain the cause, and also to vouchsafe the reme-
dy, by sending him, with full powers, to rebuild
the wall of Jerusalem, and 'to seek t'he welfare of
the children of Israel.' Being furnished with this
high commission, and enjoying the protection of
a military escort (chapter iiip), Nehemiah
reached Jerusalem in the year B, C. 444, and re-
mained there till B. C. 432, being actively engaged
for twelve years in promoting the public good
(chapter v:l4). The principal work which he
then accomplished was the rebuilding, or rather
the repairing, of the city wall, which wa"; done 'in
fifty and two Jays' (chapter viilj), notwithstand-
ing many discouragements and difficulties. These
were caused chiefly by Sanballat, a Moabite of
Horonaim, and Tobiah, an Ammonite, who were
leading men in the rival and unfriendly colony of
Samaria (chapter iv:i-3). These men, with their
allies among the Arabians, Ammonites, and Ash-
dodites (chapter iv7), sought to hinder the re-
fortifying of Jerusalem, first by scoffing at the at-
tempt ; then by threatening to attack the workmen
— which Nehemiah averted by 'setting a watch
against them day and night,' and arming the whole
people, so that 'every one with one of his hands
wrought in the work, and with the other hand held
a weapon' (chapter iv:7-i8); and finally, when
scoffs and threats had failed, by using various
stratagems to weaken Nehemiah's authority, and
even to take his life (chapter vi:l-l4).
(2) Meets Hindrances. But in the midst of
these dangers from without, our patriot encoun-
tered troubles and hindrances from his own peo-
ple, arising out of the general distress, which was
aggravated by the cruel exactions and oppression
of their nobles and rulers, (chapter v :i-5). Thee
popular grievances were promptly redressed on
the earnest and solemn remonstrance of Nehe-
miah, who had himself set a striking example of
retrenchment and generosity in his high office
(chapter v;6-i9). It appears also (chapter vi:
17-19) that some of the chief men in Jerusalem
were at that time in conspiracy with Tobiah
against Nehemiah. The wall was thus built in
'troublous times' (Dan. ix:25) ; and its completion
was most joyously celebrated by a solemn dedica-
tion under Nehemiah's direction (chapter xii •.27-
43).
(3) Reforms. Having succeeded in fortifying
the city, our reformer turned his attention to other
measures in order to secure its good government
and prosperity. He appointed some necessary of-
ficers (chapter vii:i-3; also chapter xii:44-47),
and excited among the people more interest and
zeal in religion by the public reading and exposi-
tion of the law (chapter viii:i-i2), by the une-
qualed celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles
(chapter viii:i3-i8), and by the observance of a
national fast, when the sins of the people and the
iniquities of their fathers were publicly and most
strikingly confessed (chapter ix), and when also
a solemn covenant was made by all ranks and
classes 'to walk in God's law' by avoiding inter-
marriages with the heathen, by strictly observing
the Sabbath, and by contributing to the support of
the temple service (chapter x). But the inhabi-
tants of the city were as yet too few to defend it
and to ensure its prosperity; and hence Nehemiah
brought one out of every ten in the country to
take up his abode in the ancient capital which then
presented so few inducements to the settler, that
'the people blessed all the men that willingly of-
fered themselves to dwell at Jerusalem' (chapter
vii:4; also chapter xi:i-i9).
(4) Assisted by Ezra. In these important
public proceedings, which appear all to have hap-
pened in the first year of his government, Nehe-
miah enjoyed the assistance of Ezra, who is named
on several occasions as taking a prominent part in
conducting affairs (chapters viii:i, 9, 13; xii:36).
Ezra had gone up to Jerusalem thirteen years be-
fore according to some, or thirty-three years ac-
cording to others ; but on either reckoning, with-
out supposing unusual longevity, he might well
have lived to be Nehemiah's fellow-laborer. (See
Ezra).
(5) Return to Babylon. Nehemiah, at the
close of hi'^ successful a(hnini<tration, 'from the
twentieth year even to the thirty-second year of
NEH£M1AH, BOOK OK
1227
NEHEMIAH, l.OUK OF
Artaxerxes the king' (chapter v:i4), returned to
Babylon (B. C. 432), and resumed, as some think,
his duties as roval cupbearer.
(6) Again at Jerusalem. He returned, how-
ever, after a while, to Jerusalem, where his serv-
ices became again requisite, in consequence of
abuses that had crept in during his absence. His
stay at the court of Artaxerxes was not very long
(certainly not above nine years) ; 'for after cer-
tain days he obtained leave of the king and came
to Jerusalem' (chapter xiii :6, 7).
After his return to the government of Judaea,
Nehemiah enforced the separation of all the mixed
multitude from Israel (chapter xiii:i-3); and
accordingly expelled Tobiah the Ammonite from
the chamber which the high-priest, Eliashib, had
prepared for him in the temple (chapter xiii:4-9).
Better arrangements were also made for the sup-
port of the temple service (chapter xiii:io-i4},
and for the rigid observance of the Sabbath
(chapter xiii:is-22). One of the last acts of his
government was an effort to put an end to mixed
marriages, which led him to 'chase' away a son
of Joiada the high-priest, because he was son-in-
law to Sanballat the Horonite (chapter xiii 123-
29). The duration of this second administration
cannot be determined ; only it is evident that
Joiada was high-priest during that period. Now
Joiada, according to some chronologists, succeeded
his father Eliashib in the year B.C. 413; and
hence we may gather that Nehemiah's second rule
lasted at least ten years, namely, from B. C. 424 to
413. It is not unlikely that he remained at his
post till about the year B. C. 405, towards the
close of the reign of Darius Nothus, who is men-
tioned in chapter xii:22. (See D.\rius.)
(7) Death. At this time Nehemiah would be
between sixty and seventy years old, if we sup-
pose him (as most do) to. have been only between
twenty and thirty when he first went to Jerusalem.
That he lived to be an old man is thus quite prob-
able from the sacred history; and this is expressly
declared by Josephus, who {Antiq. xi ;$, 6) states
that he died at an advanced age. Of the place and
year of death nothing is known.
(8) Character. Few men in any age of the
world have combined in themselves a more rigid
adherence to duty, a sterner opposition to wrong,
private or public, a more unswerving faith in
God, or a purer patriotism, than Nehemiah. His
character seems almost without a blemish.
2. The son of Azbuk (Neh. iii:l6), respecting
whom no more is known than that he was ruler
in Beth-zur (B. C. 44s), and took a prominent
part in repairing the wall of Jerusalem. (Sec
Beth-zur.)
3. Another Nehemiah is mentioned (Ezra ii:2;
Neh. vii .7) among those who accompanied Zerub-
babcl on the first return from captivity (B. C.
445). Nothing further is known of this man,
though some writers (see Carpzov, Introd. ad
Lib. Bib. I'ct. Tcstamcnti, P. i, 340, sq.) hold him,
without valid reasons, to be the same with the
well-known Jewish patriot.
NEHEMIAH, BOOK OF (ne'he-rai'ah book
6v), the sixteenth in the order of books in the Old
Testament.
(1) Name. It bears the title Nehemiah's
Words, and was anciently connected with Ezra.
as if it formed part of the same work (Eichhorn.
Einleitung, ii. 627). This connection i^ still indi-
cated by its first words, '.4nd it came to pass.' It
arose, doubtless, from the fact that Nehemiah is
a sort of continuation of Ezra. (See Ezra.)
(2) Contents. The work can ■scarcely be
called a history of Nehemiah and his times. It is
rather a collection of notices of some important
transactions that happened during the first year
of his government, with a few scraps from his
later history. The contents appear to be arranged
in chronological order, with the exception per-
haps of ch. xii :27-43, where the account of the
dedication of the wall seems out of its proper
place; we might expect it rather after ch. vii: I -4,
where the completion of the wall is mentioned.
The book is concerned with Nehemiah's great
work of rebuilding Jerusalem and the reclama-
tion of the customs and laws of Moses, which had
fallen into desuetude. It gives the whole history
of this movement m the circumstances which led
to it, the elements of opposition which threatened
to defeat it, and the complete success which
crowned it. Incidentally we are admitted to a
glance at the condition, moral and political, of
the Jews, at the growing bitterness between them
and the Samaritans, and at some scenes in
Assyrian life. The account of the walls and pates
in ch. iii is among the most valuable documents
for the settlement of the topography of ancient
Jerusalem. The registers and lists of names are
also of value.
(3) Date. As to the date of the book, it is
not likely that it came from Nehemiah's hand
till near the close of his life. Certainly it could
not have been all written before the expulsion of
the priest, recorded in ch. xiii :23-29, which took
place about the year B. C. 413.
(4) Authorship. While the book, as a whole,
is considered to have come from Nehemiah, it
consists in part of compilation. He doubtless
wrote the greater part himself, but some portions
he evidently took from other works. It is allowed
by all that he is, in the strictest sense, the author
of the narrative from ch. i to ch. vii :s (Hiiver-
nick, Einleitung, ii, 304). The account in ch. vii:
6-73 is avowedly compiled, for he says in ver. 5,
'I foimd a register,' etc. This register we actually
find also in Ezra ii :i-7o; hence it might be thought
that our author borrowed this part from Ezra;
but it is more likely that they both copied from
public documents, such as 'the book of the chron-
icles,' mentioned in Neh. xii :23.
Chapters viii-x were probably not written by
Nehemiah, since the narrative respecting him is in
the third person (ch. viii :9 ; x:l), and not in the
first as usual (ch. ii:9-20). Havernick, indeed,
(^Einleitung, ii:3O5-308) makes it appear, from the
contents and style, that Ezra was the writer of
this portion. The remaining chapters (xi-xiii)
also exhibit some marks of compilation (ch. xii:
26, 47) ; but there are, on the contrary, clear
proofs of Nehemiah's own authorship in ch. .Kii:
27-43, and in ch. xiii :6-3i ; and hence Havernick
thinks he wrote the whole except ch. xii: 1-26,
which he took from 'the book of the chronicles,'
mentioned in verse 23.
The mention of Jaddua as a high-priest, in ch.
xii:ii. 22. has occasioned much perplexity. This
Jaddua appears to have been in office in B. C.
332, when Alexander the Great came to Jerusalem
(Joseph. Antiq. xi :8) ; how ihen could he be named
by Nehemiah ? The common, and perhaps the
readiest, escape from this difficulty is to regard the
naming of Jaddua as an addition by a later hand.
Yet it is just credible that Nehemiah wrote it,
if we bear in mind that he lived to be an old man,
so as possibly to see the year B. C. 370; and if we
further suppose that Jaddua had at that time en-
tered on his office, so that he filled it for about
forty years, i. e. till B. C. 332 In support of this
conjecture, see especially Havernick's Einleitung,
11 :320-324.
B. D.
NEHILOTH
1228
NEPHTOAH
L. W. Batten, in Hastings' Bib. Diet., says:
"There can be little doubt that the final editor of
Ezra-Nehemiah was the author of the Book of
Chronicles. He gathered material and prepared a
history written according to his own point of view
from Adam to Nehemiah. His work was one long
piece, Ezra-Nehemiah being a part of Chronicles.
But the latter had a considerable struggle to get
into the canon." .
NEHILOTH (ne'hi-loth), (Ps. v), (Heb. Hirn;,
nekh-ee-loth' , means wind instruments).
The title of the fifth Psalm may be thus trans-
lated, "A Psalm of David, addressed to the master
of music presiding over the wind instruments."
(See Psalms, Book of.)
NEHTJM (ne'hum), (Heb. 0"^ neh-khoom' ,
consoled).
One of the twelve heads of the Jewish com-
munity and one of those who returned from the
captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii:7), B. C.
about 445. The name appears in i Esdras v :8, as
Roimus.
NEHXrSHTA (ne-hush'ta), (Heb. ^•T'f^'r. "ekh-
oosh-taw' , brass), the daughter of Eliiathan of
Jerusalem and the mother of King Jehoiachin (2
Kings xxiv:8), B. C. about 6l6.
NEHXJSHTAN (ne - hush ' tan), (Heb. "W^jy^
nekh-oosh-taivn' , made of copper), a name given
by Hezekiah, king of Judah, to the brazen ser-
pent that Moses had set up in the wilderness
(Num. xxi:8), and which had been preserved by
the Israelites to that time.
The superstitious people having made an idol of
this serpent, Hezekiah caused it to be burnt, and
in derision gave it the name of Nehushtan — this
little brazen serpent (2 Kings xviii:4).
NEIEL (ne-i'el), (Heb. ^T'?^,, 7ieh-ee-ale' ,A^ft\\-
ing-place of God), a village of Asher near the
southeastern boundary (Josh. xix:27). Not iden-
tified.
NEIGH (na), (Heb. -i^V, tsaw-haf , to sound
clear), Jer. viii :i6; xiii -.zT \ 1 :ii, A. V., ''bellow as
bulls" ; marg. neigh as steeds; R. V., iieigh as
strong lioi'ses.
Figuratively used to indicate lustful desire in
Jer. V :8, of one who "neighed after his neighbor's
wife."
NEIGHBOR (na'ber), (Heb. ^'l, ray'ah, asso-
ciate; Gr. irXw/oi', play-see' on, near), signifies a
near relation, a fellow countryman, one of the
same tribe or vicinage; and generally, any man
connected with us by the bonds of humanity, and
whom charity requires that we should consider as
a friend and relation (Deut. v;20).
At the time of our Savior, the Pharisees had
restrained the meaning of the word neighbor to
those of their own nation, or to their own friends;
holding, that to hate their enemy was not forbid-
den by the law (Matt, v :4.'? ; Luke x:27). But our
Lord informed them, that the whole world were
neighbors, and illustrated the proposition in the
parable of the Good Samaritan who helped the
wounded Jew in spite of the bitter feeling existing
between the Samaritans and the Jews.
It was because neighborhood was almost ex-
clusively the condition of social contact that the
neighbor was specified in connection with the
Mosaic provisions of mercy, truth and justice.
The stranger was guarded by the law of hos-
pitality. (G. M. Mackie. Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
NEKEB (ne'keb), (Heb. ^i^.^., «,?//'/{-^^, a cavern),
a town on the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix:33).
The R. V. joins the name with the word preceding,
making it Adami-nekeb. This tiame is found, in a
corrupt form, of a ruin about three miles north-
west of the outlet of the Sea of Galilee.
NEKODA (ne-ko'da), (Heb. ^~t^'i, nek-o-iiaw' ,
distinguished).
1. The founder of a family of Temple servants,
who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel
(Ezra ii:48; Neh. vii:5o), B. C. 535.
2. A progenitor of certain persons who after
the return from captivity had lost their pedigree
(Ezra ii:6o; Neh. vii:62), probably the same
as 1-
NEMTJEIi (ne-mu'el), (Heb. ^??''^^. nem-oo-ale',
God is spreading, or day of God).
1. A son of Simeon and head of the Nemud-
ites (Num. xxvi:i2), called Jemuel (Gen. xlvi:
10).
2. A Reubenite, son of Eliab and brother of
Dathan and Abiram (Num. xxviig), B. C. about
1619.
NEMUELITES (ne-mu'el-ites), (Heb. "Pl^l^if.
iteni-oo-ale-ee'), descendants of Nemuel, son of Sim-
eon (Num. xxvi:l2).
NEFHEG (ne'pheg), (Heb. ^i, neh'feg, sprout).
1. One of the sons of Izhar, the son of Kohath
(Exod. vi :2i).
2. The ninth of David's sons, born to him in
Jerusalem (2 Sam. v:l5; I Chron. iii:7; xiv:6),
B. C. after 1000.
NEPHEW (nef u), is the rendering of Heb. 15i
<5a«^, Judg. yi\\:\i,\'^V, neh' keel, offspring, Job xviii:
ig; Is. xiv:22; Gr. fKyovov, ek'gon-on, I Tim. v:4;
in the old English sense of grandson or descend-
ant.
"If any widow have children or nephews, let
them learn first to show piety at home, and to
requite their parents" (l Tim. v:4).
In our present use the word nephew is con-
fined to the son of a brother or of a sister; but
formerly it had a less strict meaning, and might
denote a grandson or even a more remote rela-
tion. In the above passage 'children or neplmi's'
means, 'children or grandehildren.'
Nephezv comes to us through trhe French nevcu,
from the Latin nepos.
In the Augustan age nepos meant 'grandson' ;
in the post-Augustan age, sister's or brother's
son.
Our word nepotism, from nepos, and meaning
family favoritism, retains the original wide sig-
nification.
"The warts, black moles, spots and freckles of
fathers, not appearing at all upon their children's
skin, begin afterwards to put forth and show
themselves in their nepheivs, to-wit. the children
of their sons and daughters" (Holland's Transla-
tion of Plutarch's Morals.) (Sec Svviston's Bib.
It'ord Book; Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
NEPHILIM (ne'phll-Tm), (Heb.
d'^*e:
nef-ee-
leem' , Gen. vi:4; Num. xiii:33). See Giants.
NEPHISH (ne'phish), (i Chron. viig). See
Naphish.
NEPHISHESIM{ne-phIsh'e-slm),(Heb.°"P'f''°^
nef-op-shes-eem' , Neh. vii:52). See Nephusim.
NEPHTALIM (neph'ta-llm), (Gr. Ne09oXe(n,
nef-thaleim'), the country and tribe of Naphtali
(Matt. iv:i3, 15; Rev. vii:6). (See Naphtali).
NEPHTOAH (neph'to-ah), (Heb. G''n?rf, nef-to'-
akh, opened).
NKPHUSIM
12J9
NERGAL
The name of a place witli a foiiniain and stream
of vvaler on the boundary of Judah and Benja-
min, west of Jerusalem (Josh. xv:9; xviii:is).
It is commonly located at 'Ain Lifta, two miles
northwest of Jerusalem, though Porter (Hand-
book, p. 232) places it at 'Ain Yalo, three miles
southwest of Jerusalem.
NEPHtJSIM (ne-phu'sim), (Heb. ="?"?;, ,!e/.ee-
Ser///', expansions), founder of a family of Temple
servants who returned from the Captivity with
Zerubbabel (Ezra ii:5o), 15. C. about 535. In Neh.
vii;52 the form is J\'ephishesim.
NER (nSr), (Heb. ■'^ nare, a light; Sept. Niip,
iiare), grandfather of King Saul (I Sam. xiv:50, 51;
xxvi:5 I Chrou. viii:33). The statement in 1
Chron ix:36. that Kish and Ner were both sons of
/(•/>/ (A V. Jehiel), is ex|ilained by the supposition
of an elder Kish, uncle of Saul's father, or, rather,
Xer's grandfather (B. C. 1 140).
J. F. Stenning. Hastings' Bib. Diet., makes Ner
the son of Abiel, the father of Abner, and there-
fore the uncle of Saul (I Sam. xiv :SQ, 51). We
must render the passage, 'And Kish, the father of
Saul, and Ner, the father of Abner, were sons of
Abiel.'
NEBD or KAHD (nSrd or nard), (Heb. "fi^'
naynf), is mentioned in three places in the Song
of Solomon, and by Mark and John in the New
Testament, under the name of vip5o%,}iartios, spike-
nard or nerd.
(1) Spikenard. Both are translated in the
Authorized Version by the word spikenard, which
indicates a far-famed perfume of the East, that
has often engaged the attention of critics, but the
plant which yields it has only been ascertained in
very recent times. That the nerd of Scripture
was a perfume is
evident from the
passages in which
it occurs. Cant, i:
12 : 'While t h e
king sitteth at his
table, my spike-
nard (nard) send-
eth forth the smell
thereof.' So in
Cant. iv:l4: 'Spike-
nard and safTron,
calamus and cinna-
mon, with all trees
o f frankincense,
myrrh and aloes,
with all the chief
spices.' Here we
find it mentioned
along with many
of the most valued
aromatics which
were known to the
ancients, and all of
which, with the
exception perhaps
of saffron, must
have been obtained
by foreign com-
merce from dis-
tant countries, as
Persia, the east
coast of Africa,
Ceylon, the north-
west and the southeast of India, and in the present
instance even from the remote Himalayan moun-
tains. Such substances must necessarily have
been costly when the means of communication
Nard.
were defective, and the gains of the successful
merchant proportionately great.
(2) Costly. Th.it the nard or vi.fho% was ol
great value we Icain from the New Tesument
(Mark xiv:3). When our Savior sat at meat m
Bethany, 'there came a woman having an alabaster
box of O'ntment of (vdpSou) spikenard very pre-
cious ; and she brake the box, and poured it on his
head.' So in John xii :3 : 'Then took Mary a
pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and
anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with
her hair ; and the house was filled with the odor
of the ointment.' On this Judas, who afterwards
betrayed our Savior, said (verse 5), 'Why was
not this ointment sold for three hundred pence,
and given to the poor?" This spikenard probably
cost the devoted woman about il2, or $62.50.
(3) Possible Identification. The nard, vipSot,
was known in very early times, and is noticed by
Theophrastus, and by Hippocrates. There can be
no doubt that the jatamansi of the Hindoos is
the stinbul liindee of the Arabs, which they com-
pare to the tail of an ermine. This would almost
be sufficient to identify the drug. As many Indian
products found their way into Egypt and Pales-
tine, and are mentioned in Scripture, indeed in
the very passage with nard we have calamus,
cinnamon, and aloes {ahalim). there is no reason
why spikenard from the Himalayas could not as
easily have been procured. The only difficulty
appears to arise from the term ndpSos, nard, hav-
ing occasionally been used in a general sense,
and therefore there is sometimes confusion be-
tween the nard and the sweet cane (Kaiielt-
boscnt), another Indian product. Some differ-
ence of opinion exists respecting the fragrance of
the jatamansi; it may be sufficient to state that
it continues to be highly esteemed in Eastern
countries in the present day, where fragrant es-
sences are still procured from it, as the iingnentum
nardinum was of old. J. F. R.
NERETTS (ne'reus), (Gr. N7)pci!s, nare-yoos' , wet),
a Christian living at Rome, to whom Paul sent
salutations (Rom. xvi:i5), A. D. 55.
The name is found in the inscriptions of the
imperial household and is well known in the
legends of the Roman church. (Aeta Sanelorum
Bull. .4reh. Christ. 1874, p. 20; 1875, p. 8; Light-
foot, Clement, i, p. 51 ; A. C. Headlam, Hastings'
Bib. Diet.)
NERGAIi (ner'ga!),(Heb. i'^., narc-i,'a/', agreat
hero), a deity of the Cuthites (2 Kings xvii:3o).
The Rabbinical commentators believe that this
idol was in the form of a cock ; founding their not
very happy conjecture apparently upon the fact
that in the Talmud the similar word tarnegol
means a cock. The more measured researches of
Norberg, Gesenius. and other inquirers into the
astrolatry of the Assyrians and Chaldeans, lead
to the conclusion that nare-gat' is the same as the
Zabian name for the planet Mars. This name of
the planet, both among the Zabians and .Arabians
means ill-luck, misfortune; and it was by no
means peculiar to the mythology of the West to
make it the symbol of bloodshed and war. Among
the people firs' named, the planet Mars was typi-
fied under the figure of a man holding in one hand
a drawn sword, and in the other a human head
just cut oflF; and his garments were also red,
which, as well as the other ideas attached to this
idol, were no doubt founded on the reddish hue
which the body of the planet presents to the eye.
Among the southern Arabs his temple was painted
red ; and they offered to him garments stained
NERGAL-SHAREZER
1230
NEST
with blood, and also a warrior (probably a pris-
oner), who was cast into a pool.
NEBGAL-SHABEZEB ( ner'gal-sha-re'zer ).
( Heb. ''^^""™'i'7"i nare-gal' shar-eh-tser' , perh,
Nergal, prince of fire).
1. A military chieftain under Nebuchadnezzar
(Jer. xxxix:3).
2. The chief of the magi (Rab-mag) under the
same king, and present in the same expedition
(Jer. xxxix:3, 13;.
He is generally identified with Neriglissar of
profane history, who married Nebuchadnezzar's
daughter, and ascended the throne two years after
that monarch's death. A palace built by him has
been discovered among the ruins of Babylon, and
his name found on bricks.
In the Biblical description of the end of the
reign of Sennacherib he is said to have been
killed by his two sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer
(2 Kings xi.x:37; Is. x.xxvii:38). There is little
doubt that this name Sharezer is simply the latter
part of the name Nergal-sharezer.
The name is given by Abydemus as Nergilos,
so that the Old Testament has preserved the latter
half of his name and the Greek historian the first
half. Abbreviations of names in this manner are
common among Assyrians and Babylonians. The
Assyrian story of the death of Sennacherib is
much more brief in its details, and does not
mention the names of his murderers. It is as fol-
lows : "On the twentieth day of Tebet, Sennach-
erib, king of Assyria, was killed by his son during
an insurrection. . . . From the twentieth
day of Tebet to the second day of Adar, the in-
surrection continued, and on the eighteenth day
of Sivan (of the following year) Esarhaddon
ascended the throne." It will be observed that
in this account the death of Sennacherib is
ascribed to the act of one son, and not to two, as
in the Old Testament. There has not yet been
found any further allusion to the matter in the
inscriptions. It is a probable conjecture that
the death of the Assyrian king was due to the
jealousy felt for his son Esarhaddon, who suc-
ceeded him (Barnes, Bib. Diet.)
A. H. Sayce, Hastings' Bib. Diet., inclines to
the belief that the supposed two persons are the
same individual. He says : "It is hardly doubt-
ful that the Nergal-sharezer who, in Jeremiah,
occupies a place so near Nebuchadnezzar, is the
Nergal-sharezer who subsequently became king
of Babylon. Nergal-sharezer was the son of
Belsum-iskum, to whom, in' one of his son's in-
scriptions, is erroneously given the title of king.
In B. C. 559 Evil merodach was murdered and
Nergal-sharezer seized the throne, which he held
for four years."
NERI (ne'rl), (Gr. Hvpl, nay-ree'), son of Melchi
and father of Salathiel in the genealogy of Christ
(Luke iii :27, 28) ; probably the same as Neriah
(which see) (Jer. li:59).
NEKIAH (ne-ri'ah), (Hcb. "^T-^-, nay-ree-yak' ,
Jah is lightV The son of Maaseiah and father of
Seraiah and Baruch (Jer. xxxii:l2; xxxvi:4; li;59);
probably identical with Neri (lluke iii:27, 28),
B. C. about 620.
NEBO (ne'ro), (2 Tim., subscription), a Roman
emperor, born at Antium, probably December 15,
A. 1). 37 was the son of Cncius Domitius Alieno-
barbus by Agrippina, the sister of Caligula, his
original name neing Lucius Domitius Ahenobar-
bus.
In the fir.st part of his reign he showed great
clemency and justice, pretending to copy after
Augustus. In the end of it he became one of the
most tyrannical and licentious wretches that ever
breathed. He murdered his mother, and almost
all his friends and principal subjects. He was
the great patron of all fooleries and debaucheries.
He is not named in Scripture; but he is indicated
by his title of emperor, and by his surname Csesar.
To him St. Paul appealed after his imprisonment
by Felix, and his examination by Festus, who
was swayed by the Jews. St. Paul was therefore
carried to Rome, where he arrived A. D. 61. Here
he continued two years, preaching the gospel with
freedom, till he became famous even in the em-
peror's court, in which were many Christians; for
he salutes the Philippians in the name of the
brethren who were of the household of Csesar,
that is, of Nero's court (Phil, i :I2, 13; iv:22). We
have no particular information how he cleared
himself from the accusations of the Jews, whether
by answering before Nero, or whether his ene-
mies dropped their prosecutions, which seems
probable (Acts xxviii:2i). However, it appears
that he was liberated in the year 63.
Nero, the most cruel and savage of all men, and
also the most wicked and depraved, began his
persecution against the Christian church A. D. 64,
on pretense of the burning of Rome, of which
some have thought himself to be the author.
He endeavored to throw all the odium on the
Christians ; those were seized first that were
known publicly as such, and by their means many
others were discovered. They were condemned
to death, and were even insulted in their suf-
ferings. Some were sewed up in the skins of
beasts, and then exposed to dogs to be torn
in pieces ; some were nailed to crosses ; others
perished by fire. The latter were sewed up in
pitched coverings, which, being set on fire, served
as torches to the people, and were lighted up
in the night. Nero gave leave to use his own
gardens as the scene of all these cruelties. From
this time edicts were published against the Chris-
tians, and many martyrs suffered, especially in
Italy. St. Peter and St. Paul are thought to have
suffered martyrdom, consequent on this persecu-
tion, A. D. 65.
The revolt of the Jews from the Romans hap-
pened about A. D. 65 and 66, in the twelfth and
thirteenth of Nero. The city of Jerusalem mak-
ing an insurrection, A. D. 66, Floras there slew
3,600 persons, and thus began the war. A little
while afterwards, those of Jerusalem killed the
Roman garrison. Cestius on this came to Jeru-
salem to suppress the sedition ; but he was forced
to retire after having besieged it about si.x weeks,
and was routed in his retreat, A. D. 66. About
the end of the same year, Nero gave Vespasian
the command of his troops against the Jews. This
general carried on the war in Galilee and Judea
during A. D. 67 and 68, the thirteenth and four-
teenth of Nero. But Nero killing himself in the
fourteenth year of his reign, Jerusalem was not
besieged till after his death, A. D. 70, the first and
second years of Vespasian's reign.
NESER (ns'ser). See EAGLE.
NEST (nest), (Heb. 11?., kane, from l^lv, kaiv-
nan' , to build; Gr. KaTaaKTivwcts,-kaf-as-kay'no-sis<
encampment, a perch).
1. A small lodgment, where fowls hatch their
young (Dent. xxii:6).
2. The eggs or young birds in a nest (Deut.
xx.xii :i I ; Is. x :i4).
Figurative, (i) A habitation seemingly very
secure and undisturbed (Jer. xlix:i6; Obad 4;
Hab. ii:g). (2) "To die in one's nest" (Job
NET
1231
NETHANEEL
xxix:i8) seems to mean in the bosom of one's
family, vvitli children to succeed him. (3) The
Assyrians. Amoritcs. and other nations arc likened
to cedars in whose boughs all the fowls of heaven
made their nests to mark their great strength,
pride, and prosperity (Ezek. xxxi:6). (4) A
'nest in cedars,' is houses built of cedar wood (Jer.
xxii:23). (5) The figure of the partridge "gath-
ering young which she hath not brought forth"
(Jer. xvii :ii, marg.) is applied to one who wrong-
fully gathers riches. (6) The robbing of a nest
in the absence of the parent birds is symbolical of
an easy victory (Is. x:i4).
NET (nSt), (Heb. ^j?, khe/i-re»i', a net, snare,
harm).
There are in Scripture several words denoting
different kinds of nets, and this, with the fre-
ciuency of images derived from them, shows that
nets were much in use among the Hebrews for
fishing, hunting, and fowling. Indeed, for the two
latter purposes, nets were formerly used to an ex-
tent of which now, since the invention of fire-
arms, a notion can scarcely be formed.
(1) Fishing Nets. We have no positive in-
formation concerning the nets of the Hebrews,
and can only suppose that they were not materially
dififerent from those of the ancient Egyptians,
concerning which we now possess very good in-
formation. Indeed, the nets of Egypt, the fishers
who used them, and the fish caught by them, are
more than once mentioned in Scripture (Is. xix:
8). The usual fishing net among this people was
of a long form, like the common drag-net, with
wooden floats on the upper, and leads on the lower
side. It was sometimes let down from a boat, but
those who pulled it usually stood on the shore,
and landed the fish on a shelving bank. This
mode, however, was more adapted to river than
to lake fishing; and hence, in all the detailed ex-
amples of fishing in the New Testament, the net is
cast from and drawn into boats, excepting in one
case where, the draft being too great to take into
the boat, the fishers dragged the net after their
boats to the shore (John xxi:6, 8). Sometimes
use was made of a smaller net for catching fish in
shallow water, furnished with a pole on either
side, to which it was attached ; and the fisherman,
holding one of the poles in either hand, thrust it
below the surface of the water, and awaited the
moment when a shoal of fish passed over it.
It is interesting to observe that the fishermen in
the boat, excepting the master, are almost naked,
as are also those who have occcasion to wade in
the water in hauling the net to the shore. Such
seems also to have been the practice among his
Hebrew fishermen ; for Peter, when he left the
boat to hasten on shore to his risen Lord, 'girt his
fisher's coat unto him, for he was naked' (John
xxi :7) ; although, in this case, the word 'naked'
must be understood with some latitude. (See
Naked.)
(2) Nets for Birds. Nets were also used in
taking birds, to an extent of which we can scarcely
form an adequate conception. A clap net was
usually employed. This was of different kinds.
It consisted of two sides or frames, over which
the net work was spread ; at one end was a short
net, which they fastened to a bush, or a cluster of
reeds, and at the other was one of considerable
length, which, as soon as the birds were seen feed-
ing in the area within, was pulled by the fowlers,
causing the instantaneous collapse of the two
sides. In hunting, a space of considerable size
was sometimes enclosed with nets, into which the
animals were driven by beaters. The spots thus
enclosed were usually in the vicinity of the water
brooks to which they were in the habit of repair-
ing in the morning and evening; and having
awaited the time when they went to drink, the
hunters disposed their nets, occupied proper posi-
tions for observing them unseen, and gradually
closed in upon them. These practices are ob-
viously alluded to in such passages as Job xix:6;
Ps. cxl :s ; Is. Ii:20.
figurative, (i) God's " «.?/," is the entangling
afflictions wherewith he chastises or punishes men
(Job xix:6). Or the church; or the dispensation
of the gospel, whereby many are drawn to Christ.
This is cast into the sea of this world, and many
are either really, or in appearance drawn by it.
.-\t last it will be emptied into the eternal state
(Matt. xiii:47-S0). (2) The "net" of wicked
men wherewith they ensnare others, and draw
wealth and power to themselves, is their crafty
plots, and vigorously executed purposes of mis-
chief (Ps. ixiTS; cxl:5; Mic. vii:2; Hab. i:i6).
(3) The Jewish rulers and priests were a "net,"
a means of drawing others into sin and ruin (Hos.
v:l). 'In vain the net is spread in the sight
oj any bird;' without cause, traps are laid to en-
snare and destroy innocent persons (Prov. \:\y).
(See Fishhook.)
NETER (ne'ter), (Heb. "ip^, neh'ther; Sept. and
Symmachus, vfrpov, wzV'row,- Vulg. nitrum ; Eng-
lish version 'niter'), occurs in Prov. xxv:20; Jer.
ii:22; where the substance in question is described
as effervescing with vinegar, and as being used in
washing; neither of which particulars applies to
what is now, by a misappropriation of this ancient
name, called ' niter," and which in modern usage
means the saltpeter of commerce, but they both
apply to the natron or true nitniin of the ancients.
The similarity of the names which is observable
in this case is considered by Gesenius of great
weight in a production of the East, the name of
which usually passed with the article itself into
Greece. Both Greek and Roman writers describe
natron by the words given in the Sept. and Vul-
gate. Jerome, in his note on Prov. xxv :20, con-
siders this to be the substance intended. Natron,
though found in many parts of the East, has ever
been one of the distinguishing natural productions
of Egypt. This substance, according to Herodo-
tus, was used by the Egyptians in the process of
embalming (ii:76. 77). The principal natron
lakes now found in Egypt, six in number, are
situate in a barren valley about thirty miles west-
A-ard of the Delta, where it both floats as a whitish
scum upon the water, and is found deposited at
the bottom in a thick incrustation, after the water
is evaporated by the heat of summer. It is a
natural mineral alkali, composed of the carbonate,
sulphate, and muriate of soda, derived from the
soil of that region. Forskal says that it is known
by the name atrun, or natrun, that it effervesces
with vinegar, and is used as a soap in washing
linen, and by the bakers as yeast, and in cookery
to assist in boiling meat, etc. {Flora j^Egyptiaco-
Arabica. Hauniae, 1775, pp. 45. 46). Combined
with oil it makes a harder and firmer soap than
the vegetable alkali. (See Borith.) The applica-
tion of the name niter to saltpeter seems accounted
for by the fact that the knowledge of natron, the
true niter, was lost for many centuries in this
country, till revived by the Hon. R. Boyle, who
says he 'had had some of it brought to him from
Egypt." (See Niter.) J. F. D.
NETHANEEL (ne-thin'e-el), (Heb. "'X^Di-
neth-an-aW , God gives).
1. Son of Zuar and prince of the tribe of Is-
NETHANIAH
1232
NEW, NEWNESS
sachar at the time of the exodus (Num. i:8; ii:5;
vii:i8, 23; x:i5), B. C. i6s7-
2. Brother of David and the fourth son of Jesse
(l Chron. ii:i4), B. C. about 1070.
3. A priest who blew trumpets when David
brought up the ark to Jerusalem (i Chron. xv :
24), B. C. 1043- .. ,
4. A Levite, father of Shemaiah, the scribe (l
Chron. xxiv :6) , B. C. before 1014.
5. Son of Obed-edom, and a porter in the Tem-
ple in the time of David (i Chron. xxvi:4), B. C.
about 1014.
6. One of the five whom Jehoshaphat sent to m-
struct the cities of Judah in the law (2 Chron.
xvii7), B. C. 912.
7. One of the chief Levites in the reign of Jo-
siah (2 Chron. xxxvrg), B. C. 628.
8. A son of Pashur, who put away his foreign
wife (Ezra x:22), B. C. 458.
9. A priest, head of the father's house in the
time of Joiakim, the high priest (Neh. xii:2i),
B. C. about 446.
10. A son of a priest and brother of Zechariah,
who blew a trumpet at the celebration dedicating
the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. xii:36), B. C. 446.
Perhaps the same as 9.
NETHANIAH (neth'a-nl'ah), {Heh.^^,i^lnetA-
an-yaw', given of Jehovah).
1. A son of Asaph, and head of the fifth divi-
sion of Temple singers (i Chron. xxv :2, 12), B. C.
about 961. .
2. One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat to
instruct the cities of Judah in the law (2 Chron.
xvii:8), B. C. about 869.
3. Son of Shelamiah and father of Jehudi (Jer.
xxxvi:i4), B. C. about 606.
4. A man of the family of Judah and father of
the Ishmael who killed Gedaliah (2 Kings xxv:
23, 25 ; Jer. xl :8, 14, 15; xli:i, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10. ". 12,
IS, 16, 18), B. C. about 620.
NETHINIM (neth'i-nira), (Heb. T'"'?, naw-
theen' , one given).
(1) Servants of the Temple. This name,
which means 'the given,' or 'the devoted,' was ap-
plied to the servants of the temple, or temple
slaves, who were under the Levites in the minis-
try of the tabernacle and temple.
(2) Origin and Duties. The first servants
whom the Levites obtained were the Gibeonites,
on whom devolved the very laborious services of
fetching water and collecting wood (Josh, ix :
3-27). The number of such servants appears to
have been increased by David; and it seems to
have been then, when these servants ceased to be
wholly Gibeonites, that Nethinim came into use
as a proper name for the whole class (Ezra viii :
20). From that time forward they appear to have
been no longer regarded or treated as slaves,
but as the lowest order of the servants of the
sanctuary; who, although in their origin foreign-
ers and heathen, had doubtless embraced the Jew-
ish religion. These did not all forget their rela-
tionship to the sanctuary during the Captivity.
Some of them returned to their duties under the
decree of Cyrus, and were placed in cities with the
Levites (Neh. xi :3 ; Ezra ii:7o; I Chron. ix:2).
(3) Number and Position. It was not to be
expected that many of them would return to this
humble station in Palestine, but 220 accompanied
Ezra (Ezra viii:2o). and 302 Zerubbabel (ii :
5, 8). The voluntary devoledness which was thus
manifested by these persons considerably raised
the station of the Nethinim. which was thence-
forth regarded rather as honorable than degrad-
ing. "Their number was, however, insufficient for
the service of the temple ; whence, as Josephus
tells us (,De Bell. Jud. ii. 17, 6), a festival, called
ZvXoipopla, Xylophoria, was established, in which
the people, to supply the deficiency, were obliged
to bring a certain quantity of wood to the temple
for the use of the altar of buint-oflfering.
NETOPHAH (ne-to'phah), (Heb. ^^^^, net-o-
faw' , distillation), a town, apparently in Judah, the
name of which occurs only in the catalogue of
those who returned with Zerubbabel from the
Captivity (Ezra ii:22; Neh. vii;26; i Esdr. v:l8).
Netophah was really an old place. Two of Da-
vid's guard, Maharai and Heldai (i Chron. xxvii :
13> 15) were Netophathites. The "villages of the
Netophathites" were the residence of the Levites
(I Chron. ix:i6). Levites who inhabited these
villages were singers (Neh. xii:28). From Neh.
vii :26, the town seems to have been in the neigh-
borhood, or closely connected with, Bethlehem.
Van de Velde suggests Anttibeh, two miles north-
east of Bethlehem, as the site of Netophah. The
Palestine Memoirs note ruins northeast of Beth-
lehem that were called Metoba, or Khurbet Unim
Toba, probably the same as Antubeh of Van de
Velde, and Conder identifies them as ancient Ne-
tophah.
NET0PHATHI(ne-t6ph'a-thi),(Heb. T?i3;,«^/.
o-faw'thee, inhabitant of Netophah), an inhabitant
of Netophah, called the son ot Salma (Neh. xii:28),
who probably founded the village (2 Sam. xxiii:
28, 29; Jer. xl:8).
NETOPHATHITE (ne-toph'a- thite), (Heb.
Tpttf!!, han-net-o-fa-w-thee' , I Chron. ii:54). See
Netophathi.
NETTLE (net'fl). See Thorns and Thistles.
NETWOBK (net'wurk').
1. (Heb. '^"f?, reh'sheth, net), a broad plate of
brass, full of holes, in the manner of a sieve, that
was fixed below the fire of the altar, and through
which the ashes fell down.
2. (Heb. '^?t''?, seb-aw-kaw'), the plaited work
around the two court pillars of the temple (l
Kings vii:i8, 20, 42). (See Temple.)
3. (Heb. lin, khore, white. Is. xixig, marg.
"white works"), the general name for cotton fab-
rics, or the different kinds of byssus that were
woven in Egypt. (See Bvssus.)
NETZ (netz). See Hawk.
NEVER, (nev'er), (Gr. hvhi, 00-deh' , Matt, xxvii:
14). "He answered him to never a word," i. e.,
not at all, in any manner.
NEW, NEWNESS (nu, nu'nes), (Gr. Kai>'6Tij!,
kahc'c-iiot'acc). New things or innovations were
abhorrent to the people of the Orient, among
whom many tendencies converge towards the
veneration of use and wont. Of these the fol-
lowing are the most noteworthy :
(1) The uniformity of the rotation in seaspns
with corresponding climatic changes (Gen. viii:
22; I Sam. xii:i6-i8). (Unseasonable weather
was an innovation.)
(2) The conservative influence of the patriarchal
government.
(3) The transmission of the same handicraft
from father to son, etc.
(4) The remaining upon the land of the in-
habitants when it is sold.
(5) The religious conviction that whatever ex-
ists is by the will of God. Hence Orientals come
to regard Custom as a principle of high authority
and to regard whatever is new with profound sur-
prise, etc. (G. M. Mackie, Hastings' Bib. Diet.).
NEW BIRTH
Newness in general means different from or
more excellent than what went before. Thus
are nczv creatures, and have a neiv spirit, a nczv
heart, and all things nexv; instead of the old cor-
rupt and carnal views, and dispositions, and man-
ner of life, they have spiritual knowledge, holy
dispositions, and pious lives, springing from a
conscience purified by the blood of Christ, and a
heart actuated by his Spirit, excited by his love,
and directed to his glory (Rom. vi :4 ; \u:b; Gal.
vi:i5; 2 Cor. v -.17 ; Ezek. xiiiQ; and xxxvi:26;
Rev. xxi:l).
NEW BIRTH (nu berth). See Regenera-
tion.
NEW JERUSALEM CHtTRCH.
The New Jerusalem Church originated in the
doctrines of the opened Word revealed to man-
kind in the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg.
(1) The Founder. Emanuel Swedenborg was
the son of a Swedish Lutheran Bishop, a scholar,
a practical engineer, intrusted with a high official
position, a member of the Swedish diet, a man
of science, a philosopher, a theologian, and a seer,
who lived between 1688 and 1772. This life of
over four-score years of untiring energy divides
itself upon superficial observation into two peri-
ods. The first fifty years of it were devoted to
the pursuit of natural learning and independent
investigation in science and philosophy ; the re-
maining years to an equally diligent discharge of
the "holy office" to which he was called by the
Lord Himself. With a thorough academic train-
ing, he began with the cultivation of the mathe-
matical and physical sciences, and showed such
ability in theoretical science, that he was entrusted
with a position in the college of mines that gave
him practical control of the development of the
mineral wealth of Sweden. While in the faith-
ful discharge of his official affairs he was elabo-
rating in private and publishing from time to
time the most sublime and extensive philosophical
attempts upon which any single mind ever vent-
ured. Of his philosophical writings, beginning
with the Principia, devoted to a complete natural
philosophy of the elemental world, and continu-
ing with his works on the Animal Kingdom or
the kingdom of the Anima, including a rational
physiology as the basis of a rational psychology,
it is not enough to say that he anticipated by the
application of his analytical and synthetic pro-
cesses, many of the results of subsequent experi-
mental discovery in every realm of science ; it
must rather be said that he announced philosoph-
ical doctrines, which are far more masterful in
explaining the larger field of facts awaiting ex-
planation to-day, than they were appreciable to
his own generation.
He was during this entire period the precise
type of man which this generation delights to
honor; strong, keen, self-reliant, practical. En-
dowed with a hardy constitution, he had a calm,
placid disposition; led an active, laborious, cheer-
ful life, traveling continually and keeping him-
self posted in the developments of science and
contributing to its theoretical and practical
achievements ; composing his works and conduct-
ing his literary business unaided; enjoying the
confidence of his king and fellow statesmen ; dis-
cussing politics in the senate and memorializing
the government on finance and other weighty mat-
ters; while he was elaborating and publishing a
system of universal philosophy, more complete
and probably more enduring and controlling than
any which bears the name of a human author,
and to which the logic of events is compelling the
attention of the learned after a century and a half
78
1233
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH
of marvelous experimental research. Such was
Swedenborg the assessor. A more penetrating
and practical, and at the same time laborious and
comprehensive man of thought never lived.
At the age of fifty-six, in the full maturity of
his powers, he was called, as he declares, "to a
holy office by the Lord, who most graciously man-
ifested himself to me in person, and opened my
sight to a view of the spiritual world, and granted
me the privilege of conversing with spirits and
angels." "From that day forth." he says, "I gave
up all worldly learning and labored only in spir-
itual things according to what the Lord com-
manded me to write." Rightly considered, his
whole previous career appears to have been a
preparation for this work. When he had run the
whole circuit of the sciences, he was introduced
to a new world of facts and laws by the opening
of his spiritual senses, and thus to a spiritual sci-
ence and philosophy which could never have been
discovered without these facts, and can never be
understood apart from them
(2) Doctrines. The fundamental doctrine of
his theological writings is the doctrine of the sec-
ond coming of the Lord. He teaches that the end
of God in the creation of the human race is a
heaven of angels; and He provides for this by
means of the church. It requires three things to
constitute a living church: revelation of divine
truth adapted to man's reception: understanding
on man's part of the truth revealed; and a life in
accordance with it. The Lord provides that there
shall always be a church with man. He institutes
the church by revealing such divine truths as men
need to know and can obey in life. When in proc-
ess of time they pervert this truth and lose the
understanding of the revelation committed to
them, the Lord makes a new revelation and begins
a new church. There have been four such gen-
eral churches, and a fifth is foretold which is to
be the crown of all the churches and is to endure
forever. The first great church which was be-
fore the flood is called the most ancient, and in
the Scriptures Adam, and its consummation is
described by the flood. The second, which is
called the ancient, and in the Scriptures Noah,
was in Asia and partly in Africa, and was con-
summated by idolatries. The third was the Is-
raelitish, which is historical. The fourth is the
Christian, which the Lord established by the
Evangelists and Apostles. This church had tvo
epochs ; one from the time of the Lord to the
Council of Nice, and the other from that council
to the year 1757, when the last judgment was ef-
fected in the spiritual world, by means of the new
revelation of the interiors of the Word, by which
at the same time the Lord inade his second ad-
vent and institutes a new dispensation or church,
which is meant by the New Jerusalem, the glo-
rious hope of the apostles and the expectation of
Christians from the beginning — the "day of the
Lord," which shall have no end.
The second coming of the Lord, therefore, is
not in person, as at his first advent ; for then he
assumed a human nature and glorified it for rea-
sons of redemption and .salvation, that he might
become in His Humanity the visible God. and ac-
quire to His Humanity "all power in heaven and
in earth." What he came to do he perfectly accom-
plished and needed not to do again ; but what was
needed was such a revelation of the whole mean-
ing of his Word, as would bring his divine mind
spiritually present in power and glory. The Lord,
who is the Word, made his second advent by re-
vealing the spiritual sense and genuine meaning
of his written Word, in which the divine truth is
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH
1234
NIBHAZ
in its light, and in which he is continually present.
This is his coining "in the clouds of heaven with
power and great glory;" for the literal sense of
the Word is as a cloud, and the spiritual sense
as the glory by which the Lord as the Son of
Man is revealed in all things of the Word. The
Lord has made this revelation by means of a
man whom he had prepared for this purpose from
his childhood, and whom he filled with his spirit
to teach the doctrines of the New Church from
the Word. This is Swedenborg's claim, and the
writings which contain the doctrines of the Word
revealed for the New Church, he published be-
tween the years 1749 and 1771. These doctrines
may be summarized as follows :
(3) Summary, (i) That Jehovah God, the
creator and preserver of the universe, is Love it-
self and Wisdom itself; that he is one both in
essence and in person, in whom nevertheless is
the Divine Trinity of Father, Son and Holy
Spirit, which are the essential divinity, the divine
humanity, and the divine proceeding, answering
to the soul, the body, and the operative energy in
man ; and that the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ
is that God. The Father is in Him, and the Holy
Spirit is from Him.
(2) That the Lord from eternity, who is Jeho-
vah, came into the world and took our nature
upon Him ; He endured temptations, even to the
passion of the cross ; He overcame the hells and
so delivered man; He glorified His humanity,
uniting it with the divinity of which it was begot-
ten ; so He became the redeemer of the world,
without whom no mortal can be saved ; and they
are saved who believe in Him and keep the Com-
mandments of His Word.
(3) That the Sacred Scripture, or Word of the
Lord, is divine truth itself; containing a spiritual
sense, hitherto unknown, whence it is divinely
inspired, and holy in every syllable ; as well as a
literal sense which is the basis of the spiritual
sense and in which divine truth is in its full-
ness, holiness and power. The spiritual and nat-
ural senses of the Word are united by correspond-
ence like soul and body, every natural expression
and image including a spiritual and divine idea ;
and thus the Word is the medium of communi-
cation with heaven, and of conjunction with the
Lord.
(4) That the Lord saves man by the operation
of His spirit; but not without man's consent and
cooperation. The Lord operates and gives to
man to cooperate, that there may be conjunction
of the Lord with man and of man with the Lord,
and thus salvation. There are two means to this
conjunction: the good of love which flows in by
an internal way, and the truth of faith which is
presented outwardly by means of revelation and
instruction. So far as man can be led to accept
and live according to the truths of faith as from
the Lord, He by an inward and unperceived oper-
ation of His spirit conjoins the good of love with
those truths, and thus reforms, regenerates and
saves.
(5) That charity, faith and good works are
unitedly necessary to man's salvation, since char-
ity without faith is not spiritual but natural, and
faith without charity is not living but dead, and
both charity and faith without good works are
perishable, because without use or fixedness.
(6) That immediately after death, which is only
a putting off of the material body, never to be re-
sumed, man rises again in a substantial spiritual
body in the spiritual world, in which he continues
to live to eternity; in heaven if his ruling affec-
tions and thence his life have been good, and in
hell if his ruling affections and life have been evil.
These doctrines and the whole government of
divine love and wisdom m creation and provi-
dence, are opened philosophically to the rational
faculty from the interiors of the Word and from
the facts and laws of the spiritual world, to the
end, as Swedenborg affirms, that the man of the
church may enter intellectually into the mysteries
of faith and by living according to the light of
intelligence be conjoined with heaven and the
Lord.
Although Swedenborg affirmed a New Church
it was no part of his mission to institute an exter-
nal ecclesiastical body. Those of his own time
who understood or cared to read what he had
written, were very few. In 1783 a society was
formed in London, England, for the study of his
works. His books, which were written in Latin,
were translated, and the number of believers in-
creased more rapidly, but at first entertained no
thought of separate organization. In process of
time, however, theological controversies with their
old ecclesiastical associates, and the longing for
association with those agreed in faith and life,
led to the organization of a church. The first
society of this kind was formed in London in 1787
and was quickly followed by others in various
parts of the kingdom. The name selected was
"The Church upon Earth Signified in the Revela-
tion by the New Jerusalem Descending from God
Out of Heaven." This cumbrous title has been
shortened to "The Church of the New Jerusa-
lem," or "The New Jerusalem Church."
The doctrines were first introduced into Amer-
ica in 1784, and the societies organized from time
to time are now grouped into State Associations,
and these into a General Convention. The gov-
ernment is practically congregational, with a sort
of episcopal advisory supervision. The worship
in this country and England, and where the
church has a foothold in the continent of Europe,
is liturgical.
The church is of the least as to actual member-
ship, but is acknowledged as a formative power
by virtue of the rationality and virility of the
faith of its members, and by the astonishing
activity of its publishing societies in printing and
distributing the literature of its doctrinal teach-
ing. L. P. M.
NEW HOON (na m55n), (Heb. '^'T, khoh-desh',
new moon, month). See Festivals; Moon.
NEW TESTAMENT (nu tes'ta-ment See
Bible; Scripture, Holy.
NEW YEAR (nu yer). See Year.
NEZIAH (ne-zi'ah), (Heb. H'Vt, neis-ee'akh,
preeminent), the progenitor of a family of Nethin-
nn who returned from the captivity with Zeruh-
babel (Ezra ii:54; Neh. vii:56), B. C. 536.
NEZIB (ne'zib), (Heb. -"V^, neis-eeb'.A statue o'
idol), a city in the low country of Judah (Josh.xv:43).
Beit Nusib, a little nortWest of Hebron, has
commonly been thought to represent this place
(Robinson, ii343 sg.)\ but it can scarcely be the
place as it is in the hill country.
NIBHAZ (nlb'hiz), (Heb. ''~?^ nib-chnz',
barker), an idol of the Avites (2 Kings xvii:3i).
In the Zabian books the corresponding name is
that of an evil demon, who sits on a throne upon
the earth, while his feet rest on the bottom of
Tartarus; but it is doubtful whether this should
be identified with the Avite Nibhaz. It is sup-
posed that the god was represented by the figure
of a dog. It would therefore be allied to Anubis
of the Egyptians. A large figure of a dog was
found on the road from Beirut to Tripolis.
NIBSHAN
1235
NICOPOLIS
NIBSHAN (nTD'shSn), (Heb. ^f?^ nib-shawn' ,
fertile, liglit, soft soil), a city of tlie wilderness of
Judah (Josh xv:62); site not known.
NICANOR (ni-ka'nor), (Gr. i^iKdump, tiU- aii'ore.
Conqueror), one of the seven men appointed by the
church at Jerusalem to look after the poor, and in
particular the Greek-speaking widows (Acts vi:5),
A. D. 29.
NICODEMTTS (nik'ode'raus), (Gr. NtKdSriiios,
nik-0(tay-mos, conqueror of the people), a Pharisee
and member of the .Sanhedrim, wlio was impressed
by what he had heard concerning Jesus, but being
unwilling, on account of his station, to commit
himself without greater surety than he possessed,
repaired by night to the house in which Christ
dwelt, and held with him that important discourse
which occupies the third chapter of John's Gospel.
(1) Defends Jesus. The eflfect which was
then produced upon his mind may be collected
from the fact that subsequently, at one of the sit-
tings of the venerable body to which he belonged,
he ventured to let fall a few words in favor of
Jesus, whose proceedings were then in question
(John vii :5o).
(2) At Christ's Burial. He also took part
with his colleague, Joseph of Arimathea, in ren-
dering the last honors to the body of the crucified
Redeemer (John xix:39). Nothing further is
known of Nicodemus from Scripture. Tradition,
however, adds that after he had thus openly de-
clared himself a follower of Jesus, and had been
baptized by Peter, he was displaced from his of-
fice, and expelled from Jerusalem (Phot. Cod. p.
171). It is added that he found refuge in a
country house of his cousin Gamaliel, and re-
mained there till his death.
(3) Character. Too strong an appreciation of
the world's good opinion seems to have been the
failing of Nicodemus, although Niemeyer {Char-
akl. i. 113) has lately made a strong effort to clear
him from this imputation. We do not lay much
stress upon what he ventured to say in the Sanhe-
drim; for he suffered himself to be easily put
down, and did not come forward with any bold
avowal of his belief. Winer calls attention to the
fact, that although he took part in the sepulchral
rites of Jesus, he did not join Joseph in his appli-
cation to Pilate for the body of his crucified Lord ;
and justly remarks that such characters usually
require a strong external impulse to bring them
boldly forward, which impulse was probably in
this case supplied by the resurrection of Jesus.
NIC0LAITAN8 (nrk'o-la'i-tanz), (Gr. Ni/toXoiTaf,
nikh-ol-ah-ee-tah-ee' , followers of Nicolas), occurs
twice in the New Testament (Rev. ii:6, 15).
(1) Conduct and Doctrine Condemned. In
the former passage the conduct of the Nicohitans
is condemned ; in the latter, the angel of the
church in Pergamos is censured because certain
members of his church held their doctrine.
(2) Practices. Various traditionary accounts
have been given by the fathers of the origin and
practices of this sect. Many of the primitive writ-
ers believed that Nicholas was rather the occasion
than the author of the infamous practices of those
who assumed his name, who were expressly con-
demned by the Spirit of God himself (^ev. ii:6).
And, indeed, their opinions and actions were
highly extravagant and criminal. They allowed a
community of wives, and made no distinction be-
tween ordinary meats and those offered to idols.
According to Eusebius. they subsisted but a short
time ; but Tertullian says, that they only changed
their name, and that their heresies pa'-sed into the
sect of the Cainites
(3) Gnostics. It is evident from these ac-
counts th:it the Nicolaitans with whom ihcy were
acquainted were (inostics; since they impute to
Ihem the distinctive tenets and practices of the
Gnostics. But in the short allusion in Rev. ii :6,
15. there is nothing to identify the tenets or con-
duct alluded to with (inosticism. even supposing
that Gnosticism, properly so called, existed in the
Apostolic age, which to say the least, has not been
proved to be the case. So that the conjecture
mentioned by Moshcim, and which Tertullian ap-
pears to favor, may be regarded as probable, that
the Nicolaitans mentioned in Revelation had er-
roneously been confounded with a party of Gnos-
tics formed at a later period by one Nicolas.
The ingenious conjecture of Michaelis is worthy
of consideration, who supposes that by Nicolaitans
( Rev. ii :6, 15) the same class of persons is intend-
ed whom St. Peter (2 Pet. ii:i5) describes as
folUnvers of the zvay of Balaam; and that their
name, Nicolaitans. is merely a Greek translation
of their Hebrew designation. The only objection
which occurs to us against this very ingenious
and probable supposition arises from the circum-
stance that, in tlie passage in Rev. ii:l4, 15, both
'they that hold the doctrine of Balaam.' and
'the Nicolaitans.' are specified, and are distin-
guished from each other: 'So hast thou also," the
Nicolaitans, as well as the Balaamites, mentioned
in the previous verse. So that whatever general
agreement there might be between those two
classes of heretics — and their collocation in the
passage before us seems to imply that there was
such agreement — it appears equally evident that
some distinction also must have separated them
the one from the other. R. L.
NICOLAS (nrk'o-las), (Gr. NikAXoos, uik-oV ah-os,
conqueror of the people), a proselyte of Antioch,
and one of the seven deacons (Acts vi:5), A. D. 29.
Nothing further is known of him; but a large body
of unsafe tradition has been connected with his
name, under the supposition that he was the
founder of the heresy of the Nicolaitans, stigma-
tized in Rev. ii:6, 15. (See the preceding article).
NICOPOLIS (ni-kop'o-lts), (Gr. NiKiiTroXij, nik-op'-
o/is, city of victory), a city of Thrace, supposed to
be Nicopi, on the river Nessus, now Karasou,
which was here the boundary between Thrace and
Macedonia; and hence the city is sometimes reck-
oned as belonging to the latter.
In Titus iii:i2, Paul expresses an intention to
winter at Nicopolis, and invites Titus, then in
Crete, to join him there. There has been some
uncertainty in respect to the city intended, as there
were four of this name in Asia, five in Europe,
and one in Africa. It must have been one of three
cities: (i) Nicopolis in Thrace; (2) in Cilicia ;
or (3) in Epirus. The subscription to the Epistle
to Titus calls it "Nicopolis of Macedonia" — i. e.
Thrace. This subscription, however, is no
part of the inspired text, and there is little
doubt that the view of Jerome was correct,
which identifies the Pauline Nicopolis with the
noted city of that name in Epirus. It was built
by Augustus Csesar to commemorate his victory
over Antony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium
(B. C. 31). Its modern name is Paleofrevesa, or
"old Prevesa." The place has extensive ruins of
temples, theaters, aqueducts, and a small building
in the form of a pagan temple, which tradition
says was used by Paul as a house of prayer.
Some suppose that Paul was arrested here, and
taken to Rome for his final trial. (Kitto and
SchafT.) Between A. D. 64-65. or 65-66, or 66-67.
"The later history of Nicopolis is short. After
falling into decay, it was restored by Julian about
NIGER
1236
NILE
362; and afterwards it was captured by the Gotrhs
and destroyed, but again was restored by Justin-
ian, as Procopius, dc Aedif. iv :2, describes. It is
mentioned as the metropolis of Old Epirus by
Hierocles about A. D. 530, and retained that posi-
iiun in the ecclesiastical organization; but a late
mediaeval list of cities that changed their names
implies that Prevesa had taken its place and dig-
nity. There are many remains of the ancient city,
on which the guide-books of Murray, Baedeker,
etc., may be consulted." (W. M. Ramsay, Hast-
ings' Bib. Diet.).
NIGER (m'jer), (Gr. ^lyep, nee^er, Acts xiii:i).
Surname of Simeon, one of the prophets and
teachers of Antioch when Paul and Barnabas re-
turned thither after carrying the contributions of
the brethren to the poor saints at Jerusalem. (See
Simeon.)
NIGHT (nit), (Heb. ^"X lah'yil; ^% lah'yel-
aw ; Gr. n/f, nooks).
Besides representing these properly equivalent
Hebrew and Greek words, 'night' stands in A. V.
once for 'darkness' (Job x.xvi:io: R. V. 'dark-
ness'); thrice for 'twilight' (Is. v. II, R. V.
'night'; Is. xxi:4; lix:io, R. V. 'twilight'); and
four times for 'evening' (Gen. xlix:27, R. V.
'even'; Lev. vi:20, R. V. 'evening'; Job vii:4, R.
V. 'night'; Ps. xxx:5, R. V. 'night'; R. V. marg.
'even'); 'night season' (Job xxx:i7), and 'night
seasons' (Ps. xviiiy); 'to pass the night' occurs
Dan. vi:l8, and in the New Testament we have
'midnight' (Mark xiii:35 ; Luke xi:5 ; Acts xvi:
25; xx:7); 'to continue all night' (Luke vi:i2);
'a night and a day' (2 Cor. xi:25). R.V. omits
'night' on textual grounds from four passages
where the word appears in A. V., viz., Matt.
xxvii:64; Mark xiv :27 ; John vii:5o; 2 Pet. iii:lo.
(James Patrick, Hastings' Bih. Diet.) (See
Day; Time.)
Figurative. The term of human life is usually
called a day in Scripture; but in one passage it is
called night, to be followed soon by day, 'the day
is at hand' (Rom. viii;i2). Being a time of dark-
ness, the image and shadow of death, in which
the beasts of prey go forth to devour, it was made
a symbol of a season of adversity and trouble, in
which men prey upon each other, and the strong
tyrannize over the weak (Is. xxi:i2; Zech. xiv:
6. 7). Hence continued day, or the absence of
night, implies a constant state of quiet and happi-
ness, undisturbed by the vicissitudes of peace and
war. Night is also put, as in our own language,
for a time of ignorance and helplessness (Mic.
iii:6). In John ix:4 night represents death, a
necessary result of the correlative usage which
makes life a day. In the beautiful passage,
"There shall be no night there" (Rev. xxi:25;
xxii:s), the meaning is that heaven is a place
where no sorrow or sin or death finds entrance.
NIGHT HAWK (nit hak). The Heb. C^rin,
takh-mawce' , is uncertain in meaning. .Some have
rendered it "ostrich," others "owl" (Lev. xi:i6;
Deut. xiv:i5). (See O.strich; Owl.)
NIGHT MARCHES (nit march'es),(Num. ix:2l,
"whether it was by day or by night that the cloud
was taken uj) they journeyed"). They made night
marches doubtless to escape their enemies.
NIGHT MONSTER (nit mon'ster), (Heb.-'^'^'."'.
leeheth' , Is. xp<xiv:i4, marg.). The text has
screech owl, but the marginal reading is preferable.
"The reference is to a nocturnal specter similar to
the ShiU of tlie Arabs. All nations have similar
apparitions in their legends." (See Owl; Night
Hawk.)
NIGHT VISION (nit vizh'un), (Heb. ^'"'^- V'l?
khaw-zone' lah'yel-a-w. Is. xxix:7; Chald. **^
**"? .?, khez-vaw' lay'leh-yaic, Dan. ii:i9, etc.).
NIGHT WATCH (nit woch). Before the Cap-
tivity the night was divided into three parts, or
watches, the first extending to midnight, the
second to the crowing of the cock, the third to sun-
rise. During the time of Christ the night was di-
vided into four watches of three hours each.
NILE (nil). The name Nile, although not oc-
curring in the A. V., is often referred to under dif-
ferent names and titles.
1. Shee-khore' (Heb. I'"'?, T'n"^, inB d^rk
turbid), seems to be indicative of a very dark
color (Is. xxiii:3; Josh. xiii:i3; i Chron. xiii:5;
comp. Gen. xv:i8).
2. Yell-ore' (Heb. ''^', channel ; the same as the
ancient Egyptian Atur, Aur, and the Coptic eierc
or iaro (Ps. l.xxviii :44; ,Ezek. xxix :3, sq.; xxx :
12; comp. Is. xxxii :2i ; Job xxviii :io).
3. "The Nachal of Egypt" (Heb. "!!?'? ^05.
nakh'al mits-rali-yim, stream of Egypt "has
generally been understood to mean 'the torrent' or
'brook of Egypt,' and to designate a desert stream
at Rhinocorura, now El-'Areesh, on the eastern
border. This name must doubtless signify the
Nile, for it occurs in cases parallel to those where
.Shihor is employed (Num. xxxiv :5 ; Josh, xv :4,
47; I Kings viii :65 ; 2 Kings xxiv:7; Is. xxvii:
12), both designating the easternmost or Pelusiac
branch of the river as the border of the Philistine
territory, where the Egyptians equally put the
border of their country toward Kanaan or Kanana
(Canaan). It remains for us to decide whether
the name signifies the 'brook of Egypt,' or whether
Nachal be a Hebrew form of Nile. The Hebrew
word nachal might have been adopted as very
similar in sound to an original proper name"
(Smith, Bib. Diet.).
4. "The rivers of Cush" (Heb. ^"^^ "iD.^, nah'-
ar-ay koosJi), are mentioned only in the perplex-
ing prophecy contained in Is. xviii. By it we must
probably conclude "the rivers of Ethiopia" to be
the confluents or tributaries of the Nile.
5. "The river of Egypt" (Heb. =!-VP ''D^.nah'-
a> mits-rah'yim), mentioned with the Euphrates
(Gen. xv:l8).
6. The Nile is sometimes poetically called "The
Sea" (Heb. ^j, yawm. Is. xviii:2; Nah. iii:8; Job
xli:3i, and perhaps Is. xix:5), so known among
the Arabs at the present time. " 'The river' clearly
applies to the Nile in Is. xix :5, and there, also, in
a parallelism with the Nile as 'the sea.' And the
Nile has been smitten in that portion of it which
is known as 'the seven streams.' five of those
streams being now closed from sight" (Trumbull,
Kadcsh-barnca, p. 348, sq.). (Mc. & Str. Cyc.;
Barnes, Bib. Diet.)
This great river of Egypt and of Africa, is prob-
ably the second longest river in the world, its en-
tire length being estimated at 4,000 miles. It is
connectefl with the earliest history of the Egyptian
and the Israelitish nations (Exod. ii:3; vii :20, 21;
Num. xi :5 ; Ps. cv:29; Jer. xlvi 7, 8; Zech. xiv:
17, 18). The Nile is not named in the New Tes-
tament. The discovery of the true source of the
Nile, and the reason for its annual overflow, are
two scientific problems which have been discussed
for upward of 2.000 years. The course of the stream
is now known for about 3,300 miles, and with two
NILE
1237
NIMROD
interruptions — the cataract of Syene (Assouan)
and the Upper Cataract — it is claimed by Bae-
deker's Handbook on Lon'cr Egypt to be navi-
gable throughout nearly the whole of that distance.
But as there are many other cataracts, this state-
ment cannot be correct. The principal stream is
now known to be the White Nile, while the Blue
or Black Nile is of greater importance in con-
tributing to the annual inundation of the lower
river. The two streams unite at the town of
Khartoom, the capital of Nubia, and from this
point to the mouths of the stream at Damietta and
Rosetta, upward of i,8oo miles, it falls 1,240 feet,
and attains its greatest width a little below Khar-
toom and a little above Cairo, at each of which
places it is about i.ioo yards wide. The source of
the White Nile is doubtless Lake Victoria Nyanza,
the largest part of which lies south of the equator,
and from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the
sea. The White Nile is so named from the color
of the clay with which its waters are stained. The
Blue Nile resembles a mountain torrent, being
liable to rise suddenly with the Abyssinian rains
and sweep away whatever it encounters in its
rapidly descending course. The source of the
Blue Nile is high up in the Abyssinian mountains,
from 6,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea level, and
in springs which are regarded with superstitious
veneration by the neighboring people. A number
of festivals were celebrated in connection with the
annual rise of the Nile, which appear from the
monuments to have been common as early as the
fourteenth century B. C. The height of the Nile
was measured by the Nilometer, a square well
The Nilometer.
having in its center an octagonal column, on which
were inscrilDed the ancient Arabic measures and
Cufic inscriptions. This was erected in A. D.
716, and was used to determine the height of the
overflow, upon which was based the rate of taxa-
tion. The government, however, cheated the poor
people by false statements of the overflow, indi-
cated by this measurement. The papyrus reeds—
whence paper is designated — the flags, the lotus.
and the various colored flowers formerly beautify-
ing the banks of the river have nearly .-ill disap-
peared, thus fulfilling prophecy (Is. xix :6, ;).
This river, so intimately associated with the early
history of the human race, is a favorite resort for
tourists, who can go in steamers as far as the First
Cataract, near Assouan (Syene), where were the
great quarries which supplied stone for ancient
Egyptian monuments, and from Philx up to
Aboo-Simbel and the Second Cataract. The Nile
voyage, broken by donkey rides and visits to the
pyramids, tombs, and ruins of temples and palaces
of the Pharaohs, is one of the greatest enjoyments
and best recreations of body and mind. (Schaff,
Bib. Diet.)
"A curious legend in the Targum describes the
burial of Joseph's coffin in the Nile and its redis-
covery by Moses; the Egyptians never, of course,
used the river in this way."
NIMRA (ntm'ra), (Hcb. ^yr), nim-raw',
limpid). See Beth-Nimrah and Nimrim.
NIMRIM (nlm'rim), (Hcb. "":r^ nim-reem' , a
stream of the leopards, or limpid, pure), a small
stream in the territory of Moab (Is. xv:6; Jer.
xlviii:34.)
Its location is not certain. Some identify it
with Beth-nimrah in the valley of the Jordan,
others with Wady Nenieirah at the south end of
the Dead Sea. Tristram places it higher up the
valley, where there exists an old Moabite city.
Springs of Nemeirah, by name, with many well
watered gardens still in cultivation.
NIMROD (nim'rod), (Heb. ''"'r^ nim-rode',
Sept. Ne^piiS, nee-brode'), a son of Cush, the eldest
son of Ham (Gen. x:8-lo).
Five sons of Cush are enumerated in verse 7
in the more usual manner of this chapter ; but a
change of phrase introduces Nimrod.
(1) Personal Name. This difference may in-
dicate that while, in relation to the other five, the
names have a national and geographical reference,
this appellation is exclusively personal. It denotes
intensively, the extremely impious rebel. Hence
we conceive that it was not his original proper
name, but was affixed to him afterwards, perhaps
even after his death, as a characteristic appellative.
No other persons connected with this work must
be considered as answerable for the opinion which
the writer of this article thinks to rest upon prob-
able grounds, that the earlier part of the book of
Genesis consists of several independent and com-
plete compositions, of the highesit antiquity and
authority, marked by some difference of style, and
having clear indications of commencement in each
instance. If this supposition be admitted, a reason
presents itself for the citation of a proverbial
phrase in ch. x 19. The single instance of minute
circumstantiality, in so brief a relation, seems to
imply that the writer lived near the age of Nimrod,
while his history was still a matter of tra-
ditional notoriety, and the comparison of any hero
with him was a familiar form of speech. It is also
supposed that those, not fragments, but com-
plete, though short and separate compositions (of
which eight or more are hypothetically enumerated
in J. Pye Smith's Seripture and Geology, p. 202),
were, under divine authority, prefixed by Moses
to his own history. Their series has a continuity
generally, but not rigorously exact. If we place
ourselves in such a point of time, suppose the age
succeeding Nimrod, which might be the third cen-
tury after the Deluge, we may see how naturally
the origination of a common phrase would rise in
the writer's mind; and that a motive of usefulness
would be suggested with it. But both these ideas
involve that of nearness to the time; a period in
which the country traditions were yet fresh, and
an elucidation of them would be acceptable and
NIMROD
1238
NINEVEH
consonant to general feeling. The following :s a
close translation of the passage in which Nimrod
is mentioned; 'And Cush begat Nimrod: he be-
gan [opened a course of action, led the way] to
be a hero in the earth [or in the land]: he was a
hero at the chase in the presence of Jehovah; on
which account the saying is, Like Nimrod, the
hero of the chase, in the presence of Jehovah. And
the chief [city] of his dominion was Babel; and
[he founded] Ezek and Akkad, and Kalneh, in
the land of Shinar.'
(2) Strength and. Courage. Interpreters,
with scarcely an exception, from the Septuagint
and the Targums down to our own times, under-
stand the whole case thus: that Nimrod was a
man of vast bodily strength, and eminent for cour-
age and skill in the arts of hunting down and cap-
turing or killing the dangerous animals, which
probably were both very numerous, and frequently
of enormous size ; that, by these recommendations,
he made himself the favorite of bold and enter-
prising young men, who readily joined his hunting
expeditions ; that hence he took encouragement
the same reason that so many places there are
named after him. Thus we have the Birs Nim-
roud, the ancient Borsippa, near the ruins of
Babylon, Tel Nimroud, near Baghdad, the dam
Suhr el-Nimroud, across the Tigris near Mosul,
and the mound of Nimroud, the ancient Calah.
To all appearance, he was regarded in later times
in his native country as a great builder also. He
seems to have been looked upon by the Babylo-
nians as the builder of Babylon, and the bilingual
Creation story apparently attributes to him the
completion of the K-sagila, the great temple tower
in that city, which was certainly of the type of
the To-wer of Babel, even if it were not that erec-
tion itself. This may account for the connection
of Nimrod with the catastrophe of the confusion
of tongues, ascribed to him in the East both in
comparatively ancient and in more recent times."
NIMSHI (mm-shi), (Heb. "V^^?, «m-i^<r', saved),
the grandfather of Jehu (2 Kings ix:2, 14, 20); com-
monly called "father" (i Kings xix:l6; 2 Chron.
xxii:7), B. C. about 950.
The Great Mound of Nimrod.
to break the patriarchial union of venerable and
peaceful subordination to set himself up ao a mil-
itary chieftain, assailing and subduing men, train-
ing his adherents into formidable troops, by their
aid subduing the inhabitants of Shinar and its
neighboring districts ; and that, for consolidating
and retaining his power, now become a despotism,
he employed his subjects in building forts, which
became towns and cities, that \vhich was after-
wards called Babel being the principal.
(3) Fables and Ijegends. As a great part of
the ancient mythology and idolatry arose from the
histories of chiefs and sages, decorated with alle-
gorical fables, it is by no means improbable that
the life and actions of Nimrod gave occasion to
stories of this kind. Hence, some have supposed
him to have been signified by the Indian Bacchus,
deriving thajt name from Bar-Chus, 'son of Cush :'
and, it is probable, by the Persian giant Gibber
(answering to the Hebrew Gibbor, 'mighty man,'
'hero,' in Gen. x :8, 9) ; and by the Greek Orion,
whose fame as a 'mighty hunter' is celebrated by
Homer, in the Odyssey, xi :S7i-4- The Persian
and the Grecian fables are both represented by the
•well-known and magnificent constellation.
J. P. S.
Prof. T. G. Pinches, Hastings' Bib. Diet., says :
"The legends that have been preserved concerning
Nimrod would seem to show that his fame in the
country of his exploits rests more upon what was
known of him there than upon the somewhat
meager account in (jcnesis, and it is prcjhahly fur
NINEVE (nfn'e-ve), (Gr. N(«u/, nin-yoo-ee'), the
Greek form of Nineveh (Luke xi:32j.
NINEVEH (nin'e-veh), (Heb. ^)K\ nee-nev-ay' \
Gr. Nt«ui}, nin-yoo-ay' : also Ntwuf, nin-yoo-ee'),
meaning the dwelling of Ninus.
(1) Location. A famous city of the ancient
world, capital of the great Assyrian empire, which
stood on the eastern bank of the river Tigris, op-
posite to the present Mosul ; its actual site being
most probably the same with that of Nunia and
the tomb of Jonah, about three-fourths of a mile
from the river, in the midst of ruins, north lati-
tude 36° 20' 17"; east longitude 43° 10' 17".
(2) Name. The Bible makes the city a sort of
colony from Babylon or Babel, Shinar (see Babel,
Tower of), stating (Gen. x:ii), 'out of that land
(Babel, etc., in the land of Shinar) went forth
Asshur and builded Nineveh.' A similar tradition
is indicated in Micah v:6. The native monu-
ments show that the tradition is correct, and that
Nineveh was once included in the boundaries of
the Babylonian empire. (See Driver in Ho-
garth's Authority and Archceology, pp. 29, sq^s
In fact it seems to have taken its name from the
Babylonian city of Nina on the Euphrates, which
is mentioned by Diodorus (ii:3, 7). quoting prob-
ably from Ctesias.
the name of Nineveh is written NinuA and
NinA in the cuneiform inscriptions. A popular
etymology connected it with the Assyrian nunu,
■|i>li,' al a very early date, since tile name is ideo-
NINEVEH
1239
NINEV^EK
graphically represented by the piclure of a fish
inside the enclosure of a city. But it seems really
to have been derived from the title of the Baby-
lonian goddess Nina, the daughter of Ea, who was
identified with the Semitic Istar. Nina is the
original of the Greek form Ninos." (A. H. Sayce,
Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
(3) History. After the simple statement in
Genesis, the sacred record is for a long time
entirely silent respecting Nineveh, which, we may
therefore presume, remained inconsiderable for
many generations. At length, some fifteen hun-
ired years after the first mention of the place, in
the days of Jeroboam H, king of Israel (B. C.
825), Nineveh again enters by name on the biblical
record, having meanwhile grown into a mighty
power. This reappearance of Nineveh is acci-
dental, and shows that the Bible does not pro-
fess to give any orderly and systematic history
of the world. Other countries come on the
scene and disappear, just as the course of events
in the kingdoms of Judah and Israel seem to re-
quire or may chance to occasion.
Nineveh is described in the book of Jonah as
'that great city,' 'an exceeding great city of three
days' journey,' probably in a straight line through
the place, as the large cities of Asia stood on a great
extent of country, having gardens, and even fields,
in the midst of them; and Jonah is said to 'enter
into the city a day's journey' Uh. iii:4) before he
began to foretell its overthrow ; that is, as is most
likely, he penetrated into the heart of the place,
as being that which was most suitable for deliver-
ing his burden. The magnitude of the place may
also be gathered from what is said in the last
verse of the book: 'That great city, wherem are
more than six score thousand persons that cannot
discern between their right hand and their left
hand, and also much cattle' (grazing). The pop-
ulation of a place must have been immense in
which there were no fewer than 120.000 children —
young children, the language employed seems to
denote. It also appears from the same book that
the state of society was highly complex, organized
in divers ranks from the king and the noble to
the peasant; and, if we may argue from the exact-
ness with which the number of children is given.
Jewish Captives from Lachish.
we should be justified in asserting that the people
were in an advanced stage of civilization, seeing
that their social statistics were well attended to
and carefully preserved. Civilization, however,
had brought luxury, and luxury corruption of
morals, for 'their wickedness had gone up before
God' (ch. i:2). Yet was not their iniquity of the
lowest kind, for the Ninevites repented at the
preaching of Jonah.
(4) Prophecies Ag^ainst Nineveh,. A few
years later we find the prophet Nahum (B. C.
735) entrusted with 'the burden of Nineveh.'
From this book it would appear that the repent-
ance of the city, if sincere, was not durable. There-
fore was the anger of Jehovah about to fall upon
it and make it a perpetual waste. (See Sen-
.NACHERIB.)
Expressions that are employed tend to give a
high idea of the size and splendor of the place ;
it had many strongholds, and many gates with
bars, probably of brass; its inhabitants were 'many
as the locusts;' it had multiplied its merchants
above the stars of heaven; its crowned (princes)
were as the locusts, and its captains as the great
grasshoppers (ch. iii:i2-i7). So her wealth was
prodigious : 'There is none end of the store and
glory out of all the pleasant furniture.' The rea-
son assigned for the destruction of the city shows
how great was its wickedness : 'Out of the house
of thy gods w-ill I cut otT the graven image and
the molten image; I will make thy grave; for
thou art vile' (ch. i :i4). 'Woe to the bloody city I
It is all full of lies and robbery' (ch. iii:l).
Shortly after (B. C. 713) the delivery of this
prophecy Sennacherib, king of Assyria, having
invaded Judasa. suffered a signal defeat by the
special act of God: 'So Sennacherib departed,
and went and returned and dwelt at Nineveh' (2
Kings xix:36). Very brief, however, was his
dwelling there, for as he was worshiping in the
house of Nisroch, his god, Adrammelech and Sha-
rezer, his sons, smote him with the sword; and
Esarhaddon, his son, reigned in his stead (2
Kings xix:37). The predicted punishment of the
city was now approaching. Zephaniah gave
his authority that it would come (ch. ii:i3). (See
also Is. xiv:24, sq.) : 'The Lord will stretch out
his hand against the north and destroy Assyria,
and will make Nineveh a desolation, and dry like
a wilderness.' The language which immediately
ensues goes to confirm the view which has been
given of the commercial greatness (it was the
entrepot for the trade of Eastern and Western
Asia), the surpassing opulence, the high culture,
the immense population, and the deep criminality
of the city of Nineveh.
Winged Deity.
From Strabo (xvi. p. 737), the place appears to
have been much greater than even Babylon ; and
from Diodorus Sic. (ii:3), that it measured 480
stadia in circumference, having very high and
broad walls, which, aided by the river, rendered
it impregnable.
This safety was, however, merely imaginary.
Sardanapalus, who had a full share of the vices of
his subjects, endured in the eighth century before
Christ a siege of three years'duration at the hands
of the Medes, under Arbaces, which led to the
overthrow of the city (Diod. Sic. ii:26). But so
large and so powerful a capital was not easily de-
stroyed. Nineveh was the seat of an Assyrian
kingdom till the year B. C. 625, when it was taken
by Nabopolassar of Babylon and Cyaxares, king
of the Medes, which led to the destruction of the
NINEVEH
1240
NISROCH
Assyrian kinsdnm (Herod. i:To6). Nineveh
flourished no more. Strabo (xvi p. TiT) repre-
sents it as lying waste; though in the times of the
Roman emperors some remains of it seem to have
survived, as a Nineveh on the Tigris is mentioned
in Tacitus (Aiinal. xii:l3), and is characterized
as a castctlitin, or fort, probably some small forti-
fication raised out of the ruins of the city for pre-
datory purposes. Something of the kind was found
there at a later period, for in the thirteenth cen-
tury Abulfaragius makes mention of a casteltum
there.
(5) Ruins. The present remains comprise a
rampart and foss, four miles in circuit, with a
moss-covered wall about twenty feet in height.
Mosul, with which Nineveh is commonly idet'
tified, stands on the opposite, or western bank ot
the Tigris, and lies so near the river that its
streets are often flooded — a circumstance which
calls to mind some of the terms employed by tlie
prophetic writers before referred to. This place,
like its great prototype, carries on a trade (though
to a small extent) between the East and the West.
The climate is stated to be very healthy; the av-
erage temperature of summer not exceeding 66°
Fahr. ; but in spring, during the floods, epidemics
are common, though not fatal.
See Niebuhr, Reiseb ii. 353, 368; Ives, Voyas^e,
pp. 327, 55^. ,• Rosenmiiller, W//<?;-M. i:2,ii6; Bruns,
Erdbeschreibung, ii. i, 199, sq.; Mannert, v, 440,
King Feasting (from Bas-relief).
The ruins at first sight present a range of hills.
From these hills large stones are constantly dug
out, from vi'hich probably a bridge over the Tigris
has been built. Vast libraries have been found,
and records of a civilization extending far back
into the dawn of history.
Jonah's connection with the city is still pre-
served in a tomb which bears his name; but how
far back in antiquity this building runs, it is now
impossible to gay. The tomb stands on a hill, and
is covered by a mosque which is held in great ven-
eration. Bricks, partly whole, partly in frag-
ments, and pieces of gypsum with inscriptions in
the arrow-head character, are found from time to
time. Landseer, in his Sabaan Researches, gives
an engraving of cylinders dug up at Nineveh,
which he states to be numerous in the East, and
supposes to have been employed as signets ; they
Impressions of tlu Signets of tlie Kings of Assyria and
Egypt (Original Size).
are of jasper, chalcedony and jade, and bear astro-
nomical emblems, the graving of which, espec-
ially considering the hardness of the materials,
shows a high state of art.
sq.; Kinneir's Persia, 256-9. Olivier, Vogaye en
Turquie, iv 1265 ; Ainsworth's Assyria, p. 256,
(Newmat!, Thrones and Palaces of Babylon and
Nineveh; Smith, Hist, of Assiir-bani-pal; As-
syria from the Earliest Times, and Recent As-
syrian Discoveries (in British Museuin) ; Fresh
Light from Ancient Monuments, A. H. Sayce ;
The Monuments and the Old Test., Price. (See
Assyria.) J. R. B.
NINEVITE (nm'e-vite), (Gr. Nii'ci/fTT)!, 7tin-yoo-
ee'tace, Ninevite), an inhabitant of Nineveh (Luke
xi:3o),
NISAN (ni'san), (Heb. 19''^, nec-sawn), the first
month of the Hebrew civil year Abib, by which
name this month is called in the Pentateuch
(Exod. xiii:4; xxiii:i5; Deut. xvi:i), means an
ear of grain, a green ear ; and hence 'the month
Abib,' is 'the month of green ears.' It thus de-
noted the condition of the barley in the climate of
Egypt and Palestine in this month. Nisan, other-
wise Abib, began with the new moon of April
or, according to the Rabbins, of March. It is men-
tioned by name twice only (Neh. ii:i; Esth.
iii:7).
NISROCH (nis'rok), (Heb. T?^, nis-roke').
The Hebrew form of the name of a deity of the
Assyrians, in whose temple Sennacherib was wor-
shiping when slain by his sons (2 Kings xix:37;
Is. xxxvii 138).
There has been much speculation as to the iden-
tity of this deity, and many wild theories have
been put forward concerning him. Some suggest
that the word refers to Noah's dove, which had
been made an object of worship. The word is now
usually supposed to mean great eagle. This bird
was held in peculiar veneration by the ancient Per-
sians; and was likewise worshiped by the Arabs
before the time of Mohammed. But the word re-
NITER
1241
NOAH
Nisroch.
ferstoa divinity represented
in tlie Assyrian tablets by a
;i;3 human form witli the wings
'"" and head of an eagle, ni
whose temple at Nmcveh
Sennacherio was murdered
by his sons Adrammelcch
and Sharezer (Nerual-
Sharezer, wliicli see) (2
Kings xix:^7; Is. xxxvii;38).
The etymology of the name,
even the Shemitic origin
of tlie word, is doubtful,
and nothing d e fi n i t e is
known of this deity.
Prof. T. G. Pinches,
liowever, Stat es in Hast-
ings' Bib. Diet, that "with regard to the form,
Nisroch, there arc two possible explanations:
Nisroch (ihe same as Esorach) may be lor Asu-
raku,a. lengthened form of Asur by the addition of
aku — the same termination as appears in Amaru-
duk (u), the Marduku (a personal name) of the
later contract tablets, in wliich case the preseiice
of the ending would seem to imply Accadian in-
fluence. On the other hand, the name may be
really a compound one, i.e. the well-known ap-
pellation of the god Asur with the Accadian name
of the moon-god Aku (compare Eri-Aku, 'servant
of the moon-god'=Arioch) attached to it. In sup-
port of this second etymology may be cited the
fact that Sennacherib's name contains the element
Sin, the common name of the moon-god in
Babylonia and Assyria, and the expression 'his
god' may refer to some such compound deity
as Asur-Aku, whom Sennacherib specially wor-
shiped."
NITEB (ni'ter), (Heb. "I'D5, neh'ther :Gr.viTpov,
nee'tron).
Now denotes satlpcter, nitrate of potash, but the
vlrpov or itilrtim of the ancients was a different
substance, natron, carbonate of soda. It occurs
as an incrustation on the ground in Egypt, Persia,
and elsewhere, and is also a constituent in the
water of certain saline lakes. The most famous
of the latter are the 'natron lakes' in Egypt. They
lie in the 'natron valley' about 60 miles W.N.W. of
Cairo. The deposit of these lakes includes an up-
per layer of common salt and a lower one of
natron (Wilkinson, Modern Egyft. i. 382, sq.).
Strabo mentions these Egyptian lakes (Geog. xvii,
i. 23), and also a similar lake in Armenia (ib. xi.
xiv:8). See also Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxi:io.
It is found in many other parts of the East. Vin-
egar has no effect upon common niter, and of
course this could not be meant by the wise man,
who in Prov. xxv :20 says, "As he that taketh
away a garment in cold weather, and as vinegar
upon niter, so is he that singeth songs to a heavy
heart." Now, as vinegar has no effect upon niter,
but upon natron or soda its action is very ob-
vious, it seems the English translation should have
been "natron." In Jer. ii :22 the same word again
is improperly used: "For though thou wash thee
with niter, and take thee much soap, yet thine in-
iquity is marked before me. saith the Lord God"
"The alkaline earth natron is obviously designed in
this passage. It is found as an impure carbonate
of soda on the surface of the earth in Eg>-pt and
Syria, and is also native in some parts of Africa in
hard strata or masses, and is called trona, being
used for the same purposes as the barilla of com-
merce. (See Neter.)
NO (no). See No-Amon; Thebes.
NOADIAH (na'a-di'ah), (Heb. ^1'}?''^. no-ad-
yaw', Jehovah convenes, Jah assembles).
!• A Levite, who had charge of the gold and
silver vessels brought back by Ezra from Babylon
to Jerusalem (Ezra viii:J3), B. C. about 459.
2. A propheiess, who attempted to frighten
Nehemiah from his purpose of building the wall
of Jerusalem (Neh. vi:i4), B. C. about 445.
NOAH (no'ah), (Heb. 0- or 0''^, no'ai/i, rest,
quiet), the second father of the human race.
/, He was the son of the second Lamcch,
the grandson of Methusalch, and the tenth in
descent from Adam.
The father of Noah must not be confounded
with the Lamech who was the fourth in descent
from Cain. There is another instance of the same
name in each line, Enoch ; but the periods of each
of the two couples must have been very different,
though we cannot exactly compare them, for the
history does not give the years of life in the line
of Cain. The two Lamechs, however, have one
remarkable circumstance in common ; to each of
them a fragment of inartificial poetry is attached
as his own composition. That of the Cainitic
Lamech is in Gen. iv :23, 24. That of the Sethite
now comes before us in oh. v :29, 30: 'Lamech
lived 182 years, and then begat a son, and he
called his name Noah, saying:
This shall comfort us
From our labor,
And from the sorrowful toils of our hands.
From the ground.
Which Jehovah hath cursed.'
The allusion is undoubtedly to the penal conse-
quences of the fall in earthly toils and sufferings,
and to the hope of a Deliverer excited by the
promise made to Eve. That this expectation was
grounded upon a divine communication we infer
from the importance attached to it, and the con-
fidence of its expression. (See this subject well
argued in Bishop Sherlock's Use and Intent of
Prophecy, Disc, iv.)
"In Gen. ix:i7, Noah appears as the hero of
the Flood; in ix:20-29. as the first discoverer of
the art of making wine. That these two stories
come from different sources is probable, because
in the earlier Accadian history of the Flood that
event is immediately followed by the translation
of Sitnapisti (Noah), perhaps referred to in chap.
vi:9; comp. v:24.
"Amongst the Talmudists (e. g., Aboda Zara
646, Sanhedrin 566) it was customary to speak of
'the seven precepts of the sons of Noah, by which
they meant those precepts that were supposed to
be already binding upon mankind at large before
Abraham and outside of his family. Other enu-
merations besides seven are also found." (F. H.
Woods. Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
(1) Sons of God. The descendants of Seth
had become designated as 'the sons of God,' faith-
ful and obedient ; the women of the Cainite race
were called by a term evidently designed to form
an appellation of the contrary import, 'daughters
of men,' of impious and licentious men. These
women possessed beauty and blandishments, by
which they won the affections of unwary men,
and intermarriages upon a great scale took place.
As is usual in such alliances, the worse part
gained the ascendancy. The offspring became
more depraved than the parents, and a universal
corruption of minds and morals took place. Many
of them became 'giants, the mighty men of old,
men of renown' (nefhilitn), apostates (as the
word implies), heroes, warriors, plunderers, 'fill-
ing the earth with violence.'
(2) Noah as a Preacher. God mercifully af-
forded a respite of 120 years (ch. vi:3; i Pet. iii :
20; 2 Pet. ii:S), during which Noah sought to
NOAH
1242
NO-AMON
work salutary impressions upon their minds, and
to bring them to repentance. Thus he was 'a
preacher of righteousness,' exercising faith in the
testimony of God, moved with holy reverence,
obeying the divine commands, and, by the con-
trast of his conduct, condemning the world (Heb.
xi:7); and probably he had during a long pre-
vious period labored in that benevolent and pious
work.
(3) In the Ark. At last the threatening was
fulfilled. All humankind perished in the waters,
except this eminently favored and righteous man,
with his three sons (born about loo years before)
and the four wives. (See Deluge.,)
(4) Noah's Sacrifice. At the appointed time
this terrible state of the earth ceased, and a new
surface was disclosed to the occupation and indus-
try of the delivered family. In some places that
surface would be washed bare to the naked rock,
in others sand would be deposited, which would
be long uncultivable ; but by far the larger por-
tion would be covered with rich soil With agri-
culture and its allied arts the antediluvians must
have been well acquainted. (See Adam.) The
four men, in the vigor of their mental faculties
and bodily strength, according to the then exist-
ing scale of human life, would be at no loss for
the profitable application of their powers. Imme-
diately after the desolating judgment the merciful
Jehovah gave intimations of his acceptance of the
sacrifice and thanksgivings of Noah and his fam-
ily, and of his gracious purposes revealed in the
form of a solemn covenant for the continual ben-
efit of them and their posterity. The beautiful
phenomenon of the rainbow was put to a new and
significant use. As infallibly certain as is the pro-
duction of a rainbow under certain conditions of
the atmosphere, so certain and sure of fulfillment
are the promises of Jehovah.
(5) Story of the Flood Preserved. As the
flood affected equally the common ancestry of
mankind, all nations that have not sunk into the
lowest barbarism would be likely to preserve the
memory of the chief person connected with it ;
and it would be a natural fallacy that every peo-
ple should attach to itself a principal interest in
that catastrophe, and regard that chief person as
the founder of their own nation, and belonging to
their own locality. Hence, we can well account
for the traditions of so many peoples upon this
capital fact of ancient history, and the chief per-
son in it; the Xisuthrus of the Chaldaeans, with
whom is associated a remarkable number of pre-
cise circumstances, corresponding to the Mosaic
narrative (Alex. Polyhist. in the Chronicle of Eu-
sebius, so happily recovered by Mr. Zohrab, in the
Armenian Version, and published by him in i8i8) ;
the Phrygian Noe of the celebrated Apamean
medal, which, besides Noah and his wife with an
ark, presents a raven, and a dove with an olive-
branch in its mouth (figured in Bryant's Anc.
Myth., vol. iii) ; the Manes of the Lydians (Mr.
W. J. Hamilton's Asia Min., iii. 383; see Na-
tions, Dispersion of) ; the Deucalion of the Syr-
ians and the Greeks, of whose deluge the account
given by Lucian is a copy almost exactly circum-
stantial of that in the book of Genesis (Dea Syria:
Luciani 0pp. iii :457, ed. Reitz ; Bryant iii;28);
the many coincidences in the Greek mythology
in respect of Saturn, Janus, and Bacchus; the
traditions of the aboriginal Americans, as stated
by Clavigero, in his Histor-y of Mexico; and many
others. (See Deluge.) J. P. S.
(6) Character. That the conduct of Noah cor-
responded to the faith and hope of his father we
have no reason to doubt. The brevity of the his-
tory satisfies not human curiosity. He was born
Ooo years before the Deluge. We may reasonably
suppose that through that period he maintained
the character given of him: 'Noah found favor
in the eyes of the Lord. Noah was a just man,
and perfect in his generations. Noah walked with
God' (Gen. vi :8, 9). These words declare his
piety, sincerity, and integrity, that he maintained
habitual communion with the Father of Mercies,
by the exercises of devotion, and that he was an
inspired instrument of conveying the will of God
to mankind. The wickedness of the human race
had long called upon the wisdom and justice of
God for some signal display of his displeasure,
as a measure of righteous government and an ex-
ample to future ages.
2. (Heb. '''?^, no-aw' , motion), one of the five
daughters of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi;33; xxvii:i;
xxxvi:li; Josh. xvii:3), B. C. about 1170. She.
with her sisters, obtained an inheritance in the
Promised Land, as her father had no sons.
NO-AMON (no-a'raon), (Heb. Si, no, the home
of Amon, place or portion of Amon).
A populous and celebrated city of Egypt, and
the capital of Upper Egypt, named after the god
Amon, and called by the Greeks Diospolis, or
"city of Zeus," but better known by the name
of "Thebes." It was situated on both sides of the
Nile, from 400 to soo miles from its mouth. The
only mention of the city in the Bible occurs in
the prophecies. It is called No (Ezek. xxx:i4-
16; Jer. xlvi:2S), and, margin, No-amon, ren-
dered 'populous No" (Nah. iii:8).
The Nile valley at Thebes resembles a vast
amphitheater, enclosed by the grand forms of the
Arabian and Libyan mountains, the river running
through nearly the center of this space. The area
surrounded by these mountain-bulwarks is filled
with ruins — avenues of sphinxes and statues, miles
in length, at the end of which were massive col-
umnal structures, the entrances to immense tem-
ples and palaces, and colossal images of the an-
cient Pharaohs, relics of regal magnificence so
extensive and stupendous that the beholder might
well imagine all the grandest ruins of the Old
World had been brought together on this Theban
plain. The extent of the city has been variously
given by historians. According to Strabo, it cov-
ered an area five miles in length and three miles
in breadth, and Diodorus makes its circuit about
the same. Wilkinson also infers from its ruins
that its length must have been about five and a
fourth miles and its breadth three miles. Others
suppose that the ancient city of Thebes, or No-
amon, included the three sites of Luxor, Karnak,
and Thebes, and that in the days of its glory,
from B. C. 1600 to B. C. 800, it stretched thirty-
three miles on both banks of the Nile. Its ruins
are the most notable on the banks of that historic
river. It became celebrated in the eleventh
dynasty, and suffered in the thirteenth because of
the invasion of the Hyksos. In the seventeenth
century B. C. Amosis liberated the country and it
reached its height of magnificence. The splendor
of the city departed with the removal of the resi-
dence of the Pharaohs to the Delta. In its ruins
it is great. Its temple of Karnak is a marvel. Its
architecture is a problem of mechanical skill. Its
great hall contains 134 columns, the loftiest 75 feet
in height and 12 feet in diameter; the hall itself
is 175 feet wide by 329 feet long. Every stone a
book and every column a library in itself. The
R. V. corrects some terms of reference to this
place. In Jer. xlvi :25, the "multitude of No" is
rendered "Amon of No ;" in Nah. iii :8, the "pop-
NOB
1243
NOISE, NOISED
ulous No" is changed to "No-Amon." (See
Thebes.)
NOB (nob), (Heb. 2J, nobe; Sept. No^/Sa, iwmba),
a city of Benjamin, in the vicinity of Jerusalem,
belonging to the priests, and where the tabernacle
was stationed in the time of Saul (i Sam. xxi:2;
xxiiig, II, 19; Neh. xi:32; Is. x:32).
From the last of these texts it would appear that
Jerusalem was visible from Nob, which, therefore,
must have been situated somewhere upon the ridge
of the Mount of Olives, northeast of the city.
Dr. Robinson states that he diligently sought
along the ridge for some traces of an ancient site
which might be regarded as that of Nob, but with-
out the slightest success (Bibl. Researches, ii :
150). Kiepert's Map places Nob at El-Isd-wtch,
not far from AnAtH, about a mile northwest of
Jerusalem. Lietttenant Condcr argues {Quar.
Statement of the "Palestine Exploration Fund,"
January, 1875, p. 34, sq.) that Nob is identical
with MizpEH, and both with the modern Neby
Samwil.
NOBAH (no'bah), (Heb. '^^^.fio'iaU, a hark).
!• A warrior, probably of Manasseh. who dur-
ing the wars east of the Jordan captured Kenath
on the western side of Jebel Hauran and gave the
town his own name (Num. xxxii:42), B. C. about
1617.
2. A city mentioned in connection with Jogbe-
hah, of Gad (Judg. viiini). From the connec-
tion its site must be on the boundary between Gad
and the Arabian desert.
NOBLE (no'b'l), the translation of three He-
brew and two Greek words:
1. Yak-keer' (Heb. "'"I?-, dear, rare), a term
applied (Ezra iv:io) to Asnappek (which see).
2. Par-tam' (Heb. ODII; Lat. primus), a noble,
or prince among the Persians (Esth. i:3; iii:i,
A. V. "princess"), and the Jews (Exod. xxiv:ii;
I Kings xxi:8, etc.).
3. So-rake' (Heb. p!!'^, reddish), a vine of a
finer and richer kind, probably so called from pur-
ple grapes (Jer. ii:2i).
4. Yoog-en'ace (Or. iiriivi\'i, well-born), noble
minded, nobly disposed, and thus inclined to toler-
ance, spoken of the Bereans (Acts xvii:ll); well-
born, of noble race (I Cor. i:26).
5. Krat'is-tos (Gr. icpdTio-Tos, strongest), a term
used in addressing men of high rank or office (Acts
xxiv:3; xxvi:25; comp. Neh. vi:l7).
NOBLEMAN (no'b'1-man).
The word so rendered in John iv;46 is the
Greek ^a^iXiKAs, bas-il-ee-kos' , which is somewhat
varied in signification. Itmaymean: (i) Descend-
ed from a king. (2) 'T7r?)p^Tt)s toC paai\4as, hoo-pay-
ret'ace too bas-il-ek'oce, one belonging to the court.
(3) Strat-ee-oh'tace bas-il-eh'oce, (TTpoTicirijs /SaffiX-
iwi, a soldier of the king, in which latter sense it
often occurs in Josephus. (4) Yoog-en'ace (Gr.
eiJy^njs, well-born, atid ivBpairos, anth' ro-pos, man),
used in the parable of the talents (Luke xix;l2) as
a title of the person who placed his servants in
charge of certain amounts, for which they were
to be held accountable, thus testing their fidelity
and ability.
This person was, therefore, probably of the
court of Herod Antipas, who reigned over Galilee
and Persea (Tholuck. Commcntar zum Johan. iv :
46). He has been identified with Chuza, Herodjs
steward (Luke viii:3), and with Manaen, Herod's
foster brother (Acts xiii:i). These, of course,
are mere conjectures. He was presumably a Jew,
and is certainly not to be identified, as he has
sometimes been, with the centurion whose servant
Jesus healed (Matt. viii:5; Luke vii:2-lo).
NOD (nod), (Heb. Ti:, node), the land to which
Cain withdrew, and in which he appears to have
settled (Gen. iv:i6).
While the site of Paradise itself remains unde-
termined, it is useless to seek for that of the land
of Nod. This land, wherever it was, could not
have had a name till Cain went to it ; and it was
doubtless called Nod (which Si%n\fits, /light, wan-
dering, from the circumstance that Cain fled to it.
Von Bohlen identifies it with India. Sayce sees in
it the Manda of the cuneiform inscriptions. To
the Rabbis it was sufficient that it lay somewhere
in the east and away from Eden, whither Adam
had been banished.
NODAB (no'dab), (Heb. ^Ti, no-dawb' , nobil-
ity), an Arab tribe, probably belonging to the Syr-
ian desert (i Chron. v:i9).
Delitzsch (New Com. on Gen. xxv:is), con-
nects it with Nudebe in the IVady el-butin of the
Hauran. But it is more likely that we have,here a
transcription of Nabatean. It would be Strange
that a powerful kingdom like Nabatea should not
have proved a formidable neighbor to the trans-
Jordanic Israelites. (See Nabaioth.)
N0£ (no'e), (Gr. N(4e, no'eh), the Greek form
of Noah (Matt. xxiv:37, 38; Luke iii:36; xvii:
26, 27).
NOOAH (no'gah), (Heb. '^^^, no'gah, a shining),
the fourth son born to David in Jerusalem, by other
wives than Bathsheba (i Chron. iii:7; xiv:6), B. C.
cir. 1040. The name is wanting in the parallel list
(2 Sam. v).
NOHAH (no'hah), (Heb. '""?". no-khaw' , rest),
a son of Benjamin and head of a family in the tribe
(I Chron. viii:2), B. C. about 1850.
He is not mentioned among those who went
down with Jacob into Egypt, and was, therefore,
probably born after that migration. He is per-
haps the same as Becher (Gen. xlvi:2i), or Ir
(I Chron. vii:i2).
NOISE, NOISED (noiz), (Heb. ^V^"^, ter-00-
WW' ; Gr. oLKoiui, ak-00'0).
This term is no longer used of music in a good
or neutral sense, as we find it in Ps. xxxiii :3,
'Play skillfully with a loud noise.' Comp. Bun-
yan, p. 206: 'Mercy — Hark, don't ypu hear a
Noise? Chris. — Yes, 'tis, as I believe, a Noise of
Musick, for joy that we are here.' Ps. xlvii:5.
Prayer Book, 'God is gone up with a merry noise ;'
and Milton, At a Solemn Music, line 18--
'That we on earth with undiscording voice
May rightly answer that melodious noise.'
Nor is it used of a company or set of musicians,
or of a band.
" The king has his noise of gypsies as well as of
bearwards and other minstrels. ' Ben jonson.
(See article in Hastings' Bib. Cyc, by J. Hast-
ings.)
The verb "to noise," Dr. Hastings says, is no
longer in use. But the term in its participle form
has not become entirely obsolete, and will again
come into active use from its expressiveness, in
the sense of "to spread by rumor or report."
It occurs five times in A. V. : Josh, vi :27, 'His
fame was noised throughout all the country' (R.
V. 'his fame was in all the land') ; Judith x:i8,
'Her coming was noised among the tents ;' Mark
ii:i, 'It was noised that he was in the house;'
Luke i :65. 'All these sayings were noised abroad;'
,\cts ii :6. 'When this was noised abroad' (R. V.
'when this sound was heard').
NOISOME
1244
NOTABLE
NOISOME (noi'siim), (Gr. /3Xo;3epiis, blab-er-os' ,
Rev. xvi:2; comp. Ps. xci;3; Ezek. xiv:i5, 21;
"harmful" in i Tim. virg), in the early translations
was equivalent to noxious, injurious or hurtful.
"Foul breath is noisome," Shakespeare.
NON (non), (Heb. lu, nohn, continuation).
1. An Ephraimite through Beriah, who was
born to Ephraim after the men of Gath had slain
some of his sons (i Chron. vii :27).
2. A form of Nun, which was the name of the
father cA Joshua. (See Nun.)
NOON (no'on). See Time.
NOPH (nof), (Heb. •-);, nofe). See Memphis.
NOPHAH (no'phah), (Heb. "5^, no'fakh, blast,
windy place), a place in Moab mentioned only in
Num. xxi:30. It is possibly the Moabitish form
of Mobah.
NOPHECH (no'fek), (Heb. ^1^ no-fekh), a
precious stone, named in Exod. xxviii;i8; xxxix:
11; Ezek. xxvii:i6; xxviii:i3; in all which places
it is rendered 'Emerald' in the Authorized Version.
The Sept. and Josephus render it by an-ah-
thrax, ivadpa^, or carbuncle, this name denot-
ing a live coal, the ancients gave to several glow-
ing red stones resembling live coals (Plin. Hist.
Nat. xxxii:25; comp. Theophrast. De Lapid. 18).
particularly rubies and garnets. The most valued
of the carbuncles seems, however, to have been
the Oriental garnet, a transparent red stone, with
a violet shade, and strong vitreous luster. It was
engraved upon (Theophrast., 31), and was prob-
ably not so hard as the ruby, which, indeed, is
the most beautiful and costly of the precious
stones of a red color, but is so hard that it can-
not easily be subjected to the graving-tool. The
Hebrew nophech, in the breast-plate of the high-
priest, was certainly an engraved stone ; and there
is no evidence that the ancients could engrave the
ruby, although this has in modern times been ac-
complished. Upon the whole, the particular kind
of stone denoted by the Hebrew word must be
regarded as uncertain (Rosenmiiller, Biblical
Mineralogy, pp. 32, a). (See Carbuncle; Em-
erald; Ruby.)
NORTH (north), (Heb. '''vV"?. mez-aw-reh' ,
scatterer, Job xxxvii;9).
The Shemite, in speaking of the quarters of the
heavens and of the earth, supposes his face turiied
towards the east, so that the east is before him,
the west behind, the south on the right hand, and
the north on the left. Hence the words which
signify east, west, north, and south signify also
that which is before, behind, on the right hand,
and on the left. The Hebrew word translated
north occurs in the five following senses:
(1) A Particular Quarter of the Heavens.
It denotes a particular quarter of the heavens ;
thus, 'fair weather cometh out of the north' (Job
x.x.xvii :22).
(2) Quarter of the Earth. It means a quarter
of the earth ( Ps. cvii:3; Is. .xliii:6; Ezek. xx:47;
xxxii:30; comp. Luke xiii :29).
(3) A Northern Aspect. It occurs in the sense
of a northern aspect or direction, etc.; thus, 'look-
ing north' (l Kings vii :2S ; i Chron. ix :24 ; Num.
xxxiv:7) ; on 'the north side' (Ps. xlviii :2 ; Ezek.
viii:i4; xl :44 ; comp. Rev. xxi:i3).
(4) Name for Countries. It seems used as
the conventional name for certain countries, irre-
spectively of their true geographical situation,
namely. Babylonia, Chaldaea, Assyria, and Media,
which are constantly represented as being to the
north of Judsa, though some of them lay rather
to the east of Palestine. Thus Assyria is called
the north (Zeph. ii 113), and Babylonia (Jer. 1:14;
xlvi :6, 10, 20. 24; Ezek. xxvi:/; Judith xvi:4).
(5) North Wind. The Hebrew word is ap-
plied to the north wind. In Prov. xxvii:i6, the
impossibility of concealing the qualities of a con-
tentious wife, is illustrated by comparing it to an
attempt to bind the north wind. The invocation
of Solomon (Cant. iv:i6), 'Awake, oh north, and
come, thou south, blow upon my garden that the
spices may flow out,' and which has occasioned
much perplexity to illustrators, seems well ex-
plained by Rosenmiiller, as simply alluding to the
effect of winds from opposite quarters, in dispers-
ing the fragrance of aromatic shrubs (verses 13,
14) far and wide, in all directions. J. F. D.
NORTH COXTNTBY (north kiin'try), a term
applied to the countries lying north of Palestine,
wnence came invaders and foes (Is. xli;25; Jer. i:
14, 15; Ezek. xxvi:7). (See North.)
NOSE, N0STBIL3 (noz, nos'trlls), (Heb. I**-
af; dual Q!5!l?, ap-pah-yeem' , properly, breathing
place, Num. xi:20). The Hebrews commonly
place the seat of anger in the nose; since the effect
of anger is often hard breathing, and in animals,
snortmg. "There went up a smoke out of his
nostrils ' (2 Sam. xxii:9; Ps. xviii:8).
Figurative, (i) "Lo, they put the branch
to their nose" (Ezek. viii:i7) appears to be a pro-
verbial expression variously interpreted. Some
understand it as the barsom, which the Pharisees
held in their hand while praying, or rather in
front of the mouth as a magical mode of driving
demons away. Two other explanations may be
given — that it is a proverbial expression, "to apply
the twig to anger," in the sense of adding fuel to
the fire. The second, that of Hitzig, "They apply
the sickle to their nose," i. e., by seeking to in-
jure me they injure themselves (Keil, Com., in
loc).
(2) The words "they take away thy nose and
cars" (Ezek. xxiii 125) are not to be interpreted,
as the earlier expositors suppose, from the custom
prevalent among the Egyptians and other nations
of cutting ofif the nose of an adulteress, but de-
pict, by one particular example, the mutilation of
prisoners captured by their enemies.
(3) As the Hebrews employed the term sig-
nifying nose to denote anger, "nose" and "nos-
trils." ascribed to God, denote his discernment of
provocation, and his wrath to be executed on ac-
count thereof (Exod. xv :8 ; Ps. xviii:8; Is
lxv:5).
"The anger of the Lord and his jealousy shall
smoke against that man" (Deut. xxix:2o). "Out
of his nostrils goeth smoke" (Job -xli :2o). Camels
and oxen were managed by iron rings in their
nostrils, and thereto the allusion is made (2 Kings
xix:28; comp. Job x!i:2; Is. x.xxvii:29).
NOSE JEWELS (noz ju-els), mentioned in Is.
iii:2l, consisted of a ring of gold or other metal
upon which jewels were strung. The nose-rings
now worn by the lower classes m Egypt are from
one to one and a half inches in diameter and are
passed through the right nostril (Schaff).
NOTABIiE (not'a-b'l), the translation of several
words in the Scriptures.
1. (Heb. '"'"?, khaw-sooth'), meaning prominent,
conspicuous (Dan. viii;;).
2. (Gr. 4Tri(f>afti%, ep-tf-an-ace' , Acts ii:20), well-
known, conspicuous, clearly seen, illustrious.
3. Notorious (Gr. lirla-qiuis, eh-pis'ay-?nos. Matt.
xxvii:l6), 'And they had then a notable prisoner,
called Barabbas."
4. Unmistakahle, -well kiwiun (Gr. 7»u<rT4j, noce-
tos' , Acts iv:l6), 'a notable miracle.'
NOTE 1245
NOTE (not).
1. (Heb. rp'7, khaw-kak', to engrave), to write
(Is. xxx:8).
2. "Who are of note" (Gr. iwtarifwt, ep-is'ay-mos,
having a mark) is spoken of Andronicus and Junia,
as being highly esteemed by the apostles (Rom.
xvi 7).
3. (Gr. <rri/jKi6a, say-nii-ii'o, to distinguish), to
mark a man by shunning him (2 Thess. iii:i4).
NOTHING, NOUGHT (nuth'ing), (Heb. '^z.
kole).
1- Not anything at all (Gen. xix:8).
2. For no good purpose or end (Matt. v:i3).
3. No works truly good and acceptable to God
(John XV :s).
4. Of no binding force (Matt. xxiii:i6, i8).
5. Entirely false, and without ground (Acts
xxi :24).
6. No other means (Mark ix:29).
7. No reward or wages (3 John 7).
8. No new doctrine relative to men's salvation;
no new knowledge or authority (Gal. ii:6).
9- No guilt or corruption to work upon (John
xiv:3o).
Nothing is sometimes taken comparatively:
thus our age is nothing before God, bears no pro-
portion to his eternal duration (Ps. xxxix:S).
All nations are nothing, and less than nothing, and
vanity; i. e., they bear no proportion to his un-
bounded excellency and greatness (Is. xl:i7).
Sometimes it is taken relatively : so Paul was
nothing valuable in his own estimation of him-
self (2 Cor. xii:ii). Circumcision, or uncircum-
sion, is nothing; is of no avail to render us ac-
cepted with God (i Cor. viing). To come to
nought, is to be ruined, turn out to no good pur-
pose (Job viii .22 ; Is. viii :io). To bring to 7iought,
is to render unsuccessful, base, and contemptible
(Ps. xxxiii:lo; I Cor. i:28). To set at nought,
is to undervalue, despise (Prov. i:25).
In the phrase nothing worth it is probable that
'nothing' is again adverbial, though we have but
to transpose the words to find it a substantive. It
occurs in Job xxiv :2s, 'who will make me a liar,
and make my speech nothing worth?'
NOVICE (nov'is) or NEOPHYTE (Gr. Nti^u-
Tos, nee-oh'foo-tos, one newly converted), (literally
newly planted), not yet mat^ired in Christian
experience (I Tim. iii:6). The ancient Greek
interpreters explain it by 'new-baptized,' veo/Sdjr-
TKTTos, nee-oh'hap' tis-tos, 'proselyte,' irpoo-TjXuTos,
pros-ay' lii-tos, etc.
The word continued to be in use in the early
church ; but it gradually acquired a meaning some-
what different from that which it bore under the
Apostles, when 'newly converted' and 'newly
baptized' described, in fact, the same condition,
the converted being at once baptized. For when,
in subsequent years, the church felt it prudent
to put converts under a course of instruction be-
fore admitting them to baptism and the full privi-
leges of Christian brotherhood, the term Ne60iiToi,
Novilii, Novices, was sometimes applied to them,
although more usually distinguished by the gen-
eral term of Catechumens.
NUMBER (niira'ber). The following numbers
were understood by the Hebrews to have a sym-
bolical or representative significance:
(1) Three vvas deemed to have a peculiar mys-
tic meaning. It is the number of the Deity (the
Trinity), of the thrice-repeated "Holy" (I5. vi:3),
of the threefold priestly blessing (Num. yi :23-
26), Daniel's three hours of prayer (Dan. vi:io),
etc.
(2) Four symbolizes the world or humanity.
There are four winds (Ezek. xxxvii:9), four
NUMBERS, BOOK OF
beasts (Rev. iv:6), and four living creatures with
four faces, four wings, and four sides (Ezek. 1:5-
10, etc.).
(3) Five, appears in the tables of requirements
and punishments, as Exod. xxii:i; Lev. v:l6.
Also, five empires (Dan. ii). In the New Tes-
tament, five wise and five foolish virgins, etc.
"(4) Seven, the union of three and four, is the
number of the covenants between God and man.
It implies perfection. The number occurs very
frequently in connection with both holy things
and things unholy. For example, the seven-
branched candlestick (Exod. xxv:37; i Kings
vii:i7; Zech. iv;io; comp. Is. xi:2); the sprink-
ling of the blood seven times (Lev. iv:6; viiirii;
xiv:7; xvi:i4; Num. xix:4; 2 Kings v:io):
seven lambs (Num. xxviii:ii; Ezek. xlv:23; 2
Chron. xxix:2i): comp. the seven sons of Saul
who were hanged before the Lord (2 Sam. xxi:
9) ; the seven locks of the Nazarite Samson
(Judg. xvi:i3, 19) ; the seven priests that carried
seven trumpets seven times in front of the ark
and around the walls of Jericho (Josh vi:4);
the seven days in the week, the seven churches
(Rev. i:4), the seven years of plenty in Egypt
(Gen. xli:26), the seven angels with seven golden
vials (Rev. xv:i) ; but also the seven heads and
seven crowns of the dragon (Rev. xii:3).
(5) Ten, the number of fingers (two hands),
symbolizes harmony and completeness. It is the
number of the fundamental commandments.
(6) Twelve, the multiple of three and four, is
also a covenant number, like seven. Hence we
have the twelve tribes, the twelve stones in the
high-priest's breastplate (Exod. xxviii:2i), twelve
apostles, twelve gates in the New Jerusalem, etc.
(7) Forty, four multiplied by ten ; as the forty
days of our Lord's temptation (Matt, iv), the
forty years in the wilderness, etc.
(8) Seventy, seven multiplied by ten; as the
seventy elders of Israel (Num. xi:i6), the
seventy disciples of our Lord (Luke x:i).
It is very difficult, if indeed at all possible, to
get the exact and definite meaning of these num-
bers, and we must not carry the search too far.
But that they had a special meaning for the He-
brews there can be little doubt (compare the
extended and ingenious treatment of Lange, Com.
on Revelation, pp. 14, sg.). (Schaff, Bib. Did.;
Hastings' Bib. Diet.).
NTTMBEBS, BOOK OF (num'bers), is the
appellation given to the fourth book of Moses,
which in the Septuagint is called 'ApiBfwl, ar-ith-
nioi' , niintbers, and in the Hebrew canon be-miJ-
bar, 'in the desert.'
/. Contents. This book embraces more espe-
cially the continuation of the Sinaitic legislation,
the march through the wilderness, the rejection
of a whole generation, and the commencement of
the conquest of Canaan. Thus we see that it
treats on very different subjects, and on this ac-
count it has frequently been attempted to resolve it
into separate fragments and documents, and to
represent it as being composed of the most hetero-
geneous materials. We will endeavor to refute
this opinion, by furnishing an accurate survey of
its contents, and by describing the internal con-
nection of its component parts, so that the organi-
zation of the book may be clearly understood.
(1) Arrangements for Order. The sum and
substance of the law having been stated in the
preceding books, that of Numbers commences
with the arrangements requisite for preserving
good order in the camp of the Israelites. The
people are numbered for the express purpose of
separating the Levites from those Israelites who
NUMBERS, BOOK OF
1240
NUMBERS, BOOK OF
had to bear arms, and of thus introducing into
practice the law concerning the firstborn, for
whom the tribe of Levi became a substitute. For
this reason the people are not merely numbered,
but also classed according to their descent ; the
order which each tribe should occupy in the camp
is defined ; and the Levites are introduced into
their respective functions (chapters i-iv).
The camp, having been consecrated, was to be
kept pure according to the law of Levitical cleans-
ings ; consequently all persons were excluded from
it who were afflicted with leprosy, who had be-
come unclean by a flux, and who had touched a
corpse (ch. v :i-4).
(2) Authority of Priests. Thus, after civil
and sacerdotal life had been brought into a definite
form, other laws based upon this form came into
force, especially those laws which regulated the
authority of the priests in civil affairs (ch. v:
S; vi:27). These regulations conclude with the
beautiful form of benediction which indicates the
blessing to be expected from the true observance
of the preceding directions. The people are im-
pressed with this fact; the hearts of the Israelites
are willing to offer the required gifts, and to en-
trust them to the Levites.
(3) Lamps. Jehovah is faithful to his promise,
and gloriously reveals himself to his people (ch.
vii). Before the Levites enter upon the discharge
of their sacred functions, the law concerning the
lamps to be lighted in the sanctuary is signifi-
cantly repeated (ch. viii). These lamps symbolize
the communication of the Holy Spirit and bring to
the recollection of the nation the blessings of the-
ocracy to be derived from setting apart the tribe
of Levi, which had recently been separated from
the rest of the people.
(4) Celebration of Passover. Then follows a
description of the celebration of the Passover, pre-
paratory to the departure of the people from
Mount Sinai (ch. ix:i-i4). Some regulations
are connected with the celebration of the Pass-
over, and the whole miraculous guidance of the
people is described (ch. ix:is-x).
(5) Entrance Into Canaan. Thus the en-
trance of Israel into the Holy Land seemed to
be fully prepared ; and it was of great importance
to show how they were prevented from entering
it. Accurate details are therefore given of the
spirit which pervaded the nation ; a spirit which,
in spite of the forbearance of God, manifested
itself in daring rebellions against the divine au-
thority (chapters xi and xii).
(6) Turning Point of History. Now comes
the turning point of the history. Everything
seems externally prepared for the conquest of the
country, when it appears that the nation are not
yet internally ripe for the performance of so im-
portant an act (chapters xiii, xiv).
In immediate connection with this are some
laws which were given in the desert ; the inten-
tion of which was to recall to the recollection of
the rejected race, which had been justly con-
demned to suffer severe punishment, that never-
theless they had not ceased to be the people of the
covenant, and the depositary of divine revelation
(comp. ch. XV :2, 13-16, 22, 23. yj, sq.). In this
respect the facts mentioned in ch. xv :32-36 and ch.
xvi are also of great importance. They show, on
the one hand, the continuance of an evil disposi-
tion in the people, and, on the other, the majesty
of God watching over his holy law.
The contents of chapters xv-x!x arc of a similar
character. The facts there recorded relate to a
period of thirty-eight years. The conci'ieness with
which they are stated significantly indicates the
strictly legal and theocratical principles of the
Mosaical legislation.
(7) Period of Israel's Rejection. The period
of Israel's rejection is characterized by the cir-
cumstance, that the historian is almost silent re-
specting it, as being a period not strictly belonging
to theocratical history. During this period the
striking deeds of God, his miracles and signs, the
more prominent operations of his grace, and his
peculiar blessings, cease. The rejection of the
nation consisted in this suspension of the divine
operations. During this period God, as it were,
ignored his people. Consequently, the historian
also almost ignores the rebellious race. But the
period in which the divine promises were to be
fulfilled again forms a prominent portion of the
history.
(8) Termination of Penal Period. The ter-
mination of the penal period is the commencement
of the most important era in the Mosaical history.
It brings the legislation to a splendid conclusion.
The most glorious facts here follow each other
in close succession ; facts which were intended
clearly to demonstrate that the chosen people en-
tered into the land of promise, not by their own
power and might, but that this land was given
into their hands by the God of promise.
(9) Subsequent History. Miriam was al-
ready dead ; and the forty years of wandering in
the wilderness were accomplished. Israel was
again in sight of the Holy Land on the borders
of Edom. Then Moses and Aaron also sinned;
soon after, Aaron died, and was succeeded by
Eleazar. Israel sent ambassadors to the king of
Edom to obtain permission to pass through his
territory, but was haughtily refused (ch. xx).
Everything seemed to be prepared by preceding
events already recorded. The dying off of the
real emigrants from Egypt might be expected,
after the divine decree that this should come to
pass, had been mentioned; the unbelief of Moses
arose from the protracted duration of the time
of punishment, which at length broke his courage;
the spirit of Edom arose in overbearing animosity,
because it seemed that Jehovah had forsaken his
people. It was appointed that Israel should un-
dergo all this in order that they might grow
strong in the Lord. Their strength was soon
proved against Arad. They vowed to devote all
the cities of the Canaanites to Jehovah, who gave
them the victory. They were directed to avoid the
boundaries of Edom, and to have Canaan alone
in view. The people murmured, and the signifi-
cant symbol of the serpent was erected before
them, reminding them of their ancient sin, and
how it had been healed and overcome by Jehovah.
In all this Israel is constantly directed to Canaan.
They march courageously to the boundaries of the
Amorites, singing praises to Jehovah, and, by the
power of the Lord, defeat the kings of Heshbon
and Bashan (ch. xxi).
In the plains of Moab still greater glory awaits
the chosen people. The pagan prophet of Meso-
potamia, being hired by the king of the Moabites,
is overpowered by Jehovah, so that he is com-
pelled to bless Israel instead of cursing them ;
and also directs them to the ancient blessings
granted to the patriarchs. The bitterest enemies
of the theocracy are here most deeply humbled,
being themselves compelled to contribute to the
glory of Jehovah (chapters xxii-xxiv). Not the
God, but the people of Israel, were dishonored
through the devices of Balaam.
The subsequent account concerning the idolatry
into which the people were led, forms a striking
contrast with the preceding chapters, and evinces
the impotence of the Israelites, whose first attack,
NUMBERS, BOOK OF
1247
NYMPH AS
therefore, was to be directed against their se-
ducers. This was to be the beginning of the con-
quest of Canaan, which was essentially a combat
against idolatry, and the victory of the kingdom
of God over paganism. The conquered country
was granted to separate tribes, and for this pur-
pose the people were once more numbered, and
Joshua appointed their leader.
Jehovah reserves his own rights in the distri-
bution of the country, and Israel is directed not
to forget the sacrifices to the Lord, the sabbaths,
festivals, and vows; the ordinances concerning
which are here briefly repeated, inculcated, and
completed.
The people shall certainly gain the victory, but
only in strict communion with Jehovah. Thus
begins the combat against Midian, according to
the directions of the law, and forming as it were
a prototype of the later combats of Israel against
pagan powers (chapters xxv-xxxi).
This was the last external work of Moses.
Henceforth his eye is directed only to the internal
affairs of his people. An entrance has been
effected into the country, and the conquered terri-
tory is divided among two tribes and a half^tribe
(ch. xxxii).
Moses reminds the people of Jehovah's guid-
ance in the wilderness, and of the manner in which
the whole land was to be conquered. He com-
mands the destruction of the Canaanites and of
their idolatry. He appoints to what extent the
land is to be conquered, and in what manner it
should be divided ; also the towns to be granted
to the Levites, and the cities of refuge. He es-
tablishes also the statute, which was of great im-
portance for the preservation of landed property,
that an heiress should marry only within her own
tribe (chapters x.xxiii-xxxvi).
2. Credibility. There have frequently been
raised strong doubts against the historical credi-
bility of the book of Numbers, although it is im-
pressed with indubitable marks of the age to
which it refers, and of perfect authenticity.
(1) Author Acquainted with Egypt. The
author of the book of Numbers proves himself
to be intimately acquainted with Egypt. The pro-
ductions mentioned in chapter xi:5 are, according
to the most accurate investigations, really those
which in that country chiefly served for food.
Narratives like the history of Balaam (xxii,
xxiv) furnish also numerous proofs of their high
antiquity. These confirmations are of the great-
est importance, on account of the many marvelous
and enigmatical points of the narrative.
(2) Accurate Geographical Statements. Com-
pare, for instance, the geographical stati:ments,
which are uncommonly accurate, in chapters xxii:
I. 36, 39; xxiii:i4. 15, 27, 28. (See Hengsten-
bergfs Geschichte Bileam's, Berlin, 1842, p. 221,
sq.)
The list of stations in chapter xxxiii is an im-
portant document, which could not have orig-
inated in a poetical imagination. This list con-
tains a survey of the whole route of the Israelites,
and mentions individual places only in case the
Israelites abode there for a considerable period.
It is not the production of a diligent compiler,
but ratJier the original work of an author well
versed in the circumstances of that period. A
later author would certainly have avoided the ap-
pearance of some contradictions, such as that m
Num. xxxiii 130, 31, comp. with Deut. x:6. This
apparent contradiction may best be removed by
observing that the book of Numbers speaks of the
expedition of the Israelites in the second year of
their wanderings, and the book of Deuteronomy
of their expedition in the fortieth year. (See
Discrepancies, Biblical.) The list of stations
contains also important historical notices; those,
for instance, in chapter xxxiii :4, 9, 14, 38. These
notices demonstrate the accurate historical infer-
mation of the author. H. A. C. H.
NTJN (niin), (Heb. p;, noon, in Syr. and Arab., a
fish), the father of Joshua, who is hence constantly
called Joshua ben-Nun (Exod. xxxiii :ii; Num.
xi :28 ; xiii :8, 16 ; xi v :6, 30, 38 ; xxvi :65 ; xxvii :l8 ;
xxxii :i2, 28, etc.), B. C. before 1210. "Joshua the
son of Nun,' Nothing is known of the person
who bore this name.
NXTRSE, NURSING (nQrs, nQrs'Ing), (Heb.
I'^T. yaw-nak' , to give milk; once ]'??, aw-man',
to foster, support, Ruth iv :i6).
The position of nurse was one of much im-
portance and honor. Rebekah's nurse accompa-
nied her mistress to Canaan, and was buried with
much mourning at Allon-bachutli (Cien. xxiv 159;
XXXV :8). The tenderness of a nurse is not infre-
quently referred to (Is. xlix:23; i Thess. ii:;).
NURSING FATHER (nurs'Ing fa'ther), (Is.
xlix :23). A nufsinj^ father is a foster father.
NURTURE (nflr'tir). (Gr. ira.Sefa, pahee-dfah,
Eph. vi:4. Training in mind and soul for the
duties and responsibilities of life.
Both in LXX and New Testament iratScfa and
jrotSciJw describe, not 'nurture' in the modern use
of that word, but training, especially such train-
ing or discipline as involves restraint and even
chastisement. Chastise and chastening or chas-
tisement are often the best translation, as in Heb.
-^ii :S. 7, 10. In Luke xxiii :i6, 22, the verb is used
of the scourging of a malefactor; it is rendered
'chastise' in A. V.
NUTS (nuts), (Heb. iV'^, bo' ten).
Those mentioned in Gen. xliii:ii are doubtless
pistachio-nuts, which were produced in Syria, but
not in Egypt. The pistachio tree (Pistacia vera)
resembles the sumac, to whose family it belongs.
It is still cultivated in the Levant, and produces
thin-shelled nuts resembling almonds, but smaller
and with a green meat tasting like that of the wal-
nut. The nuts of Cant. vi:ii (''^?i, e_^-oze') are
ziialinits. They are universally cultivated and
greatly esteemed in Bible lands.
NYMPHAS (nym'phas), (Gr. Ni;;i,^a», noom-fas',
nymph-given), a Christian of Laodicea or Colossae,
to whom Paul sent salutations (Col. iv:i5).
OAK
1248
OAK
o
OAK (ok). Four Hebrew words are translated
oak Of these, three, ''^ (flh'yil), ^<S (ay-law'),
and V^ {al-lone'), are uncertain in meaning, acd
are either oak or terebinth. The other, "^'i^ (a/-
law'), probably refers definitely to the oak. They
fre always so translated in A. V. and R. V.
(1) In the following passages, at least, the
word probably denotes the terebinth, or the elm of
Hos. iv:i3 (see Teil Tree); Gen. xxxv:4, 8;
Judg. vi:ii, 19; 2 Sam. xviii :9, 10, 14; i Kings
xiii:i4; i Chron. x:i2; Is. i:3o; Ezek. vi:i3. In
other instances "oak" may denote any strong
Houri.ching tree (Amos ii:9), or a grove of such
trees.
(2) Botanists find three species of this tree in
Palestine. One of the most universal and char-
which are eaten by the poor, while their cups are
employed by tanners under the name of Valeria, and
ixporied from many parts of the Turkish empire.
Another kind {Q. infectoria) sometimes oc-
curs in Samaria and Galilee as a small tree with
deciduous leaves, white beneath. Travelers
through the uninhabited districts of Gilead and
Bashan have found there magnificent forests o£
all three species.
(3) In the Bible we find these noble trees often
mentioned for the purpose of designating the lo-
cality of important events as in Gen. xxxv:8;
Josh. xxiv:26. Oak wood was used for idols (Is.
xliv:i4) and idolatry was practiced under oaks
(Is. i:30; Ivii :5 ; Ezek. vinj).
(4) The word translated "plains" in several
passages (Gen. xii:6; xiii:i8; xiv:i3; xviii:i;
Deut. xi:3o; Judg. iv:ii; ix:6, 27) i Sam. x:
.\brahaTn'i Oak in the Plains of ivlamre.
acteristic bushes of the country is the prickly
evergreen-oak {Qucrcus psctido-coccifera), which
has a leaf hke the holly, but smaller. This oak
now rarely exceeds twelve feet in height, but
when the destruction of trees was less universal
it doulDtless attained great size and age. "Abra-
ham's Oak," in the field of Mamre, near He-
bron, the noblest tree of southern Palestine, is of
this species, and is twenty-three feet in girth ;
and there are said to be still finer specimens in
the north and east.
The Valonia oak (Q. cegilops) sheds its leaves
and more resembles some of our own species.
The trunk is unusually massive, and the tree
often grows to a maRnificent size. It is not seen
in the south, but abounds in the north, especially
about Mount Tabor and also east of the Jordan,
and is doubtless the "oak of Bashan" (Is. ii:i2,
13; Zech. xi:2). It produces very large acorns,
3) means places noted for one or more oaks.
iSchafif. Bib. Diet.)
(5) It will thus be seen that the several species
of oak are among the most widely disseminated
trees of Syria and Palestine. The mountains
of Haiirihi (Bashan, Is. ii:i3; Ezek. xxvii:6;
Zech. xi:2") have many oak trees still, mostly
Quercrus Coccifera, Qucrccus yEi^ilops, and
Qucrccus Lusitanica. Oak trees were planted by
tombs (Gen. xxxv:8). Few objects in Palestine
or Syria are more striking than the immense oak
trees, solitary or grouped near the Welies or
tombs of the prophets. (Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
The Tyrians made their oars for rowing their
ships of the fine "oaks of Bashan" (Ezek. x.xvii :
6). (See Allon.)
Figurative. u) The Hebrews were like
an oak whose leaf fadcth" ; stripped of their
confidence in themselves and others, and bereaved
OAK, WORSHIP OF
1249
OATH
of their honor, wealth, prosperity, and pleasure
(Is. i:3o), yet lil<e an "oak or teil-trce," whose
substance or life is in it though bare of foUage,
could never be utterly destroyed by the Assyrians,
Chaldicans, or Romans (Is. vi:i3). (2) Gov-
ernors and great and valiant men, are compared
to the tall and strong "oaks of Baslian," to mark
their apparent power, strength, and firmness, and
their fitness to protect others (Is. ii:i3; Zech.
xi:2).
OAK, WORSHIP OF (ok, wur-ship 6v). Oak
groves in ancient times were used as places of
religious assembly; altars were set up in them
(Josh. xxiv:26); Jacob buried idolatrous images
unde.' an oak, which, as a sacred tree, would free
them from disturbance (Gen. xxxv:4). (See Oak.)
OATH (oth), (Heb. '''?"'^'f, s/ie6-oo-a'w'),an ap-
peal to God in attestation of the truth of what you
say, or in confirmation of what you promise or
undertake.
The Latin term is jusjurandum, or juramentum.
Cicero (De OfRciis, iii, 29) correctly terms an
oath a religious affirmation ; that is, an affirma-
tion with a religious sanction. This appears from
the words which he proceeds to employ: that an
oath is an appeal to God, as the source and the
vindicator of justice and fidelity.
(1) Elements. Hence it appears that there
are two essential elements in an oath : first, the
human, a declared intention of speaking the
truth, or performing the action in a given case;
secondly, the Divine, an appeal to God, as a Be-
ing who knows all things and will punish guilt.
According to usage, however, there is a third
element in the idea which 'oath' commonly con-
veys, namely, that the oath is taken only on sol-
emn, or, more specifically, on juridical occasions.
The canon law gives all three elements when it
represents judicium, Veritas, justitia. as entering
into the constitution of an oath — judicium, judg-
ment or trial on the part of society; Veritas, truth
on the part of the oath-taker; justitia, justice on
the part of God. An oath is accordingly a re-
ligious undertaking either to say (juramentum as-
sertorium), or to do (juramentum promissorium)
something entered into voluntarily with the cus-
tomary forms. Being a religious undertaking,
the appeal will vary according to the religious
opinions of the country in which the oath is
taken. In some instances it will be an appeal
immediately to God; in others, to objects sup-
posed to have Divine power; and by a natural
declension, when men have left the only true God,
they may appeal in their oaths even to stocks
and stones. Accordingly the Roman swore, 'per
caput suuin vel suorum filiorum,' or 'per gen-
ium principis;' that is, by his own head or those
of his children, or by the genius of the em-
peror. We shall have by and by to notice similar
errors and abuses among the Jews.
(2) Essence. The essence of an oath lies ob-
viously in the appeal which is thereby made to
God, or to Divine knowledge and power. The
customary form establishes this, 'So help me
God.' The Latin words (known to have been
used as early as the sixth century), whence our
English form is taken, run thus: '^iV ine Deus
adjuvet et licec sancta Evangelia;' so may God
and these holy Gospels help me; that is, 'as I say
the truth.' The present custom of kissing a book
containing the gospels has in England taken
the place of the latter clause in the Latin formula.
If, then, an appeal to God is the essence of an
oath, oath-taking is a practice which cannot be
79
justified. Such an apoeal is wrong, because it is
a mere act of a creature's will, being unrequired
and unsanctioned by God, in a case in which God
is made a party to a certain course, which course
may or may not be agreeable to his mind (because
a wish on the part of the oath-taker for punish-
ment, should he fail in his undertaking, or any
part of the same, is an act unbecoming a frail
man; unseemly in its very nature, and awful to
think of when man's sinfulness and God's power
are rightly apprehended) ; because it relaxes the
general bonds of religion, and morality, and truth;
(for in establishing an occasion when justice
must be done, it authorizes the idea that its ob-
servance is not imperative on other occasions) ;
and because it is founded on an essentially false
view of religious obligation; for as God sees,
knows, and governs all things, and as all things
so each thing, so man is bound universally to
speak the truth and perform what he undei takes,
bound as much in each and in all the actions of
his life, as his dependence and God's sovereignty
can bind a rational and accountable being; so
that it is radically false to suppose that there is
or can be anything special in the obligation of
an oath ; the tendency of which falsity is not to
raise, but to degrade the character, to reduce the
general standard of truth and rectitude, to weaken
the moral sense, by encouraging the idea that on
special occasions, and of course on special oc-
casions only, truth is to be spoken and promises
performed.
(3) Early Use. It is one among those nu-
merous accordances, small when compared with
the dictates of right reason, which will be found to
prevail in the Bible the more minutely it is inves-
tigated, and which, though now, after a revela-
tion has enlightened the mind, are discoverable
thereby, nevertlieless are so far beyond its reach,
when left to its own resources, tliat the prac-
tice of antiquity bears in the opposite di-
rection— it is one of those very important accord-
ances with truth, that the Mosaic legislation is
not answerable for the prar'-ce of taking oaths,
which existed before the tirr of Moses. It is
found as early as the days o Abraham, who
made the oldest servant of his tarrily swear he
would select for Isaac a wife of his own kindred
(Gen. xxiv :2, 3, 37). It is here observable that
the oath is a private, not a judicial one; only that
the rectoral authority of Abraham, as patriarch,
must be taken into account. The form observed
is found in these words: 'Put. I pray thee, thy
hand under my thigh ; and I will make thee swear
by the Lord, the God of heaven and the God of
earth, that,' etc.
(4) Occasions. An oath was sometimes a
public and general bond, obliging the parties who
took it to certain course^a case in which it ap-
pears to have been spontaneous and voluntary;
as when, in Judg. xxi, the men of Israel swore,
saying. 'There shall not any of us give his daugh-
ter unto Benjamin to wife' (comp. verse 5). From
I Kings xviii:io. it appears to have been cus-
tomary to require on occasions of great concern
a public oath, embracing even an entire 'kingdom
and nation ;' but whether taken individually or by
some representative, we have no means of ascer-
taining. Such a custom, however, implying, as
it does, a doubt of the public faith of a people,
would hardly be submitted to, unless on the part
of an inferior.
Oaths did not take their origin in any Divine
command. They were a part of that consuetudi-
nary law which Moses found prevalent, and was
bound to respect, since no small portion of the
OATH
1250
OBADIAH
force of law lies in custom, and a legislator can
neither abrogate nor institute a binding law of
his own mere will. Accordingly, Moses made
use of the sanction which an oath gave, but in
that general manner, and apart from minute di-
rections and express words of approval ; which
shows that he merely used, without intending to
sanction, an instrument that he found in exist-
ence and could not safely dispense with. Exam-
ples are found in Exod. xxii:ii, where an oath is
ordered to be applied in the case of lost property ;
and here we first meet with what may strictly be
called a judicial oath (Lev. vi:3-s).
(5) Forms of Oaths. The forms of adjura-
tion found in the Scriptures are numerous. Saul
sware unto Jonathan, 'As the Lord liveth' (l
Sam. xix:6). 'A heap and a pillar' were for a
witness between Laban and Jacob, with the en-
suing for a sanction, 'The God of Abraham and
the God of Nahor, the God of their father, judge
betwixt us. And Jacob sware by the fear of his
father Isaac' (Gen. xxxi 152, sq.). A common
formula is, 'The Lord do so to me and more also'
(Ruth 1:17 ; I Sam. iv:44), which approaches
nearly to our modern form, 'So help me God,'
ani is obviously elliptical. Reference appears to
be had to the ancient custom of slaying some ani-
mal in confirmation of a treaty or agreement.
The animal thus slain and offered in a burnt of-
fering to God became an image or type, betoken-
ing the fate which would attend that one of the
two contracting parties who failed in his engage-
ment; and the words just cited were intended to
be a voluntary assumption of the liability thus
foreshadowed on the side of those who joined in
the covenant : subsequently the sacrifice was in
ordinary cases omitted, and the form came in it-
sell', to have the force of a solemn asseveration.
(6) Sanctity. An oath, making an appeal to
the Divine justice and power, is a recognition
of the Divinity of the being to whom the appeal
is made. Hence to swear by an idol is to be con-
victed of idolatry. Such an act is accordingly
given in Scripture as a proof of idolatry and a
rer.son for condign punishment. 'How shall I
pardon thee for this? Thy children have for-
saken me, and sworn by them that are no gods'
(Jer. v:7; xii:l6; Amos viii:l4; Zeph. i:5).
Other beings besides God are sometimes added
in the form of an oath: Elijah said to Elisha,
'A.s the Lord liveth, and a£ thy soul liveth'
(.J Kings ii:2; i Sam. xx:^). The party ad-
d/essed is frequently sworn by, especially if a
prince: 'As thy soul liveth, my lord, I am the
V'oman,' etc. (I Sam. i:26; xvii:5S; xxv:26; 2
?jam. xi:ii). The Hebrews, as well as the Egyp-
f,ians, swore also by the head or the life of an
absent as well as a present prince : 'By the life
of Pharaoh' (Gen. xlii:i5). Hanway says that
the most sacred oath among the Persians is 'by
the I'ing's head.' The oath-taker swore some-
timts. by his own head (Matt. v:35; see Virg.
y£"«. ix, 300; Ovid, Tn'si, iv, 4, 45; Juven. vi,
17) ; or by some precious part of his body, as
the eyes (Ovid, Amur. iii. 3, 13; Tibull. iii, 6,
47) ; sometimes, but only in the case of the later
Jews, by the earth, the heaven, and the sun
(Matt. v:34, 35: Eurip. Hippol. 1029; Virg. -'tn.
xii, 176) ; as well as by angels (Joseph. De Bell.
Jud. ii, 16. 4); by the temple (Matt. xxiii:i6:
comp. Lightfoot, p. 280); and even by parts of
the temple (Matt. xxiii:i6; Wetstein). They
also swore by Jerusalem, as the holy city (Matt,
v :3s ; Lightfoot, p. 281). The Rabbinical writers
indulge in much prolixity on the subject of oaths,
entering into nice distinctions, and showing them-
selves exquisite casuists.
The levity of the Jewish nation in regard to
oaths, though reproved by some of their doctors
(Othon. Lc.x: p. 351; Philo. ii, 194). was notori-
ous; and when we find it entering as an element
into popular poetry (Martial, xi, 9), we cannot
ascribe the imputation to the known injustice of
heathen writers towards the Israelites. This na-
tional vice, doubtless, had an influence with the
Essenes (see Essenes), in placing the prohibi-
tion of oaths among the rules of their reforma-
tory order. J. R. B.
(7) Attitude. It was usual to put the hand
under the thigh (Gen. xxiv:2; xlvii:29). The
more usual employment of the hand was to raise
it towards heaven ; designed, probably, to excite
attention, to point out the oath-taker, and to give
solemnity to the act (Gen. xiv :22, 23). In the
strongly anthropomorphitic language of parts of
the Scripture, even God is introduced saying, 'I
lift up my hand to heaven, and say, I live for
ever' (Deut. xxxii:4o). It can only be by the
employment of a similar license that the Almighty
is represented as in any way coming under the
obligation of an oath (Exod. vi:8; Ezek. xx:s).
Instead of the head, the phylactery was some-
times touched by the Jews on taking an oath
(Maimon. Schebhuoth, c, xi).
(8) Christian. Our Lord condemned the use
of oaths, even when taken with the best inten-
tion, declaring that whatever went beyond "yea,
yea, or nay, nay," was of the evil one (Matt.
'v:33-37). He was delivering the Sermon on the
Mount and correcting various perversions of the
law which the scribes had introduced; and among
other evils, he condemned swearing in ordinary
communications between man and man. But the
judicial oath is lawful; for it was enjoined by
God (Exod. xxii:ii), and Christ himself did not
hesitate to answer when he was put upon his
oath by the high-priest (Matt. xxvi:63). The
oath was recognized as lawful by the apostles
also, for they called on God to witness to the
truth of what they said (2 Cor. xi:3i; Gal.
i:2o). The mischief which may arise from a
rash oath was well illustrated in that of Herod
the tetrarch, which made him. against his will, the
murderer of John the Baptist (Matt. xiv:3-i2;
comp. James v:l2). (Davis. Bib. Diet.; Ray-
mond, Sys. Theol., vol. iii, p. 161-2. )
OBADIAH (o-ba-di'ah), (Heb.^'13i', o-bad-yaw .
servant of Jehovah), the name of several persons
mentioned in the Scripture
1. The governor of king Ahab's household,
and high in the confidence of his master, not-
withstanding his aversion to the idolatries which
the court patronized. In the persecution raised
by Jezebel, Obadiah hid one hundred of the
Lord's prophets in caves, and supplied them se-
cretly with nourishment during the famine. It
was this person, when sent out to explore the
country in the vain search of pasture uncon-
sumed by the drought, whom Elijah encountered
when about to show himself to Ahab, and who
was reluctantly prevailed upon to conduct the
prophet to his master (i Kings xviii:4-i6). (B.
C. 906.)
2. One of the heroes of the tribe of Gad, who
joined David at Ziklag (i Chron. xii:9). (B.
C. 1014.)
3. One of the nobles whom Jehoshaphat sent
to teach in tlie cities of Judah (2 Chron. xvii:7).
(B. C. 909.)
OBADIAH
1251
OBEDIENCE
4. One of the Levitcs who presided over the
restoration of the temple under Josiah (2 Chron.
xxxiv:i2). (B. C. 623.)
5. The head of a party, consisting of 218 males,
with females and children in proportion, who re-
turned with Ezra from Babylon (Ezra viii:9).
6. One of the priests, who sealed the written
covenant which Nehemiah caused the people to
enter into (Neh. x:5).
7. A man of Issachar of the house of Uzzi
(i Chron. vii;3). (B. C. 1014)
8. The father of Ishmaiah, which latter was
chief of the Zebulunites in the reign of David
(l Chron. xxviiiig). (B. C. 1014.)
9. Son of Azel and a descendant of Jonathan
(i Chron. viii:38; ix:44). (B. C. about 720.)
10. A descendant of David and founder of a
family (i Chron. iii:2i). (B. C. about 870.)
Probably he is the same as JuDA (Luke iii ;26)
and Abihud (Matt. i:l3).
//. A Levite, descendant of Jeduthun, and ap-
parently the founder of a family of porters (l
Chron. ix:i6). (B. C. about 446.)
12. The "Prophet Obadiah. He was the
fourth of the minor prophets according to the
Hebrew, the fifth according to the Greek, and
the eighth according to chronological arrange-
ment, is supposed to have prophesied B. C. about
599. (Jahn's Introd.) We have, however, but
a small fragment of his prophecies, and it is im-
possible to determine anything with certainty re-
specting himself or his history. Several persons
of this name occur about the same period, one
of whom presided at the restoration of the tem-
ple in the reign of Josiah (B. C. 624), and is
considered by many to have been the author of
the prophecy. Another, who was governor of
the house of Ahab, was regarded by the ancient
Jews as the author of the book : which opinion is
followed by Jerome (Hieron. Comm. in Abdiam ;
Sixtus Senens, Bib. Sanct.). Others place the
author in the reign of Ahaz (B. C. 728-699);
while some think him to have been a contempo-
rary of Hosea, who prophesied B. C. 722.
13. Obadiah, "Prophecy of.
(1) Time of Prophecy. It is observed by
Jahn, Newcome, and others, that it is evident
from verse 20 that Obadiah prophesied while Je-
rusalem was subjected to the yoke of the Chal-
daeans, and after the expatriation of several of
the citizens — which refers him to the period after
the seventh year of the Captivity, B. C. 599. Jahn
maintains, from the warnings to the Edomites,
verses 12-14, that Obadiah prophesied before the
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar ,
while De Wette infers from the mention of the
'captivity of the children of Israel,' and the 'cap-
tivity of Jerusalem' in verse 20, that the composi-
tion of the book must be placed after the destruc-
tion of that city. From a comparison of Obad.
verses 1-4, with Jcr. xlix:l4-l6; Obad. verse 6,
with Jer. xlix :9. 10; and Obad. verse 8. with Jer.
xlix:7, it is evident that one of these prophets had
read the other's work.
(2) Against Whom Directed. His prophe-
cies are directed against the Edomites, and in this
respect correspond with Amos i:ii; Jer. xlix:22;
Ezek. xxv:i2-l4, and Ps. cxxxvii 7 (Jahn's In-
trod.). He menaces Edom with destruction for
their hostile feeling towards Judah, and their
insulting conduct towards the Hebrews when Je-
rusalem was taken (verses 11, 12); but consoles
the Jews with a promi.se of restoration from their
captivity, when the Hebrews and the Ten Tribes
(Jahn's Introd.) shall repossess both their land
and that of Edom and Philistia — a prophecy which
was fulfilled in 'he time of the Maccabees, under
John Hyrcanus. (B. C. 125.) (Jahn, /. c.)
(3) Style, Etc. The language of Obadiah is
pure ; but Jahn and others have observed that he
is inferior to the more ancient prophets in his
too great addiction to the interrogatory form of
expression (see verse 8). His sentiments are no-
ble, and his figures bold and striking (De Wette's
Introd., Eng. transl.). De Wette's translator ob-
serves that his hatred towards other nations is
not so deep and deadly as that of some of his
younger contemporaries. W. W.
Cornill considers that the late prophecies (Is.
xxxiv:35), in which, as in Obadiah, eschatolog-
ical hopes are connected with the downfall of
Edom, were certainly known to the author of
Obadiah, (Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
OBAIi (o'bal), (Heb. '?'i\ o-bawl' , bare), a son of
Joktan, and founder of an Arabian tribe (Gen. x:
j8). (B. C. before 2060.)
Bochart, who refers to the fact that P!in> men-
tions the AvalitJE of the African coast, identifies
them with the descendants of Obal.
OBED (o'bed), (Heb. n3'.J\ o-bad^, serving; Sept.
'O/STiS, oh-bade').
1. The son of Boaz and Ruth, and father of
Jesse the father of David, according to the ap-
parently incomplete genealogical list (Ruth iv:i7;
I Chron. ii:i2). The name occurs in the geneal-
ogies of Matthew (1:5) and Luke (iii 132).
2. One of David's warriors (i Chron. xi:47).
(B. C. about 1046.)
3. Son of Ephlal and'fatherof Jehu; a descend-
ant of Jerahmecl (l Chron. ii:37). (B. C. after
1014.)
4. A son of Shemaiah and gate-keeper of the
temple (l Chron. xxvi:7). (B. C. 1017.)
5. Father of Azariali, who lived in the time of
Athaliah (2 Chron. xxiii:l). (B.C. before 876.)
OBED-EDOII (o'bed-ed'om), (Heb. Cni<"?»,
o-bade' ed-onie' , serving Edom).
1. A Levite in whose premises, and under
whose care, the ark was deposited, when the
death of Uzzah caused David to apprehend dan-
ger in taking it farther. It remained here three
months, during wliich the family of Obcd-edom
so signally prospered, that the king was encour-
aged to resume his first intention, which he then
happily carried into effect (2 Sam. vi;io-i2). We
learn from i Chron. xvi :38, that Obed-cdom's
connection with the ark did not then terminate,
he and his brethren having charge of the doors
of the sanctuary (i Chron. xv:i8, 24).
2. Son of Jeduthun, and warden of the temple
(I Chron. xvi:38). (B. C. 1043.)
3. One of those who had charge of the sacred
vessels in the time of Amaziah (2 Chron. xxv :
24). (B. C. 835.)
OBEDIENCE (6-be'dI-«is), (Heb. 2^5^, shaw-
mah' , to hear intelligently), the fulfillment of a
superior's command from regard to his authority.
(1) Characteristics.Etc. (i) Believers' "obedi-
ence" lies in believing the truths of the gospel,
and therein receiving Jesus and his fullness, as
the free gift of God; and, in consequence thereof,
sincerely studying conformity to his image, and
cheerful fulfillment of his whole law (Rom. vi:
16). This is called "obedience to the faith," be-
cause it begins in embracing the truths of the
gospel, and is a fulfillment of the Divine la\y as
revealed in the .Scripture (.-\cls vi 7 ; Rom. i:?).
It is an "obedience of faith ;" it corresponds with
OBEDIENCE Of CHRIST
1252
OCCURRENT
the principles received by faith in the Scripture
(Rom. xvi;26). (2) It is an "obedience of
Christ;" it flows from his dwelling in, and actuat-
ing our heart (2 Cor. x:5).^ (3) It is an
"obedience unto righteousness" (Rom. vi;l6).
(4) It must spring from a heart renewed, and
actuated by his indwelling Spirit (Ezek. xxxvi :
26, 27; Matt. vii:i8; Gal. i:i6; i Tim. i :5 ; Heb.
ix:i4). (s) It must be sincere (Ps. 11:6; I Tim.
i^S)- (6) Affectionate, springing from love, and
not from terror (I John iv:i9; I John ii :5 ; 2 Cor.
v:i4). (7) Diligent, not slothful (Heb. vi:i2;
Ps. xviii:44; Rom. xii:ii). (8) Conspicuous
and open (Phil, iiiis; Matt. v:i6). (9) Uni-
versal: not one duty, but all must be performed
(2 Pet. i:s, 10). (10) Perpetual, at all times,
places, and occasions (Rom. ii 7 ; Gal. vi:9).
(2) Advantages, (i) It adorns the gospel
(Tit. ii :io.) (2) It is evidential of grace (2 Cor.
■v:i7). (3) It rejoices the hearts of the ministers
and people of God (3 John 2, 3; i Thess. ii:i9,
20). (4) It silences gainsayers (Titus, i:9).
(5) Encourages believers, while it reproves the
lukewarm (Matt. v:i6). (6) Affords peace to
the subject of it (Ps. xxv:i2, 13; Acts xxiv:i6).
(7) It strongly recommends religion, as that
which is both delightful and practicable ( Col. i :
10). (8) It is the forerunner and evidence of
eternal glory (Rom. vi :22 ; Rev. xxii:i4.) (Buck,
Bib. Diet.; Brown, Bib. Diet.)
OBEDIENCE OF CHBIST is generally divided
into active and passive. His active obedience im-
plies what he did; his passive what he suffered.
Some divines distinguish these. They refer our
pardon to his passive, and our title to glory to his
active obedience ; though. Dr. Owen observes,
that it cannot be clearly evinced that there is any
such thing in propriety of speech as passive obedi-
ence; obeying is doing, to which passion or suf-
fering does not belong. Of the active obedience
of Christ the Scriptures assure us that he took
upon him the form of a servant, and really be-
came one (Is. xlix:3; Phil. ii:7; Heb. viii). He
was subject to the law of God. "He was made
under the law;" the judicial or civil law of the
Jews : the ceremonial law, and the moral law
(Matt, xvii :24, 27; Luke ii:22; Ps. xl :7, 8)._He
was obedient to the law of nature ; he was in a
state of subjection to his parents; and he fulfilled
the commands of his heavenly Father as it re-
spected the first and second table. His obedience
(l) was voluntary (Ps. xl :6) ; (2) complete (i
Pet. ii:22); (3) wrought out in the room and
stead of his people (Rom. x:4; Rom. v:i9) ; (4)
well pleasing and acceptable in the sight of God.
(Buck, Bib. Diet.) (See Martensen, Christ. Eth.
vol. i, p. 2fx), sl].; Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
OBELISK (6b-e-lisk), (Hos. iii:4. R. V.) See
Pillar.
OBETH (6'betfi). (l Esdras viii;32. Same as
Ebed, Ezra viii:6).
OBIL (o'bil), (Heb. b'DiX, o-beel' , chief of the
camels), Sept. 'A^ias, a-hee'as, an Ishmaelite, or
Arab, doubtless of tlie nomad tribes, who had
charge of the royal camels in the time of David —
an exceedingly fit employment for an Arab (I
Chron. xxvii 130).
As Obil means in Arabic 'a keeper of camels'
Hieron. (ii, 2), reasonably infers that the person
had his name from his office, which has always
been a very common circumstance in the East.
OBJECT (6b-jekt), (Gr. Kariiyopfu, kat-ay-gor-
eh'-o; to be a plaintiff, to charge with some of-
fense).
This word is rendered accuse (Acts xxiviig);
a public accusation (Mark xiv:fio).
OBLATION (ob-la'shiin), (Heb. ^^r^, min-
khaw' , a donation). See Offering and Sacrifice.
OBOTH (o'botfi), (Heb. nDX , o-hoth'),3. station
of the Israelites near Moab (Num. xxi;io, 11;
xxxiii:43, 44). (See Wandering, The.)
OBSCURE (ob-skur'), (Heb. 'j't'^X , ee-shone' .
the little man of the eye, i. e., the pupil or ball);
what is dark, little known; and so "obscure dark-
ness," may denote a lone condition of sorrow and
misery (Prov. xx.20).
Figurative. (i) Obscurity is much the
same as darkness, and denotes what is opposite
to the light of knowledge or prosperity, namely,
ignorance and misery, calamities (Is. lix:9). (2)
The blind "see out of obscurity, and out of dark-
ness," when their natural sight is miraculously
given them, or rather when their ignorant minds
are enlightened by the spiritual knowledge of
Christ, and his truth (Is. xxix:i8). (3) Light
rises in "obscurity and darkness, and is made as
the noon-day," when great ignorance and distress
are put away, and knowledge, prosperity, and joy,
come in their room; or when believers, amidst
their outward distress, have fellowship with, and
joy in their God: and the church grows greatly
amidst distress and persecution (Is. lviii:io).
OBSERVATION (6b-zer-va'shun), (Gr. irapar^-
pTjo-is, par-at-ay' ray-sis, that which may be seen)
with outward show.
"The kingdom of God cometh not with ob-
servation" (Luke xvii:20), i. e. it must be viewed
as a spiritual development and not as a visible
unfolding as in the case of the kingdoms of men.
It must come by -wailing and zcatcliing.
OBSERVER OF TIMES (6b-zerv'er 6v tims).
See Magic.
OBSTINACY (6b'sti-na-cy). See Hard, Fi^-
jimtiz't'.
OCCUPY (6k'kQ-pi), (Heb. "¥'?, aw-^ci7v', Judg.
xvi:il), to make use of, to employ.
"If they bind me fast with new ropes that never
were occupied, then shall I be weak, and be as
another man" (Judg. xvi:il).
Occupy now means to be in present possession,
to hold, — thus one occupies a house, a station,
etc. But formerly it had a wider sense, and
meant not only to have the use of, but to use in
general. "Ropes that never were occupied," means
ropes that never were used. (See also Exod.
x.xxviii :24).
Its more frequent meaning in our version of
the Bible is, to use in trade, as money, or to
deal in, as merchandise (Ezek. xxvii :9) ; hence,
intransitively, to trade or traffic (Ezek. xxvii: 16,
19, 21, 22). In this sense it occurs in Luke xix:
13, "occupy till I come." Compare occupier.
Eumenes made as though he had occasion to
occupy money (that is, to make use of money),
and so borrowed a great sum.
— North's Plutarch.
But now must men occupy their goods other-
wise. — Latimer's Sermons.
(Swinton. Bib. Word Book.)
OCCURRENT (6k kur'r.-ni), (Heb. "^'f, peh'-
gall), an occurrence.
"But now the Lord my God hath given me rest
on every side, so that there is neither adversary
nor evil oceurrent" (i Kings v:4). Occurrent
was the earlier form of the word now written
occurrence.
OCHIM
1253
OFFERING
OCHIM (5'kim), a species of animal (Is. xiii:2i,
R. V. "doleful creatures").
OCRAN (ok'ran). (Heb. 1;??. ok-rawn' , mud-
dler), father of the Pagiel who was chief of Asher
about the time of the Exodus (Num. i;l3; ii:27;
vii:72; x:26), B. C. before 658.
ODED (6'ded), (Heb, 1^'^', o-iiade' , erecting).
1- The prophet who remonstrated against the
detention as captives of the persons whom the
army of King Pekah had brought prisoners from
Judah, and at whose suggestion they were hand-
somely treated, and conducted back with all ten-
derness and care to their own country (2 Chron.
xxviii:9). (B. C. 739)
2. Father of Azariah the prophet, who was
commissioned to meet and encourage Asa on his
return from defeating the Ethiopians (2 Chron.
XV : 1-8). It curiously happens that the address
which, at the commencement, is ascribed to Aza-
riah, the son of Oded, is at the end ascribed to
Odcd himself (xv:8). But this is supposed to
have been a slip of copyists, and the Alex. MS.,
the Vulgate and the Peshito-Syriac versions read
ihe latter verse like the former. (B. C. before
953)
ODEM(6'dem), (Heb. 2^*^, £)'atw/; Sept. adpSiOf,
sar' i/ei--oii), sardius, one of the precious stones in
the breastplate of the high-priest (Exod. xxviii:l7;
xxxix:lo, and also mentioned in P'zek. xxviii:i3).
In all these places it is rendered 'sardius' in the
Authorized Version, following the Septuagint
and Josephus (De Bell. Jtid., v, 5, 7), who, how-
ever, in Anliq. iii, 7, 6, makes it the sardonyx
{aaphbvvi,). The sardius is the stone now
called the carnelian, from its color (a came),
which resembles that of raw flesh. The Hebrew
name is derived from a root which signifies be-
ing red. The sardius or carnelian is of the flint
family, and is a kind of chalcedony. The more
vivid the red in this stone, the higher is the esti-
mation in which it is held. It was anciently, as
now, more frequently engraved on than any other
stone. The ancients called it sardius, because
Sardis in Lydia was the place where they first be-
came acquainted with it; but the sardius of Baby-
Ion was considered of greater value (Plin. Hist.
Nat. xxxvii:7). The Hebrews probably obtained
the carnelian from Arabia.
ODOR (o'der), (Heb. 0'""^ nce-kho'akh, rest-
ful, Lev. xxvi:3i; Dan. ii:46), relating to Incense
(which see).
It denotes fragrance, a sweet smelling odor
and the like (2 Chron. xvi:i4; Esth. ii:i2; Jer.
xxxiv:s; John xii :3 ; Phil. iv;l8).
"The odors of the groves of Lebanon were
anciently very famous (Hos. xiv7; Cant. iv:ii) ;
flowers, even exotics, were cultivated in pleasure
gardens for this purpose (Cant. 1:12; iv:6, 14).
Odorous extracts were used sometimes in the
form of incense, sometimes as ointments (i:3;
iv:io) ; sometimes in water, with which clothing,
bed furniture, etc., was sprinkled (Prov. vii:i7)"
(McC. & S., Cjif.)
Figurative. The prayers and praises of the
saints, and their cheerful contributions to fel-
low-Christians, when in need, are likened to odors,
to represent how delightful and acceptable they
are to God (Rev. v:8; Phil. iv:i8).
OF (6v), the most frequent preposition in the
English language. "And should have been killed
(ffthem" (Acts xxiii;27), where we should now use
dy, as in Luke xiv;8; i Cor. xi;32, and numerous
other passages.
Other peculiar uses arc, "of purpose" (Ruth
ii:i6), where we should say, on purpose; "zeal of
thine house" (Fs. Ixixig; John ii:i7), for zeal
for thine house; "zeal of God" (Rom. x:2), for
zeal for God.
OFFENSE (6f-fens'), three Hebrew words are
translated in the A. V. "offenses:"
1. Mik-shoW (Heb. •'"'^'?^), an obstacle, or en-
ticement (l Sam. xxv:3i; Is. viii:i4).
2. Khale (Heb **'^!^), crime, or its penalty
(Eccles. x:4).
3. Aw-sham' (Hob. ^S^?), to acknowledge
guilt (Hos. v:i5).
The Greek words rendered "offense" are:
napa.TrTW)ia, par-ap' to-7nah, to fall beside or near,
a lapse, or deviation from the truth; a sin, or mis-
deed (\\om. v:i5-20; iv:2^,y.vi.\T,aK6.via\ov, skan'-
dal-on, the movable stick of a trap, any impediment
(Matt. xviii:7; Rom. ix:33; Luke xvii;l).
Figurative. In the figurative and moral
sense, as an occasion of falling into sin, it means
to cause to offend, as the Greek word is correctly
translated (i Cor. viii:i3), "if meat make my
brother to offend." So in Matt. v:29, 30, "if thy
right eye offend thee," stumble thee, cause thee
to offend, as correctly rendered in the Geneva
version, 1560. Luke xvii :2 (Matt. xviii:6; Mark
ix:42), "should offend one of these little ones,"
should cause one of them to offend, to fall into
unbelief; and in the passi\ ;. he made to offend
or stumble at unlooked-for difficulties and dan-
gers, and fall azi'ay from the truth or from duty,
as in Matt. xiii:2i; xxiv:io; xxvi:3i, 33; Mark
iv:i7; xiv :27, 29; John xvi:i. Rom. xiv:2l,
"stumbles or is offended," is made to oflfend,
led into sin. Thirdly, in the sense of a ground
or object of offense, of dissatisfaction and aver-
sion, it means to displease, to give offense; as in
Matt. xv:i2, "the Pharisees were offended after
they heard this saying ;" xvii :27, "lest we should
offend them." So in Matt, xiii :57, "were of-
fended in him," found in him (in his hinnble
birth and connections) ground of disapproval and
rejection (John vi :6i ; 2 Cor. xi:29). (Swinton,
Bib. Word Book.)
OFFERING (of'fer-ing), (the general name for
which in Hebrew is 151Iv), kor-bawn') is any-
thinK ofifered to God as a means of conciliating
his favor; which being in the Jewish, as well as in
all other religions, considered as the one thing
needful, offermgs accordingly have always ciHistl-
tutcd an essential part of public worship and pri-
vate fiiety.
Offerings have been divided into three kinds;
those which are designed to procure some favor
or benefit ; the second, those which are expres-
sive of gratitude for bounties or mercies received;
the third, those which are meant to atone for sins
and propitiate the Deity, .\mong the Hebrews
we find a complex and multiform system of of-
ferings extending through the entire circle of
Divine worship, and prescribing the minutest de-
tails. A leading distinction separates their offer-
ings into unbloody and bloody.
(1) Meaning and Objects Used. Used in its
widest sense the term oflfering, or oblation, indi-
cates in the Hebrew ritual a very great number
of things — as the firstlings of the flock, first
fruits, tithes, incense, the shew-brcad, the wood
for burning in the Temple (Nch. x:34). The
objects offered were salt, meal, baked and roasted
grain, olive-oil, clean animals, such as oxen, goats,
doves, but not fish. The animals were required to
OFFERING
1254
OFFICER
be spotless (Lev. xxii:2o; Mai. i:8), and, with
the exception of the doves, not under eight days
old (Lev. xxii:27), younger animals being taste-
less and innutritious. The smaller beasts, such as
sheep, goats, and calves, were commonly one year
old (Exod. xxix:38; Lev. ix:3; xii:6; xiv:io;
Num. xv:27; xxviii:9, sq.). Oxen were offered
at three years of age; in Judges (vi:2S) one is
offered which is seven years old. As to sex, an
option was sometimes left to theofferer.as in peace
and sin-offerings (Lev. iii:i, 6; xii :s, 6) ; at other
times males were required, as in burnt sacrifices,
for, contrary to classical usage, the male was con-
sidered the more perfect. In burnt-offerings and
in thank-offerings the kind of animal was left to
the choice of the worshiper (Lev. i:3), but in
trespass and sin-offerings it was regulated by law
(Lev. iv:s). If the desire of the worshiper was
lo express his gratitude, he offered a peace or
thank-offering; if to obtain forgiveness, he of-
fered a trespass or sin-offering.
(2) Burnt-Offerings. Burnt-offerings were of
a general kind (Num. xv:3; Deut. xii:6; Jer.
xvii:26). Hecatombs or large numbers of cattle
were sacrificed on special occasions. In i Kings
viii :5, 63, Solomon is said to have 'sacrificed
sheep and oxen that could not be told or num-
bered for multitude,' 'two and twenty thousand
oxen and an hundred and twenty thousand sheep'
(see also 2 Chron. xxix:32, sg.; xxx:24; xxxv:
7, sq.; comp. Herod, vii :43 ; Xenoph. Hellen.,
vi:4; Sueton. Calig. 14). Offerings were also
either public or private, prescribed or free-will.
Sometimes they were presented by an individual,
sometimes by a family ; once, or at regular and
periodic intervals (i Sam. i:24; Job i :s ; 2 Mace.
iii:32).
Foreigners were permitted to make offerings on
the national altar (Num. xv:i4; 2 Mace, iii :35 ;
xiii:23; Philo. Legal, p. 1014; Joseph, c. Apion.
ii, 5). Offerings were made by Jews for heathen
princes (l Mace. v:i:33; Joseph, rlntiq. xii, 2, 5).
In the case of bloody offerings the possessor,
after he had sanctified himself (i Sam. xvi:s),
brought the victim, in case of thank-offerings,
with his horns gilded and with garlands, etc., (Jo-
seph. Antiq. xiii;8, 2; Winer, Real-worterb. ii,
212, note 5) to the altar (Lev. iii:i; .xii 14 ; xiv :
17), where laying his hand on the head of the
animal (Lev. i:4; iii:2; iv:4), he thus, in a clear
and pointed way, devoted it to God. Having so
done he proceeded to slay the victim himself
(Lev. iii:2; iv:4); which act might be, and in
later times was, done by the priests (2 Chron.
xxix:24), and probably by the Levites.
The blood was taken, and, according to the kind
of offering, sprinkled upon the altar, or brought
into the temple and there shed upon the ark of
the covenant and smeared upon the horns of
the altar of incense, and then the remainder
poured forth at the foot of the altar of burnt-
offerings. Having slain the animal, the offerer
struck off its head (Lev. i:6), which when not
burnt (Lev. iv:ii) belonged either to the priest
(Lev. vii:8), or to the offerer (comp. Mishna,
Lebacb. xii:2). The victim was then cut into
pieces (Lev. i :6 ; viii:2o), which were either all,
or only the best and most tasty, set on fire on
the altar by the priests or the offerer, or must
be burnt outside the precincts of the holy city.
The treatment of doves may be seen in Lev. 1:14,
sq.; v:8. In some sacrifices heaving and waving
were usual either before or after the slayings.
(3) Place of Offerings. The place where of-
ferings were exclusively to be presented was the
outer court of the national sanctuary, at first
the Tabernacle, afterwards the Temple. Every
offering made elsewhere was forbidden under
penalty of death (Lev. xvii :4, sq.; Deut. xii :$,
sq.; comp. ! Kings xii:27). The precise spot is
laid down in Lev. i:3; iii :2, 'at the door of the
tabernacle of the congregation before the Lord.'
The object of these regulations was to prevent
any secret idolatrous rites from taking place un-
der the cloak of the national ritual ; and a com-
mon place of worship must have tended consid-
erably to preserve the unity of the people, whose
constant disagreements required precautions of a
special kind (i Kings xii 127). The oneness, how-
ever, of the place of sacrifice was not strictly pre-
served in the troubled period of the Judges, nor
indeed till the time of David (l Kings iii :2, 3).
Offerings were made in other places besides the
door of the Tabernacle (i Sam. vii: 17; Judg. ii:
S). High places, which had long been used by
the Canaanites, retained a certain sanctity, and
were honored with offerings (Judg. vi:26; xiii:
19). Even the loyal Samuel followed this prac-
tice (i Sam.), and David endured it (i Kings
iii:2). After Solomon these offerings on high
places still continued. In the kingdom of Israel,
cut off as its subjects were from the holy city,
the national temple was neglected.
(4) Formalism. Under the load and the multi-
plicity of these outward oblations, however, the
Hebrews forgot the substance, lost the thought
in the symbol, the thing signified in the sign ;
and, failing in those devotional sentiments and
that practical obedience which offerings were in-
tended to prefigure and cultivate, sank into the
practice of mere dead works. Hereupon began
the prophets to utter their admonitory lessons,
to which the world is indebted for so many
graphic descriptions of the real nature of religion
and the only true worship of Almighty God (Is.
i:ii; Jer. vi:2o; vii:2l, sq.; Hos. vi :6 ; / -nos
v :22 ; Micah vi :6, sq.; comp. Ps. .xl:6; li:i7, sq.;
Prov. xxi:3). All these offerings were typical
in various forms of the "full, perfect and suffi-
cient sacrifice, oblation and satisfaction for the
sins of the whole world."
The Jewish doctrines on offerings may be found
in the treatises Scbachim, Mcnachoth, and
Temura; a selection from which, as well as from
the Rabbins, is given in that useful little work,
Othon. Lex. Talmud, p. 621, sq. J. R. B.
OFFICER (of'fi-ser).
The Hebrew and Greek words translated of-
ficer are very numerous and indefinite. They are
synonymous terms for functionaries known un-
der other and more specific terms, as "eunuch,"
"scribes," etc.
1. Saw-reece' (Heb. ^"^5, to castrate, Gen.
xxxvii:36; xxxix:i: xl:2), usually rendered
Eunuch (which see •
2. Shj ta?t (Heb. V*-", properly a writer),
from the use of writing in judicial administration,
a magistrate or prefect; the officers set over the
Israelites in Egypt (Exod. v:6-i9), those ap-
pointed with the elders to administer public af-
fairs among the Israelites (Num. xi:i6; Deut.
XX :S, 8. 9; xxix:io; Josh. i:io, etc.), magistrates
in the cities and towns of Palestine (Deut. .xvi :
18; I Chron. xxiii:4; xxvi :29, etc.), and appar-
ently a military chief (2 Chron. xxvi:il, A. V.
"ruler," R. V. "officer").
3. Nits-tsau'b (Heb. ^?^, fixed, i Kings iv:5,
7; v:i6; ix:23, etc V genera' receivers of taxes, or
chief tax collectors
OFFICER THAT STRUCK JESUS
1255
OIL
4. Paw-keed (Heb. ^'Pf, Gen. xli:34; Judg.
rx:28; Esth. ii:3, etc.), a superintendent, eitlier civil,
military, or ecclesiastical. (McC. & Str. Bib. Cyc.)
5. In the New Testament in the case of
inrrip^Ti]! (hoop-ay-ref ace), the word means bailiffs
(Matt. v:25; John vii:32, 45; Acts v:22).
In the case of IIpd/tTopei (prak'tor-es) it denotes
those who register and collect the fines imposed
by courts of justice (Luke xii:58).
OFFICEK, THAT STBtTCK JESUS. This
man struck Jesus on the cheek with his hand or
rod, perchance with both. It was the first overt act
of personal violence (Luke xxii :63, 64). He was
doubtless informed of a Jewish law found in Ex-
odus xxii 128, "Thou shalt not revile God, nor
curse a ruler of thy people." But this fellow
had a bigoted veneration for the high-priest, and
applied this punishment with indiscretion and
severe brutality. The blows must have been
severe. Jesus had done nothing that merited
such a painful insult.
OFFICES OF CHRIST (of'fises 6v krisi). are
generally considered as threefold.
(i) A prophet to enlighten and instruct (John
vi:i4; John iii:2). (2) A priest to make atone-
ment for his people (Is. liii ; Heb. vii). (3)
A king to reign in, and rule over them (Zech.
ix :9; Ps. ii :6).
(1) Prophet. Christ is Prophet because more
than all others he has declared to men the truth
and will of God. He is himself the revelation
of God (see John xivip; xvii :25, 26; Heb. i:l,
2, et al.).
(2) High Priest. Christ is the great High
Priest. He is the first begotten, an elder brother
of God's spiritual family of chosen priests. He
directs his people, offers sacrifice for them, and
by his blood and Spirit consecrates them to God.
How transcendant his unction to, and prepara-
tion for his work ! He wears his manhood, and
executes his ofiice, in the double estate of de-
basement and glory. How shining his robes of
righteousness and garments of salvation ! and
how fixed forever, as on his shoulder and heart,
are all the Israelites indeed I As he espoused a
pure and virgin nature into personal union
with himself none but virgin saints and
churches are really his people. On his head are
many crowns ; and by him, as our righteousness
and sanctification, are we sanctified, and made
holiness to the Lord. He is the great High
Priest of our profession, and of good things to
come. His person, as God-man, is infinitely dig-
nified in his sacrificial and intercessory work:
his priesthood is the great foundation and ob-
ject of our gospel-profession, and the cause of
all the precious blessings that come upon us in
time and eternity (Heb. iii:i, and viii;l). If
Christ had remained on earth, he could not have
been a priest: being descended of the tribe of
Judah, he had no right to officiate in the sacer-
dotal work of the earthly tabernacle or temple ;
and if he had remained on earth after his oblation
of himself, he could not have shewed himself
the true Messiah, nor by his intercession finished
his work, and rendered the shedding of his blood
effectual (Heb. viii:4). (See Atonement.)
(3) King. Christ is king: King of kings;
Lord of lords; and King of saints. By his
Father's appointment, he subdues, governs, and
defends his church : and has all power in heaven
and earth given him for the promoting of her
welfare: he restrains and conquers her enemies;
and at the last day, he will pass an irreversible
sentence of judgment on the whole world (Ps.
ii:6, and xlv:i; Matt. xxv:34; Rev. xvii:i4, and
xix:i6). (See Jesus Christ; King; Messiah;
Mediator.)
OFFSCOXTRING (of'skour'ing), (Heb. '01?, seA-
khee' , refuse, as swept off, Lam. iii:45; Gr. irepl<f/riiia
per-ip'say-mah, 1 Cor. iv:i3, brushed off), used
figuratively to express something vile, worthless,
as the apostles were looked upon by very many in
their day.
OFTEN (ofn), (Gr. irw«Si, pook-nos', I Tim.
v:23), an old English term lot frequent. "Often
messengers." — Shakespeare.
OG (6g), (Heb. TJ', o^K^, giant or long-necked),
an Amoritish king of Bashan (Num. xxi:33; xxxii:
33; Deut. iv:47; xxxi:4).
In form he was a giant, so that his bed-
stead was preserved as a memorial of his huge
stature (Deut. iii:ii; Josh. xiii:i2). (.See Bed.)
He was defeated by the Israelites under Moses
(Num. xxi:33; Deut. i:4; iii:3); and his coun-
try, which contained many walled cities (Deut.
iii:4-io), was assigned to the tribe of Manasseh
(Deut. iii:l3; Josh. xiii:3o). (See Amorites;
Bashan; Giants.)
CHAD (o'hSd), (Heb. ~!?^, o'had, unity), third
son of Simeon and head of a family (Gen. xlvi:io;
Ex. vi:i5), B. C. 1870.
OHEL (o'hel), (Heb. ^^'^, o'hel, tent), the fifth
child of Zerubbabel, of the house of David (a
Chron. iii:2o), B. C. after 600.
OIL (oil). The Hebrew and Greek words trans-
lated oil in the A. V. are as follows: (l) Heb-
'v^'^fSiteh' men, grease, sometimes in A. V. "oint.
ment." (2) Heb. '^v'^r, yits-haivr' , shining, clear
olive oil (Num. xviii:i2; Deut. vii:i3; xi:i4; xii:i7;
2 Kings xviii:32, etc. (3) Chald. '^'•i'?, inesh-akh'
an unguent (only in Ezra vi;9; vii:22). (4) Gr.
tKaiov, el'ah-yon, neuter of word meaning
"olive."
Oil amongst the Hebrews, was made from olive
berries and from spices (Exod. xxv.6). It was
used: (1) In the preparation of fixxi, much as
butter and lard are used to-day (i Kings xvii:
12-15; Exod. xxix:2; Lev. ii;4, etc.); (2) as a
cosmetic for anointing the body, the beard, and
the head (2 Sam. xiv:2; Ps. xxiii:5; Luke vii:
46, etc.) (see Perfume); (3) for illuminating
purposes in lamps (Exod. xxv:6; xxvii:2o; Matt.
xxv:3, etc.) (see Lamp); (4) in worship. The
first-fruits (Num. xviii:i2), and the tithes were
dedicated to the Lord (Nch. xiii:5). The meat-
offerings were also dipped in oil (Lev. ii;7; vii:
10, etc.) (see Offering); (5) in the ritual of
consecration of kings and high-priests (i Sam.
x;i; Lev. viii:i2, etc.); (6) for medicinal purposes
(Mark vi:i3; Luke x:34; Is. i:6; James v:i4); (7)
for anointmg the dead (Matt. xxvi;i2; Luke
xxiii:56) (see Anointing).
The practice in the early Church of anointing
the bodies of persons whose lives were despaired
of was derived from Jas. v:l4. The Roman
Catholic Church has placed the practice among
the sacraments, denominating it "extreme unc-
tion."
Figurative. (i) As an ordinary cosmetic,
the use of oil is significant of joy and gladness
(Ps. xcii:io), and the omission of it betokens
sorrow (2 Sam. .\iv:2: Matt. vi:i7). (2) Oil
represents the Holy Ghost's precious and diversi-
fied operations and graces, whereby Jesus and his
OIL, HOLY ANOINTING
1256
OINTMENT
people, and none other, are anointed to the serv-
ice of God (Exod. xxx:23-33; Cant. i:3; iv:io).
(3) Persons "receive the oil of joy for mourn-
ing," when, by the comforting gifts and graces
of the Holy Ghost, their hearts are healed, puri-
fied, invigorated, and honored (Is. lxi:3); but
Jesus is "anointed ivitli the oil of gladness" above
them, having ^n unmeasurable fullness of the
graces and comforts of the Holy Ghost (Ps. xlv:
7). And his r'ame, character, office, and works,
are like ointment poured forth, most healing, re-
freshful, invigorating, and adorning to our soul
(Cant. i:3). (4) The "golden oil emptied" out
of the two olive trees which stand before the
Lord, is not the comfort arising to the Hebrews,
from the management of Zerubbabel and Joshua,
or of Ezra and Nehemiah ; but the gracious en-
dowments of the saints, proceeding from Jesus'
two natures, or execution of his prophetic and
kingly office on and in them (Zech. iv:i2); this
poured into their wounds, heals them (Luke x:
34). (5) The "oil" which true saints have in their
lamps, is real grace which abides in them, and
makes them shine as lights in the world (Matt.
XXV :4). (6) Prosperity, spiritual or temporal,
is likened to "oil:" it comforts, invigorates, and
renders men noted and useful (Ps. xxiii:s).
Christian reproof is like "oil;" it tends to heal
spiritual diseases, restore the character, and ren-
der men who regard it honored and agreeable
(Ps. cxli:5). (7) Unity among brethren, is like
"ointment ;" it procures delight, honor, cheerful-
ness, and activity to all concerned (Ps. cxxxiii :
2). (8) God made the river of Egypt run "like
oil;" that is, very slowly, as in mourning; and
when it was so dried up, that it did not make
the country fruitful (Ezek. xxxii:i4).
OIL, HOLY ANOINTING (oil, ho'ly a-noint'-
ing). The mode of preparing this oil is prescribed
(Exod. xxx;22-25). (See Anointing).
OIL-PRESS (oil-pres).
"The oil of Palestine is expressed in a rude
way. The olive is subjected to pressure in a
mill consisting of a great millstone with a hole
in its center; this stone is laid on one of its flat
surfaces, and a beam of wood fastened upright
in the axis. The upper surface of the stone is
slightly depressed, except at its margin and around
the central hole. Another millstone is set up on
its edge in the depression of the upper surface
of the lower stone. Through the axis of this
stone passes a long beam, which is fastened at one
end by a pin to the axis of the horizontal stone,
and at the other to a whiffletree, to \vhich a horse
or ox is geared when the mill is in operation.
The upright stone is moved around the axis of
the lower, and crushes the olives by its great
weight. The oil which is expressed by this crush-
ing mill is incorporated with the crushed mass,
which is then transferred to baskets of flexible
structure, eighteen inches wide and six inches
deep. A pile of these baskets, eight feet or more
in height, is raised within a hollow erect cylinder
of stone, which is open in front by a slit, four
inches in width, from top to bottom of the cylin-
der. Into the top of this cylinder passes a piston,
which is connected with a lever, to which are
attached heavy stones, and by means of the piston
the baskets of olives are subjected to as much
pressure as is necessary to extract the oil. The
quality of oil thus made is quite inferior to that
imported from Italy and France. It is largely
used in making soap, and was formerly much
more used for burning than now." (Dr. Post, of
Beirut, in Schafl's Bib. Diet.) (See Olive.)
OIL TREE (oil tre), (Heb.1?!? V^, ates skeh'men),
possibly tree of oil (Is. xli:i9).
In I Kings vi :23, 31, 32, 33 these words are
rendered "olive tree," and represent the material
of the cherubim, doors, and posts of Solomon's
temple. They are translated "pine" in Neh. viii ■
15. But the olive tree is also unmistakably men-
tioned in this verse. If the oil tree was not the
olive tree, what was it? Tristram and others
believe it to be the oleaster (Eleagntis angusti-
folitis). This shrub has no affinity to the olive,
though resembling it in leaf and general ap-
pearance and yielding from its berries an inferior
oil. It is found plentifully on the highlands of
Palestine and about Jerusalem, thus meeting the
direction of Neh. viii:is, as the Balanites ^-Esiyp-
tiaca, a shrub of the Jordan valley, does not.
Dr. Tristram therefore suggests in one place (un-
der "Oil Tree") that its "fine hard wood" was
the wood of the cherubim, but in another place
(under "Olive") states that material to have been
olive wood (as the A. V. reads). The latter
opinion has a strong probability in its favor, and
it does not appear that the oleaster is more than
a large shrub, though the author cited calls it, as
compared with the olive, "a smaller tree." For
the passage in Nehemiah there would then be
no present explanation unless we believe, as is
very possible, that the term "oil tree," in later
times at least, was extended or restricted to the
oleaster.
G. E. Post, Hastings' Bib. Diet., says : "The
only trees which fulfill all the necessary con-
ditions are the fatwood trees. The genus Pinus
furnishes three species, Pinus Pinea, L., the
stone or maritime pine, Pinus Halepensis, Mill.,
the Aleppo P'ne, and Pinus Bruttia, Ten., which
is perhaps only a variety of the last. Any of these
would furnish foliage suitable for booths, and all
are constantly used for this purpose in the East.
Their massive trunks could easily furnish the
log required for the carved image, and the doors
and doorposts. They are constantly used in house
carpentry. Their heartwood is fat enough to en-
title them to be called 'trees of fatness.' They
are spontaneous, growing in the wilderness (i. e.
uncultivated places, and so fit to be associated
with the other trees mentioned with them. Is.
xli:ig). We are inclined with Celsius {Hierob.
i, 3og) to translate 'ez-shemen, 'fatwood trees,'
and to suppose that the reference is to the pines."
OINTMENT (oint'ment).
(1) Name. Ointment is the rendering of tin
following words in the original: (i) Heb. l^f'
sheh'men (2 Kings xx:i3; Ps. cxxxiii:2; Prov.
xxv!i:l6; Eccles. vii:i; ix:8; x:i; Is. i:6, etc.), prob
ablyc//(and so elsewhere rendered, except "olive"
in I Kings vi:23, 557.; "pine," in Neh. viii:i5; "fat-
ness," in Ps. cix:24; "fat things," in Is. xxv:6;
"fruitful," in Is. v:l}. (2) Hebrew form '^t*.
ro'kak/i, an aromatic (Exod. xxx:25), an odorous
compound ("confection," Exod. xxx:35; 2 Chron.
xvi;i4; "pot of ointment," Job xli:3i, etc.). (3) Gr.
nvpov, nwo'ron, myrrh (invariably rendered "oint-
ment"). (McC. & Str. Bib. Cyc.)
(2) Nature and Preparation. The holy
anointing oil made by Bczalel for Moses (Exod.
XXX :23, sq.) consisted of orje bin of olive oil
(about 10 lbs.), 500 shekels of flowing myrrh
(about 15 lbs.), 250 shekels of sweet cinnamon
(about l\i lbs.), 250 shekels of sweet calamus, and
500 shekels of cassia (or costus). The Jewish au-
thors who regard the 'shekel of the sanctuary
OLD
1257
OLIVES, MOUNT OF; OLIVET
as twice the ordinary shekel, double these weights.
This was to be compounded after the art of the
perfumer. Probably these scented substances, or
some of them, were brought into the market in
powder, as in Cant, iii .■6, these spices are called
'the powders of the merchant." There are dif-
ferent descriptions given by Rabbinical writers
of the process whereby the anointing oil was
compounded, but most probably it was simple
pulverization of the ingredients, and boiling them
in the oil ; for, as Pliny has remarked, the
strength of the ointment is greater when the
ingredients are boiled together (xiii :2) ; but see
Otho's Lexicon, under the word 'Oleum.' The
making of ointment in this way was recognized
by Hebrew writers (see Job xli:3l). (A. Mac-
alister, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
(3) Uses. Ointment was used among the He-
brew and other nations for cosmetics, for funeral,
medicinal and ritual purposes. (See Anointing;
Oil.)
OLD (old). See Age.
OLD GATE (old gat), a name (Neh. iii:6; xiiig)
of a Jerusalem gate ; Kitto says probably the
gate on the northeast corner. (See Jerusalem.)
OLD LATIN VERSIONS. See the article
Vulgate.
OLD MAN. See Regeneration.
OLD PROPHET, THE. This prophet lived in
Bethel at the commencement of the reign of Jero-
boam L A single incident in his life is narrated
(i Kings xiii:ii-32; 2 Kings xxiii :i6-i8). He de-
sired to entertain as his guest a certain 'man of
God' from Judah, who had appeared in Bethel to
denounce the royal sanctuary (Possibly on the
day of its inauguration?). The stranger was al-
ready departing when the prophet overtook him
and offered his hospitality. It was refused on
the ground that Jehovah had forbidden him to
take food in the city. The prophet then falsely
declared that he gave his invitation in accordance
with a message from Jehovah, and the stranger
returned and partook of a meal. He never reached
his home again. News came to Bethel that a
lion had slain him a short distance from the city.
The old prophet recognized this as Jehovah's
punishment, saddled his ass, brought in the body,
held lamentation over it, and buried it in his
own grave. By this he showed his sympathy and
respect. (W. B. Stevenson, Hasting's Bib. Diet.)
The punishment came upon the old prophet in
the way of retribution for not obeying implicitly
Jehovah's command. (See The Speaker's Com-
mentary. Adam Clarke's Commentary. Lange's
Commentary. The Expositor's Bible, Farrar. )
OLD TESTAMENT (old tes'ta-m«it). See
Bible.
OLIVE (61' IV).
1. From ancient times this has been one of
the most common fruit trees of Palestine (Deut.
vi:ii). As the olive stands in the orchard it
resembles the apple tree in shape, size, and mode
of cultivation. Its leaves are narrow, dull above
and silvery beneath, so that the resulting gray-
green of these trees becomes beautiful by asso-
ciation (Hos. xiv:6). The white flowers, pro-
duced in the greatest profusion, are like those of
the lilac, to which the tree is botanically allied;
and, though millions are prematurely scattered
by the breezes (Job xv:33), enough remain to
load down the trees with fruit. This latter is like
a plum in shape and color, being first green,
then pale, and, when ripe, nearly black. Olives
are sometimes plucked in an unripe state and
put into some pickle or other preserving liquid
and exported. For the most part, however, they
are valuable for the oil they produce, which is
expressed from the fruit in various ways, and
constitutes an important article of commerce and
luxury (Job xxiv:ii; Ezek. xxvii:i7). The fruit
is gathered by beating (Deut. xxiv:2o), or shak-
ing the tree (Is. xvii:6); and by Jewish law
gleanings were to be left for the poor.
2. The aged olive tree is often surrounded by
young and thrifty shoots (Ps. cxxviii:3).
Women sometimes adorned themselves with
garlands of olives on festal occasions (Judith
xy:i3), and at the Olympic games in Greece the
victor's crown was composed of olive leaves.
The olive is still cultivated through nearly every
part of Palestine. (See Zait or Sait.)
Figurative, (i) As olives were emblems of
peace, the olh'eleaf brought to Noah by his
dove might mark God's being reconciled to men,
and the intimation thereof by the Holy Ghost
(Gen. viii:ii). (2) To pre-figure Jesus as the
peaceful means of our access to God, and sup-
porter of the church, the door and posts of the
entrance .to the holy of holies, and the posts
of the door of the temple were of "olive-wood:"
and to mark the peaceful illuminating ministra-
tion of angels and ministers to the church, Solo-
mon made his two large cherubim, for covering
the ark, of "olive-trees" (l Kings vi 123, 31, 33).
(3) The "ttvo anointed olive-trees" before the
Lord, may denote Jesus in his two natures, or
in his offices of prophet and priest ; or him and
his Spirit (Zech. iv:3, II, 12). (4) Believers
and ministers are like "olive-trees" for the en-
lightening, beautifying, softening, and healing of
others (Judg. ix :8, 9; Ps. lii:8; Rev. xi:4). (5)
The Jews are likened to green, flourishing, and
cultivated "o/iVw" (Jer. xi:i6; Hos. xiv:6). (6)
The Gentiles were "wild olives," grafted upon the
root of a cultivated olive-tree, while the natural
branches were broken ofif (Rom. xi:i7, 24). The
apostle does not teach that a wild twig grafted
upon a good stock will produce good fruit, for
this is not the fact. St. Paul refers rather to
the adoption of the Gentiles among God's peo-
ple as a process "contrary to nature," but ac-
complished by grace. (7) Wicked men are like
"olives," which cast their leaves before their sea-
son, and so bear no fruit ; their apparent piety
and their prosperity come quickly to an end (Job
XV .-33). (8) Children are like "oliz>e- plants."
about their parents'table ihowquick their growth!
how delightful and fresh their beauty I and what
an extensive prospect of their usefulness (Ps.
cxxviii:3). Brown.
OLIVES, MOUNT OF; OLIVET (ei'hs.
mount 6v; ol'i-vet), a noted mountain or range of
hills east of Jerusalem. ^
(1) Name. Its descriptive appellation is "the
Mount of Olives" (Heb. S'.'?N.n "'II, harhaz-zay-
theem' , only in Zech. xiv:4; Gr. rA /ipos t(.<v iXav'-'A
The mountain derives its name from the olive
trees which formerly abounded on its sides, some
of which are still found thereon. It is called
"Olivet" and "Mount of Olives" in the Old Tes-
tament (2 Sam. xv:3o; Zech. xiv:4), and is also
alluded to as the "mount" (Neh. viii:is), the
mount facing Jerusalem (l Kings xi:7), the
"mountain which is on the east side of the city"
(Ezek. xi:23); and the "mount of corruption"
probably refers to a portion of Olivet (2 Kings
xxiii :i3). The modern Arabic name is some-
times Jehel es-Zeitun, or "mount of olives," but
OLIVES, MOUNT OF; OLIVET
1258
OLIVE YARD
more usually it is Jebcl et-Tor, or "mount of
the summit."
(2) Physical Features. It faces Jerusalem,
lying directly east, is two thousand six hundred
and sixty-five feet above sea level, has many
beautiful olive trees on its sides, and from these
has received its name. It is not a mountain so
much as a rounded crown of the broad ridge
which runs longitudinally through Palestine. It
is the highest spot near the city. Osborn
describes six prominent heights in the Olivet
range, but he includes Scopus, on the north, and
the hill of "Evil Counsel," on the extreme south,
of the ridge.
The Olivet range extends north without any
marked depression to the portion called Scopus,
and the general elevation of the ridge is a little
less than 3,000 feet above the sea level. It lies
directly east of Jerusalem, and is separated from
the city by the valley of the Kedron. The four
chief peaks south of Scopus are: (i) The north-
ern summit, called V'ui Galilcei, from a tradi-
tion that the angels stood upon it when they
spoke to the disciples (Acts i:ii). It is about
half a mile northeast from the city, and is 2,682
feet above the sea. (2) The central summit,
or the "Mount of Ascension," 2,665 f^^t in height,
is situated directly east of the temple-area, and
is the Mount of Olives proper. Three paths
lead to this summit — one by a nearly direct ascent,
another winding around the southern shoulder,
and a third path leading around the northern
shoulder. On the top of this peak is a chapel
built upon the site of a church erected by Helena,
the mother of Constantine, since tradition points
out this spot as the place of the ascension of
Christ. The monks point out even the footprint
made by the ascending Lord, and the spot, a lit-
tle south of this, where Christ is said to have
taught the disciples the model, or Lord's prayer.
The true place of the ascension, however, was
Deyond the summit of Olivet, and near Bethany
(Luke xxiv:50). (3) The third summit, about
600 yards southwest of the former, and three-
fourths of a mile from Bethany, is called "the
Prophets," from a curious catacomb called the
"Prophets' Tombs" on its side. (4) The fourth
summit, about i.ooo yards from No. 3, is the
"Mount of Offense," so-called .from the idol-
worship which Solomon established there. None
of the depressions which separate these summits
are very deep ; some are to be regarded as quite
slight. It is evident that in ancient times this
mountain ridge was covered with olives, myrtles,
figs, cypresses, and some species of the terebinth
or oak, and also abounded in flowers. "The olives
and olive-yards," says Stanley, "from which it de-
rived its name must in earlier times have clothed
it far more completely than at present, where it
is only in the deeper and more secluded slopes
leading up to the northernmost summit that these
venerable trees spread into anything like a forest.
And in those times, as we see from the name of
Bethany ('house of dates'), and from the al-
lusions after the Captivity and in the gospel his-
tory, myrtle-groves, pines, and palm trees — all of
which have now disappeared — must have m.ide
it a constant resort for pleasure and seclusion.
Two gigantic cedars, probably amongst the very
few in Palestine, stood near its summit, under
which were four shops where pigeons were sold
for purification. The olive and fig alone now
remain — the olive still in more or less abundance,
the fig here and there on the roadside, but both
enough to justify the Mussulmans' belief that in
flie oath in the Koran, 'By the olive and the
fig,' the .Almighty swears by his favorite city of
Jerusalem, with this adjacent mountain." (Sinai
and Palestine, p. 184.) (Schaff, Bib. Diet.)
The slopes of Olivet are terraced and culti-
vated, but the vegetation is not luxuriant. The
principal trees now are the olive, fig, and carob,
with here and there a few apricot, almond, tere-
binth, and hawthorn. At the western base of
the mountain is Silwan, a miserable little village.
Jewish tradition declares that the shekinah. or
Divine presence, after retiring from Jerusalem,
dwelt three years and a half on Olivet, to see
whether the Jews would repent, but when they
would not, retired to his own place.
(3) Special Scriptural Notices. On the sum-
mit of Olivet God was wont to be worshiped
(2 Sam. xv:32). The glory of the Lord appeared
there to Ezekiel in a vision (Ezek. xi:23), and
Zechariah prophetically portrayed Jehovah stand-
ing on the mountain to interpose in behalf of his
people (Zech. xiv:4). The mountain is first men-
tioned in connection with David's flight from
Jerusalem to escape from Absalom (2 Sam. xv :
30, 32; xvi:i). Upon it Solomon built high
places for the gods of his numerous wives, but
these idolatrous places were destroyed by King
Josiah (i Kings xi:7: 2 Kings xxiii:i3, 14).
When the captive Jews celebrated the feast of
tabernacles, the olive, pine, myrtle, and palm
branches used in building their booths were
brought from this mountain (Neh. viii:is). It
is also called, in the New Testament, "Mount of
Olives" and "Olivet," and was a scene of sev-
eral of the most interesting events in the life
of our Lord. Jesus went often to this mount
(Luke xxi:37; ,xxii:39; John viii:i). He was
descending its slope when the multitude wel-
comed him to the city with hosannas (Luke xix:
37i 38). He had rounded its shoulder when Jeru-
salem burst into full view, and he wept over the
fate which he knew awaited the city (41-44). He
was sitting on the mount with his disciples gaz-
ing across the valley at the splendid temple and
the city, when he prophesied the destruction of
both (Matt. xxiv:3; Mark xiii:3). After his
last passover he retired to the mount of Olives'
(Matt. xxvi:3o; Mark xiv:26). The garden ot
Gethsemane was to the west of it, either at its
base or some small distance up its ascent. Bethany
and Bethphage were on the eastern side (Matt.
xxi:i; Mark xiri; Luke xix 129). It was near
the former of these villages that our Lord's as-
cension took place (xxiv:5o).
(4) Present Appearance, Etc. Of late Olivet
has attracted special attention from the Russians.
Besides the beautiful temple built on the western
slope a large Russian monastery has been erected
on the summit, in which are many attractions.
"The Pater Noster Chapel, south of the church
of the Ascension, was erected in 1865 by the
Princess de la Tour d'Auvergne, and is supposed
to stand on an old traditional site of the Middle
Ages. The intention of the Princess was to have
within twenty-four small chambers, in which the
'Lord's Prayer' should be written up in twenty-
four different languages, so that pilgrims of all
nationalities and all creeds, might unite there in
repeating the Lord's Prayer." (Hastings' Bib.
Diet.)
OLIVE TREE (Heb. f^'-', zah'yith, olive berry^
tree, yard). (See Olive; Zait or Sait.)
OLIVE YARD (61' iv yard). (Heb. ^1, zah'-
j'zy/i, Exod. xxiii:ii; Josh. xxiv:l3; I Sam. viii:l4;
2 Kings v;26; Nch. v;ii; ix:25), an orchard or
grove of olive trees. (See Olive; Zait or S.\it.)
OLIVET
1259
OMKI
OLIVET (61'ivei). See Olives, Mount of.
OLYMPAS (o-lj?m'pas), (Gr. "OXu^Tr-is, ol-oom-
pas'), a Christian at Rome, whom Paul salutes in
his Epistle to the Romans (Rom. xvi:i5), A. D. 55.
OMAR (o'raar), (Heb. "'?''*, o-maivr' , talkative),
son jf Eliphaz, and grandson of Esau (Gen. xxxvi:
ij; I Chron. 1:36). He was head of a tribe of
Edomites (B. C. about 1900).
GSIEGA (S-me'ga or o'rae-ga), (Gr. (J, fully
'Qm^To, i- e., the long 0, in distinction from the
short o\, the last latter of the Greek alphabet, as
Alpha is the first.
Figurative. Omega is used metaphorically
to denote the end of anything. "I am Alpha and
Omega, the beginning and the ending . . . the
first and the last" (Rev. i :8, 11; comp. xxi:6;
xxii:i3, and Is. xli:4; xliv:6). (See Alpha and
Omega.)
OSIEB (o'mer), (Heb. "^^i', oh-mer' , tenth of an
ephah, a Hebrew dry measure). See Weights
AND Measure.s.
OMNIPOTENCE OF GOD (om-nip'o-tims 6v
God) is his Almighty power. This is essential to
his nature as an mtinite, independent, and perfect
being. The power of God is divided into absolute
and ordinate or actual. Absolute is that whereby
God is able to do that which he will not do, but is
possible to be done. Ordinate is that whereby he
does that which he had decreed to do. The power
nf God may be more especially seen: (l) In crea-
tion (Rom. i:2o; Gen. i). (2) In the preservation
of his creatures (Heb. i:3; Col. i:i6, 17; Job
xxvi). (3) In the redemption of men by Christ
(Luke i :3s. yj; Eph. i:i9). (4) In the conversion
of sinners (Ps.cx:3; 2 Cor. iv:7; Rom. i:i6). (5)
In the continuation and success of the gospel in
the world (Matt. xiii:4i-43). (6) In the final per-
severance of the saints (i Pet. i:s). (7) In the
resurrection of the dead (i Cor. xv.). (8) In
making the righteous happy forever, and punish-
ing the wicked (Phil, iii :2i ; Matt. xxv:34), etc.
OMNIPBESENCE OF GOD (om'ni-prez'^s
6v God), is his ubiquity, or his being present in
every place.
This may be argued from his infinity (Ps.
cx.xxix) his power, which is everywhere (Heb.
i:3); his providence (Acts xvii:27, 28), which
supplies all. As he is a spirit, he is so omni-
present as not to be mixed with the creatures,
or divided part in one place, and part in another;
nor is he multiplied or extended, but is essentially
present everywhere. From the consideration of
this attribute we should learn to fear and rever-
ence God (Ps. lxxxix:7). To derive consola-
tion in the hour of distress (Is. xliii:2; Ps. xlvi:
i). To be active and diligent in holy services
(Ps. cxix:i68).
OMNISCIENCE OF GOD (6m-nishVns 6v G6d)
It is that perfection by which he knows all
things, and is (i) Infinite knowledge (Ps. cxivi:
S). (2) Eternal, generally called fore-knowledge
(Acts xv:i8; Is. xlvirio; Eph. i:4; Acts ii :
23). (3) Universal, extending to all persons,
times, places, and things (Heb. iv:i3; Ps. c.xxxi.x:
12). (4) Perfect, relating to what is past, present,
and to conic. He knows all by his own essence,
and not derived from any other ; not success-
ively, as we do. but independently, distinctly, in-
fallibly (Jer. x:6, 7; Rom. xi:33). (5) This
knowledge is peculiar to himself (Mark xiii :
32; Job xxxvi :4), and not communicable to any
creature. (6) It is incomprehensible to us how
God knows all things, yet it is evident that he
does; for to suppose otherwise is to suppose him
an imperfect being, and directly contrary to the
revelation he has given of himself (Ps. cxxxix:
6; I John iii:2o; job xxviii:24; xxi:22).
This attribute of God is constantly connected
in Scripture with his omnipresence, and forms
a part of almost every description of that at-
tribute; for, as God is a Spirit, and therefore in-
telligent, if he is everywhere, if nothing can ex-
clude him, not even the most .solid bodies, nor the
rninds of intelligent beings, then are all things
naked and opened to the eyes of him with whom
we have to do. Where he acts, he is ; and where
he is, he perceives. He understands and consid-
ers things absolutely, and as they are in their
own natures, powers, properties, differences, to-
gether with ail the circumstances belonging to
them. "Known unto him are all his works from
the beginning of the world," rather {ap' eye-oh' nos,
ap' aidnos), from all eternity knoun, before they
were made, in their possible, and known, now
they are made, in their actual existence.
OMRI (6m 'ri), (Heb. '^-T^', ojn-ree, God taught).
!• The sixth king of Israel, who reigned twelve
years. He was raised to the throne by the army,
while it was engaged in the siege of Gibbethon,
a Levitical city in Dan, of which the Philistines
had gained possession, when the news came to
the camp of the death of Elah, and the usurpation
of Zimri. On this, the army proclaimed their
general, Omri, king of Israel. He then lost not
a moment, but leaving Gibbethon in the power of
the infidels, went and besieged his competitor in
Tirzah. But he was no sooner delivered of this
rival (see Zimri), than another appeared in the
person of Tibni, whom a part of the people had
raised to the throne, probably from unwilling-
ness to submit to military dictation. This oc-
casioned a civil war, which lasted six years, and
left Omri undisputed master of the throne (B. C.
882). His reign lasted six years more, and its
chief event was the foundation of Samaria, which
thenceforth became the capital city of the king-
dom of Israel (i Kings xvi:is-28). (See Sa-
maria.)
There is a difference between the biblical
chronology and that of the Moabite stone regard-
ing the length of Omri's reign. The latter makes
the reign of Omri and half of his son Ahab's
reign to extend over forty years. The biblical
chronology "ascribes to (3mri a reign of only
twelve years, and to Ahab's entire reign twenty-
two years, making the total length of both reigns
only thirty-four years. From these data of the
Moabite Stone it is evident that we must extend
considerably the reign of Omri. In the scheme
set forth in Schrader's cuneiform Insc. and the
Old Testament, ii, p. 322, sq., Omri's reign is reck-
oned to be twenty-five years (B. C. 900-875), ten
years being deducted from the reign of Baasha."
Owen C. Whitehouse, Hastings' Bib. Diet.,
says: "These dates harmonize better with (i) the
results of Assyriology, (2) with the deep im-
pression which Omri had produced in western
Asia by his military prowess. This impression
was no fleeting one, but extended over a very
long period. We have clear indication of this
in the fact that Palestine was called {mdt) Hit
Huinri, or ' land of the house of Omri,' from the
time of Sha'maneser II. (8O0) to that of Sargon
(722-705). The usurper Jehu is called on Shal-
mancser's black obelisk Ja'ua ahal Humri. 'Jehu
son of Omri.' ,\nd no less deep was the impres-
sion produced in Israel and Judah. The refer-
ence to the 'statutes of Omri' (Mic. vi:i6), is an
indication of this, his name being coupled witt
that of his son Ahab."
ON
1260
ON
2. A Benjamite of the family of Becher (i
Chron. vii:8). ( B. C. about 1618.)
3. Son of Imri of the tribe of Judah (l Chron.
ix:4). (B. C. after 1618.)
4. Son of Michael and a captain in the tribe
of Issachar in the time of David (1 Chron. xxvii:
18). (B. C. about 1017.)
ON (on), (Heb. I^X, one, strength).
/. A chief of the tribe of Reuben, who was one
of the accomplices of Korah in the revolt against
the authority of Moses and Aaron. He is men-
tioned among the leaders of this conspiracy in
(he first instance (Num. xvi:i), but does not
appear in any of the subsequent transactions, and
is not by name included in the final punishment.
The Rabbinical tradition is, that the wife of On
tion relates that the holy family once rested
(Robinson's Biblical Researches, i, 36). Heliopo-
lis W2S the capital of a district or nemos bearing
the same name (Plin. Hist. Nat. v, g; Ptolem.
iv, 5. The place is mentioned in Gen. xli :4s,
where it is said that Pharaoh gave to Joseph a
wife, Asenath, the daughter of Poti-pherah, priest
of On (verse 50).
(2) Sun Worship. From the passage in Jere-
miah (as above) it may be inferred that it
was distinguished for idolatrous worship : 'He
shall break also the images of Beth-shemesh
that is in the land of Egypt, and the houses of
the gods of the Egyptians shall he burn with
fire.' The names, 'City of the Sun,' 'Temples of
the Sun,' connected with the place, taken in con-
persuaded her husband to abandon the enterprise.
It has been held by some critics that the mention
of On is due to a textual corruption.
2. One of the o'.dest cities in the world, situ-
ated in Lower Egypt, about two hours north-
northeast from Cairo. The Septuagint translates
the name On by Heliopolis, which signifies 'city
of the sun;' and in Jer. xliii:i3, it bears a name,
Beth-shemesh (oppiduni soils, Pliny, Hist. Nat.
v, 11), of equivalent import. On is a Coptic and
ancient Egyptian word, signifying light and the
sun (Ritter, Erdk. i, 822).
(1) Location. The site is now marked by
low mounds, enclosing a space about three quar-
ters of a mile in length by half a mile in breadth,
which was once occupied by houses and by the
celebrated Temple of the Sun. This area is at
present a plowed field, a garden of herts; c-nd
the solitary obelisk which still rises in the midst
of it is the sole remnant of the former splendors
of the place. In the days of Edrisi and Abdal-
latif the place bore the name of Ain Shems ; and
in the neighboring village, Matariyeh, is still
shown an ancient well bearing the same name.
Near by it is a very old sycamore, its trunk strag-
gling and gnarled, under which legendary tradi-
Obelisk of Heliopolis.
junction with the words just cited from the
prophet, seem to refer the mind to the purer form
of worship which prevailed at a very early period
in Egypt, namely, the worship of the heavenly
bodies, and thence to carry the thoughts to the
deteriorations which it afterwards underwent in
sinking to the adoration of images and animals.
"The Sun-god was worshiped at Heliopolis first
in the form of Ra; secondly, as Turn, the setting
sun; thirdly, as Harakhti.the hawk of the horizon,
called by the Greeks Harniakhis ; fourthly, as
Khepera, figured by a scarabaeus, and symbolizing
the vivifying and reproductive force of the sun.
Of sacred animals here the bull Mnevis was the
most important ; and the heron, called bnw, was
the original of the famous phcenix. From the
earliest times obelisks were connected with the
Sun worship (Jer.xliii .13 [Beth-shemesh] ). There
was also a sacred pool or spring, mentioned es-
pecially by Piankhi, 'in which Ra was wont to
wash his face ;' hence the Arabian name for this
locality is '.lin csh-sliems,' 'spring of the sun.' In
Christian story this is the spring in which the
Virgin washed her son while resting in the shade
nf an acacia tree on her journey into Egypt.
The latest successor to the tree is still shown in
ONAM
12G1
ONESIPHORUS
an enclosure at Afa/arh't'/i." ( Hastings' ^/i^. Viri.)
(See Egvptians, Religion of Ancient.)
(3) Research. The traces of this city which
arc found in classic authors correspond with the
little of it that we know from the brief intima-
tions of Holy Writ. According to Herodotus (ii.
59), Heliopolis was one of the four great cities
that were rendered famous in Egypt by being
the centers of solemn religious festivals, which
were attended by splendid processions and hom-
age to the gods. In Heliopolis the observance
was held in honor of the sun. The majesty of
these sacred visits may be best learned now by a
careful study of the temples (in their ruins) in
which the rites were performed (Wilkinson's
Anc. Egyptians). Heliopolis had its priesthood,
a numerous and learned body, celebrated before
other Egyptians for their historical and anti-
quarian lore; it long continued the university of
the Egyptians, the chief seat of their science
(Kcnrick's Herod, ii, 3; Wilkinson); the priests
dwelt as a holy community, in a spacious structure
appropriated to their use. In Strabo's time the
halls were to be seen in which Eudoxus and
Plato had studied under the direction of the
priests of Heliopolis. A detailed description of
the temple, with its long alleys of sphinxes, obe-
lisks, etc., may be found in Strabo (xvii; Jo-
seph, c. Apion. ii, 2), who says that the mural
sculpture in it was very similar to the old Etrus-
can and Grecian works. In the temple a bullock
was fed — a symbol of the god of Mnevis. The city
suffered heavily by the Persian invasion. From
the time of Shaw and Pocock, the place has been
described by many travelers. At an early period
remains of the famous temple were found. Ab-
dallatif (A. D. 1200) saw many colossal sphinxes,
partly prostrate, partly standing. He also saw
the gates or propylaea of the temple covered with
inscriptions ; he describes two immense obelisks
whose summits were covered with massive brass,
around which were others one-half or one-third
the size of the first, placed in so thick a mass
that they could scarcely be counted ; most of them
thrown down. An obelisk which the Emperor
Augustus caused to be carried to Rome, and
placed in the Campus Martius, is held by Zoega
{Dc Orig. ct I'sH ObcUsci) to have been brought
from Heliopolis, and to have owed its origin to
Sesostris. This city furnished works of art to
Augustus for adorning Rome, and to Constantine
for adorning Constantinople. Ritter (Erdkunde,
i, 823) says that the sole remaining obelisk is
from sixty to seventy feet high, of a block of red
granite, bearing hieroglyphics which remind the
beholder of what Strabo terms the Etruscan style.
'The figure of the cross which it bears (crux
ansala) has attracted the special notice of Chris-
tian antiquaries' (Ritter). J. R. B.
ONAH (o'nam), (Heb. ^i"'^, o-naivm' , strong).
1. A Horite, son of Shobal (Gen. xxxvi:23;
I Giron. 1:40). (B. C. about 1964.)
2. Son of Jerahmeel and Atarah of the house
of Judah (i Chron. ii :26. 28). (B. C. before
1658.)
ONAN (o'nan), (Heb. 1^'^, o-nawn' , strong,
stout), second sun of Judah by the daughter of
Shuah the Canaaiiite (Gen. xxxviii:4; xlvi:i2; Num.
xxvi:i9; i Clinjii. ii:3), B. C. about 2000.
Being constrained hy the obligations of the an-
cient Levirate law to espouse Tamar, his elder
brother's widow, he took means to frustrate the
intention of this usage, which was to provide heirs
for a brother who had died childless. This crime,
rendered without excuse by the allowance of
polygamy, and the seriousness of which can
scarcely be appreciated but in respect to the
usages of the times in which it was committed,
was punished by premature death (Gen. xxxviii:
4. sq.)
ONE AND OTHEB (Heb. '>^"X^ f^sh, Jer.
xxxvi:l6), each, individually, botii.
'ON£SrOITTS (o-nes'i-mus), (Gr. 'Oi^iiri^uos, on-ay'-
sim-os, profitable).
.V slave belonging to Philemon of Colos<;se,
who fled from his master, and proceeded to
Rome, where he was converted by St. Paul, who
sent him back to his master, a friend and con-
vert of the apostle, with an eloquent letter, the
purport of which is described in the article Phile-
mon. Onesimus, accompanied by Tychicus, left
Rome with not only this epistle, but with those
to the Ephesians and Colossians (Col. iv:9).
It is believed that Onesimus, anxious to jus-
tify the confidence which Paul reposed in him, by
appearing speedily before his master, left Tychi-
cus to take the Epistle to the Ephesians; and has-
tened to Colossi, where he doubtless received the
forgiveness which Paul had so touchingly im-
plored for him as "a brother beloved' i^Canon.
Apost. Ti)- The part which St. Paul took in this
difficult and trying case is highly honorable to
hirti; while for Onesimus himself, the highest
praise is, that he obtained the friendship and con-
fidence of the apostle. (A. D. 58.) An uncer-
tain tradition makes Onesimus to have been
bishop of Beraea, where he is said to have suffered
martyrdom (Const. Apostol. vii, 46).
It is probable that various Onesimi have
been confused, and it is impossible to extri-
cate any certain fact. His memory was observed
by the Latin Church on Feb. 16, by the Greek
Church on Feb. 15, and also in conjunction with
Philemon, Appia, and Archippus, on Nov. 22 : the
various traditions will be found in the Acta Sanc-
torum (ii, 855-859) and the Greek Mcncca (pp.
89-92) for those days. A most interesting mod-
ern romance of his life will be found in Onesi-
mus, by the author of Philochristus (London,
1882). (W. Locke, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
ONESIPHOKUS (6n'e-sif'o-rus), (Gr.'Ovv<'('popos,
07i-ay-sif'or-os, profit-bringer), a believer of Kph-
esus, who came to Rome during the second cap-
tivity of St. Paul in that city (A. D. about 64).
And having found out the apostle, who was
in custody of a soldier, to whose arm his own
was chained, was not ashamed of his chain, but
attended him frequently, and rendered him all
the services in his power. This faithful attach-
ment, at a time of calamity and desertion, was
fully appreciated and well remembered by the
apostle, who, in his Epistle to Timothy, care-
fully records the circumstance; and, after charg-
ing him to salute in his name 'the household of
Onesiphorus.' expresses the most earnest and
grateful wishes for his spiritual welfare (2 Tim.
i:i6-i8). It would appear from this that One-
siphorus had then left Rome.
"It is not perfectly clear whether, at the time
when St. Paul wrote, Onesiphorus was alive or
dead ; but the references to his 'house' rather
than to himself in 2 Tim. i:i6; ivrig, and still
more the words of the prayer in 2 Tim. i:i8,
'The Lord grant unto him to find mercy of the
Lord in that day,' m.ike it most probable that he
was now dead (so De Wette, Huther, Alford,
Ellicott, Fairbairn, v. Soden). If so, the pas-
sage gains an additional interest from the use
that has been made of it in connection with the
ONION
1262
OPHIR
argument for prayers for the dead. Thus it is
appealed to in support of such a practice by
Bishop Archibald Campbell in his anonymously
published book on Tlie Intermediate or Middle
State of Departed Souls, 17 13, p. 72; and amongst
more recent writers by Plumptre (The Spirits in
Prison, pp. 128, 266) and Luckock {After Death,
p. 77, The Intermediate State, p. 211). Others,
as Barrett (The Intermediate State, p. 1 13), find
in the words no more than 'a pious wish'." (W.
Locke, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
ONION (un'yun), (Heb. ^V?, beh'tsel, peeled).
A plant, the bulbous root of which was much
used in Egypt as an article of food (Num. xi:
5; Herod, ii, 125). It is Allium ccpa, called in
Hebrew besel, in Arabic basal. It has been cul-
tivated from an early period in Egypt and
other parts of the East. (See Chatzir.)
ONLY BEGOTTEN (on'ly be-g6t't'n),(Gr. aioto-
ytirris, tnon-og-en-ace' , single of its kind), an expres-
sion used of Jesus Christ (John i:i4, 18, etc.) to de-
note that in the sense in which he is the son of
God he has no brethren. (See Sonship of
Christ.)
ONO (o'no), (Heb. \l%, o-no', strong), a city of
Benjamin; built or rebuilt by the family of Elpaal,
of Benjamin (I Chron. viii:i2).
It was five miles from Lod, or Lydda, also built
by Benjamites. In Neh. vi :2, we have mention
of "The Plain of Ono," which probably was not
far from the city. Ono is the modern Kef>' Ani,
north of Ludd (the ancient Lod or Lydda). Its
antiquity is shown by its being noticed, along
with the last-named place, in the lists of Ta-
hutmes III. c. (B. C. l6oo.)
ONYCHA (o-nj'ka), (Heb. •"';.nf, shekh-ay'leth,
a scale), a substance mentioned as an ingredient
of the holy perfume (Exod. xxx:34).
It is believed to have been the operculum (lid)
of a shell mollusk called stromb or wing-shell,
which being burnt gave out a certain perfume.
ONYX (o'niks), (Gr. tvv%. on'ooks generally for
Heb. ^'^'^, sho'ham, the leek green beryl).
One kind of chalcedony ; a precious stone
(Exod. xxv:7; Ezek. xxviii:i3), exhibiting two
or more colors disposed in parallel bands or lay-
ers. The Hebrew word shoham is uniformly so
translated in the Bible. Opinion is divided as to
the exact meaning of the term. Josephus says
the onyx is meant. It was found in the land of
Havilah (Gen. ii:l2), and was evidently of high
value, as it is mentioned among precious stones
and metals (Job xxviii:i6; Ezek. xxviii:i3). It
adorned the breastplate of the high priest and
the two shoulders of his ephod (Exod. xxviii :9-
12, 20). David also gathered such stones for the
service of the future temple (l Chron. xxix:2).
The onyx is a cryptocrystalline variety or sub-
variety of quartz. It is in layers of different col-
ors, which alternate with each other and bear
some resemblance to the white and flesh-colored
bands of the finger nail.
OPEN (o'p'n), (Gr. Siamlyu, dee-an-oy' go, Luke
xxiv:32, to explain, expound, make known, dis-
close).
Thus Jer. xx:i2. 'But, O Lord of hosts, that
triest the righteous, and seest the reins and the
heart, let me see thy vengeance on them : for
unto thee have I opened my cause.' Acts xvii :
3, 'Paul . . . reasoned with them out of the
Scriptures, opening and alleging, that Christ must
needs have suffered.'
OPEN PLACE (o-p'n plas), in Gen. xxxviii:!?.
A. V.
Tamar is said to have taken her seat 'in an
open place,' but undoubtedly the correct transla-
tion is in the gate of Enaim, R. V.
OPHEL (6'fel), (Heb. ^P^^, haw-d-fel, with the
article).
1- A place or quarter of Jerusalem near the
walls (2 Chron. xxvii:3; xxxiii:44), on the east
side (Neh. iii:26; xi:2i). Ophel, or, as he calls
it, Ophla ('O0\ii 'O0\ds), is often mentioned by
Josephus as adjoining the valley of the Kidron
and the temple mount (De Bell. hid. v, 6, i ; vi,
6, 3). He explains himself more precisely in v,
4, 2, where he makes the first wall of the city
to extend from the tower of the Essenes over
Siloam and the pools of Solomon to Ophel. From
these intimations Winer collects that Ophel was
a high or ascending place, built over (in the an-
cient city) with houses. This view is confirmed
by Dr. Robinson, who identifies it with the low
ridge which extends southward from the temple
mount to Mount Zion, between the exterior val-
ley of Jehoshaphat and the interior valley of Ty-
ropceon. The top of this ridge is flat, descending
rapidly towards the south, sometimes by offsets
of rocks; and theground is now tilled and planted
with olive and other fruit trees. This ridge is
considerably below the level of Mount Moriah ;
its length is 1,550 feet, and its breadth in the mid-
dle part, from brow to brow, 290 feet (Winer,
title, 'Ophel;' Robinson, ii, 349). (See Jeru-
salem.)
2. A place of middle Palestine where Gehazi
stowed in a house the presents he took from Naa-
man (2 Kings v:24). In the A. V. it is ren-
dered wrongly "the tower."
OPHEB (o'fer), (Heb. y^, o'/er), in Cant. iv-.J
it denotes the calf or fawn of a stag {at/).
The term occurs in no other book of Scripture,
is unknown in the Syriac and Chaldee, and ap-
pears to be only a poetical application of a term
more strictly belonging to fawn-like animals ; for
in the above passage it is applied to couples feed-
ing in a bed of lilies — indications not descriptive
of young goats or stags, but quite applicable to
the Antilopine groups which are characterized in
Griffith's Cuvier, in subgenus X. Cephalophus,
and XI. Neotragus; both furnishing species of
exceeding delicacy and graceful dimi.nutive struc-
tures, several of which habitually feed in pairs
among shrubs and geraniums on the hilly plains
of Africa. They have always been and still are
in request among the wealthy in warm climates
for domestication, therefore we may conjecture
that a species designated bj; the name of Opher
(perhaps, alluding to Ophir, or even Africa), was
to be found in the parks or royal gardens of
Solomon and from the sovereign's own observa-
tion were alluded to in the truly apposite im-
agery of his poetical diction (Cant. iv:i2). (See
Antelope; Roe; Roeblxk.) C. H. S.
OPHIR (o'phir), (Heb. "E'iS, o-/eer', fat, rich).
1- The proper name of one of the thirteen sons
of Joktan, the son of Eber, a great-grandson of
Shem (Gen. x 126-29; Vulg. Ophir). Many
Arabian countries are believed to have been peo-
pled by these persons, and to have been called
after their respective names, as Sheba, etc., and
among others Ophir (Bochart, Phaleg, iii, 15).
2. The name of a place, country, or region, fa-
mous for its gold, which Solomon's ships visited
in company with the Phoenician. The difficulty
is to ascertain where Ophir was situated. The
OPHIR
1263
OPHRAH
first theory which appears to be attended with
some degree of evidence not purely fanciful is
that Ophir was situated in Arabia. In Gen. x:
29, Ophir stands in the midst of other Arabian
countries. Still, as Gcscnius otiserves, it is pos-
sibly mentioned in that connection only on ac-
count of its being an Arabian colony planted
abroad. Though gold is not now found in
Arabia (Niebuhr, Description de I' Arabic, Copen-
hague, 1773, p. 124), yet the ancients ascribe it
to the inhabitants in great plenty (Judg. viii -.24,
26; 2 Chron. i; I Kings x:i, 2; Ps. lxxii:is).
This gold, Dr. Lee thinks, was no other than the
gold of Havilah (Gen. ii:ii), which he sup-
poses to have been situate somewhere in Arabia,
and refers to Gen. x 7, 29; xxv:i8; i Sam. xv:
7; I Chron. i:9 (Translation of the Book Job,
etc., Lond. 1837, p. 55). But Diodorus Siculuf
ascribes gold mines to Arabia (ii, 50). He also
testifies to the abundance of 'precious stones' in
Arabia (ii, 54), especially among the inhabitants
of babas (iii, 46; comp. Gen. ii:i2; 2 Chron. ix :
I; I Kings x:i, 2). Pliny also speaks of the
'Sabcei ditissimi auri metallis' (Hist. Nat. vi, 32).
Again, 'Littus Hammaiim, ubi auri metalla' (ib).
Others suppose that though Ophir was situate
somewhere on the coast of Arabia, it was rather
an emporium, at which the Hebrews and Tyrians
obtained gold, silver, ivory, apes, almug-trees,
etc., brought thither from India and Africa by
the Arabian merchants, and even from Ethiopia,
to which Herodotus (iii, 114) ascribes gold in
great quantities, elephants' teeth, and trees and
shrubs of every kind. In behalf of the supposi-
tion that Ophir was the Arabian port Aphar al-
ready referred to, it may be remarked that the
name has undergone similar changes to that of
the Sept. of Ophir; for it is called by Ar-
rian Aphar, by Pliny Saphar, by Ptolemy Sap-
phera, and by Stephanus Saphirini. Grotius thinks
his to be Ophir. The very name El Ophir has
been lately pointed out as a city of Oman, in
former times the center of a very active Arabian
commerce (Seetzen, in Zachs. Monatl. Corre-
spond, xix, 331, sq.). In favor of the theory
which places Ophir in Africa, it has been sug-
gested that we have the very name in afri, Africa.
Origen also says, on Job x.xii :24, that some of
the interpreters understood Ophir to be Africa.
Michaelis supposes that Solomon's fleet, coining
down the Red Sea from Ezion-geber, coasted
along the shore of Africa, doubling the Cape of
Good Hope, and came to Tarshish, which he,
with many others, supposes to have been Tartes-
sus in Spain, and thence back again the same
way; that this conjecture accounts for their three
years' voyage out and home ; and that Spain and
the coasts of Africa furnished all the commodi-
ties v/hich they brought back. Strabo indeed
says that Spain abounded in gold, and immensely
more so in silver (see i Mace, viii 13). Others
have not hesitated to carry Solomon's fleet round
from Spain up the Mediterranean to Joppa. In
behalf of the conjecture that Ophir was in India,
the following arguments are alleged: that it is
most natural to understand from the narrative
that all the productions said to have been brought
from Ophir came from one and the same coun-
try, and that they were all procurable only from
India. The Sept. translators also appear to
have understood it to be India. Josephus al.so
gives to the sons of Joktan the locality from
Cophen, an Indian river; and in part of Asia
adjoining it (Antiq. i, 6, 4). He also expressly
and unhesitatingly affirms that the land to which
Solomon sent for gold was 'anciently called
Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which
belongs to Irtdia' (Antiq. viii, 6, 4). There are
several places comprised in that region which
was actually known as India to the ancients (see
India), any of which would have supplied the
cargo of Solomon's fleet : for instance, the coast
of Malabar. Perhaps the most probable of all
is Malacca, which is known to be the Aurea
Chersonesus of the ancients. It is also worthy of
remark that the natives of Malacca still call their
gold-mines opiiirs. Prof. Lassen considers it un-
necessary to examine conjectures concerning
other localities from the fact that products which
are said to come from Ophir have Indian names,
even in the Hebrew text when they are destitute
of genuine Hebrew name.--. Ritter and Max Mul-
ler favor India as the location of Ophir.
On the other hand, some writers give a wider
extent to the country in question. Heeren ob-
serves that 'Ophir, like the name of all other very
distant places or regions of antiquity, like Thule,
Tartessus, and others, denotes no particular spot,
but only a certain region or part of the world,
such as the East or West Indies in modern
geography. Hence Ophir was the general name
for the rich countries of the south lying on the
African, Arabian, or Indian coasts, as far as at
that time known' (Historical Researches, trans-
lated from the German, Oxford, 1833. vol. ii,
PP- 73> 74)- It remains to be observed, that in
Jer. X .g we have 'the gold from Uphaz.' and
in Dan. x :s, 'the fine gold of Uphaz ;' and see the
Heb. of I Kings x:l8. In these instances Uphaz
is, by a slight change of pronunciation, put for
Ophir. J. F. D.
OPHNI (oph'ni), (Heb. '•???, o/-nee', moldy), a
city of Benjamin (josh. xviii:24) and thought to be
the same as Goplini, or Gophna, now /u/naA, 2}i
miles northwest of Bethel.
OPHBAH (oph'rah), (Heb. '^'J??, of-raw' , a
fawn).
!• A town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii.23), seem-
ingly in the northeast of that tribe's domain (l
Sam. xiii:l7). Accordingly it is placed by Euse-
bius and Jerome (Onomast. title, Aphia) five Ro-
man miles east of Bethel. This corresponds with
the position of a place called et-Taiyibeh, which
was visited by Dr. Robinson in his excursion to
Bethel (Bibl. Researches, ii, 120-123). It is now
a small village, curiously situated upon a conical
hill, on the summit of which is an old tower,
whence is commanded a splendid view of the val-
ley of the Jordan, the Dead Sea, and the eastern
mountains.
2. A town in the tribe of Manasseh, to which
Gideon belonged, and where he continued to re-
side after he had delivered Israel from the Midi-
anites, establishing there his ephod, which be-
came a snare to Israel (Judg. vi:li-24; viii:27).
Josephus calls the place Ephra (Antiq. v. 6, 5).
It cannot be positively determined from the nar-
rative, whether this (Dphrah was in the territory
of Manasseh east or west of the Jordan ; and no
satisfactory attempt to fix the site has yet been
made.
3. A son of MeOnothai, of Judah (i Chron.
iv:i4). (B. C. after 1614.) Probably "father"
here should read founder, in which case the name
would be that of a town. There are certainly
names of towns in this list of the Chronicles and
this may be one, the Judwan Ephron or even the
Bcnjamite Ophrah. Border towns may be
counted at one time to Benjamin, at another to
Judah.
ORACLE
1204
ORDINANCES OF THE GOSPEL
OBACLE (or'a-k'l), (Heb. "51, deb-eer' , from
~'1, daw-bar', to speak); (Gr. \bii.ov, log'ee-on,
utterance of God). Among the Jews several sorts
ol oracles are distinguished.
1. Those delivered viva voce; as when God
spake to Moses face to face, and as one friend
speaks to another (.Num. xii;8).
2. Prophetical dreams ; as those which God
sent to Joseph, foretelling his future greatness
(Gen. xxxvii :s, 6).
3. Visions; as when a prophet in an ecstasy
had supernatural revelations (Gen. xv:i; xlvi:2).
4. The response of Urim and Thummim, which
accompanied the ephod, or the pectoral worn by
the high-priest (Num. xxvii :2I ; Joel ii:28). This
manner of inquiring of the Lord was often used,
from Joshua's time to the erection of the temple
at Jerusalem (i Sam. xxiiiig; xxx:7) after
which they generally consulted the prophets.
5. Some of the Jews claimed that upon the
ceasing of prophecy, God gave them what they
call Batli-kol, the daughter of the voice, which
was a supernatural manifestation of the Divine
will, either by a strong inspiration or internal
voice, or by a sensible and external voice, heard
by a number of persons sufficient to bear testi-
mony to it ; such as the voice heard at the bap-
tism of Christ.
6. The most ancient oracle on record, probably,
is that given to Rebekah (Gen. xxv:23), but the
most complete instance is that of the child Sam-
uel (i Sam. iii). The place was the residence
of the ark, the regular station of worship. The
manner was by an audible and distinct voice.
7. The highest instances of oracles are those
voices which, being formed in the air by a power
superior to nature, bore testimony to the celestial
character of the Divine Messiah; as at his bap-
tism (Matt. iii:i7; Mark i:ii; Luke iii:22), and
again at his transfiguration (Matt, xvii :5 ; Luke
ix:35). "And this voice that came from heaven,"
says St. Peter, "we heard" (2 Pet. i:i8). Noth-
ing can exceed the grandeur and majesty of these
oracles ; and they could not but forcibly impress
the minds of all who witnessed them.
8. By the oracles, in the heathen world, were
understood the shrines where utterances concern-
ing the future were given and the utterance it-
self. The Greeks had many such oracles, of
which the most famous was the oracle of Delphi.
The priestess, sitting on a tripod over a chasm
from which an intoxicating vapor was said to
ascend, uttered incoherent words, which were
then interpreted by a prophet. These oracles at
one time stood in high repute and were consulted
by kings. They did not, however, withstand very
long the corruptive power of money and bribery.
ORATION (5-ra'shun). See Orator.
OBATOB (or'a-ter), (Heb. ^'^*, law- k hash' , a
whisper, Is. iii:3).
1. The rendering of the Hebrew word, as given
above is an incantation, preceded by n'bou, i.e.
skillful in enchantment (Is. iii:3). The K. \ . ac-
curately translates the phrase by "skillful enchant-
ment."
2. The rendering of the Greek Hray'tore
(Gr. j)i)Tuip), is that of a public speaker,
pleader. In Acts xxiv:i it is applied to Tertul-
lus. He was a professional advocate engaged by
Paul's Jewish enemies to prosecute the apostle
before the Roman procurator.
OBCHABD (or'chSrd), (Heb. ^"iP^, par-dace',
park), a garden planted with trees (Eccles. ii 5,
Cant. iv:i3; rendered " forest ' in Neh. ii:8).
It is applied by Diodorus Siculus (ii, 10) to the
hanging gardens of Babylon. Xenophon (Anab.
i, 287) describes a park, belonging to Cyrus, like
the game preserves of Europe, under this name.
ORDAIN (6r-dan'), the same as appoint. Or-
dinances of God are :
1- His fixed purpose and appointment con-
cerning the state and motions of irrational crea-
tures, whether the luminaries of heaven, etc. (Ps.
cxix rgi ; Job xxxviii -.a ; Jer. xxxi :35).
2. His commandments in general (Lev. xviii :
3. His rules and directions relative to his wor-
ship (Heb. ix:io; i Cor. xi:2).
4. An office appointed by him (Rom. xiii:2).
Forms of magistracy, or their laws for regulating
the commonwealth, are called an ordinance of
man (l Pet. ii:i3; i Sam. xxx:25).
"A peculiar use of the word is in the rendering
of the Hebrew ■J'f, paivat, in ilie passage 'he
ordaineth his arrows against the persecutors' (Ps.
vii:i3), which Gesenius translates 'he maketh his
arrows burning,' literally into or for burning,
from a meaning of the Hebrew to forge." (Barnes,
Bib. Diet.)
ORDER (or'der), a word with many varieties of
meaning, as it is the rendering of several Hebrew
and Greek words. It is most frequently the ren-
dering of the Heb. ^-?, aw-rak' , to set in a 7-ow.
1- It denotes position or proper place, (Ezek.
xli:6) 'One over another, and thirty in order;'
(i Cor. xv:23) 'Every man in his own order;'
(Luke i:8) 'He executed the priests' office be-
fore God in the order of his course;' (i Cor. xiv :
40) 'Let all things be done decently and in or-
der.'
2. Position in office, rank. This is the mean-
ing of Ps. ex :4 'Thou art a priest forever after
the order of Melchizedek.' (See Heb. v:6, 10;
iii :20).
3. Arrangement or orderly array (Job x:22).
'A land of darkness . . . without any order.'
4. Prescribed custom (l Chron. vi :32 ; xv:i3),
'we sought him not after the due order' (i Chron.
xxiii 131 ; 2 Chron. viii:i4); 'He appointed, ac-
cording to the order of David his father, the
courses of the priests to their service.'
Figurative, (i) God sets men's sins itt order
before them; he presents them as so many wit-
nesses, or as a well-stated charge against them
(Ps. I:2I). (2) Men order their cause before
God, and fill their mouth with arguments, when
they represent it to him truly as it is, and produce
and plead manifold reasons for his shewing them
favor (Job xxiii :4). (3) To lualk orderly, or to
order one's conversation aright, is to endeavor
earnestly to perform every duty relative to God
or men, in the proper place, time, and manner
thereof (Acts xxi:24; Ps. 1:23).
ORDINANCES OF THE GOSPEL (ordi-
n</ns-es 6v the gos'pel), are institutions of Di-
vine authority relating to the worship of God;
such as: (i) baptism (Matt, -xxviiiiip); (2)
the Lord's Supper (I Cor. xi :24, etc.);(3) public
ministry, or preaching and reading the word
(Rom. x:i5; Eph. iv:ii; Mark xvi :i5) ; (4;
hearing the gospel (Mark iv:24; Rom. x:i7);
(S) public prayer (i Cor. xiv:is, 19; Matt, vi:
6; Ps. v:l, 7); (6) singing of psalms (Col. iii:
16; Eph. v:i9); (7) fasting (James iv:9; Matt.
ix:is; Joel ii:i2) ; (8) Solemn thanksgiving (Ps.
1:14; I Thess. v:i8). (See these different ar-
ticles.)
ORDINATION
1265
ORION
ORDINATION (or'dl-na'shun), the act of con-
fcrriu):; licily ordtrs; of initiating a person into tlie
ministry, or of publicly recognizing the relation
which has been entered into, by mutual agree-
ment, between a minister and the church.
In Episcopal churches ordination has always
been esteemed the principal prerogative of bish-
ops, and they still retain the function as a mark
of their spiritual sovereignty in their diocese or
jurisdiction.
1. Bible Usage. (1) Old Testament Ordi-
nation was practiced early in Bible times. The
Hebrew priests, Levitcs, prophets, and kings were
solemnly ordained for their several offices (see
under their several articles). Moses thus, i. c,
by laying on of hands, appointed JosiiUA (which
see) as his successor (Num. xxvii:i8; Deut.
xxxiv .g).
(2) Example of Christ. It is said of Christ,
that he ordained twelve (Mark iii:i4), that is,
he chose them to the office of apostleship, as he
himself explains it (John vi:70).
2, In the Apostolic Church. (1) Deacons.
The lirst ordination was that of deacons. They
were of the lowest order of ministering servants in
the church. In character grave, not double tongued,
not given to wine (Phil. i:i; i Tim. iii:io, I2,
13).
The office of deacons originally was to serve
tables, the Lord's table, the table of the minister,
and of the poor. They took care of the secular
affairs of the church, received and disbursed
moneys, kept the church's accounts, and provided
everything necessary for its temporal good.
Thus, while the bishop attended to the souls,
the deacons attended to the bodies of the people;
the pastor to the spiritual, and the deacons the
temporal interests of the church (Acts vi). St.
Paul was ordained by the action of the whole
church (Acts xiii:i-3).
(2) Elders. Paul and Barnabas are said to
ordain elders in every church (Acts xiv:23) or
to choose them ; that is, they gave orders and di-
rections to every church as to the choice of elders
over them. The word that is used in Acts xiv :
23, is translated chosen in 2 Cor. viiiilQ, where
the apostle speaks of a brother who was clwsen
of the churches to travel with us, and is so ren-
dered when ascribed to God (Acts x:4i). For
further information see Episcopacy ; Presbyter ;
Presbytery.
OBEB (o'reb), (Heb. ^y'^.o-raie'), written also
Arab and Arabim, occurs in several passages of
Scripture, in all of wliich it is translated wiiiow in
the Authorized, and most other modern versions.
There is little doubt of this being the correct
interpretation, from its suitableness to all the
passages. Thus in Job xl :22. referring to be-
hemoth it is said, 'The shady trees cover him
with their shadow; the willows (orabim) of the
brook compass him about.' So the Jews when in
captivity sang, 'By the rivers of Babylon, there
we sat down ; we hanged our harps upon the wil-
lows (orebim)in the midst thereof (Ps.cxxxvii).
And again, in Is. xliv :4. 'And they shall spring
up as among the grass, as willows (orebim) of
the water-courses.' The willow is as applicable
as any other plant to the other passages, quoted
above, in which orebim is mentioned. (See Wil-
lows.) J. F. R.
OBEB, ROCK OF (o'reb, rok 6v), (Heb. ^'iv,
aw-rol>e' , the raven's crag^, the place at which
Gideon slew Oreb (Judg. vii:25; Is. x:26), thought
by some to be east of Jordan.
80
Keil and Delitzsch say (Com., in loc.) that if
was "west of Jordan, where the Ephraimitcs had
taken possession of the waters of the Jordan in
front of the Midianites." It was, perhaps, near
the point where the Wady Far'ah in Ephraim
falls into the Jordan (Moore) ; Osh el-Ghurab
in Judah (Conder) seems too far south.
OREB and 2EEB (5'reb &nd ze'eb), (Heb.
^Tl'^', o rabe' , raven; -???, zeh-abe' , wolf), the remark-
able names {raven and wolf) of two emirs of the
Midianites, who were made prisoners by the Eph-
raimites in attempting to recross the Jordan alter
the victory of Gideon.
They were put to death by the captors, and
their heads carried as a trophy to the conqueror,
who was then on the other side the Jordan (Judg.
vii :2S ; viii:3). The first of these princes met
his death near a rock, which thenceforth bore
his name (Is. x:26) ; the other seems to have at
first sought refuge in one of those excavations
in which wines were preserved, and which was
thenceforth called the winepress of Zeeb (Judg.
vii:2S).
"It is noticeable that Oreb and Zeeb are animal
names, such as occur in the totem stage of so-
ciety. In times when totemism prevailed, clans
were often named after animals ; so it has been
suggested that Oreb and Zeeb were names of
Midianile clans (Stade, GVl i. 189) : if they were
individuals, the names would belong to the stage
when the totem tribe was passing into a national
organization of society (Gray, Heb. Prop. Names,
114)." (G. A. Cooke, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
OREN (oren), (Heb. I'^, o'ren, ash tree).
1. This word is variously translated; but from
the manner in which it is introduced, it is im-
possible to determine whether any of the transla-
tions are correct. The orcn is mentioned with
other trees, of whose timber idols were made, in
Is. xliv; 14: 'He heweth him down cedars (cres)
and taketh the cypress (tirsah), and the oak
(allon), which he strengtheneth for himself
among the trees of the forest ; he planteth an ash
(oreu), and the rain doth nourish it.' Though
the English version renders it ash, others consid-
er pine-tree to be the correct translation ; but for
neither does there appear to be any decisive proof,
nor for the rubus or bramble, adopted for oren
in the fable of the Cedar and Rubus, translated
from the Hebrew of R. Berechia Ilannakdan, by
Celsius (Hierobot., i. 186). (See Cypress; Oak.)
J. F. R.
2. Third son of Jerahmeel, of the house of
Judah (I Chron. ii:25). (B. C. before 1658.)
OR E'VER (Heb. **?, law), (Dan. vi:24), before,
ere, (Ps. xc:2) " before the mountains were brought
forth, or ever thou hadst formed the earth and the
world."
It is used also in the sense of cither, i Sam.
xxvi :io. "or his day shall come to die; or he shall
descend into battle, and perish." It is now ob-
solete except in poetry.
ORGAN (or'gan), (Gen. iv:2i; Job xxi:l2; xxx:
31; Ps. cl:4). This word is from the Heb. ^i?, 00-
gawb' , which means that which is inflated or
blown, and is applied to the reed, either simple or
complex. (See RlusiCAL Instru.mknts.)
ORION (6 ri'on). (Heb. ^'??, kes-eer , strong),
the southern constellation Seen in November.
(See Astronomy.)
ORNAMENT
1260
OSSIFRAGE
ORNAMENT (or'na-ra^nt), (Hebrew generally
'li", ad-ee' , trapping).
1. The fondness which the human race in gen-
eral, and Oriental nations in particular, have for
personal ornaments was shared in by the ancient
Hebrews. The Bible abounds in references to
the appreciation of ornaments. The first mention
of jewelry is in Gen. xxiv ;22, where Abraham's
servant presented Rebekah with earrings and
bracelets. The weakness of Hebrew women for
jewelry is well brought out (Jer. ii:32) : "Can a
maid forget her ornaments?" The ornaments
worn by the Hebrews consisted of bracelets, neck-
laces, earrings, noserings (Ezek. xvi:li, 12, etc.;
Is. iii :i6-2S), gives a graphic picture of the fashion-
able woman of his day and her ornaments.
2. One of the eminent services rendered by
Assyrian and Egyptian archaeology has been the
revelation of the wonderful proficiency to which
these nations had attained in the cutting and
setting of gems, and in the designing of gold
and silver ornaments. In the Arabian Nights
there is constant allusion to the beautiful clothes
worn by the heroes and heroines whose exploits
are recorded. Lucian, in his Dialogues of the
Dead ('The Pagan Olympus'), contrasts the
gorgeous appearance of the Oriental divinities
with the simple elegance of the Greek images.
The tendency to excess in ornament led Milton
to describe the East as the home of 'barbaric
pearl and gold' (Par. Lost, ii. 4). (G. M. Mackie,
Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
3. The laying aside of ornaments appears as
a sign of mourning in Exod. xxxiii ■.4.
Figurative. ( i ) The laws, religion, and
prosperity, which God gave the Hebrews, are
called "excellent ornaments;" they rendered
their nation distinguished from, and more glori-
ous than others (Ezek. xvi 7, 11). (2) Useful
instruction and faithful reproof are "an orna-
ment;" they ought to be highly prized, readily
received and complied with ; and so will render
one truly honorable and respected (Prov. iig;
XXV :i2). (3) The apostles exhort the women
of their day to adorn themselves with good works
(i Tim. ii:io), and with a meek and quiet spirit
rather than with the wearing of gold (i Pet.
iii:4).
OBNAN (or'nan), (Heb. 1^1?, or-namn', strong),
a form of the name Araunah or Ornan (i
Chron. xxi:i5, 18, 20-25, 28; 2 Chron. iii:l).
OROR, or ARAR (or'or, or ar'ar), (Heb. ^??''^^.
ar-o-ayr'), occurs in two or three places of Scrip-
ture, and has been variously translated, as myrica,
tamarisk, and taniarin.
As far as the context is concerned, some of
these plants, as the retam and tamarisk, would
answer very well ; but the Arabic name, arar, is
applied to a totally different plant, a species of
juniper, as has been clearly shown by Celsius
tHierohot. p. ii, p. IQS), who states that .-Krias
Montanus is the only one who has so translated
the Hebrew arar or oror (Jer. xvii:6). Several
species of juniper are no doubt found in Syria
and Palestine, as has already been mentioned un-
der the head of Eres. Robinson met with some
in proceeding from Hebron to Wady Musa, near
the romantic pass of Nemela.
It is mentioned in the same situations by other
travelers, and is no doubt common enough, par-
ticularly in wild, uncultivated, and often inac-
cessible situations, and is thus suitable to Jer.
xlviii;6: 'Flee, save your lives, and be like the
heath (oror) in the wilderness.' (See Heath;
Juniper.) J, F. R.
OROTH (or'oth), (Heb. •^V^, o-raw'), is trans-
lated herb in the Authorized Version; it is gener-
ally supposed to indicate such plants as are em-
ployed for food.
With respect to the meaning of oroth, Rosen-
miiller says that it occurs in its original and
general signification in Is. xxvi:l9, viz.: green
herbs. The future restoration of the Hebrew
people is there announced under the type and
figure of a revival of the dead. 'Thy dew is a dew
of green herbs,' says the prophet, i. e. as by the
dew, green herbs are revived, so shall thou, be-
ing revived by God's strengthening power, flour-
ish again. The passage, however, appears an
obscure one, with respect to the meaning of oroth
Celsius has, with his usual learning, shown that
mallows were much employed as food in ancient
times. Of this there can be no doubt, but there
is no proof adduced that oroth means mallows.
But it appears to us that oroth should be con-
sidered only in conjunction with pakyoth; for \ve
find in 2 Kings iv that when Elisha came again
to Gilgal, and there was a dearth in the land, he
said unto his servant, 'Set on the great pot, and
seethe pottage for the sons of the prophets (verse
39) ; and one went out into the field to gather
herbs (oroth), and found a wild vine, and gath-
ered thereof wild gourds (pakyoth) his lap full,
and came and shred them into the pot of pot-
tage, for they knew them not.' From this it
would appear that pakyoth had been mistaken for
oroth; and as the former is universally acknowl-
edged to be the fruit of one of the gourd tribe,
so it is not unreasonable to conclude that oroth
also was the fruit of some plant, for which the
pakyoth had been mistaken. (See Grass; Herbs,
Bitter; Lentil.) J. F. R.
ORFAH (or'pah), (Heb. "f "]?, or-paw' , fawn, or
mane), daughter-in-law of Naomi, who remained
behind among her kindred in Moab, when Ruth
returned with Naomi to Bethlehem (Ruth 1:4-14).
(See Ruth.)
ORPHAN (or'fan), (Heb. D'^^', yaw-thome',
lonely, Lam. v:3), one deprived of one or both
parents. .
Special privileges were accorded to the orphan
by the Mosaic Law. as well as to the widow and
stranger (Deut. .xxiv:2i), and special kindness
and leniency enjoined toward them (Deut. xxiv:
I"). Job adduced it as one of his merits that he
had helped the fatherless (ch. xxix:i2, etc.).
James, ch. i :2y, classes the visitation of orphans
amongst the acts of pure and undefiled religion.
The word (John .xiv:i8), translated "comfort-
less" is "orphans" in the Greek.
OSEE 'o'zee), (Gr. Q(Tr\i, oh-say-ee'), a form of
HosEA (Rom. ix:25).
OSHEA (o-she'a), (Heb. W''^, ho-shay'ah, de-
liverer), a form of Joshua, son of Nun (Num.
xiii:8).
OSPREY (os'pra), (Heb. •"''^U', oz-nee-yaw'), the
fish en^\e,Pan)iion halicetus, L., an unclean bird;
the breaker, bone breaker. (See AzANiAH.)
OSSIFRAOE ( os'si-f raj ), (Heb. ^'^ , peh' res],
the lammergeier, Gypiftus barbattis, L., the largest
of the vultures of the Holy Land.
The original word well suits the remarkable
habits of the lammergeier, or bearded vulture,
known also among the Alps, and one of the most
formidable birds of its tribe. It is mentioned
OSTRICH
1267
OSTRICH
with the osprey, as above. The propriety of the
name "ossi-frage" — i. c, "bone-breaker" — is seen
from the following description : "Marrow-bones
are the dainties he (the lamiiicrgcier) loves the
best ; and when the other vultures have picked the
flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end of the
feast and swallows the bones, or breaks them
and swallows the pieces if he cannot get the
Ossifrage {Gypatus barhatus').
marrow out otherwise. The bones he cracks by
taking them to a great height and letting them
fall upon a stone. This is probably the bird that
dropped a tortoise on the bald head of poor old
/^ischylus. Not, however, that he restricts him-
self, or the huge black infant that he and his
mate are bringing up in one of the many holes
with which the limestone precipice abounds, to
marrow, turtle, bones, and similar delicacies;
neither lamb, hare, nor kid comes amiss to him,
though, his power of claw and beak being feeble
for so large a bird, he cannot tear his meat like
other eagles. To make amends for this, his pow-
ers of deglutition are enormous." (Schaff, Bih.
Diet.) N. H. Simpson.
It is diffused throughout the mountains of
northern Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. It
breeds on inaccessible cliffs. The female lays one
egg, which is hatched in February. (See Vul-
ture.)
OSTRICH (os'trich), (Heb. !>', yaw-ane' , also
,'■', no-isaui' flying, Job xxxix:i3).
The ostrich is frequently mentioned in the
Bible in terms of great beauty and precision;
which commentators, perhaps more conversant
with the exploded misstatements of the ancients
than with the true physiological history of the
bird in question, have not been happy in explain-
ing, sometimes referring it to wrong species, such
as the peacock, or mistaking it for the stork, the
eagle, or the bustard (Lev. xi:i9; Deut. xiv :
15; Job XXX :29; xxxix:i3; Is. xiii :2i ; xxxiv:
13; xliii:20; Jer. 1:39; Lam. iv:3; Micah i:8).
In several of these passages 'owls' has been used
in our version for yaw-ane', now generally ad-
mitted to mean 'ostriches.'
(1) Two Varieties. There are two varieties, if
not two species, of the ostrich ; one never attain-
ing seven feet in height, and covered chiefly with
gray and dingy feathers ; the other sometimes
growing to more than ten feet, and of a glossy
black plumage ; the males in both having the
great feathers of the wings and tail white, but
the females the tail only of that color. Their
dimensions render them both the largest animals
of the feathered creation now existing. They ap-
pear promiscuously in Asia and Africa, but the
troops or coveys of each are always separate;
the gray is more common in the south, while the
black, which grows largest in (Taffraria, pre-
dominates to ihe north of the Equator. The com-
mon-sized ostrich weighs about eighty pounds.
(2) Habits. Ostriches are gregarious — from
families consisting of a male with one or several
female birds, and perhaps a brood or two of
young, up to troops of nearly a hundred. They
keep aloof from the presence of water in the
wild and arid desert, mixing without hesitation
among herds of gnu, wild asses, quaggas, and
other striped Equidce. and the larger species of
Antitol^idic. From the nature of their food,
which consists of seeds and vegetables, although
seldom or never in want of drink it is evident
that they must often approach more productive
regions, which, by means of the great rapidity of
motion they possess, is easily accomplished; and
they are consequently known to be very destruc-
tive to cultivated fields. As the organ of taste
is very obtuse in these birds, they swallow with
little or no discrimination all kinds of substances,
and among others stones ; it is also proba'ule that,
like poultry, they devour lizards, snakes, and the
young of birds that fall in their way.
Ostrich.
(3) The Nest. It is not yet finally decided
whether the two species are polygamous, though
concurrent testimony seems to leave no doubt of
the fact : there is, however, no uncertainty re-
specting the nest, which is merely a circular basin
scraped out of the soil, with a slight elevation
at the border, and sufficiently large to contain a
great number of eggs; for from twelve to about
sixty have been found in them, exclusive of a cer-
tain number, always observed to be outlying, or
placed beyond the raised border of the nest, and
amounting apparently to nearly one-third of the
OTHNI
1268
OVEN
whole. These are supposed to feed the young
brood when first hatched, either in their fresh
state, or in a corrupted form, when the substance
in them has produced worms. These eggs are
of dififerent periods of laying, like those within,
and the birds hatched form only a part of the
contents of a nest, until the breeding season
closes. The eggs are of different sizes, some
attaining to seven inches in their longer diameter,
and others less, having a dirty white shell, finely
speckled with rust color; and their weight borders
on three pounds. Within the tropics they are
kept sufficiently warm not to require incubation,
but in colder climates one or more females sit
constantly, and the male bird takes that duty
himself after the sun is set. It is then that the
short roar may be heard during darkness ; and
at other times different sounds are uttered, likened
to the cooing of pigeons, the cry of a hoarse
child, and the hissing of a goose; no doubt ex-
pressive of different emotions.
(4) Uses. Though at first sight useless, ex-
cept for their beautiful plumes, we may be as-
sured that Providence has not appointed their
abode in the desert in vain; and they still con-
tinue to exist, not only in Africa, but in the
region of Arabia, east and south of Palestine
beyond the Euphrates ; but it may be a question
whether they e.xtend so far to the eastward as
Goa, although that limit is assigned them by late
French ornithologists.
The flesh of a young ostrich is said to be not
unpalatable; but its being declared unclean in
Mosaic legislation may be ascribed to a two-
fold cause. The first is sufficiently obvious from
its indiscriminate voracity already mentioned, and
the other may have been an intention to lay a
restriction upon the Israelites in order to wean
them from the love of a nomad lite, which
hunting in the desert would have fostered ; for
ostriches must be sought on the barren plains,
where they are not accessible on foot, except by
stratagem. When pursued, they cast stones and
gravel behind them with great fo^ce ; and though
it requires long endurance and skill, their natural
mode of fleeing in a circular form enables well
mounted Arabs to overtake and slay them.
C. H. S.
Figurative, (i) The Arabs sometimes dis-
cover whole nests of ostrich eggs undisturbed:
some of them are sweet and good, others are
addled and corrupted; others again contain young
ones of different grc wth, according to the time, it
may be presumed, they have been forsaken by the
dam. The Arabs often find little ostriches no
bigger than well-grown pullets, half-starved,
straggling about and moaning like so many dis-
tressed orphans for their mother. In this man-
ner the ostrich may be said to be hardened against
her young ones as though they were not hers.
This want of affection is recorded in Lam. \v.t,:
'the daughter of ray people is become cruel, like
ostriches in the wilderness;' that is, by deserting
their own, and receiving others instead. (2) As
to companionship the ostrich (Job xxx :29, marg.)
is a figure of extreme desolation; taken from the
isolated life of that bird in the desert.
OTHNI (oth'ni), (Heh. *^7?, oth-nee\ for-
cible), tlic first of the six sonsof Shemaiah, and a
porter in the tabernacle ( I Chron. xxvi:7). B.C.
about 1013.
OTHNIEL (6th'ni-el), (Heb. ^^"^^1J', oth-nee-
ale' , lion uf God), first judge of Israel, son of
Kenaz, the younger brother of Caleb, whose daugh-
ter Aclisah lie obtained in marriage by his daruig
valor at the siege of Dehir (Josh. xv:l7; Judg. 1:13;
I Chron. iv;t3).
Rendered famous among his countrymen by
this exploit, and connected by a twofold tie with
one of the only two Israelites of the former gen-
eration who had not died in the desert, we are
prepared for the fact that on him devolved the
mission to deliver Israel from the Mesopotamian
oppression under which, in punishment for their
sins, they fell after the death of Joshua and
of the elders who outlived him (Judg. iii:9).
This victory secured to Israel a peace of forty
years. For the chronology, etc., of this period
see Judges.
OUCHES (ouch'es), {W^h.^V^^^ ,mish-bets-aw' ,
twisting), sockets for fastening the precious stones
in the shoulder-piece of the high-priest's ephod.
These ouches, with their stones, served for
buttons to fasten the golden chains whereby the
breastplate was hung (Exod. xxviii:ii, 25). (See
Priest, Hebrew Priesthood.)
OUTCASTS (out'kasts), (Heb. ^I??, daw-kha-w').
Figurative. (\) The "outcasts" of Israel
and Judah needed shelter and pity in the land of
Moab, when they were driven out of their country
by the Assyrian ravages (Is. -xvi :3, 4). (2) The
"outcasts" of the Persians wandered far and wide,
when they were carried or driven from their
country by the Chaldseans (Jer. xlix:36). (3)
God "gatlwrcth the outcasts of Israel;" he gath-
ered the Jews after Sennacherib and Esarhaddon
had scattered them ; he brought them back from
their Chaldean captivity; he will bring them from
their present dispersion; he gathers the "outcast"
Gentiles, and joins them unto his church, with
all the true Israel of God (Is. Ivi ;8, 11, 12).
(Brown, Bib. Diet.)
OUTGOINGS (out'go-Tngs), the utmost borders,
Josh, xvii rg, 18.
Figurative, God makes the outgoitigs of
the morning and evening to rejoice, when he be-
stows and renders agreeable the earliest and latest
parts of the day ; or when he gives heart-cheer-
ing blessings to the inhabitants of the remotest
eastern and western nations ( Ps. lxv:8).
OUTLANDISH (out-land'fsh), (Heb. '"?t, "ok-
ree' , Neh. xiii;26), foreign, pertaining to another
country or nation, as the women of other nations
who caused Solomon to sin.
OUTMOST (out'most), (Heb. ^?P, kay'tseh,
Deut. xxx;4), uttermost.
OUTRAGEOUS (out-ra'jus), (Heb. 'T?, shaw-
taf',Xo gush out, Prov. xxvii:4), hence the meta-
phorical saying: "Attger is an outpouring!'
OVEN (uv"n), (Heb 1''-'?, tan-noor' , fire pot;
Greek cXi/Savos, klib'an-os, earthen pot)
The Bedouin Arabs use three or four different
ovens, the description of which may throw some
light upon the oven of the Bible.
(1) Sand Oven. This is nothing more than
the sand of the earth, upon vvhicli a fire is made
until it is supposed to be sufficiently heated. The
fuel and fire are then cleared away, and the dough
is laid on the hot sand in flat pieces about the
thickness of a plate (Is. xliv:is, 19). These are
the "ash-cakes" (Gen. xviii:6; i Kings xvii:i3;
xix :6). (See Bread.)
(2) Earth Oven. The earth oven is a round
hole in the earth. Stones are first put into this,
and a fire is kindled upon them. When the
stones have become thoroughly hot, the fire is
removed and the dough spread in thin flakes
upon the heated stones, and turned as often as
OVERCHARGED
1269
OWL
may be necessary. The ovens used in Persia are
about two and a half feet wide and not less tlian
five or six feet deep. They resemble pits or wells,
and sheep are hung lengthwise in them and
cooked whole. These may be what a/e rendered
in our version "ranges for pots" (Lev. xi:35).
Portable Oven.
(3) Portable Oven. This is an earthen vessel
without a bottom, about three feet high, smeared
outside and inside with clay and placed upon a
frame or support. Fire is made within it or be-
low it. When the sides are sufficiently heated
thin patches of dough are spread on the inside,
and the top is covered without removing the fire,
as in the other cases, and the bread is quickly
baked. To this we may refer the phrase "baken
in the oven" (Lev. ii:4). Convex plates of iron,
pans or plates, flat stones, etc., are often used
for baking. (See Bread; Furnace.) (Schaff,
Bib. Diet.)
Figurative, (i) God makes his enemies
a "aery oven," and his judgments "burn as an
oven" (Ps. xxirp; Mai. iv:i). (2) Hosea
compares adulterers and unclean persons to a
healed oven (chapter vii :4, 6, 7). (,■;) "Ten
women shall bake your bread in one oven" (Lev.
xxvi 126) is a figurative expression for scarcity;
for in ordinary times each woman would have
enough baking for an oven of her own. (4)
"Our skin was blaek like an oven" (Lam. v:
10). As an oven is scorched and blackened with
fire, so hunger dries, shrivels the skin until it
becomes as if scorched by the sun,
OVERCHAKGED (o-ver-charjd'), (Greek, /3op-
ivo), bar-oo'no, Luke xxi:34; 2 Cor, ii:5), overbur-
dened.
Thus, excessive sorrow, immoderate eating and
drinking, or worldly care, overload men's souls,
that they cannot desire or attain heavenly things
(Luke xii:34; 2 Cor. ii:s).
OVERLIVE (5-ver-liv'), (Heb. "-?, aw-rak' ,
Josh. xxiv;3i ), to outlive, survive.
OVERPASS (6-ver-pas'), (Heb. "'5?, aw-har' ,
Jcr. v:28), to pass over, neglect.
Professors of the true religion "overpass the
deeds of the wicked," when they do worse than
UTibelievers. Judges do it, when they allow them-
selves to be worse than the criminals they con-
demn at the bar (Jer. v:28).
OVERPLUS (o'ver-pliis), (Heb. •T?, a-<u-dnf .
surplus), the difference of value between tilings
exchanged (Lev, xxv:27). "Our overplus of ship-
ping we will bum." — Shakespeare.
OVERRXTN (o'ver-riin), (Heb. "??, aw-Z-rt/-',
2 Sam. xviii:23), to outrun.
OVERSEERS (o-ver-se'ers), (Gr. ivi<rKowoi. ep-
is'kop-os, Acts xx:28).
This term denotes the pastor of a congrega-
tion of Christians, and is identical with presbyter
or elder (comp. verse 17). The same Greek word
is elsewhere translated "bishop." (See Bishop;
Episcopacy.)
OWL (oul), (Heb. ^"Y^.lee-leeih' .anAC'.'Z, koce).
Two other Hebrew names have been likewise
assigned in our versions to presumed species
of owls; namely, 1''^;'-, yan-shofe' {/■wilti^/tt),\\\\\ch,
although it must be confessed that in common
Hebrew it indicates the owl, we have endeavored
to show is applied more particularly to the night-
heron, Ardea nicticorax (sec Ibis); and '"-!?•
kip-poze' , either the same or confounded, as it
appears, with kippod, which has led to much
controversy, and caused one or the other to be
referred to six or seven animals, all widely dif-
ferent, for they include owl, osprey, bittern, hedge-
hop or porcupine, otter (?), and tortoise. Our
reasons for applying kippod to the bittern will
be found in Kippod.
Kagli- t)ul (.'.•«/,. .l/.j.u,«i«).
There are noticed in Egypt and Syria three
well-known species of the genus Sirix, or owl:
— Sirix bubo, 'the great-eared owl' ; Slrix flam-
iiiea, the common barn owl ; and Strix passe rina,
the little owl. In this list Strix otus, the long-
cared owl, Strix braeliyolus or uluta, the short-
cared owl, known nearly over the whole earth,
and Strix orientalis of Hasselquist, arc not in-
cluded, and several other species of these wan-
dering birds, both of .'\frica and Asiatic regions,
occur in Palestine. The barn owl is still sacred
in Northern .Vsia. The eagle-owl, or great-eared
owl, Slrix bubo, we do not find in ornithological
works as an inhabitant of Syria, though no doubt
it is an occasional winter visitant: nor the smaller
species. Bubo Athenicnsis of Gmelin, which may
be a rare but permanent resident, probably also
visiting Egypt. It is not, however, we believe,
that species,, but the Otus ascalaphus of Cuvier,
which is common in Egypt, and which in all
probability is the type of the innumerable rep-
resentations of an eared owl in hieroglyphical
inscriptions.
Next we have Strix ulula. Strix braeliyolus.
or short-eared owl, likewise found in Eg>'pt and
Arabia, as well as to the north of Syria, a bold
pugnacious bird, residing in ruined buildings.
ox
1270
OZNITES
mismken by commentators for the screech-owl,
Strix stridiila, and most probably the leeleth, or
screech owl, of the Bible (Is, xxxiy:i4). The
spectral species, again, confounded with the goat-
Athene Mcridioualis,
sucker, is, we believe, Strix coromanda (see
Night Hawk, and the same as Strix orientalis
of Hasselquist. C. H. S.
OX (ox), (Heb. y>Z\ shore, in a collective sense,
cattle). The rendering of Heb. "'Iv?, baw-kawr' ,
which is also generic for bovines; bak-aw-raw' ,
with the feminine ending, signifies the cow.
Having already noticed the domestic beeves un-
der Bull (to which article we refer), the few
words added here will apply to the breeds of
Western Asia and the manner of treating them.
(1) Early Uses. The earliest pastoral tribes
appear to have had domesticated cattle in the
herd; and judging from the manners of South
Africa, where \vc find nations still retaining in
many respects primeval usages, it is likely that
the patriarchal families, or at least their mov-
ables, were transported on the backs of oxen in
the manner which the Kaffirs still practice, as
also the Gwallahs and grain-merchants in India,
who come down from the interior with whole
droves bearing burdens.
(2) Various Breeds. The breeds of Egypt were
various, differing in the length and flexures of the
horns. There were some with long horns, others
with short, and even with none, while a hunched
race of Nubia reveals an Indian origin, and indi-
cates that at least one of the nations on the Up-
per Nile hadcome from the valleys of the Ganges;
for it is to the east of the Indus alone that that
species is to be found whose original stock ap-
pears to be the mountain yak (Bos grunnicns).
The domestic buffalo was unknown to West-
ern Asia and Egypt till after the Arabian con-
quest: it is now common in the last-mentioned
region and far to the south, but not beyond the
equator; and from structural differences it may
be surmised that there was in early ages a domes-
ticated distinct species of this animal in Africa.
In Syria and Egypt the present races of do-
mestic cattle are somewhat smaller than the large
breeds of Europe, and those of Palestine appear
to be of at least two forms, both with short horns
and both used to the plow, one being tall and
lanky, the other more compact ; and we possess
pictures of the present Egyptian cattle with long
horns bent down and forwards. From Egyptian
pictures it is to be inferred that large droves of
fine cattle were imported from Abyssinia, and
that in the valley of the Nile they were in gen-
eral .stall-fed, used exclusively for the plough,
and treated humanely. In Palestine the Mosaic
law provided with care for the kind treat-
ment of cattle ; for in treading out corn — the
Oriental mode of separating the grain from the
straw — it was enjoined that the ox should not
be muzzled (Deut. xxv:4), and old cattle that had
long served in tillage were often suffered to
wander at large till their death — a practice still
in vogue, though from a different motive, in
India. But the Hebrews and other nations of
Syria grazed their domestic stock, particularly
those tribes which, residing to the east of the
Jordan, had fertile districts for that purpose.
Here, of course, the droves became shy and wild;
and though we are inclined to apply the passage
in Ps. xxii:i2, to wild species, yet old bulls,
roaming at large in a land where the lion still
abounded, no doubt became fierce ; and as they
would obtain cows from the pastures, there must
have been feral breeds in the woods, as fierce and
resolute as real wild Uri — which ancient name
may be a mere modification of Reem. (See
Reem.) C. H. S.
Most of the cattle of the Holy Land at present
are of inferior breeds. Probably this is bat a
part of the degeneracy of the country. The best
races of animals would thrive there, and even
now one sometimes sees fine specimens of horned
cattle. (See Beasts; Bull.)
Figurative, (i) To "send forth the feet
of the ox and the ass" (Is. xxxii :2o) to let
the feet of the ox and the ass go to and fro
in freedom, is a figure of great plenteousness,
inasmuch as the cattle would not have to be
watched lest they should stray into the fields of
grain. (2) Where no oxen are. the crib is clean;
i. e. there is food for neither man nor beasts.
But the words, the crib, etc., might be rendered,
there is no wheat or corn on the thrashing-
floor (Prov. xiv:4). (3) In Cor, ix :g, 10, the
oxen not muzzled in treading out the corn is
figurative of a minister's right to support. (4)
A rash youth is like an ox led to the slaughter;
he is thoughtlessly and easily decoyed, and
tempted to that which ruins him (Prov. vii :22) ;
or it may signify the saints under persecution
(Jer. xi:i9). (5) A stalled and fatted ox is
used to express the most sumptuous and delicate
provision (Prov. xv:i7). (6) "As the ox licketh
up the grass" (Num.xxii :4) is a figure of easyvic-
tory. (7) For an "ox to low over his fodder"
(Job vi:5) is to complain without cause.
OXGOAD (ox'god). See Goad.
OZESI (o'zem), (Heb. ^V**, o'tsem, strength).
1. Son of Jesse (i Chron. ii:is).
2. The son of Jerahmeel (i Chron. ii:2S).
OZIAS (o-zi'as), (Or. 'Offas, od-zee'as), a Greek
form of UzziAH (Matt. 1:8, g).
OZNI (oz'ni), (Heb. "^J?, oz-nee' , eared, i. e., at-
tentive), the fourth son of Gad, and founder of a
tribal family (Num. xxvi:i6). He is called EzBON
(Gen. xlvi:i5).
OZNITES (oz'nites), (Heb. '???, oz-nee'), mem-
bers of the family founded by Ozni ( Num. xxvi :
16).
PAARAI
1271
PAKYOTH
PAABAI (pa'a-rai), (Heb. "!>}•'?, pah-ar-ahee,
yawning), an " Arbite," and one of David's mighty
warriors (2 Sam. xxiii:35), more correctly called
Naarai (i Chron. xi:37).
FACATIANA (p5k'a-ti'an-a), (Gr. iraKOTiai^,
f>ak-at-ee-an-ay'), subscription to i Tim.
In the fourth century before Christ Phrygia
was divided into Phrygia Salutaris and Phrygia
Pacatiana (later Capatiana) ; Laodicea was the
metropolis of the latter. (Barnes' Bih. Diet.)
PACE (pas), (Heb. "'i¥, tsah'ad, a step), an
approximate measure of length, a stride (2 Sam.
vi;i3). (See Weights and Measures).
PADAN (pa'dan), (Heb. ^i^, fad dawn, field), a
form of Padan-aram (Gen. xlviii:7). (See Aram).
PADAN-ARAM(pa'dan-a'rara),(Heb. D^*<: Iv^.
pad-dan'n ar-aiam' , the table-land of Aram), the
name given to the country from which Isaac
obtained Rebekah (Gen. xxv;20). (See Aram).
Gen. XXV :20; xxviii:2, S, 7, from whence Jacob
secured his wives, and where Laban lived ; Gen.
xxxi:i8; xxxiii:i8; xxxv :9, 26; xlvi:i5.
Padan-aram has usually been identified with
Mesopotamia, the region between the two great
rivers Euphrates and Tigris, and is believed more
particularly to designate the plain, in distinction
from the mountainous district, in the north of
Mesopotamia. Another theory in respect to the
location of Padan-aram has been advocated at va-
rious periods, to which attention has been di-
rected of late by Dr. Merrill and Prof. Paine.
They suggest that Milton places Haran (and of
course Padan-aram) south or west of the Eu-
phrates, and Dr.Bekc (1845) wrote a learned work
to prove that Padan-aram was in the vicinity of
Damascus. This view, however, is opposed by
the great majority of the most eminent scholars,
and has too few facts in its favor to give it
much importance. (Schaflf, Bib. Diet.) (See
.\ram ; Mesopotamia and Syria.)
PADDLE (pad'd'l), (Heb. ">•!?;, yaw-ihade' , peg,
a tentpin, Judg. iv:2i ; a small spade, Dcut. xxiii:
13)-
PADON (pa'don), (Heb. 1^"'?, paw-done , deliv-
erance).
The founder of a family of Nethinim who re-
turned from the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii:44; Neh. vii:47). (B. C. before 520.)
PAGIEL (pa'gi-el), (Heb. ''>?Ti>5, pa^-ee-ale',
God meets).
Son of Ocran and chief of the tribe of Asher
in the wilderness (Num. i:i3; ii:27; vii 72, 77;
x:26). (B. C. 1658.)
PAHATH-MOAB (pa'hath-mo'ab), (Heb. 3N"«
^U^, pakh'ath ino-awh' , pit or governor of Moab).
The founder of a family which returned from
the captivity with Zcrulibabcl (Ezra ii:6; viii :
4; Nch. yii:ii). (B. C. 410.) Sonic of them
had married foreign wives, whom they divorced
(Ezra x:3o). The family was reprcscnlctl in the
sealing of the covenant with Nehemiah, and
Hashub, one of the family, helped to rebuild the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. x:i4; iii:ii, 23).
PAI (pa'i), (Heb. "V ?, paw-ee' , bleating, I Chron.
i:So). (See Pau).
FAIN', PAINED (pan. pand), (Gr. Ba^aflj-u.
bas-an-id'zo. Rev. xii:2), suffering in labor, pain or
sorrow.
Pain, or pang, denotes the uneasiness arising
to body or mind from what hurts it. When it is
very violent, it is called torment (Job xxxiii :
19; Ps. XXV : 18; lv:4; Jer. xxii:23; Ezek. xxx:
4; Matt. iv:24). Figuratively, to "travel in pain"
all one's day, is to live in sore trouble, inward dis-
quiet, and terror of mind (Job xv:20).
PAINFTJLNESS (pan'ful - nes), (Gr. iU>x<t>ot,
moi:h'p/ios,2 Cor. xi:27), difficult labor, hardshii'.
toilsomeness, distress. In Job xvi;2 the Hen.
'?t, aw-ntawl' , is connected with comforters. In
I Thess. ii :9; 2 Thess. iii :8 it is rendered 'travail,'
and that is accordingly the rendering of R. V.
here also.
PAINT (pant), (Heb. ^"IS. /<7£'/t, dye), (Jer. xxii:
14), a mixture of antimony, zinc and oil for making
a black ring around the eyelids.
The Jews seem to have looked upon the custom
as unbecoming a woman of high reputation (2
Kings ix;3o; Jer. iv:3o; Ezek. xxiii :4o). (See
Eye.)
Painting as a decoration was much practiced.
In the houses the walls and beams were colored
(Jer. xxii:l4); also idols, either in the form of
sculptures or in the form of drawings on the walls
of temples, were colored (Wisd. xiii:i4; Ezek.
xxiii ;i4). But pictures, in the modern sense of
the word, as products of free art, were unknown
to the ancient Jews, and would perhaps have been
regarded as violations of the second command-
ment. The drawings upon mummy cases were,
however, doubtless familiar to them.
PAKYOTH (pak'y-oth), (Heb. '''?i?i, pak-koo-
aw' ).
It is related in 2 Kings iv:38-40, that Elisha
having come again to Gilgal, when there was a
famine in the land, and many sons of the prophets
were assembled there, he ordered his servant to
prepare for them a dish of vegetables: 'One went
out into the field to gather herbs (oroth), and
found a •wild vine, and gathered thereof wild
gourds (pakyoth sadeh) his lap full, and came
and shred them into the pot of pottage, for they
knew them not.' 'So they poured out for the
men to eat ; but as they were eating of the pot-
tage, they cried out, O thou man of God, there is
death in the pot ; and they could not eat thereof.'
From this it appears that the servant mistook the
fruit of one plant, pakyoth, for something else,
called oroth. and that the former was vine-like,
that is, with long, weak, slender stems, and that
the fruit had some remarkable taste, by which
the mistake was discovered whenever the pottage
was tasted. Though a few other plants have been
indicated, the pakyoth has almost universally been
supposed to be one of the family of the gourd or
cucumber-like plants, several of which arc con-
spicuous for their bitterness, and a few poisonous,
while others, it is well known, are edible. The
name is supposed to be derived from paka. 'to
crush,' or 'to burst ;' and this is the characteristic
of the species called the wild cucumber by the an-
cients.
PALACE
1272
PALESTINE
The bitterness which was probably perceived
on eating of the pottage, and which disappeared
on the addition of meal, is found in many of the
cucumber tribe, and conspicuously in the species
which have been usually selected as the pakyoth,
that is, the Colocynth {Cucumis Colocynthis).
In the Arabic version, hunzal (which is the
Colocynth) is used as the synonym for pakyoth
in 2 Kings iv :39. The Globe cucumber derives
its specific name (Cucumis prophctarum) from
the notion that it afforded the gourd which "the
sons of the prophets" shred by mistake into their
pottage, and which made them declare, when they
came to taste it, that there was "death in the
pot." This plant is smaller in every part than the
common melon, and has a nauseous odor, while
its fruit is to the full as bitter as the Coloqitintida.
The fruit has a rather singular appearance, from
the manner in which its surface is armed with
prickles, which are, however, soft and harmless
(Pictorial Palcstitic ; Physical Gcog. p. cclxxxix).
But this plant, though it is nauseous and bitter
as the Colocynth. yet the fruit not being bigger
than a cherry, does not appear likely to have
been that which was shred into the pot._ Celsius,
however, was of opinion that the Cucumis agrcstis
of the Ancients, and which was found by Belon
in descending from Mount Sinai, was the plant.
This, he says, is the Olcra asiiii of the Hebrews,
the Chatc al hcmar of the Arabs, and iht Cucumis
asininus of the druggists of his day. This plant
is now called Momordica clatcrium, or Squirting
Cucumber, and is a well known drastic purgative,
violent enough in its action to be considered even
a poison. Its fruit is ovate, obtuse, and scabrous.
But it is not ea.sy to say whether this or the
Colocynth is most likely to have been the plant
mistaken for oroth ; but the fruit of this species
might certainly be mistaken for young gherkins.
Both are bitter and poisonous. (See Cucumber;
Gourd; Pottage.) J- F. R.
PALACE (pal'Ss), (Heb. X'^']^, ar-mone' , to be
elevated), a citadel ; (Heb. '^T?, bee-raw' , a forti-
fied palace, fortress).
In Scripture, it denotes what is contained within
the outer enclosure of the royal residence, includ-
ing all the buildings, courts, and gardens (2 Chron.
xxxvi:i9; comp. Ps. xlviii:3; cxxii :7 ; Prov. ix ;
3; XXX :28; Is. xxiii:i3; xxv;2; Jer. xvii:27;
Amos 1:4, 7, 12; Nah. ii:6). In the New Testa-
ment the term palace (auX^) is applied to the resi-
dence of a man of rank (Matt, xxvi :3 ; Mark xiv :
66; Luke xi:2l; John xviii:i5). The specific allu-
sions are to the palace built by Herod, which was
afterwards occupied by the Roman governors, and
was the prjetorium, or hall, which formed the
abode of Pilate when Christ was brought before
him (Mark xv:i6): the other passages above
cited, except Luke xi :2i, refer to the residence of
the high-priest.
The particulars which have been given under
the article House (which see) require only to
be aggrandized to convey a suitable idea of a
palace; for the general arrangements and dis-
tribution of parts arc the same in the palace as
in the house, save that the courts are more nu-
merous, and with more distinct appropriations,
the buildings more extensive, and the materials
more costly. The palace of the kings of Judah
in Jerusalem was that built by Solomon, called
'the house of the forest of Lebanon,' of which
some particulars are given in i Kings vii:l-l2;
and if read along with the description which Jo-
sephus gives of the same pile (Antiq. v, 5), a
faint idea may be formed of it, as a magnificent
collection of buildings in adjoining courts, con-
nected with and surrounded by galleries and col-
onnades.
Figurative, (i) The children of the righteous
are compared to a palace (Ps.cxliv:l2). (2) Heaven
is "the palace" of God and Christ; how glorious its
structure! how rich its furniture! and there God,
angels, and redeemed men forever reside ( Ps.
xlv:i5).
FALAL (pa'lal), {Heb. ''4r<paw-lawl' , a judge),
a son of Uzar, who rebuilt a part of the wall of
Jerusalem (Neh. iii:25), B. C. 446.
PALESTINA(pares-ti'na),(Exod.xv:i4; Is. xiv:
2g, 31). See Palestine.
PALESTINE (pal'es-tine). This name, usually
applied to the country formerly inhabited by the
Israelites, occurs only once (Joel iii:4) in the Old
Testament. It is, however, derived from Philistia
(Heb. ^'fl^, pel-aw-sheth), or the country of the
Philistines, which comprised the southern part
of the coast plain of Canaan along the Mediter-
ranean.
The word Philistia occurs in Exod. xiii:i7; Ps.
lx:8; Ixxxiii:?; lxxxvii:4; cviii:g; Is. xiv ;29, 31.
From this arose the name Palestine i Ua\ai(TTli>ri),
which was applied by most ancient writers, and
even by Josephus (Antiq. i, 6, 2 ; li, 15, 2; viii, 10,
3), to the whole land of the Israelites (see Re-
land's Palccstina, p. 38, sq.).
1. frames. The other names of the country
may be given in the order of their occurrence in
Scripture.
(1) Canaan. From Canaan, the fourth son
of Ham, from whom the first inhabitants were
descended. It is the most ancient name of the
country, and is first found as such in Gen. xi :
31. This denomination was confined to the coun-
try between the Mediterranean and the Jordan;
for Exod. xvi :35 (comp. Josh. v:il, 12) shows
that the Jordan was the eastern boundary of Ca-
naan. This is also seen in Num. xxxiii:5l ; .xxxiv:
II, 12; (comp. Exod. xv:i5). When the name
Canaan was thus used with reference to the coun-
try west of the Jordan, the region east of that
river was called the Land of Gilead (Deut. xxxiv:
2; Josh, .xxii :9, 11). In later times the term Ca-
naan was understood to include Phoenicia (Is.
xxiii:ii; Matt. xv:2i-22), and also the land of
the Philistines.
(2) Land of Israel. This natne was given to
the whole country as distributed among and oc-
cupied by the tribes of Israel. The designation,
Land of Israel, was never applied but to the ag-
gregate possessions of the tribes as defined by
the limits laid down when the distribution was
made in the time of Jo.shua (Judg. xix:29; i Sam.
xiii:i9; Ezek. vii:2; Matt, ii :20, 21; 77 Icpa^X),
land of Israel. In Ezek. xxvii:i7, and other
places, the land of Israel is considered as the ter-
ritory of the ten tribes, forming the separate king-
dom of Israel, as distinct from that of Judah.
(See Israel.)
(3) Land of Promise. So called as the land
which God promised to the patriarchal fathers to
bestow on their descendants (Gen. xv:i8; 1:24;
Num. xxxii :i ; comp. Heb. xi:9).
(4) Land of Jehovah. So called as being in
a special and peculiar sense the property of Je-
hovah, who. as the sovereign proprietor of the
soil, granted it to the Hebrews (Lev. xx.v:23: Ps.
Ixxxv :l ; Is. viii :8).
(5) The Holy Land. This name occurs only
in Zech. ii:i2. The land is here called 'Holy,' as
being the Lord's property, and sanctified by his
PALESTINE
1273
PALESTINE
emplc and worship : l)ut Christians, in applying
to it the same title, probably regard it more as
the scene of the life, the travels, and the suffer-
ings of Christ.
(6) Judab, Judeea. This name belonged at
first to the territory of the tribe of Judah alone.
After the separation of the two kingdoms, one of
them took the name of Judah, which contained
the territories both of that tribe and of Benjamin.
After the Captivity, down to and after the time
of Christ, Juda;a was used in a loose way as a
general name for the whole country of Palestine ;
but in more precise language, and with reference to
internal distribution, it denoted nearly all the ter-
ritories of the ancient kingdom, as distinguished
from Samaria and Galilee on the west of the Jor-
dan, and Peraea on the east. (See Judah.)
2. "Divisions. The divisions of Palestine were
different in different ages.
(1) In Patriarchal Times. In the time of
the patriarchs the country was divided among
the tribes or nations descended from the sons of
Canaan. The precise locality of each nation is
not, in every case, distinctly known ; but our map
exhibits the most probable arrangement.
(2) In the Time of Moses. When the Israel-
ites were preparing to enter Canaan, the distribu-
tion of the nations on the west of the Jordan
had undergone very little change ; but, on the
east of that river, we find the three principal ter-
ritories to have been Bashan, in the north — that
is to say, east and northeast of the lake Gennes-
areth; Gilead, in the middle; and, in the south,
on the east of the Dead Sea, the Land of Moab.
(See MoABiTES.)
(3) After the Conquest the land was distrib-
uted by lot among the tribes. The particulars
of this distribution will be best seen by reference
to the map.
(4) After the Captivity. After the Captiv-
ity we hear very little of the territories of the
tribes, for ten of them never returned to occupy
their ancient domains.
(5) In the Time of Christ. In the time of
Christ the country on the west of the Jordan was
divided into the provinces of Galilee, Samaria,
and Judaea. Galilee is a name which occurs re-
peatedly in the book of Joshua (xxi 132) ; and very
often in the later history. It was applied to that
part of Palestine north of the plain of Esdraelon
or Jezreel. This province was divided into
Lower or Southern, and Upper or Northern Gali-
lee. The latter section was also denominated
Galilee of the Gentiles (Matt. iv:is). Samaria
occupied nearly the middle of Palestine; but, al-
though it extended across the country, it did not
come down to the seashore. Judaea, as a prov-
ince, corresponded to the northern and western
parts of the ancient kingdom of that name ; but
the southeastern portion formed the territory of
Idumaea. On the other side of the Jordan the di-
visions were, at this time, more numerous and
less distinct.
3. Versa. The whole country, generally, was
called Perrea, and was divided into eight districts
or cantons, namely: (l) Pcraa. in the more
limited sense, which was the southernmost can-
ton, extending from the river Arnon to the river
Jabbok. (2) Gilead. north of the Jabbok, and
highly populous. (3) Dccapolis, or the district
of ten cities, which were Scythopolis or Bcthshan
(on the west side of the Jordan), Hippos, Ga-
dara, Pelia, Philadelphia (formerly Rabbath),
Dium, Canatha, Gcrasa, Raphana, and. perhaps,
Damascus : but there is not much certainty with
regard to the ten cities from which the region
had its name. (4) GauUmitis, extending to the
northeast of the Upper Jordan and of the lake
of Gennesareth. (5) Batanica, the ancient Ba-
shan, but less extensive, east of the lake of Gen-
nesareth. (6) Auraiiitis, also called Ituriia, and
known to this day by the old name of Hauran
(Ezck. xlvii: 16-18), to the north of Batana;a and
the east of Gaulonitis. (7) Trachonitis, extend-
ing to the north of Gaulonitis, and east from
Pancas (Csesarea Philippi) and the sources of the
Jordan, where it was separated from Galilee
(Luke iii:i). (8) Abilene, in the extreme north,
among the mountains of Anti-Libanus, between
Baalbcc and Damascus. The more important of
these names have been noticed under their several
heads.
4. Situation and Boundaries. Palestine is
the southwestern part of Syria, extending from
the mountains of Lebanon to the borders of
Egypt.
(1) Location. It lies about midway between
the equator and the polar circle, to which happy
position it owes the fine medium climate which it
possesses. Its length is embraced between 30'
40^ and 33° 32' of nortli latitude, and between
33l 45' ^f east longitude in the southwest, and
35° 48' in the northeast. The breadth may be
taken at an average of sixty-five miles, the ex-
treme width being about 100 miles. The length,
from Mount Hermon in the north, to which the
territory of Manasseh beyond the Jordan ex-
tended (Josh. xiii:ii), to Kadesh-barnea in the
south, to which the territory of Judah reached,
was 180 miles.
Palestine may be regarded as embracing an
area of almost 11,000 square miles, which is some-
what more than is usually given to it. But the
real surface is much greater than this estimate
and these comparisons would imply ; for Pales-
tine being essentially a hilly country, the sides of
the mountains and the slopes of the hills enlarge
the available surface to an extent which does not
admit of calculation (Pliysical Geof;., p. xxviii :
in Kitto's Pictorial Hist, of Palestine). The
clearest description of its boundary lines is that
contained in Num. xxxiv.
(2) The Southern Boundary. The text (Num.
xxxiv :3, s) we read thus; 'Your south border
shall be at the wilderness of Zin adjoining to
Edom, and your south border shall be at the ut-
most point of the great sea southward.' There
is here a general description of the line, namely,
that it extends from the desert of Zin (Wady
Arabah), at a point not stated, to the Mediter-
ranean, at a point also not stated. Then in the
following verses the writer returns to state the
particulars of this same boundary line: 'Your
south border shall wind by the ascent of Akrab-
bim'(at the end of the Dead Sea), and pass on
(down the Arabah) to Zin; and thence extend-
ing (still southward down the Arabah), to the
south of Kadesh-bariica. it s^hall go on to Hazar-
addar, and pass on to Azmon. And from .^zmon
the boundary shall wind about to the river of
Egypt, and its termination shall be at the sea.'
What is here said respecting Hazar-addar and
Azmon we do not understand, as the sites have
not been determined; but without this, it is clear
that the writer, after prolonging the eastern
boundary line from the end of the Dead Sea down
the edge of the Arabah. to a point somewhere
south of Kadesh-barnea. then turns off westward
to form the southern line, which he extends to
the Mediterranean, at a point where 'the river of
Egypt' falls into the sea. This river of Egypt
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PALESTINE
is usually, and on very adequate grounds, sup-
posed to be the stream which falls into the sea
near El-Arish.
(3) The Western Border. In the sixth verse
of the same chapter (Num. xxxiv) the western
border is stated as defined by the Mediterranean
coast. This was the boundary of Palestine ; but
the Hebrews never possessed the whole of it.
The northern part of the coast from Sidon to
Akko(Acre) was in the hands of the Phcenicians,
and the southern part, from Azotus to Gaza,
was retained by the Philistines, except at inter-
vals, in and after the time of David, when they
were subject to the Hebrew scepter (see Phil-
istines) ; and a central portion, about one-third
of the whole, from Mount Carmel to Jabneh
(Jamnia) was alone permanently open to the Is-
raelites.
(4) The Northern Border is as difficult to
define as the southern. The verses in which it is
described we read thus : 'This shall be your
north boundary ; from the great sea ye shall draw
a line to the great mountain (Lebanon) ; from
the great mountain ye shall draw your border to
the entering in of Hamath ; and the boundary
shall pass on to Zedad, and the boundary shall
go on to Ziphron, and its termination shall be at
Hazarenan' (Num. xxxiv 7-9). This only re-
fers to the northern boundary of the western ter-
ritory, or Canaan Proper, and we may therefore
extend it in the same direction to Mount Her-
mon, for the purpose of completing the northern
boundary. The Authorized Version of this text
has created some confusion by translating "inri'in,
hor ha-hor by 'Mount Hor;' but the phrase which
literally means 'mountain of the mountain' that
is, 'the great mountain,' obviously denotes
Lebanon. We think that we cannot be mistaken
in understanding that the line commenced at the
sea somewhere not far to the south of Sidon,
whence it was extended to Lebanon, and cross-
ing the narrow valley (here called 'the entering
in of Hamath'), which leads into the great plain
enclosed between Libanus and Anti-Libanus, ter-
minated at Mount Hermon, in the latter range.
This arrangement of the northern line of bound-
.ry seems to us to meet all the difficulties aris-
ing from deficient knowledge, which have hung
like a dense mist over the northern boundary of
Palestine.
(5) The Eastern Boundary, as respects Ca-
naan Proper, was defined by the Jordan and its
lakes ; but as respects the whole country, includ-
ing the portion beyond the Jordan, it is not so
cdsily determined ; yet it may be made out with
close attention. Salchah was a town on the east-
ern limits of Bashan, and also, therefore, of the
Hebrew territory (Deut. iii:io; Josh. xii:5).
From this point, however, the line must have in-
clined somewhat sharply to the southwest, and
it would be best to bring it to the point where
the Wady-ed Deir enters the Zerka, and thence
extend it almost due south to the Arnon, which
was the southern limit of the eastern territory.
5. fdineralogy, (1) Chalk. The mountains
on the west of the Jordan consist chiefly
of chalk, on which basalt begins to occur
beyond Cana (northward), as is manifestly ex-
hibited in the heights of Hattin, and in the
western de.scent to the lake of Tiberias, in
such large quantity and great extent as I have
never before observed. That the so-called white
limestone, which is met with around Jerusalem
and thence to Jericho, which covers the summit
and forms the declivities of the Mount of Olives,
and which is also found at Mount Tabor and
around Nazareth, is a kind of chalk, is obvious
to any one but slightly acquainted with miner-
alogy. Layers and detached masses of 'flint,'
Schubert continues, 'are very commonly seen in
it ; and these mountains preserve the character
of their formation, as well in their more solid
condition, resembling Alpine limestone and
Schniirl-limestone, as in their softer organization,
which has a likeness to chalk-marl. Besides this
indurated chalk, a stone is found in the imme-
diate vicinity of Jerusalem, chiefly towards the
north, as well as towards Safet, and in other
parts of the country, which, together with the
dolomite formation occasionally met with, I could
npt but consider to be of what in Germany is
called the Jura formation.'
(2) Salt. Palestine may be most emphatically
called the country of salt, which is produced in
vast abundance, chiefly, in the neighborhood of the
Dead Sea, which deserves to be regarded as one
of the great natural salt-works of the world.
Under this head it may be noted that the fine
impalpable desert-sand, which proves so menac-
ing to travelers, and even to inhabitants, is
scarcely found in Palestine Proper; but it oc-
curs beyond Lebanon, near Beirut, and in the
neighborhood of Damascus.
(3) Caverns. Palestine is eminently a country
of caverns, to which there is frequent allusion
in Scripture (see Caves), and which are hardly
so numerous in any country of the same extent.
Many of them were enlarged by the inhabitants,
and even artificial grottoes were formed by man-
ual labor. In these the inhabitants still like to
reside; as in summer they afford protection from
the heat, and in winter from cold and rain.
Even now, in many places, houses are observed
built so near to rocks, that their cavities may be
used for rooms or sheds suited to the condition
of the seasons. Though the country is not unfre-
quently visited by earthquakes, they leave behind
no such frightful traces as those of Asia Minor;
as the vaults of limestone offer more effectual re-
sistance than the sandstone of the latter country.
(4) Fertility. The ridge of chalk mountains,
chiefly those containing marl, is in most places so
irrigated by water, and so acted upon by the sun,
as to be remarkable for the luxuriant growth of
the great variety of plants with which they are
adorned. The basalt mountains give birth to nu-
merous springs. No soil could be naturally more
fruitful and fit for cultivation than that of Pales-
tine, if man had not destroyed the source of fer-
tility by annihilating the former green covering
of the hills and slopes, and thereby destroying
the regular circulation of sweet water, which
ascends as vapor from the sea to be cooled in
the higher regions, and then descends to form
the springs and rivers, for it is well known that
the vegetable kingdom performs in this circula-
tion the function of capillary tubes. But al-
though the natives, from exasperation against
their foreign conquerors and rulers (Pliny, Hisl.
Nat. xii, 54), and the invaders who have so often
overruled this scene of ancient blessings, have
greatly reduced its prosperity, still I cannot com-
prehend how not only scoffers like Voltaire, but
early travelers, who doubtless intended to declare
the truth, represent Palestine as a natural desert,
whose soil never could have been fit for profitable
cultivation. Whoever saw the exhaustless abun-
dance of plants on Carmel and the border of the
desert, the grassy carpet of Esdraelon, the lawns
adjoining the Jordan, and the rich foliage of the
forests of Mount Tabor ; whoever saw the bor-
ders of the lakes of Merom and Gennesareth,
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1275
PALESTINE
wanting only the cultivator to entrust to the soil
his seed and plants, may state what other country
on earth, devastated by two thousand years of
warfare and spoliation, could be more fit for be-
ing again taken into cultivation. The bountiful
hand of the Most High, which formerly showered
abundance upon this renowned land, continues to
be still open to those desirous of his blessings.
There are some very excellent remarks on this
subject in Dr. Olin's Travels (ii, 235-240), to
which we must be content to refer the reader,
being prevented by want of room from introduc-
ing them in this place.
6. Levels. Annexed to the additions to his
Paliistina, which Raumer published, under the
title of Beitriige zur Piblischen Geof;raphie, 1843,
there is an engraved scale of levels in Palestine.
We copy the results in the subjoined table, and
then offer some remarks upon them.
.^titude. The measurements are in Paris feet,
above and below the level of the Dead Sea.
Above.
Great Hernion 10,000
Mount St. Catherine (in Sinai) 8,063
Jebel Mousa (in Sinai) 7i033
iebel ct-Tyh (in Sinai 1 4,300
ebel er-Kamah 3,000
Canneytra 2,850
Hebron 2,700
Mount of Olives 2,536
Sinjil 2,520
Safet 2,500
Mount Gerizim 2,400
Semua 2,225
Damascus 2,180
Kidroii (brook) 2,140
Nabulus 1,751
Mount Tabor 1,748
Pass of Zephath 1,437
Desert of et-Tyli 1,400
Nazareth 821
Zerin 515
Plain of Esdraelon 459
Below.
Lake of Tiberias, English feet 84
The Arabah at Kadcsh 91
Dead Sea, English feet 1,337
Some of these results are so extraordinary, that
one might occupy whole pages in discussing them.
The most important of them will be considered
under their proper heads; and it is here only
necessary to indicate a few of the more marked
results. First, here is the remarkable fact, that
the Mount of Olives and the Kidron, and conse-
quently Jerusalem, stand 700 feet higher than
the top of Mount Tabor, and about 2,500 feet
above the level of the Mediterranean. More to
the south, Hebron stands on still higher ground ;
and while it is 2.700 feet above the sea on the
one hand, the Asphaltic Lake lies 4,000 feet below
it on the other. This fact has no known parallel
in any other region, and within so short a dis-
tance of the sea : and the extraordinary depres-
sion of the lake (1,337 feet below the sea level)
adequately accounts for the very peculiar climate
which its remarkable basin exhibits. The points
at Tiberias to the north, and Kadesh to the south
of the Dead Sea, are both, and nearly equally, be-
low the Mediterranean level, and, taken together,
they show the great slope both from the north
and from the south towards the Dead Sea, con-
firming the discovery of Dr. Robinson, that the
water-shed to the south of the Asphaltic Lake is
towards its basin, and that, therefore, the Jordan
could not at any time, as the country is at pres-
ent constituted, have flowed on southward to the
Elanitic Gulf, as was formerly supposed.
7. Mountains. As all the principal mountains
of Palestine are noticed in this work under their
respective names, a few general observations are
all that here seem necessary. Schubert's remarks,
given in this article under the heads Mineralogy
and Levels, still further limit the scope of the ob-
servations to be offered, which will consist of a
bird's-eye view over the country from north to
south.
To Lebanon, which forms the northern boun-
dary of the land (see Lebanon), succeeds the
high table-land of Galilee, which extends to the
plain of Esdraelon, and the general height of
which above the sea may, by a comparison of lev-
els, be estimated at between 900 and 1,000 feet.
The elevated situation of this region is evinced by
the gradual declivity which it exhibits on all
sides but the north — sloping on the east towards
the Jordan and its upper lakes, on the west to
the plain of the Acre, and on the south to the
plain of Esdraelon. Travelers express surprise
at the deep descent from the comparatively level
plains of Galilee to the lake of Tiberias, which,
as we have seen, is 905 Paris feet below the level
of Nazareth. This table-land is not without its
eminences. The chief of these is Jebel Safet,
which stands isolated and is plainly seen from
every point except the north. This is one of
the highest summits in Palestine (2.500 Paris
feet). Although being merely a peak of the high
table-land from which it rises, it does not seem
to exceed elevations rising from lower levels,
which are scarcely inferior. Still it is very high,
even in apparent altitude. The summit of this
lofty and steep mountain is crowned by a castle,
and a little below the summit there is a city. This
city is supposed to be that which our Savior
had in view, as 'a city set on a hill,' in his Ser-
mon on the Mount (Matt. v:4) ; but it is doubt-
ful if any city existed there so early, although
modern ecclesiastical tradition has been disposed
to regard this as the Bethulia of Judith. (See
Bethulia.) The mountain itself is not named in
Scripture, unless, as is probable, it be the 'moun-
tain of Naphtali,' mentioned in Josh, xx :9.
Among the swells of this table-land are the Khu-
run Hattin (Horns of Hattin). This is a ridge
about a quarter of a mile in length, and thirty or
forty feet high, terminating at each end in an ele-
vated peak, which gives the ridge the shape of a
saddle. This is alleged to have been the place
from which our Lord delivered his famous Ser-
mon on the Mount to the multitude standing in
the adjacent plain. The authority for this is
very doubtful ; and in the neighborhood, towards
Tiberias, there are at least a dozen other emi-
nences which would just as well answer to the
circumstances of the history. One of these, nearly
three miles southeast of this, is by similarly un-
certain tradition alleged to be the spot where the
five thousand were fed with five loaves, although
that miracle probably took place on the east side
of the lake of Tiberias (Matt, xiv: 13-21).
If we consider the difference of elevation be-
tween the highland of Galilee and the low plain
of Esdraelon. we shall see reason to regard the
mountains and ridges of the border between
them, and which form as it were the boundaries
of the low plain, as merely detached or connected
recesses, or peaks of the highland. The moun-
tains of Gilboa and Hcrmon, which bound the
plain of Esdraelon on the east, are certainly no
other than portions of this high land, though they
become mountains from the lower level of the
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PALESTINE
Great Plain. Tabor itself seems but as one ad-
vanced peak or promontory of the high lands of
Galilee. (See Tabor.) On the west the Great
Plain is bounded by Carmel, which may be either
regarded as a detached ridge, or as coiinected
with the mountains of Samaria, which rise be-
yond the plain on the south. (See Carmel.)
Southward of the plain of Esdraelon, through-
out to the borders of the southern desert, is an
almost unbroken mountainous country, or ridge
of mountains, extending north and south. It of-
fers few conspicuous points, but its general ele-
vation in the center may be determined by that of
Gerizim in the north (2,400 Paris feet), of Olivet
in the center (2,536 Paris feet), and of Hebron
in the south (2,700 Paris feet). The ascent to
the higher and central region from the plain of
the coast on the west is gradual, by a succession
of natural terraces ; but eastward, in the direc-
tion of the Jordan and Dead Sea, the descents
are comparatively abrupt and precipitous.
There is no distinct natural boundary between
the mountains of Samaria and Judsa. The hills
of Samaria exhibit scenery very different from
those of Galilee. They are often beautifully
wooded, and the region is more populous and
better cultivated than any other part of Palestine.
Among numerous venerable olive woods towns
and villages are scattered in every direction, and
some of the views rival those of Switzerland.
The principal mountains of Samaria are those of
Ebal and Gerizim, which have been described un-
der the proper heads (Morison, ii. 10; Bucking-
ham, Palestine, ch. xcii; Elliot, ii. 380; Olin. ii.
354).
The mountains of Judaea, although of greater
historical celebrity, are now less attractive than
those of Samaria, but apparently for no other rea-
son than that their cultivation has been more
neglected. The hills are generally separated from
each other by valleys and torrents, and are for
the most part of moderate height, uneven, and
seldom of any regular figure. The rock of which
they are composed is easily converted into mold,
which, being arrested by terraces when washed
down by the rains, renders the hills cultivable, in
a series' of long, narrow gardens, formed by these
terraces, from the base upwards. Thus the hills
were clad in former time most abundantly, and
enriched and beautified with the fig-tree, the olive,
and the vine; and it is in this way that the lim-
ited cultivation which survives is still carried on.
But when the inhabitants were thinned out, and
cultivation abandoned, the terraces fell to decay,
and the soil which had collected on them was
washed down into the valleys, leaving only the
arid rock, bare and desolate. This is the general
character of the hills of Judaea ; but in some parts
they are beautifully wooded, and in others the
application of the ancient mode of culture sug-
gests to the traveler how productive the country
once was, and how fair the aspect which it of-
fered (Kitto's Palestine, Phys. Geog. p. 39;
romp. Mariti, ii. 362; Elliot, ii. 407, 408; Olin,
ii.; \iAnvs\er,Palastii!a, p. 47, sg.).
The characteristics of desolation which have
been indicated apply with peculiar force to the
northern part of Judaea, forming the ancient ter-
ritory of Benjamin. Its most favorably situated
mountains are wholly uncultivated; and perhaps
in no other country is such a mass of rock exhib-
ited without an atom of soil. In the east, to-
wards the plain of Jericho, it takes a naturally
stern and grand character, such as no other part
of Palestine offers. It is through this wild and
melancholy region that the roads from Jerusalem
to Jericho, and (by way of Wady Saba) to the
Dead Sea lie. It has hence, by the former route,
often been passed by travelers in their pilgrimages
to the Jordan; and they unite in depicting it in the
most gloomy hues. 'The road,' says Dr. Olin,
'runs along the edge of steep precipices and yawn-
ing gulfs, and in a few places is overhung with
the crags of the mountain. The aspect of the
whole region is peculiarly savage and dreary, vy-
ing in these respects, though not in overpowering
grandeur, with the wilds of Sinai, The moun-
tains seem to have been loosened from their foun-
dations, and rent in pieces by some terrible con-
vulsion, and there left to be scathed by the burn-
ing rays of the sun, which scorches the land with
consuming heat' {Travels, ii. 197). These char-
acteristics became more manifest on approach-
ing the Jordan ; and the wild region extending
north of the road is believed, with sufficient prob-
ability, to form 'the wilderness' where, after his
baptism, Jesus 'was led up of the Spirit, to be
tempted of the devil,' and where 'he fasted forty
days and forty nights' (Matt. iv:i, 2). The lofty
ridge which extends north of the road, and fronts
the plain of Jericho, is called Quarantana, with ref-
erence to this event, and the particular summit
from which Satan is supposed to have displayed
to the Savior 'the kingdoms of the world and the
glory of them' is crowned by a chapel, still_ oc-
casionally resorted to by the devouter pilgrims,
while the eastern face which overhangs the plain
is much occupied with grots and cells, once the
favorite abode of pious anchorites. The Quar-
antana forms apparently the highest summit of
the whole immense pile, and is distinguished for
its sere and desolate aspect, even in this gloomy
region of savage and dreary sights. It has not,
that we know, been measured, but Dr. Olin com-
putes its height at nearly 2,000 feet in perpendic-
ular height {Travels, ii, 119; Kitto's Palest.;
Phys. Geog. p. 39; Robinson, ii. 289; Hassel-
quist, p. 128; Maundrell, p. 79; Morison, p. 523;
Nau, p. 403).
In the southern region, usually called in Scrip-
ture 'the hill country of Judah' (Matt. iii:i),
there are few mountains of a marked character;
the peaks of the general ridge being of little ap-
parent elevation, although actually much elevated
above the sea-level. The most remarkable of the
whole of this wild region seems to have been dis-
tinguished as 'the wilderness of Judah' (Luke
1:39, 65), while 'the mountains of Judah,' or 'the
hill country of Judxa,' applies to the mountain-
ous region south of Jerusalem towards Hebron
(Josh. xi:2i; 2 Chron. xxvii 14, etc.). To this
district belongs the wilderness of Tekoa(2 Chron.
xx:2o), and beyond it eastward, 'the wilderness
of Engeddi' (i Sam. xxiv:2), Maon (i Sam.
xxiii :24, 25), and Ziph (l Sam. xxiii:l4, 15),
names made familiar to us by the history of Da-
vid. Here also is the Frank Mountain near
Tekoa, which has already been described (see
Bethulia), as well as the Carmel mentioned
in the history of Nabal (Josh. xv:S5; i Sam.
XXV.). It would seem that the hills of southern-
most Judaea were, before the conquest of the
country by the Hebrews, called 'the mountains of
the Amorite.s' (Deut. i 7. 19, 20. 43. 44). This
tract has only of late been explored by travelers
on the new route from Petra to Hebron, except
by Seetzen, at the beginning of the present cen-
tury. To obtain a clear notion of it, we should
view it from the great Arabah. beyond the south-
ern extremity of the Dead Sea, whence it was
surveyed by the Israelites, when they contem-
plated entering the Promised Land from the
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PALESTINE
southeast. The two terraces which towards the
south end of the Dead Sea on the east side form
the descent to its deep basin from the liigh lands
of Judxa, stretch off to the southwest, and the
ascents from the plain to the first, and from the
plateau of the first to the top of the second, whicli
forms the general level of Judaea, present to him
who approaches from the lower region of the
Arabah, high mountain barriers, which he has to
ascend by gorges or passes of more or less diffi-
cult ascent. After ascending from the great val-
ley the traveler passes over a wild district cov-
ered with rocky hills, till he comes to the frontier
wall of the first terrace or step, and which was
probably pre-eminently 'the mountain of the
Amorites.' There are in this three principal
passes ; the southernmost being that of Nubch-es-
Sufah, the Zephath of Scripture, called also Hor-
niah, which we know to have been the pass by
which the Israelites attempted to enter Palestine
from Kadesh, when they were driven back (Deut.
1:44; Num. xiv:4S; Judg. i:l7). The top of this
pass is given in the table of Levels, on the author-
ity of Schubert, as 1,434 f^ct above the level of
the sea. A particular description of this 'vast in-
clined plane of rock' may be seen in Robinson's
Researches (ii. 590). On reaching the top a
journey of three hours among hills of chalky
limestone brings the traveler to the second great
ascent to the general level of the hill country of
eastern Judaea. This second ascent is similar to
the first, but not more than half as high. This
statement will convey some idea of that difficulty
of military access to the country in this direction
which eventually induced the invading Hebrews
to take another and more circuitous route.
In the direct south of Judah the approach is
marked by an ascent more gradual, over a succes-
sion of less elevated plateaus, from the desert re-
gions of sand and rock to the hills of Judah. Re-
cent discoveries in that quarter, chiefly those of
Dr. Robinson, have shown that much of the south
border country, which was formerly regarded as
desert, is in fact a variegated region affording
good pastures, into which the sheepmasters of
Judah doubtless sent their flocks of old. Concern-
ing the mountains of Palestine generally, see
Raumer's Paldstitia, pp. 29-84 ; Winer's Real-wor-
terb., art. 'Gebirge' ; Kitto's Palest., Phys. Geog.,
ch. ii.
S. Plains and Valleys. The most important
are those of Lebanon, of the Jordan, of Jericho,
of Esdraelon, and of the coast.
(1) The Plain of Lebanon may be described
as the valley which is enclosed between the paral-
lel mountain ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus.
Although the greater part of it must have been
within Solomon's dominion, it can scarcely be
deemed to belong to Palestine proper ; but its
geographical and historical connection with that
country requires its introduction. This enclosed
plain is the Ccele-Syria of the ancients, and now
bears the name of El-Bekka (the valley.) It is
about ninety miles in length from north to south
by eleven miles in breadth, nearly equal through-
out, except that it widens at the northern end and
narrows at the southern. This plain is, perhaps,
the most rich and beautiful part of Syria. (See
Leb.\non.) The soil is good, and the water
abundant from the numerous mountain springs
on each side, but the concentration of the sun's
rays renders the summer heat excessive. These
are the sources of that fertility for which the
valley has, in all ages, been renowned ; but only
a small portion is now cultivated, the rest being
left in pasture to the Arab tribes. (La Roque,
i. 115-120; Volney, i. 271; Burckhardt, pp. 4-18,
31 ; Addison, ii. 48-30; Modem Syrians, p. 124).
(2) The Plain of the Jordan. By this name
we understand the margin of the lakes, as well as
the valley watered by the river. Here the heat
is still greater than in the valley of Lebanon, and,
in consequence, palm-trees and the fruits of more
southern climes than Palestine, will grow freely
wherever there are soil and water. But the lat-
ter is usually wanting, and, therefore, except on
the immediate borders of the river, of the lake of
Gennesareth, and of the lesser streams, the whole
plain is barren and desolate. (See Jordan.)
(3) The Plain of Jericho is but an opening
or expansion in the plain of the Jordan, towards
the Dead Sea. The whole expansion takes in the
plains of Moab on the east side of the river, and
the plains of Jericho on the west, the breadth
across being from ten to twelve miles. In fact,
the plain of the Jordan is in no other part so
wide. The large plain of Jericho is partly desert,
but, from the abundance of water and the heat of
the climate, it might be rendered highly produc-
tive; indeed, the fertility of this plain has been
celebrated in every age. Joscphus describes it
as the most fertile tract of Judaea, and calls it a
'divine region.' He speaks also of its beautiful
gardens, and its groves of palm-trees; and his
description is borne out by Scripture, in which
Jericho is described as 'The city of palm-trees'
(Deut. x.xxiv:3; Judg. i:l6). This region also
produced honey, opobalsam, the cypress-tree (or
el henna), and myrobalanum, as well as the com-
mon fruits of the earth in prolific abundance. The
Scripture adds the sycamore tree to the number
of its products (Luke xix:4). Of all these pro-
ductions which so distinguished the climate of
Jericho, and the greater part of which it enjoyed
in common with Egypt, very few now remain.
(See Jericho.)
(4) The Plain of Esdraelon is often men-
tioned in sacred history (Judg. iv:i3, 15, 16; v:
19; 2 Kings xxiii:2g; Zech. xii:ii; Judith i;8),
as the great battle-field of the Jewish and other
nations, under the names of the Valley of Me-
giddo and the Valley of Jezrccl; and by Josephus
as the Great Plain. This extensive plain, ex-
clusive of three great arms which stretch east-
ward towards the valley of the Jordan, may be
said to be in the form of an acute triangle, hav-
ing the measure of thirteen or fourteen miles on
the north, about eighteen on the east, and above
twenty on the southwest. In the western portion
it seems perfectly level, with a general declivity
towards the Mediterranean ; but in the east it is
somewhat undulated by slight spurs and swells
from the roots of the mountains: from the east-
ern side three great valleys go off to the valley of
the Jordan. These valleys are separated by the
ridges of Gilboa and Little Hermon, and the
space which lies between these two ridges, is the
proper valley of Jezreel, which name seems to be
sometimes given to the whole plain of Esdraelon.
The valley of Jezreel is a deep plain, and about
three miles across. Before the verdure of spring
and early summer has been parched up by the
heat and drought of the late summer and autumn,
the view of the Great Plain is, from its fertility
and beauty, very delightful. In June, yellow
fields of grain, with green patches of millet and
cotton interspersed, checker the landscape like a
carpet. The plain itself is almost without vil-
lages, but there are several on the slopes of the
enclosing hills, especially on the side of Mount
Carniel. (Robinson, ii. 160-162; Olin, ii. 376;
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1278
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Schubert, iii. 163; Clarke, iv. 356-360; Jowett, 11.
192; Stephens, ii. 307; Elliot, ii. 360.)
(5) The Plain of the Coast is that tract of
land which extends along the coast, between the
sea and the mountains. In some places, \yhere
the mountains approach the sea, this tract is in-
terrupted by promontories and rising grounds;
but, taken generally, the whole coast of Palestine
may be described as an extensive plain of various
breadth. Sometimes it expands into broad plains,
at others it is contracted into narrow valleys.
With the exception of some sandy tracts the soil
is throughout rich, and exceedingly productive.
The climate is everywhere very warm, and is con-
sidered rather insalubrious as compared with the
upland country. It is not mentioned by any one
collective name in Scripture. The part fronting
Samaria, and between Mount Carmel and Jaffa,
near a rich pasture ground, was called the Valley
of Sharon; and the continuation southward, be-
tween Jaffa and Gaza, was called The Plain, as
distinguished from the hill-country of Judah. A
minute description of this plain throughout its
extent is given in Kitto's Palestine, Phys. Geog.
p. 100-105.
9. Rivers, The Jordan is the only river of
any note in Palestine, and besides it there are
only two or three perennial streams. The greater
number of the streams which figure in the his-
tory, and find a place in the maps, are merely tor-
rents or water-courses.
(1) The Jordan. We should like to consider
this river simply as the stream issuing from the
reservoir of the lake Huleh, but custom requires
its source to be traced to some one or more of
the streams which form that reservoir. The
two largest streams, which enter the lake on the
north, are each formed by the junction of two
others. It is usual to refer the origin of a river
to its remotest sources ; but in this case the larg-
est and longest, being the most easterly of the
two streams, does not appear to have been at any
time identified with the Jordan — that honor hav-
ing for ages been ascribed to the western stream;
tliis river has distinct sources, at Banias and at
Tel-el-Kadi. At Banias (anciently Paneas, from
the worship of Pan) a stream issues from a
spacious cavern, under a wall of rock, at the base
of the Heish mountains. Directly over the cavern,
and in other parts, in the face of the perpendicu-
lar rock, niches have been cut to receive statues.
Here Herod built a temple in honor of Augustus ;
and there was a town somewhat below, traces of
which still remain. This is, undoubtedly, that
place and cavern, at the foot of a mountain, which
Josephus describes as the main source of the Jor-
dan (Joseph. Antiq. xv. 10. 3; De Bell. lud. i.
21. 3).
The true Jordan — the stream that quits this lake
— passes rapidly along the narrow valley, and be-
tween well-shaded banks, to the lake of Gen-
nesareth: the distance is about nine miles. Nearly
two miles below the lake is a bridge, called Ja-
cob's bridge ; and here the river is about eighty
feet wide, and four feet deep.
On leaving the lake of Gennesareth the river
enters a very broad valley, or Ghor. by which
name the natives designate a depressed tract or
plain between mountains. This name is applied
to the plain of the Jordan, not only between the
lake of Gennesareth and the Dead Sea, but quite
across the Dead Sea. and to some distance beyond.
The valley varies in width from five to ten miles
between the mountains on each side. The river
does not make its way straight through the midst
of the Ghor ; it flows first near the western hills,
then near the eastern, but advances to the Dead
Sea through the middle of the valley. Within
this valley there is a lower one, and within that,
in some parts, another still lower, through which
the river flows; the inner valley is about half a
mile wide, and is generally green and beautiful,
covered with trees and bushes, whereas the upper
or large valley is, for the most part, sandy or
barren. The distance between the two lakes, in a
direct line, is about sixty miles. In the first part
of its course the stream is clear, but it becomes
turbid as it advances to the Dead Sea, probably
from passing over beds of sandy clay. The water
is very wholesome, always cool, and nearly taste-
less. The breadth and depth of the river varies
much in different places and at different times
of the year. Dr. Shaw calculates the average
breadth at thirty yards, and the depth at nine
feet. In the season of flood, in April and early
in May, the river is full, and sometimes over-
flows its lower banks, to which fact there are
several allusions in Scripture (Josh, iii 115; I
Chron. xii:i5; Jer. xii :5 ; xlix:i9; 1:44; Ecclus.
xxiv:26). (Nau, p. 272; Shaw, ii.156; Paxton,
p. 158; Stephens, ii. 361-363; Burckhardt, pp.
39-43; 314. 345. 514; Irby and Mangles, pp. 283-
290; 304, 326; Buckingham, Arab Tribes, pp. 401-
406 ; Palestine, i. 90, 93 ; Robinson, ii. 255-267 ;
iii. 309-312; 347, 355; Olin, ii. 229-334; Schubert,
iii. 80-84; Pocock, ii. 71; Richardson, ii. 425, 445,
446; Lindsay, ii. 65, 91; Elliot, i. 74-77.) (See
Jordan.)
(2) The Kishon, that 'ancient river,' by whose
wide and rapid stream the hosts of Sisera were
swept away (Judg. iv:l3; v:2i), has been no-
ticed under the proper head. (See Kishon.)
(3) The Belus, now called Nahr Kardanus, en-
ters the bay of Acre higher up than the Kishon.
It is a small stream, fordable even at its mouth
in summer. It is not mentioned in the Bible, and
is chiefly celebrated for the tradition, that the
accidental vitrefaction of its sands taught man
the art of making glass.
(4) Other Streams. The other streams of note
enter the Jordan from the east ; these are the Jar-
muth, the Jabbok, and the Arnon, of which the
last two have been noticed under their proper
heads. Tlie Jarmuth, called also Sheriat-el-Mand-
hour, anciently Hieroinax, joins the Jordan five
miles below the lake of Gennesareth. Its source
is ascribed to a small lake, almost a mile in cir-
cumference, at Mezareib, which is thirty miles
east of the Jordan. It is a beautiful stream, and
yields a considerable body of water to the Jordan.
(See Arnon; Jabbok.)
10. Lakes and Seas. The river Jordan
in its course forms three remarkable lakes, in the
last of which, called the Dead Sea, it is lost:
(1) The Lake Merom (Joseph. Antiq. xi :5, 7),
or Samochonitis {Antiq. v. 5, i), now called
Huleh, the first of these, serves as a kind of
reservoir to collect the waters which form the
Jordan, and again to send them forth in a single
stream. In the spring, when the waters are high-
est, the lake is seven miles long and three and a
half broad; but in summer it becomes a mere
marsh. In some parts it is sown with rice, and
its reeds and rushes afford shelter to wild hogs.
(Pocock ii. 71; Burckhardt. p. 316; Irby and
Mangles, p. 290; Buckingham, Arab Tribes, p.
.309; Richardson, ii. 450, 451; Robinson, ii. 339-
342.)
(2) The Lake of Gennesareth, called also the
Sea of Galilee, and the Lake of Tiberias. After
quitting the lake Merom, the river Jordan pro-
ceeds for about thirteen miles southward, and
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then enters the great lake of Gennesareth. This
lake lies very deep.among fruitful hills and moun-
tains, from which, in the rainy season, many
rivulets descend ; its shape will be seen from the
map. Its extent has been greatly over-rated:
Professor Robinson considers that its length, in
a straight line, does not exceed eleven or twelve
geographical miles, and that its breadth is from
five to six miles. From numerous indications,
it is judged that the bed of this lake was formed
by some ancient volcanic eruption, which history
has not recorded. Its waters are very clear and
sweet, and contain various kinds of excellent fish
in great abundance. It will be remembered that
several of the Apostles were fishermen of this lake,
and that it was also the scene of several transac-
tions in the life of Christ : it is thus frequently
mentioned in the New Testament, but very rarely-
in the Old, where it is called the Sea of Cin-
ncreth, of which Gennesareth is a corruption.
The borders of the lake were in the time of
Christ well peopled, being covered with numerous
towns and villages ; but now they are almost
desolate, and the fish and water-fowl are but little
disturbed. (Robinson, iii. 253, 264, 312, 314;
Schubert, iii. 235-243; Olin, ii. 406-408; D'Ar-
vieux, ii. 176, 177; Clarke, iv. 119-225; Burck-
hardt, p. 332 ; Buckingham, Palest, ch. xxv. ; Irby
and Mangles, p. 295; Jowett, pp. 172-176; Hardy,
pp. 237-241 ; Elliot, ii. 342-350.)
(3) The Dead Sea, called also the Salt Sea, the
Sea of Sodom, and the Asphaltic Lake (Locus
Asphaltitcs), is from its size the most important,
and from its history and qualities the most re-
markable, of all the lakes of Palestine. It was
long assumed that this lake did not exist before
the destruction of Sodom and the other 'cities
of the plain' (Gen. xix) ; and that before that
time the present bed of the lake was a fertile
plain, in which these cities stood. It was also con-
cluded that the river Jordan then flowed through
this plain, and afterwards pursued its course,
through the great valley of Arabah, to the east-
ern arm of the Red Sea. The careful observa-
tions of Professor Robinson have now, however,
rendered it more probable that a lake which, as
now, received the river Jordan, existed here be-
fore Sodom was destroyed ; but that an encroach-
ment of the waters, southward, then took place,
overwhelming a beautiful and well-watered plain
which lay on the southern border of the lake,
and on which Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim,
and Zoar were situated.
The Dead Sea is about thirty-nine or forty
geographical miles long from north to south, and
nine or ten miles wide from east to west ; and
it lies embedded very deep between lofty clifTs
on the western side, which are about 1,500 feet
high, and mountains on the eastern shore, the
highest ridges of which are reckoned to be from
2,000 to 2,500 feet above the water. The water
of the lake is much Salter than that of the sea.
From the quantity of salt which the water holds
in solution it is thick and heavy, and no fish can
live, or marine plants grow in it. The old stories
about the pestiferous qualities of the Dead Sea
and its waters are mere fables or delusions; and
actual appearances are the natural and obvious
■ effects of the confined and deep situation, the in-
tense heat, and the uncommon saltness of the
waters. Lying in its deep caldron, surrounded
by lofty clififs of naked limestone rock, exposed
for seven or eight months in the year to the un-
clouded beams of a burning sun, nothing but
sterility and solitude can be looked for upon its
shores; and nothing else is actually found, ex-
cept in those parts where there are fountains or
streams of fresh water; in all which places there
is a fertile soil and abundant vegetation. Birds
also abound, and they are observed to fly over
and across the sea without being, as old stories
tell, injured or killed by its exhalations.
On the borders of this lake is found much
sulphur, in pieces as large as walnuts, and even
larger. There is also a black shining stone, which
will partly burn in the fire, and wliich then emits
a bituminous smell : this is the 'stink-stone' of
Burckhardt. At Jerusalem it is made into rosaries
and toys, of which great quantities are sold to
the pilgrims who visit the sacred places. An-
other remarkable production found here, from
which, indeed, the lake takes one of its names,
is asphaltum, or bitumen. Josephus says, that 'the
sea in many places sends up black masses of
asphaltum. which float upon the surface, having
the size and shape of headless oxen' (De Bell.
Jud. iv. 8, 4). From recent information it ap-
pears that large masses are rarely found, and then
generally after earthquakes. The substance is
doubtless produced from the bottom of the sea,
in which it coagulates, and rises to the surface ;
or possibly the coagulation may have been ancient,
and the substance adheres to the bottom until
detached by earthquakes and other convulsions,
when its buoyancy brings it to the surface. We
know that 'the vale of Siddim' (Gen. xiv:lo)
was anciently 'full of slime pits' or sources of
bitumen; and these, now under the water, proba-
bly supply the asphaltum which is found on such
occasions. It has just been stated (June, iqoi)
that a marked rise in the level of the Dead Sea
has been noted. A broad lagoon has been formed
on the north side of the Jordan delta. The water
does not sink as usual and it is surmised that the
whole bottom of the sea has been raised by vol-
canic action (Nau, pp. 577, 578 ; Morison, ch. xxx ;
Shaw, ii. 157, 158; Hasselquist, pp. 130, 131, 284;
Irby and Mangles, pp. 351-356; 346-359; Hardy,
pp. 201, 204; Monro, i. 145-148; Elliot, ii. 479-
486; Wilde, ii. ; Lindsay, ii. 64-66; Stephens, ii.
ch. 15; Paxton, pp. 159-163; Robinson, ii. 204-239,
601-608; 661-677; Schubert, iii. 84-92; Olin, ii.
234-245). (See Dead Sea, The.)
11. Climate and Seasons. The varia-
tions of sunshine and rain, which with us ex-
tend throughout the year, are in Palestine con-
fined chiefly to the latter part of autumn and the
winter. During all the rest of the year the sky
is almost uninterruptedly cloudless, and rain very
rarely falls.
The autumnal rains usually commence at the
latter end of October, or beginning of November,
not suddenly, but by degrees; which gives oppor-
tunity to the husbandman to sow his wheat and
barley. The rains come mostly from the west
(Luke xii;54) and southwest, and continue for
two or three days at a time, falling chiefly in the
night ; the wind then changes to the north or cast,
and several days of fine weather succeed. During
the months of November and December the rains
continue to fall heavily; afterwards they return
at longer intervals, and are not so heavy ; but
at no period during the winter do they entirely
cease to occur. Rain continues to fall more or
less during the month of March, but is afterwards
very rare. Morning mists occur as late as May,
but rain almost never. Rain in the time of har-
vest was as incomprehensible to an ancient Jew
as snow in summer (Prov. xxvi:i; i Sam. xii :
17 ; Amos iv:7). The 'early' and the 'latter' rains,
for which the Jewish husbandmen waited with
longing (Prov. xvi:i5; James v:7), seem to have
PALESTINE
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PALESTINE
been the first showers of autumn, which revived
ihe parched and thirsty soil, and prepared it for
ihe seed; and the later showers of spring, which
continued to refresh and forward the ripening
crops and the vernal products of the fields.
The cold of winter is not severe, and the ground
is never frozen. Snow falls more or less. In the
low-lying plains but little falls, and it disappears
early in the day ; in the higher lands, as at Jeru-
salem, it often falls, chiefly in January and Feb-
ruary, to the depth of a foot or more; but even
there it does not lie long on the ground. Thunder
and lightning are frequent in the winter.
In the plains and valleys the heat of summer
is oppressive, but not in the more elevated tracts,
as at Jerusalem, except when the south wind,
sirocco, blows (Luke xii:S5). In such high
grounds the nights are cool, often with heavy
dew. The total absence of rain in summer soon
destroys the verdure of the fields, and gives to
the general landscape, even in the high country,
an aspect of drought and barrenness. No green
thing remains but the foliage of the scattered
fruit-trees, and occasional vineyards and fields of
millet. In autumn the whole land becomes dry
and parched ; the cisterns are nearly empty, and
all nature, animate and inanimate, looks forward
with longing for the return of the rainy season.
In the hill country the season of harvest is
later than in the plains of the Jordan and of
the seacoast. The barley harvest is about a fort-
night earlier than that of wheat. In the plain of
the Jordan the wheat harvest is early in May;
in the plains of the coast and of Esdraelon it
is towards the latter end of that month ; and in
the hills, not until June. The general vintage is
in September, but the first grapes ripen in July,
and from that time the towns are well supplied
with this fruit.
In the Biblical narrative only two seasons of
the year, summer and winter, are directly men-
tioned. Among many Oriental nations, as the
Hindus and Arabians, the year has six seasons.
The Talmud (Bava Mezia, p. io6. 2) exhibits a
similar arrangement, which in this case appears
to have been founded on Gen. viii :22, 'While the
earth remaineth, seedtime and harvest, and cold
and heat, and summer and winter, shall not cease.'
This is the only passage of Scripture which can
be construed to have reference to any such di-
vision of the seasons, and in this it is not very
clear. But if such a distribution of the seasons
ever existed, the following would seem to have
been its arrangement :
(1) Seedtime; 15th October to isth December.
(2) Winter; isth December to isth February.
(3) Cold; 15th February to 15th April.
(4) Harvest; 15th April to isth June.
(5) Heat; 15th June to 15th August.
(6) Summer; 15th August to 15th October.
The climate of Palestine has always been con-
sidered healthy, and the inhabitants have for the
most part lived to a good old age (Tacit. Hist.
v. 6). Jerusalem, in particular, from its great
elevation, clear sky and invigorating atmosphere,
should be a healthy place, and so it is generally
esteemed ; but the plague frequently appears
among its ill-fed and uncleanly population; and
bilious fevers, the result of great and sudden
vicissitudes of temperature, are more common
than might be expected in such a situation. (Schu-
bert, Morgenland, iii. 106; Olin. ii. 3.^,3; Robinson,
ii. 96-100; Kalthoff. Hebr. Altcrthum, 00. 42-46;
Bibliotlicca Sacra, Feb. 1844, pp. 221-224.)
12. Inhabitants. Under this head we pre-
sent the reader with the following observations
of Dr. Olin (Travels, ii, 438, 439) : "The inhab-
itants of Palestine are Arabs; that is, they
speak the Arabic, though, with slight exceptions,
they are probably all descendants of the old in-
habitants of Syria. They are a fine, spirited race
of men, and have given Mohammed Ali much
trouble in subduing them, and still more in retain-
ing them in subjection. They are said to be in-
dustrious for Orientals, and to have the right ele-
ments for becoming, under better auspices, a
civilized, intellectual nation. I believe, however,
it will be found impracticable to raise any people
to a respectable social and moral state under a
Turkish or Egyptian, or any other Mohammedan
government. The inherent vices of the religious
system enter, and, from their unavoidable con-^
nections must enter, so deeply into the political
■administration that any reform in government
or improvement in the people, beyond temporary
alleviations of evils too pressing to be endured,
cannot reasonably be expected. The Turks and
Syrians are about the maximum of the civiliza-
tion possible to Mohammedans of the present
time. The mercantile class is said to be little re-
spected, and generally to lack integrity. Veracity
is held very lightly by all classes. The people
are commonly temperate and frugal, which may
be denominated Oriental virtues. Their situation,
with regard to the physical means of comfort
and subsistence, is, in many respects, favorable,
and under a tolerable government would be al-
most unequaled. As it is, the Syrian peasant and
his family fare much better than the laboring
classes of Europe. The mildness of the climate,
the abundance of land and its fertility, with the
free and luxuriant pasturage that covers the
mountains and the plains, render it nearly im-
possible that the peasant should not be well sup-
plied with bread, fruit, meat, and milk. The peo-
ple almost always appear well clothed. Their
houses, too, though often of a slight construction
and mean appearance, must be pronounced com-
modious when compared with the dark, crowded
apartments usually occupied by the corresponding
classes in Europe. Agricultural wages vary a
good deal in different parts of the country, but
I had reason to conclude that the average was
not less than fourteen to eighteen cents per day."
With all these advantages population is on the de-
cline, arising from polygamy, military conscrip-
tion, unequal and opjjressive taxation, forced la-
bor, general insecurity of property, the discour-
ageinent of industry, and Ihe plague.
13. 'Botany. (1) The Olive. The olive cer-
tainly was, and still continues to be, the chief of
all the trees of Palestine, which seems to be its
natural home. 'Never,' says Schubert, 'have I any-
where beheld such ancient olive trees as here. But
the plantations might be more extensive, and the
produce more profitable, were they tended by such
careful and diligent hands as those of Provence.
Excellent oil is obtained from the fruit.'
(2) rigs. But although the pre-eminence
among the trees of Palestine must be assigned
to the olive, fig trees also occur in great num-
bers, and the plantations sometimes cover large
tracts which the eye can scarcely embrace. This
sight is most common in the neighborhood of
Jabrut, in the hills between Bir and Sinjil. The
fruit has a peculiarly pleasant flavor, and an
aromatic sweetness, but is generally smaller than
that of Smyrna.
(3) Grapes. As to the vine, which is now
only found in some districts of Palestine, it is not
surpassed by any on earth for the strength of its
PALESTINE
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PALESTINE
juice, and — at least in the southern mountains —
for tlie size and abundance of the grapes.
(4) Other Fruits. '|hc first tree whose blossoms
appear prior to the period of the latter rains, and
open in the very deep valleys before the cold
days of February set in. is the Lttz or almond
tree. In March the fruit trees are in blossom,
among which arc the apricot, the apple, and the
pear.
(5) Flowers. In April the purple of the pome-
granate flowers combines with the white of the
myrtle blossoms ; and at the same period the roses
of the country, and the variegated ladanes (Cis-
tiis), the zukkim tree (Ela-agiius angustif alius) ,
the storax tree, whose flowers resemble those of
the German jasmine (,Pluladctt>lius coronarius),
emit their fragrant odors.
(6) Trees. The palm-tree, the symbol of vic-
tory, has been removed from its place ; and of the
famous palm groves of Jericho very few traces
now remain.
The tall cypress exists in Palestine only as
cultivated by man, in gardens, in cemeteries,
and other open places of towns. But as the
spontaneous growth of the country, we find upon
the heights and swelling hills the azarole
{Cratagus azaroliis), the walnut tree, the arbutus,
or strawberry tree, the laurel tree, the laures-
tinus. Species of the pistachio and terebinth trees,
of evergreen oaks, and of the rhamnus of the
size of trees and shrubs, the cedrine juniper tree,
and some sorts of thymelasus; while on the for-
merly wooded heights various kinds of pine trees,
large and small, still maintain their ground. The
sycamore, the carob trees, and the opuntia fig
trees, are only found as objects of cultivation in
or near towns; and orchards of orange and lemon
trees occur chiefly in the neighborhood of Na-
bulus. (See Shechem.)
(7) Grains. The various kinds of grain grow
spontaneously in great plenty in many districts,
chiefly in the plains of Jezreel and the heights of
Galilee, being the wild progeny of formerly cul-
tivated fields, and bearing testimony by their
presence to the fitness of the soil for the pro-
duction of grain. In addition to wheat and bar-
ley, among this wild growth, the common rye
was often seen. The present course of agriculture,
which is but carelessly practiced, comprises nearly
the same kinds of grain which are grown in
Egypt. Fields are seen covered with summer
dhurah (dhurah gaydi), the common dhurcth
(dhurah sayfch). and the autumnal dhurah
(dhurali diiniri). all of which are varieties of the
Holcus sorghum. Maize (kuinh), spelt, and bar-
ley {schayir), thrive everywhere; and rice (arus)
is produced on the Upper Jordan and the marshy
borders of the lake Merom. Upon the Jordan,
near Jacob's bridge, may be seen fine tall speci-
mens of the papyrus reed.
(8) Vegetables. Of pulse the inhabitants grow
the hoiiiinos or chick pea (Ciccr arictanuin). llie
foul or Egyptian bean (i'icia faba). the gishrun-
gayga (Plniscolus Muiigo), the gilbaii (Lalhyrus
saliinis), together with the ads or lentil, and the
bisillch or peas (I'isuin arvcuse). Of esculent
vegetables, the produce of tlie various siiecies of
hibiscus are much liked and cultivated, particu-
larly the bamia towileh (Hil}is<-us csculciilus),
the bamia beledi, or wayka (Hibiscus prwcox).
In some places the Christian inhabitants or F'ranks
are endeavoring to introduce the potato, which
the natives call kolkas Franschi. In the garden
of the monasteries the kharschuf or artichoke is
very common, as is also the khus or salad; in most
81
districts, as about Nabulus (Shechem), the wa-
termelon (balikn) and cucumber (khiar) are
common.
(9) Textiles. Hemp (bust) is more commonly
grown in Palestine than flax (kcttan) ; and in
favorable localities cotton (kotn) is cultivated,
and also madder (fuah, Rubia tinctorum) for
dyeing.
14. Zoologg. Herds of black cattle ire now
but rarely seen in Palestine.
(1) The Ox. The ox in the neighborhood of
Jerusalem is small and unsightly, and beef or
veal is but rarely eaten. But on tlie Upper Jor-
dan, and in the vicinity of Tabor and Nazareth,
and to the east of the Jordan on the way from
Jacob's bridge to Damascus, the ox thrives better
and is more frequently seen. The buffalo thrives
upon the coast, and is there equal in size and
strength to the buffalo of Egypt.
(2) Sheep and Goats. Sheep and goats are
still seen in great numbers in all parts of the
country: their flesh and milk serve for daily
food, and their wool and hair for clothing. The
common sort of sheep in Palestine manifest the
tendency to form a fat and large tail. The long-
eared Syrian goat is furnished with hair of con-
siderable fineness, but seemingly not so fine as
that of the same species of goat in Asia Minor.
(3) Fallow Deer. Of animals of the deer
kind, Schubert saw only the female of the fal-
low deer, and this was m the same district in
which Hasselquist also met with fallow deer,
namely, on Mount Tabor.
(4) Antelope. On another occasion Schubert
thought tliat he discovered deer upon the moun-
tain top ; but, on a closer view, deemed it more
probable that they were the native brown antelope
(A. hinnulcus) ; for of the antelopes several spe-
cies are met with in the country. Camels are not
reared to any extent worth mentioning.
(5) Horses and Mules. Palestine cannot boast
of its native breed of horses, although fine ani-
mals of beautiful shape, and apparently of high
Arabian race, are not unfrequently seen. The
ass of the country scarcely takes higher relative
rank than the horse ; asses and mules are still,
however, much used for riding, as they afford
a means of locomotion well suited to the diffi-
cult mountain paths of the country.
(6) Other Animals. Boars (khanzie) are
very often observed upon Mount Tabor and the
Lesser Hermon. as well as on the woody slopes
of Mount Carmcl. Among indigenous animals of
the genus fclis, we may however name the com-
mon panther (nimr) which is found among the
mountains of central Palestine; and in the genus
ca>ns there is the small Abul llhossfyu, or Caiiis
famclicus, and a kind of large fox (Cams
Syriacus), which our traveler did not himself
see, but supposed to be denoted by the word
talcb. In addition to these is the jackal (dibb),
which is very injurious to the flocks. The hyena
(cabue) is found chiefly in the valley of the
Jordan, and in the mountains around the lake
of Tiberias, but is also occasionally seen in other
districts of Palestine.
Bears have been killed in the Anti-Libanus, not
far from Damascus. The hides had more re-
semblance to that of the common brown bear
than to that of the bear described by Ehrenberg
under the name of Ursus Syriacus. A hedgehog
was procured near Bethlehem, which was found
to resemble the common European animal, and
not to be the long-eared Egyptian species. The
ir-ALLU
1282
PALSY
native arncb or hare is the same as the Arabian.
The porcupine is frequently found in the clefts
of the rocks.
(7) Birds. Among the larger birds of prey
Schubert often saw the common catliartcs or vul-
ture (C. pcrcnoptcrtis), and the hcdy or kite.
The native wild dove, called kimri, differs not
perceptibly from our own species, which is also
the case with the shrikes, crows, rollers, and
other species found in Palestine.
(8) Serpents. Serpents are rare, and none of
those which have been observed are poisonous.
(9) Insects. Among the insects the bee is the
most conspicuous. Mosquitoes are somewhat
troublesome, but not at the time of the year in
which Schubert traveled. Beetles are abundant,
and of various species, which our traveler does
not enumerate, but which are illustrated and de-
scribed in Ehrenberg's Symbolcc Physica.
15. Literature. From the almost innumer-
able works on Palestine a few of the more prom-
inent are herewith subjoined: Travels in Syria
and the Holy Land, by Burckhardt (1822) ; Egy!>t,
Nubia, Syria, and Asia Minor, by Irby and Man-
gles (1822) ; Biblical Researches, by Robinson
(1838-1841, and 1856) ; Lands of the Bible Visited
and Described, by John Wilson (1847) ; Physical
Geography of Palestine, by Robinson (1865) ; Ex-
pedition to the Dead Sea and Jordan, by Lynch
(1849) ; Sinai and Palestine, by Stanley (1857) ;
The Land and the Book, by Thomson (1859,
and new edition, 1880) ; Narrative of a Jour-
ney through Syria and Palestine, by Van
de Velde (1858 and 186.S); Rob Roy on the
Jordan, by Macgregor (1870); Land of Israel,
by Tristram (1865); Natural History of the
Bible, by Tristram (1867) ; Land of Moab,
by Tristram (1873); Geography of Palestine,
Ritter, translated by Gage (1866); Damascus
and Giant Cities of Bashan, by Porter (1855-
1865) ; Handbook of Syria and Palestine, by Mur-
ray (1875); Bible Educator, by Plumptre (1873-
187s) ; Handbook of Syria and Palestine, by
Baedeker (1876) ; Bible Lands, their Modern Cus-
toms, etc., by Van Lennep (1875); Quarterlies
Palestine Exploration Fund (organized, 1865-
1880) ; American Palestine Exploration Society's
Statements (1871-1877) ; Our Work in Palestine
(1875) ; Through Bible Lands, by Schaff (1878) ;
Tent-tvork in Palestine, by Conder (1878) ; From
Egypt to Palestine, by IJartlett (1879); Hand-
book to the Bible, by F. R. and C. R, Conder
(1879) ; Sheet Maps and Memoirs of the Pales-
tine Exploration Fund (1880); Kitto's Pictorial
History and Physical Geography of Palestine
(1841) ; Schwarz, A Descriptive Geog. of Pales-
tine ( 1850) ; De Saulcy, Narrative of a Journey
(1854).
PALLTJ (pal'lu), (Heb. ^"I^S, pal- loo' , distin-
guished, wonderful), second son of Reuben, and
head of a family (Gen. xlvi:g; Ex. vi:i4; Num.
xxvi:5, 8; i Chron. v:3), B. C. about 870.
PALLUITES (pal'lu-ites), (Heb. ^^l'^, ha-pal-
loo-ee' , the Pallui), descendants of Pallu, of the
tribe of Reuben (Num. xxvi:5).
PALM (para), (Heb. H?, kaf, hollow (jr curved;
Gr. pdinaixa, hrap'is-mah, a blow with the palm),
a general term for the hand, both literally and fig-
uratively (Ezek. xxi:i6; Is. xlix:i6), as well as
for the palms only (Lev. xiv:26: Dan. x:io). It
IS used also in the accounts of our Lord's trial
before the high-priest (Matt. xxvi:67; Mark xiv:
O5 ; John .\viii:22).
PALMEB-WOBM (pam'er-wurm'), (Heb. ETJ
f''a'W-za'wm' , palmer-worm, caterpillar, creeping
ocustj
Probably a kind of locust which devouredvines,
fig trees, and green things generally. The He-
brew word as above is gaiv-zawm' (Joel i:4; ii:
25; Amos iv:9). Its root signifies to cut off.
It has not been identified. (See Locust.)
PALM TREE (pam' tre'), (Heb. ■'^?, taw-
mawr' , erect; Gr. (polvii,, foy'nix). For botanical
treatment see article Tamar.
Figurative. (ij As "palm trees" were
accounted symbols of victory, branches of palm
were carried before conquerors in their triumphs;
and, in allusion hereto, the saints are said to have
"palms in their hands" to denote their victory
over sin, Satan, the world, the persecutions of
Antichrist, etc. (Rev. vii:9). (2) To mark their
constant perseverance, heavenly and upright dis-
position, their necessity of fellowship with Christ,
their spiritual beauty, and fruitfulness in good
works, and their certain victory over all enemies,
they are compared to "palm trees" (Ps. xcii:i2;
Cant. vii:7). (3) To represent them in their
connections with angels and ministers, there were
figures of "palm trees," and cherubims alternately
mingled in Solomon's temple, and in Ezekiel's
visionary one (i Kings vi:29; Ezek. xl:i6.). (4)
Idols were upright as the "palm tree" ; they could
make no motion ; but merely stand, like so many
erect logs of wood (Jer. x:s). (S) The primitive
Church used the palm to express the triumph of
the Christian over death through the resurrection;
and on the tombs the palm is generally accom-
panied by the monogram of Christ, signifying
that every victory of the Christian is due to this
Divine name and sign. The palm is especially
the sign of martyrdom, as th's was considered
in the light of victory.
Date Palm Tree.
PALSY (pal'zy), (Gr. TrapaXvajxai., par-a-loo' 0711-
ai, to be paralytic, paralyzed).
.\ disease, or rather a series of morbid symp-
toms, distinguished by partial or total loss of
sensibility, motion, or both, in one or more parts
PALTI
1283
PARABLE
of the bofly (Mark 11:3, 9-12; Acts ix:33-35).
It is produced by disease of the brain, the spinal
cord, or particular nerves. (See I'laguk.)
PAIiTI (pal'ti), (Heb. ^^i"?, pal-tee' , Jah de-
livers).
1. Son of Raphu, and a spy representing the
tribe of Benjamin in the investiRalinn of the
Promised Land (Num. .xiii:9). (B. C. 1057.)
2. A man to whom Saul gave Michal. David's
vifife. She was later restored to David ( i Sam.
XXV :44; 2 Sam. iii:i5).
PALTIEL (pal'ti-el), (Heb. ^^^"^^^ , pal-tee-ale' ,
God delivers).
A son of Azzan, and chief of the tribe of Is-
sachar. He was one of those appointed to ap-
portion the Promised Land among the tribes
(Num. .x.xxiv:26). B. C. 1618. (See Ph.\ltiel.)
PALTITE (pai'tite), (Heb. "'P/'ID, ha-pal-tee' ,
the Palti).
The appellation of Helez. one of David's war-
riors (2 Sam. xxiii:26). He is called the "Pelo-
nite" (i Chron. xi:27), which is probably the cor-
rect reading.
PAMPHYIilA (pSm-phyl'i-a), (Gr. noM<)iuX(a,
pam-fool-ee'ah, of every race), a province in the
southern part of Asia Minor, having the Medi-
terranean on the south, Cilicia on the east, Pisidia
on the north and Lycia on the west.
It was nearly opposite the island of Cyprus;
and the sea between the coast and the island is
called in Acts the sea of Pamphylia. The chief
cities of this province were Perga and Attalia.
Christianity was probably first preached in this
country by some of the Jewish proselytes who
were converted on the day of Pentecost (Acts
ii:io: xv:38). If was afterwards visited by Paul
and Barnabas (Acts xiii:i3).
PAN (pan). Several words in the original are
translated pan.
1. Kee-yore' (Heb. '^'''P or "''?), a basin of metal
used for boiling or stewing (i Sam. ii:i4), trans-
lated laver (Exod. xxx:i8). It was also used as a
brazier for carrying fire (Zech. xii:6, A. V. hearth).
2. Makh-ab-ath' (Heb. •"'^n'?,) a frying pan,
(Lev. ii:S, vi :2i ; vii:9; i Chron. xxiii:29), prob-
ably a shallow pan, griddle or plate such as are
used by the Bedouins and Syrians for baking or
dressing rapidly their meal cakes.
3. Mas-rayth' (Heb. •'^il'^'^, scooped or hollowed
out), a frying or saucepan (2 Sam. xiiiig), (etymol-
ogy uncertain).
4. Seer (Heb. "''P), a large pot, (2 Kings iv:38;
Oomp. Exod. xxvii:3). See Food.
PANNAG (pan'naj), (Heb. ^i?, pan-nag'),
occurs only once in Scripture, but so much uncer-
tainty exists respecting the meaning of the word,
that in many translations, as, for instance, in the
Authorized English Version, the original is re-
tained.
Thus in the account of the commerce of Tyre,
it is stated in Ezek. xxvii :i7, 'J"fla'i ^"d ''"-' '3"''
of Israel, they were thy merchants ; they traded
in thy markets wheat of Minnith, and Paiuian.
and oil, and honey, and balm' (tzeri, translated
also rosin in the margin of the English Bible).
From the context it is evident that wheat, oil,
and honey, that is, the products of their country
as an agricultural territory, were conveyed by Ju-
dah and Israel as articles of traffic to the_ mer-
chants and manufacturers of Tyre, who, it is cer-
tain, must, from their insular position, have ob-
tained their chief articles of diet from the neigh-
boring land of Syria. It is probable, therefore,
that pannag and Izcri, whatever they may have
been, were the produce of Palestine, or at least
of Syria. Some have considered pannag to in-
dicate balsam, others cassia, and some again sweet-
meats, or confections. The Syrian version, how-
ever, translates pannag by the word dokhon, which
signifies 'millet.' From the conflicting character
of these opinions it seems that pannag must still
be considered undetermined. J. F. R.
PAP (pap), (Heb. 1^, shut/, bulging, swelling
out; Gr. ti.a<TT6s, mas-tos'), the breast, especially of
a woman (Ezek. xxiii:2l ; Luke xi:27, xxiii:29;
Rev. 1:13).
PAPER (pa'per), (Gr. x'ip'r';!, khar'tace). See
Writing.
PAPER REED ((pa'per red), (Heb. -^7?, aiu-
raw' , naked), an erroneous rendering in the A. V.
of \iruh, nakedness, probably referring to the
open spaces or grassy tracts where reeds grow
(Is. xix7). The Papyrus is doubtless what is
intended.
PAPHOS (pa'phos), (Gr. Ild^ot, paph'os), a city
of Cyprus, at the western extremity of the island,
and the seat of the Roman governor.
That officer, when Paul visited the place, was
named Sergius Paulus, who was converted
through the preaching of the Apostle and the
miracle performed on Elymas (Acts xiii;6-i3).
Paphos was celebrated for a temple of Venus,
whose infamous rites were still practiced here
400 years afterwards, notwithstanding the suc-
cess of Paul, Barnabas, and others in preaching
the gospel. Paphos is now a poor and inconsid-
erable place, but gives its n.ime to a Greek bishop-
ric. (Howson, Life and Letters of St. Paul;
Smith, Classical Diet.; Harper's Classical Did.)
PAPYRUS (pa-pi'rus), (Heb. ^^K go'meh),
probably includes the papyrus, bulrushes, club
rushes, and twig rush, i. c., plants of the orders
Juiicacccr and Cyperacea. (See Writing.)
PARABLE (p4r'a-b'I). The word parable is
derived from jrapa/SoXiJ, par-ab-oh-lay' , a compari-
son which comes from wapapiXKuv, to compare, to
collate.
1. 'Definition and Distinctions. In the New
Testament it is employed by our translators as
the rendering of irapo/SoX?) ; in the Old it answers
to 'v?, maw-shawl' . (See PROVF.RB.)
(1) Enigmatical Saying. It denotes an ob-
scure or enigmatical saying, e. g., Ps. xlix:4.
(2) Fictitious Narrative. It denotes a ficti-
tious narrative, invented for the purpose of con-
veying truth in a less offensive or more engaging
form than that of direct assertion. Of this sort
is the parable by which JJathan reproved David
(2 Sam. xii :2, 3), that in which Jotham exposed
the folly of the Shecheniitcs (Judg. ix7-i5),
and that addressed by Jchoash to .'\maziah (2
Kings xiv:9. 10). To this class also belong the
parables of Christ.
(3) Figurative Discourse. Any discourse ex-
pressed ill figurative, poetical, or highly orna-
mented diction is called a parable. Thus it is
said, 'Balaam took up his parable' (Num. xxiii :
7); and. 'Job continued his parable' (Job xxvii:
i). In the New Testament the word seems to
have a more restricted signification, being gen-
erally employed in the second sense mentioned
PARABLE
1284
PARADISE
above, viz., to denote a fictitious narrative, under
which is veiled some important truth.
(4) Essentially True Narratives. It has been
supposed, indeed, that some of the parables ut-
tered by our Savior narrate real and not fic-
titious events ; but whether this was the case or
not is a point of no consequence. Each of his
parables was essentially true ; it was true to hu-
man nature, and nothing more was necessary.
Another meaning which the word occasionally
bears in the New Testament is that of a type or
emblem, as in Heb. ix;9, where rrapo^oX^ is ren-
dered in our v^x%vjx\ figure.
(5) Excellence of the Parable. The excel-
lence of a parable depends on the propriety and
force of the comparison on which it is founded;
on the general fitness and harmony of its parts ;
on the obviousness of its main scope or design ;
on the beauty and conciseness of the style in
which it is expressed ; and on its adaptation to
the circumstances and capacities of the hearers.
If the illustration is drawn from an object obscure
or little known, it will throw no light on the point
to be illustrated. If the resemblance is forced
and inobvious, the mind is perplexed and disap-
pointed in seeking for it. We must be careful,
however, not to insist on too minute a corre-
spondence of the objects compared. It is not to
be expected that the resemblance will hold good
in every particular; non enini res tola rei toti
necesse est similis sit, says Cicero; but it is suffi-
cient if the agreement exists in those points on
which the main scope of the parable depends.
If we test the parables of the Old Testament
by the rules above laid down, we shall not find
them wanting in any excellence belonging to this
species of composition. What can be more forci-
ble, more persuasive, and more beautiful than
the parables of Jotham (Judg. ix:7-i5), of
Nathan (2 Sam. xii:i-i4), of Isaiah (v:i-5), and
of Ezekiel (xixti-g)?
2. Parables of Christ. But the para-
bles uttered by our Savior claim preeminence
over all others on account of their number, variety,
appositeness, and beauty. Indeed it is impossible
to conceive of a mode of instruction better fitted
to engage the attention, interest the feelings, and
impress the conscience, than that which our Lord
adopted. Among its advantages may be men-
tioned the following:
(j) Secured Attention. It secured the atten-
tion of multitudes who would not have listened
to truth conveyed in the form of abstract propo-
sitions.
(2) Familiar Method. This mode of teaching
was one with which the Jews were familiar, and
for which they entertained a preference.
(S) Tactful. Some truths which, if openly
stated, would have been opposed by a barrier of
prejudice, were in this way insinuated, as it were,
into men's minds, and secured their assent un-
awares.
(4) Hidden Truth. ^The parabolic style was
well adapted to conceal Christ's meaning from
those who, through obstinacy and perverseness,
were indisposed to receive it. This is the mean-
ing of Isaiah in the passage quoted in Matt, xiii;
13. Not that the truth was ever hidden from
those who sincerely sought to know it ; but it was
wrapped in just enough of obscurity to veil it
from those who 'had pleasure in unrighteous-
ness,' and who would 'not come to the light lest
their deeds should be reproved.' In accordance
with strict justice, such were 'given up to strong
delusions, that they might believe a lie.' 'With
the upright man thou wilt show thyself upright;
with the froward thou wilt show thyself fro-
war d.'
(1) Scope of Christ's Parables. The scope or
design of Christ's parables is sometimes to be
gathered from his own express declaration, as in
Luke xii: 16-20; xiv:ii; xvi ;9. In other cases it
must be sought by considering the context, the
circumstances in which it was spoken, and the
features of the narrative itself, i. e. the literal
sense. For the right understanding of this, an
acquaintance with the customs of the people, with
the productions of their country, and with the
events of their history, is often desirable. Most
of our Lord's parables, however, admit of no
doubt as to their main scope, and are so simple
and perspicuous that 'he who runs may read,' 'if
there be first a willing mind.' To those more
difiicult of comprehension more thought and study
should be given, agreeably to the admonition pre-
fixed to some of them by our Lord himself,
'Whoso heareth, let him understand.'
(2) The Number of Parables in the gospels
differs according to the range given to the appli-
cation of the term. Greswell reckons 27; Trench,
30; Plumtre, 31 ; others 50.
Matthew and Luke give us most of the para-
bles. Mark dwells more on the acts than the
discourses of Christ. John has no parables
proper. He took them for granted from the earlier
gospels, and gives us instead those higher dis-
courses of our Lord respecting his relation to
the Father. For Parables of Jesus Christ, see
Appendix, p. 55.
The following are among the principal works on
the parables : Gray, Delineation of the Parables,
1777; Bulkley, Discourses on the Parables, 1771 ;
Collyer, Discourses on the Parables, 1815;
Kromm, Homilieii iiber die Parabeln Jesu, 1823;
Unger, De Parabolis Jesu, 1828; Bailey, Exposi-
tion of tlie Parables, 1829; Schultze, De Parabolis
Jesu Christi, 1827; Lisco, Die Parabeln Jesu,
1832; Stevens, Parables, 1855; Kirk, Lectures,
1856; Oxenden, Parables, 1866; Machlachan,
Notes, 1870; De Teissier, Parables, 1870.
See also Greswell, Trench. Arndt. Arnot, Stier.
Our Lord has himself explained the parable of
the Sower and the parable of the Wheat and the
Tares. His explanation must be the standard by
which our interpretations are to be regulated and
measured. L. P. H.
PARACLETE (par'a-klete), (Gr. irapa/cXijros, /ijr-
ak' lay-tos, summoned, called to one's side), one
who pleads another's cause before a judge, an ad-
vocate, as in I John ii:i, where it is applied to
Christ.
In the A. V. the word is translated 'Comforter'
in the Gospel, and 'Advocate' in the Epistle, with-
out any marginal alternative. In the R. V. these
translations are retained, but at each occurrence
in the Gospel there is found the marg. note
'Or .Advocate, or Helper. Gr. Paraclete' ; and in
John ii:i, the note 'Or Comforter, or Helper, Gr.
Paraclete' These translations reflect the history
of the interpretation of the word in the New Tes-
tament. In its reference to Christ the meaning of
'Advocate' has been generally acquiesced in ; but,
in its references to the Holy Spirit, it has all along
been disputed whether the meaning is Advocate
(taken by most in the largest sense, not only
Pleader or Defender, but Helper) or Comforter
(in the sense of Consoler). (J. Hastings' Bib.
Diet.) (See Holy Ghost.)
PARADISE (par'a-dis), (Gr. wapdSeKTos, par-act-
et-sos ; from Hcb. ^"iTi^ ,par-iface' , rendered "forest,"
Nell. ii:8; also "orchard," Eccles. ii:s; C.'.n;. iv.:
PARADISE
1285
PARADISE
13), the term which by long and extensive use
has been employed to designate the Garden of
Eden, the first dwelling place of human beings.
(1) Early Use of Term. Of this word
paradcisos, the earliest instance that we have
is in the Cyropadia and other writings of Xeno-
phon, nearly 400 years before Christ ; but his
use of it has that appearance of ease and famil-
iarity which leads us to suppose that it was
current among his countrymen. We find it also
used by Plutarch, who lived in the first and sec-
ond century of our era. It was by those authors
evidently employed to signify an extensive plot
of ground, enclosed with a strong fence or wall,
abounding in trees, shrubs, plants, and garden
culture, and in which choice animals were kept in
different ways of restraint or freedom, according
as they were ferocious or peaceable ; thus answer-
ing very closely to our English word park, with
the addition of gardens, a menagerie, and an
aviary.
From its original meaning the term came to be
used as a metaphor for the abstract idea of ex-"
quisite delight, was transferred still higher to de-
note the happiness of the righteous in the future
state. The origin of this application must be as-
signed to the Jews of the middle period between
the Old and the New Testament. In the Chal-
dee Targums, 'the Garden of Eden' is but as the
exposition of heavenly blessedness (Ps. xc. 17,
and other places). The Talmudical writings,
cited by the elder Buxtorf {Lex. Cliald. et Talm.,
p. 1802), and John James Wetstein (New Testa-
ment Greek, vol. i, p. 819), contain frequent ref-
erences to Paradise as the immortal heaven, to
which the spirits of the just are admitted immedi-
ately upon the liberation from the body. The
book Sohar speaks of an earthly and a heavenly
Paradise, of which the latter excels the former 'as
much as darkness does light.' (Schoetgen. Hor.
Hebr. vol. i. p. iog6.)
Hence we see that it was in the acceptation of
the current Jewish phraseology that the expres-
sion was used by our Lord and the Apostles:
'To-day thou shalt be with me in Paradise ;' 'He
was caught up into Paradise ;' 'The tree of life,
which is in the Paradise of my God' (Luke xxiii:
43; 2 Cor. xii:4; Rev. ii:7).
(2) Eden is the most ancient and venerable
name in geography, the name of the first district
of the earth's surface of which human beings
could have any knowledge. All that is related
about it goes to show that Eden was a tract of
country; and that in the most eligible part of it
was the Paradise, the garden of all delights, in
which the Creator was pleased to place his new
and pre-eminent creature with the inferior beings
for his sustenance and solace.
(3) Conjectures Concerning Location of
Eden, (a) Upon the question of its exact geo-
graphical position dissertations innumerable have
been written. Many authors have given descrip-
tive lists of them, with arguments for and against
each. The most convenient presentation of their
respective outlines has been reduced to a tabu-
lated form, with ample illustrations, by the Rev.
N. Morren, annexed to his Translation of the
younger Rosenmuller's Biblical Geography of
Central Asia, pp. 91-98; Edinb, 1836. He reduces
them to nine principal theories. But the fact is
that not one of them answers to all the condi-
• tions of the problem. We more than doubt the
possibility of finding any locality that will do so.
(b) That Phrat is the Euphrates, and Hiddeke,
theTigris, is agreed, with scarcely an exception ; but
in determining the two other rivers, great diversity
of opinion exists ; and. to our apprehension, satis-
faction is and must remain unattainable, from the
impossibility of making the evidence to cohere in
all its parts. It has been remarked that this difficulty
might have been expected, and is obviously prob-
able, from the geological changes that may have
taken place, and especially in connection with the
Deluge. This remark would not be applicable to
the extent that is necessary for the argument,
except upon the supposition before mentioned,
that the earlier parts of the book of Genesis con-
sist of primeval documents, even antediluvian,
and that this is one of them. There is reason to
think that since the Deluge the face of the coun-
try cannot have undergone any change approach-
ing to what the hypothesis of a postdiluvian com-
position would require. But we think it highly
probable that the principal of the immediate
causes of the Deluge, the 'breaking up of the foun-
tains of the great deep,' was a subsidence of a
larg:e part or parts of the land between the in-
habited tract (which we humbly venture to place
in cast longtitude from Greenwich. 30° to 90°
and north latitude 25° to 40°) and the sea which
lay to the south; or an elevation of the bed of
that sea. (See Deluge.)
(c) Either of these occurrences, produced by
volcanic causes, or both of them conjointly or
successively, would be adequate to the production
of the awful Deluge, and the return of the waters
would be effected by an elevation of some part
of the district which had been submerged; and
that part could scarcely fail to be charged with
animal remains. The geological researches of Dr.
Falconer and Captain Cautley have brought to
light bones, more or less mineralized, of the gi-
raffe (camelopardalis), in the Sewalik range of
hills, which seems to be a branch of the Himalayas,
westward of the river Jumna. But the giraffe is
not an animal that can live in a mountainous region,
or even on the skirts of such a region ; its subsist-
ence and its safety require 'an open country and
broad plains to roam over.' (Falconer and Caut-
ley, in Proceed. Gcol. Soc., Nov. 15, 1843). The
present position, therefore, of these fossil remains
— 'of almost every large pachydermatous genus,
such as the elephant, mastodon, rhinoceros, hip-
popotamus, sus (swine), horse, etc.,' also deer
and o.xen — lodged in ravines and vales among
the peaks, at vast elevations, leads to the suppo-
sition of a late elevation of extensive plains.
(d) Thus we seem to have a middle course
pointed out between the two extremes ; the one,
that by the Deluge the ocean and the land were
made to exchange places for permanency: the
other, that very little alteration was produced in
the configuration of the earth's surface. Indeed,
such alteration might not be considerable in
places very distant from the focus of elevation;
but near that central district it could not but be
very great. An alteration of level, five hundred
times less than that effected by the upthrow of
the Himalayas, would change the beds of many
rivers, and quite obliterate others.
(e) From all that can be ascertained it seems
to have been a tract of country, the finest im-
aginable, lying probably between the 33d and the
37th degree of north latitude, of such moderate
elevation, and so adjusted, with respect to moun-
tain ranges and water-sheds and forests, as to
preserve the most agreeable and salubrious condi-
tions of temperature and all atmospheric changes.
Its surface must therefore have been constantly
diversified by hill and plain. From its hill-sides,
between the croppings out of their strata, springs
trickled out, whose streamlets, joining in their
PARADISE, RIVERS OF
1286
PARAN
rotirses, Jormcd at the bottom small rivers, which
agam receiving other streams (which had in the
same way flowed down from the higher grounds),
became, in the bottom of every valley, a more con-
siderable river. These valleys joined together, as
must consequently the streams contained in them ;
wider' valleys or larger plains appeared ; the river
of each united itself with that of its next neighbor ;
others contributed their waters as the augmenting
stream proceeded ; and finally it quitted the land
of Eden, to continue its course to some sea, or to
lose its waters by the evaporation of the atmos-
phere or the absorption of the sandy desert. In
the finest part of this land of Eden the Creator
had formed an enclosure, probably by rocks and
forests and rivers, and had filled it with every
product of nature conducive to use and happi-
ness. Due moisture, of both the ground and the
air, was preserved by the streamlets from the
nearest hills, and the rivulets from the more dis-
tant; and such streamlets and rivulets, collected
according to the levels of the surrounding coun-
try ('it proceeded from Eden') flowed ofif after-
wards in four larger streams, each of which
thus became the source of a great river.
After the explication given, it may seem the
most suitable to look for the object of our ex-
ploration, the site of Paradise, in the south of Ar-
menia. J- P- S.
For a learned and ingenious work on the sub-
ject see Paradise at the North Pole, by Pres.
Warren, Boston Univ. (See Eden; Paradise,
Rivers of.)
PAK.ADISS, BI'VERS OF (par'a-dls, riv'ers
6v).
The old question, "Where was the garden of
Eden ?" is a fascinating one, but it is one of those
which the monuments have not yet elucidated, al-
though they do provide some illustrative material
concerning it. Where it was must be settled
from the description of the four rivers, although
after the rivers are settled or conjectured, it re-
mains to decide whether their head waters or
their mouths are to be regarded as making the
"four heads" spoken of as the locality of the gar-
den. We may dismiss the conjectures which put
Paradise in America or at the north pole, and
consider the theories which suppose the four riv-
ers to be somewhere about Southern Babylonia.
Of these, the one which has of late had the
most currency is one which has been developed
at length by the younger Delitzsch in his work
entitled "Wo lag das Parodies?" He begins with
the certainty about the two rivers Euphrates and
Tigris (Hiddekel) and makes the other two to be
the two great canals of Southern Babylonia the
volume of whose water was nearly as great as
that of the two main rivers — the Pallakopas Ca-
nal, which runs along under the Arabian hills
west of the Euphrates, being the Pison, and the
Shatt-eu-Nil which runs, or ran, between and
parallel to the Euphrates and Tigris, being the
Gihon. But it is not easy to show that the Pal-
lakopas "compasseth the whole land of Havilah"
which ought to be Arabia where are found gold,
onyx, and the bdellium.
Neither can the Shatt-eu-Nil be supposed to
"compass the whole land of Ethiopia."
The latest considerable discussion of the four
rivers is that by Professor Haupt in a paper read
before the American Oriental Society. Of course
the Tigris and the Euphrates are perfectly clear,
and he supposes that the author meant to describe
the imaginary upper course of the Nile in the
Asiatic region as the Gihon. The river Pison is
in the extreme east, most distant from the writer
and so named first and most fully described. It
flows around Havilah (Arabia) whose products
are pure gold, the gum bdellium, and the shoham
stone — translated onyx in the English version,
but really the pearl, literally, the "gray gem," as
its Assyrian name indicates.
This can be nothing but the Persian Gulf and
the Red Sea, conceived of as one river flowing
around Arabia, but originating from the same
source as the Tigris and Euphrates. The Pales-
tinian writer would have conceived of the Per-
sian Gulf and the Red Sea as much narrower
than they now are. We must remember that the
Assyrians called the Persian Gulf naru marratu
— the bitter or salt river. There is no sharp dis-
tinction between river and sea in Semitic lan-
guages, and it is quite a modern thought to dis-
tinguish different bodies of water, such as a river,
bay, sea, and ocean.
So far as the Pison is concerned, this identifi-
cation is very much like that of Dr. Taylor Lewis
in his translation of Lange's "Commentary on
Genesis," published as long ago as 1868. He
placed Eden at the confluence of the Tigris and
Euphrates in Lower Babylonia ; and then taking
this same idea of the ocean as a river, which is
familiar to every reader of Homer, Pindar, or
Strabo. he supposed the Red Sea and the Per-
sian Gulf surrounding Arabia to be the Gihon,
while the Indian Gulf and the Indian Ocean
washing the shores to the end as far as India,
along which he places Havilah, he supposed to be
the Pison. It will be seen that he makes both
rivers to be ocean streams, one tending eastwardly
and the other westwardly, from Eden.
It will seem strange to many to think of the
broad ocean as we know it as only a river. But
we must get out of our modern conceptions, to be
in a condition to understand ancient ways of con-
ceiving of the earth and the ocean.
In the Old Testament the word nahar, river, is
applied to floods, which lift their waves or voices.
In Ps. Ixvi :5 it is applied to the Red Sea. Jonah
says (ii:4), "The river (translated flood) went
round me," referring to the Mediterranean.
Equally rivers like the Nile are called "sea." So
Homer frequently speaks of the ocean as a river,
and the Greek geographer, Strabo, also speaks of
the four great bays, or sinuses — the Caspian and
the Pontus on the north, and the Persian and the
Arabian seas on the south — as inlets from the
ocean streams. The question of the location of
the Garden of Eden is one which we can hardly
answer satisfactorily, and it is only in minor
points that anything can yet be added to guide a
conclusion as to the site of Eden or the identity
of the two disputed rivers. Pison and Gihon.
(Rivers of Paradise, by William Hayes Ward,
D. D., Horn. Rev., Dec. 1894.)
PABAH (pa'reh), (Heb. '"''31, paw-raiv' , the
neifer).
K city of Benjamin (Josh. xviii:23). Identi-
fied with the ruins of Farah, about five miles
northeast of Jerusalem. ( Buckingham, Travels, p.
312.)
PARALYTIC (par'a-lit'Ik). See Palsy.
PARAMOUR (par'a-raoor), (Heb. ^?Tr, f<ee-
leh'ghesh), in Ezek. xxiii :20 applied to the male
lover, but elsewhere translated concubine. (See
Concubinage.)
PARAN (pa' ran), (Heb. ]')^'^,paw-ra'wn' ,• Sept.
ipap&v, p/ia-ran').
A name which seems to be applied in Scripture
to the whole of the desert region extending from
PARAN, MOUNT OF
1287
PARENT
the frontiers of Judah to the borders of Sinai.
At least, as we find it in the south of this region,
bordering Sinai (Num. x:i2; xii:i6), and in the
north bordering on Kadcsh (Num. xiii rj, 26;
XX :i), it seems easier to suppose that Paran was
the name of the whole region marked by these
limits than that there were two opposite districts
bearing the same name.
The name is still preserved in that of Wady
Feiran, a valley of the lower Sinai, through which
lay the road which appears to have been taken
by the Israelites in their march to the upper re-
gion. In this valley there are ruins of a town,
and indeed of more than one, with towers, aque-
ducts, and sepulchral excavations; and here kup-
pcl found the remains of a church, which he as-
signs to the fifth century (Rcise in Nubicn, p.
263; Burckhardt, Syria, p. 616). This was the
Pharan or Faran which had a Christian popula-
tion, and was the seat of a bishopric so early as
A. D. 400 (Oricns Christ., col. 735; Reland,
Palast. pp. 219, 220, 228).
Paran is first mentioned in connection with the
conquest of the confederate kings, when it ap-
pears to have been the home of the Ho-
rites (Gen. xiv:6). Hagar and Ishmael, after
being driven away by Abraham, went into the
wilderness of Paran (Gen. xxi:2i); the Israel-
ites entered it soon after leaving Sinai (Num.
x:i2, 33; xi:3, 34, 35; xii:i6); the spies were
sent up to Canaan and returned from this region;
and eighteen stations of the Israelites' journey
are noted in this wilderness (Num. xiii :3, 26;
xxxiii :i7-36; conip. Deut. i:i). Probably, during
their thirty-eight years of sojourn in the wilder-
ness, the people were scattered over a wide ex-
tent of territory, like the modern Bedouin tribes.
David found refuge in this wilderness (i Sam.
XXV :i), and Hadad passed through it when es-
caping to Egypt (l Kings xi:l8).
PARAN, MOTJNT OF (pa'ran mount 6v), oc-
curs only in two passages, denoting the place
where the Lord is said to have shined forth (Deut.
xxxiii:2; Hab. iii:3).
It was probably the most southern portion of
the mountain-plateau in the northeastern part of
the wilderness of Paran, now Jcbel Magra'h. In
this region is situated 'Ain Gadis, which soirie
identify with Kadesh, and the one encampment in
the wilderness of Kadesh. Jcbcl Magra'h would
always be the most conspicuous object, and would
completely shut out from view the more fertile
mountains beyond.
PARBAB (par'bar), (Heb. ''?75, par-baivr' ,
suburb).
A precinct or colonnade on the west side of the
temple inclosure (i Chron. xxvi:i8). It con-
tained rooms occupied by officials and divisions
for stock (2 Kings xxiii:ii).
PARCEL (par'sel), (Heb. ^Pt;?, khel-kaw\ Gen.
xxxiii:iQ; Josh. xxiv:32), portion, lot, piece.
Still cniplnyed as a law term for a piece or
parcel of ground. Lord Bacon uses the expres-
sion "no parcel" (i, e. no portion) "of the world."
PARCHED CORN (parcht k6rn), (Heb. "%.
kaw-lee' , roasted).
Grain roasted on the stalk over a blaze, which
burned off the chaff and left the kernels cooked
ready for eating (Lev. xxiii:i4; Ruth ii:i4; i
Sam. xvii:i7).
"Harvest is the time for parched corn — not
what we lads in Ohio meant by the words. It is
made thus: a quantity of llie best heads, not too
ripe, are plucked with the stalks attached. These
are tied into small parcels, a blazing fire is kiti-
dled with dry grass and thorn bushes, and the
grain-heads are held in it until the chaff is mostly
burned off. The grain is thus sufficiently roasted
to be eaten, and it is a favorite article all over
the country. When traveling in harvest time, my
muleteers have very often thus prepared parched
corn in the evenings after the tent has been
pitched. Nor is the gathering of this green grain
for parching ever regarded as stealing. After it
has been roasted, it is rubbed out in the hand and
eaten as there is occasion." (Thomson, Land
and Book, vol. ii. 510.)
PARCHED GROUND (parcht ground), (Heb.
^%', shaw-rawb' , to glare).
The Hebrew word thus rendered (Is. xxxv:
7), denotes that optical delusion known by the
name of "mirage," and frequently occurring in
the African and Asiatic deserts. On account of
the different refraction of the solar rays in the
various layers of the atmosphere, the white, bar-
ren sand-waste suddenly assumes the aspect of a
beautiful lake surrounded by trees and a most
luxuriant vegetation. Schaff.
Figurative. The Gentile world, and unregen-
trate men, are likened to "parched ground" ; how
destitute of the sap of divine truth, and gracious
habits and influences; how barren of good works;
how scorched with the power of temptation, with
corrupt inclinations and customs (Is. xxxv:7).
Brown.
PARCHED PLACES (parcht plas'es), (Heb.
''."'P, khaw-rare' , arid, Jer. xvii;6). Here parched
is employed in the usual sense of dry, arid.
Figurative. To inliabit "parched places" is
to be in a most wretched and destitute condition
(Jer. xvii :6).
PARCHMENT (parch'mt-nt), (Gr. /ic/i/Spdi-o,
mem-brah'nah, a tliin skin of parchment). Parch-
ment was used for the manuscripts of the Penta-
teuch in the time of Josephus, and the /j-fii^pifai of
2 Tim. iv:i3, were skins of parchment. (Sec
Writing.)
PARDON (par'd'n), (Heb. ^r?, kau'-/ar\ to
cover, to hide, to purge, Ps. xxv:il).
The Scriptural import of this term is very im-
perfectly indicated by the common acceptation
of it among men. In the dispensation of grace
pardon is inseparably connected with justification.
Hence it is spoken of as the covering of sin (Ps..
Ixxxv:2); the non-imputation of it (Ps. xxxii :
2) ; a blotting out (Ps. li:i, 9; Is. xliii:25) ; for-
getting it (Heb. viii:i2) ; passing by it or remov-
ing it to an immeasurable distance from us (Ps.
ciii :i2; Mic. vii :i9).
It is evident that God only has power to bestow
pardon (Mark ii 7. 10-12), and that it proceeds
from free sovereign grace (Eph. i :6, 7), through
the mediation and atonement of Jesus Christ
(Heb. ix:9-28: i John i;/).
Men are commissioned to preach pardon and
salvation through the blood of Christ. (See For-
giveness; Justification.)
"PARE HER NAILS." See Nail of the
FlNCKR.
PARENT (pdrVnt), (Gr. yovevs, gon-yooce', be-
getter), a name properly given to a father or a
mother, but extended also to relations by blood,
especially in a direct line, upward.
Scripture commands children to honor their
parents (Exod. xx:i2) i. e. to obey them, to suc-
cor them, to respect them, to give them all as-
sistance that nature, and their and our circum-
stances require. Christ (Matt. xv:s, 6) con-
PARLOR
1288
PARTICULAR, PARTICULARLY
demns that corrupt explication which the doctors
of the law gave of this precept; by teaching that
a child was disengaged from the obligation of
supporting and assisting his parents. (See Fam-
ily.)
PABLOB (par'ler), the translation of three He-
brew words:
1. Kheh'der (Heb. I^C, an enclosed place, an
apartment), the inner rooms of the temple porch
and Holy Place (i Chron. xxviii:ii); generally
"chamber." .
2. Lish-kaw' (Heb. '"'I?'- ). a corner cell or
"chamber," as generally rendered, in a courtyard
(I Sam. ix;22).
3. Al-ee-ya-w' (Heb. ^'?5':, lofty), an upper room
ofcoohiess, or chamber, as the words imply (Judg.
iii:20-28).
This was a room upon the flat roof of a house,
which was open to currents of air, and so offered
a cool place, such as are still met with in the
East. (McC. & Str. Cyc.)
Kitto thinks it was a chamber or apartment de-
tached from the main rooms of the house. (See
House.)
PABMASHTA (par-mash'ta), (Heb. ^'^"f^l?.
par-mash-iaw'), the seventh son of Haman, slah.
by the Jews at Shushan (Esth. ix:9), B. C. 473.
PABMENAS (par'me-nas), (Gr. nap^eras, par-
men-as' , probably, constant).
One of the first seven deacons of the church
formed at Jerusalem (Acts vi:S). Nothing more
is known of him; but the Roman martyrologies
allege that he suffered martyrdom under Trajan.
(A. D. 29.)
PABNACH (par'nak), (Heb. 1^1?, par-nak' ,
perhaps swift), a Zebulunite, father of Elizaphan
(Num. xxxiv:25), B. C. before 1618.
PABOSH (pa'rosh), (Heb. '^'^'l?, par-oshe' , a
flea).
The founder of a family, 2,172 of whose mem-
bers returned from the captivity with Zerubba-
bel fEzra ii:3; Neh. vii:8), and 150 males
with Ezra (Ezra viii:3). Seven of the family
married Gentile wives (Ezra x:2S). They helped
in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem and were
represented in signing the covenant with Nehe-
niiah (Neh. iii :25 ; x 114). (B. C. before 535-445-)
PABSHANDATHA (par-shan'da- tha), (Heb.
^'^Tf'-l-. par-shaii-daw-thaw' , perhaps, given to
Persia), the eldest son of Haman, put to death
with his father (Esth. ix7), B. C. 437-
PABTHIA (par'thi-a), (Gr. TlapBla, par-thee'ah),
the country of the Parthians (n6.p0oi.), mentioned in
Acts ii:g, as being with their neighbors, the Medes
and Elamites, present at Jerusalem on the day
of Pentecost.
The persons referred to were Jews from
Parthia, and the passage is a strong evidence
showing how widely spread were members of the
Hebrew family in the first century of our era.
The term originally referred to a small moun-
tainous district lying to the northeast of Media.
Afterwards it came to be applied to the great
Parthian kingdom, into which this province ex-
panded. Parthia proper, or ancient Parthia, ly-
ing between Aria and Hyrcania, the residence of
a rude and poor tribe, and traversed by bare
mountains, woods, and sandy steppes, formed a
part of the great Persian monarchy, being a de-
pendency on the satrapy of Hyrcania. Its in-
habitants were of Scythian origin. They formed
a part of the army of Xerxes, and were found in
that of the last Darius. In the breaking up of
the kingdom of Alexander the Parthians took
sides with Eumenes, and became subject to An-
tigonus and the Seleucidse.
But Arsaces arose against the Syro-Macedonian
power, and commenced a new dynasty in his own
person, designated by the title of Arsacidae. This
was the beginning of the great Parthian empire,
which extended itself in the early days of Chris-
tianity over all the provinces of what had been
the Persian kingdom, having the Euphrates for
its western boundary, by which it was separated
from the dominions of Rome. It was divided
into eighteen provinces. Now at peace, now in
bitter hostilities with Rome, now the victor and
now the vanquished, the Parthians were never
subjugated by the Romans. At length Arta-
Parthians Practicing Divination.
xerxes defeated the Parthians in a great battle,
succeeded to all the dominions of the Parthian
kings, and founded the new Persian empire, to
the rulers of which is commonly given the name
of the Sassanidae. The government of Parthia
was monarchical ; but as there was no settled and
recognized line of succession, rival aspirants were
constantly presenting themselves, which weak-
ened the country with internal broils, especially
as the Romans saw it to be to their interest to
foster dissensions and encourage rivalries, and
this led eventually to the overthrow of the dy-
nasty by the successful aspirant, Artaxerxes.
During the Syro-Macedonian period the Parthian
and Jewish history kept apart in separate spheres,
but under the Romans the Parthians defended
the party of Antigonus against Hyrcanus, and
even took and plundered Jerusalem (Joseph.
Antiq. xiv. 13, 3; De Bell. Jud. i. 13). The geog-
raphy of Parthia may be studied, besides in the
ancient authorities, in Cellar. Nolit. ii. 700; Man-
nert, v. 102. J. R. B.
PABTIALITY (par'shT-al'I-t)*).
1. Pros' klis-is (Gr. irpbaKknn^, I Tim. v:2i) is
an inclination of mind. Tlie exhortation of the
apostle is that nothing should be done under an
undue tendency towards one or another party.
2. Ad-ee-ak'-ree-tos (Gr. dSid/cpiTos, James iii:l7)
means without uncertaijity or ambiguity ; ^nA so
Divine wisdom is reliable, not being uncertain or
variable in its operations.
PABTICULAB, PAETICTTLABLY (par-tik'-
a ler, par-tlk'u-ler-ly), one by one. St. Paul could
not in an epistle enlarge "particularly," in ex-
plaining the signification of every individual uten-
sil of the temple (Heb. ix:5). In i Cor. xii:27,
he says: 'Ye are the body of Christ, and members
in particular' (\ii\T\ iK p-ipom, R. V. 'severally mem-
bers thereof,' R. V. marg. 'members each in his
part'); Eph. v:33 'Let every one of you in particu-
lar so love his wife even as himself (xol vtt*X% oi
PARTITION, MIDDLE WALL OF
1289
PASEAH
KaO^ iVa, ^naaros ttjv ^avTov yuvaiKa oCtois ayarrdruj us
iavrdp; K. V. 'Do ye also severally love each one
his own wife even as himself).
PARTITION, MIDDLE WALIi OF (par-
lish'iin, mTd'd'l wal 6v), (Gr. fuairotxan toD tppayiioii),
the expression (Eph. ii:i4) employed by St. Paul
to designate the Mosaic law as the dividing line
between the Jews and Gentiles. (See Temple.)
PARTRIDGE (par'trij), (Heb. ^"ip, ko-ray' , a
caller, from its cry).
(1) The word occurs but twice in the Old Tes-
tament (I Sam. xxvi:2o; Jer. xviiiii; Sept. ir^p«i?,
pare'diks. Vulg. jtcrdix, Ecclus. xi:3i). Late
commentators stale that there are four species
of the Tctrao (grouse) of Linnaeus abundant
in Palestine; the francolin (T. francolinus), the
katta (T. alchata). the red-Icgged or Barbary
partridge (T. fclrostts), and the Greek partridge
(T. saxatilis). In this now obsolete classification
there are included not less than three genera, ac-
cording to the more correct systems of recent
writers, and not one strictly a grouse occurs in
the number, though the real T. Urogallus, or cock
of the woods, is reported to frequent Asia Minor
in winter, and in that case is probably no stranger
in Libanus. There is, however, the genus Ptcr-
ocles, of which the P. alchata is the katta, ganga,
cata, and pin-tailed grouse of authors, a species
very common in Palestine, and innumerable in
Arabia; but it is not the only one, for the sand-
grouse of Latham (P. arcnarius) occurs in
France, Spain, Barbary, Arabia, Persia, and on
the north side of the Mediterranean, or all round
Palestine. These are distinguished from other
genera of Tetraotida- by their long and powerful
wings, enabling them to reach water, which they
delight to drink in abundance ; and by this pro-
pensity they often indicate to the thirsty caravan
in what direction to find relief. They feed more
on insects, larvae, and worms than on seeds, and
none of the species having a perfect hind toe that
reaches the ground, they run fast : these char-
acteristics are of some importance in determining
whether they were held to be really clean birds,
and consequently could be the sclav of the Israel-
ites, which our versions have rendered 'quail.'
(See Quail; Unclean Birds.)
(2) The Francolin forms a second genus,
whereof F. vulgaris, or the common tree par-
tridge, is the Syrian species best known, though
Ammoperdix Htgii.
table, is of handsome plumage, and common from
Spain and France, on both sides of the Mediter-
ranean.
(3) The partridge is a third genus, reckoning
in Syria the two species before named, both red-
legged and furnished with orange and black cres-
cents on the sides; but the other markings differ.
most likely not the only one of that country. It
is larger than the ganga; the male is always pro-
vided with one pair of spurs (though others of
the genus have two), and has the tail longer than
true partridges. This species is valued for the
Cacctibii Saxalilis.
and the Barbary species is smaller than the Greek.
They are inferior in delicacy to the common
partridge, and it is probable that Pcrdix rufa, and
the Caspian partridge, both resembling the former
in many particulars, are no strangers in Syria.
(4) The expostulation of David with Saul,
where he says, 'The king of Israel is come out to
seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge on
the mountains,' is perfectly natural ; for the red-
legged partridges are partial to upland brush-
wood, which is not an uncommon character of the
hillsandmountainsof Palestine; and the partridge
sitting on her eggs and not hatching them (Jer.
xvii:ll) we take to allude to the liability of the
nest being trodden under foot, or robbed by car-
nivorous animals, notwithstanding all the care
and interesting manoeuvers of the parent birds to
save it or the brood; for this genus is monoga-
mous, nestles on the ground, and both male and
female sit, and anxiously watch over the safety of
their young. C. H. S.
PARTJAH (pSr'u-ah), (Heb, 0"l1f ,/aw-r<;o'a/tA,
blossoming).
The father of Solomon's purveyor, Jchosha-
phat, in Issachar (i Kings iv:i7). (B. C. about
I0I2.)
PARVAIM (par-va'im), Heb. ^.'^l^, par-vah-
yini, eastern).
A region producing the finest gold (2 Chron.
iii:6). There is very strong reason to conclude,
with Bochart, that it is the same with Ophir.
Castcll, however, identifies it with Barbatia on
the Tigris, which is named by Pliny (Hist. Nat.
vi. 32) ; and Gcsenius, seeking the root of the
name in the Sanskrit /rfrt-tr, 'before,' i. e. 'east-
ern,' concludes it to be a general term, corre-
sponding to our Levant, meaning east country;
so that 'gold of Parvaim' means Eastern gold.
PASACH (pa'sak), (Heb. '^?|, paw-sak' , to di-
vide), the first of the three sons of Japhlet.of Asher
(I Chron. vii:33), B. C. about 1618.
PAS-DAMMIM (pis-dam'mim), (Heb.C?^ ^?>
pas' dam-tiucm' , the border of blood), a place in the
tribe of Judah, (i Chron. xi:l3) called Ephes-dam-
mim (I Sam. xvii:I).
PASEAH (pa-ss'ab), (Heb. C"??, paw-say' akk,
lame).
PASHUR
1290
PASSOVER
1. A son of Eshton. descendant of Judah, and
one of the "men of Rechah" (i Chron. iv:l2).
(B. C. after 1618.)
2. The head of a family of Nethinim who re-
turned from the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra
ii:49). The name is Phaseah (Neh. vii:Si). Je-
hoida, a "son," assisted in rebuilding the old gate
of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:6). (B. C. before 446.)
PASHUR (pish'ur), (Heb. I^"??, /ai//'/t/wOT-,
liberation). (See Phassur.)
1. The son of Immer, a priest, and chief over-
seer of the temple, who smote Jeretiiiah and put
him in the stocks for his prophecies of captivity
and ruin; on which the prophet was commis-
sioned to declare that he should be one of those
to go into exile, and that he and all his friends
should die in Babylon, and be buried there (Jer.
XX : 1-6). (B. C. '6oy.)
2. The son of Melchiah, a high officer of king
Zedekiah, and one of those at whose instance
Jeremiah was cast into prison (Jer. xxi;i;
xxxviii :i-6). A descendant of his is mentioned
among the new colonists of Jerusalem after the
captivity (Neh. xi:i2). (B. C. 589.)
3. The father of the Gedaliah who assisted
Pashur in accusing and imprisoning Jeremiah
(Jer. xxxviii :l). (B. C. 589.)
4. The founder of a family who returned from
the captivity (Ezra ii:38; Neh. vii:4i). Some of
the family married Gentile wives (Ezra x:22),
whom they divorced.
PASS (pas), (Or. UTrep/SdXXu, hoop-er-bal' lo, Eph.
iii:iQ; Phil. iv:7), to exceed, go beyond, surpass.
PASSAGE (pas'saj), (from Heb. "'5?, aw-bar' ,
to cross).
A passage of a river is a ford or bridge (Judg.
xii:6). In a country a "passage" often signifies
a narrow way between mountains, lakes, etc., such
as the "passages" of Michmash and Abarim, that
were rendered narrow by the hills or rocks on
each side (i Sam. xiii:23; Jer. xxii:20).
PASSENGER (p5s'sen-jer), (Prov. ix:i5; Ezek.
xxxixli, 14, 15) is used in the A. V. in the sense
of a passer-by, not, as now, one "ticketed for a
journey."
PASSION (pish'-un), (Or. Trdirxu, pas'-klw\.
This word has several very different signifi-
cations. !• It signifies the passion or suffciing
of Christ: "To whom also he showed himself
alive after his passion" (Acts i:3). For the chief
points of the history of the event, see Jesus
Christ. 2. It signifies feeling, emotion, or wiekcd
desires (Rom. i :26), to which those are given up
whom God abandons to their own impulses (Rom.
vii :s; i Thess. iv :5).
PASSIONS, LIKE (pSsh'unslik),(Gr.oMoio7ro977s,
ltc)>i-oy-op-ath-ace'), used in the expressions "men
of like passions with you" (Acts xiv:i5) and "a
man subject to like passions as we are" (James
v:i7) having the sense li)of suffering the like with
ancithcr, (2) having like feelings or affections.
PASSOVER (pas'o-ver), (Heb. "?r., peh' sakh\
Gr. irdffxa, pas'-khah), a passing over, sparing or
protection.
(1) Twofold Reference. The Passover, like
the Sabbath and other institutions, had a twofold
reference — historical and typical. As a commem-
orative Institution it was designed to preserve
amongst the Hebrews a grateful sense of their re-
demption from Egyptian bondage, and of the pro-
tection granted to their firstborn on the night
when all the firstborn of the Egyptians were de-
stroyed (Exod. xii;27) ; as a typical institute its
object was to shadow forth the great facts and
consequences of the Christian Sacrifice (i Cor
v:7).
(2) Three Acceptations. The word Passover
has three general acceptations in Scripture. (l)
It denotes the yearly solemnity celebrated on the
14th day of Nisan or Abib, which was strictly the
Passover of the Lamb, for on that day the Israel-
ites were commanded to roast the lamb and eat
it in their own houses. (2) It signifies that yearly
festivity, celebrated on the 15th of Nisan, which
may be called the Feast of the Passover (Deut.
xvi:2; Num. xxviii:i6, 17. (3) It denotes the
whole solemnity, commencing on the 14th, and
ending on the 21st day of Nisan (Luke xxii:i),
though, in strictness of speech, the Passover and
the feast of unfermented things, are distinct in-
stitutions. The paschal lamb, in the age follow-
ing the first institution of the Passover in Egypt,
and after the settlement of the Hebrews iri Pal-
estine, could only be killed by the priests in the
court of the temple (Deut. xvi:S-7; 2 Chron.
xx.xv.i-ii; Lev. xvii:3-6), whence tfie owner of
the lamb received it from the priests and "brought
it to his house in Jerusalem, and roasted it, and
ate it in the evening' (Maimonides, Corban
Pesach, c. i. sec. 6) ; and it was thus that Christ
kept the Passover, eating it in a chamber within
Jerusalem (Luke xxii:7-u); but the feast of
unfermented things (Exod. xii:is) the Jews
thought themselves bound to keep in every place
in which they might dwell, if they could not visit
Jerusalem ; 'the eating of it,' says Maimonides,
'depended not upon the Passover, for it was a
commandment by itself (Chometz Vematzah, sec.
6). As, however, from the evening of the 14th
to the 2ist day of Abib or Nisan (April), all fer-
ment was banished from the habitations of the
Hebrews, both institutions thus received a com-
mon name (i Cor. v 15, 7, 8. 13).
(3) How and When Prepared. On the loth
of the month Abib, the master of a family sepa-
rated a ram or a goat of a year old, without blem-
ish (Exod. xii:i-6; i Pet. i;i9), which was slain
on the 14th day, betit'ecn the two evenings, before
the altar (Deut. ,xvi). The Jewish day had
twelve hours (John xiig), counting from sunrise,
about six of the clock of our time. The ninth
hour (or three in the afternoon) was the hour
of prayer, when they went into the temple, at the
daily evening sacrifice (Acts iii:i). This was the
ordinary time for the Passover, as appears from
the Babylonian Talmud. 'The daily evening sac-
rifice was killed at the eighth hour and a half,
and it was offered up at the ninth hour and a half.
In the evening of the Passover it was killed at
the seventh hour and a half, and offered at the
eighth hour and a half (Pesaehim. c. 5). The
reason of this obviously is, because the priests
had first to kill the daily sacrifice, and then to
slay the Passover and eat it ; and also to rest on
the evening prior to the Sabbath. Thus in the
evening of time (Heb. i :2 ; i Pet. i: 19-20), or
last days, about the same hour of the day when
the paschal lamb was offered in the temple, did
Christ die on Calvary, so that the substance and
the shadow corresponded (Mark xv 125-33).
(4) How Observed. Originally the blood was
sprinkled on the posts of the door (Exod. xii:7),
hut afterwards the priests sprinkled the blood
upon the bottom of the altar (comp. Deut. vi :
9; I Pet. i:2: Heb. viii:io: ix:i3. 14).
(5) Animal Roasted with Fire. The ram
or kid was roasted in an oven whole, with two
spits made of pomegranate wood thrust through
PASTORS OR SHEPHERDS
1291
PASTURAGE
it, the one lengthwise, the other transversely
(crossing the longitudinal one near the fore-
legs), thus forming a cross (Pcsachiiii, ch. 3).
Thus roasted with fire, as an emblem of purifica-
tion, it was served up with a bitter salad (Me-
rorim) unpickled. indicative of the bitterness of
their bondage in Egypt, and with the flesh of the
other sacrifices (Deut. xvi;2-6). What of the
flesh remained uneaten was to be consumed with
fire, lest it should see corruption (comp. Exod.
xiino; Ps. xvi:io; Acts 11:27). Not fewer than
ten. nor more than twenty persons, were admitted
to this sacred solemnity. At its first observance
the Hebrews ate the Passover with loins girt
about, sandals on their feet, staves in their hands,
and in haste, like travelers equipped and prepared
for immediate departure (Exod. xii:il) ; but sub-
sequently the usual mode of reclining was
adopted, in token of rest and security (John xiii:
23). Several of these rites are therefore omitted
by Moses in repeating the laws of the Passover
(Lev. xxiii:s-8; Num. ix:2-ii; xxviii:l6, 17;
Deut. xvi).
(6) Particulars by Babbins. The Rabbins
enumerate the following particulars as peculiar to
its original observance: (i)The eating of it in
their houses dispersed in Egypt; (2) the taking
up of the paschal lamb from the. tenth day; (3)
the charge to strike the blood on the doorposts;
(4) the eating of it in haste (Bab. Talmud,
Pesachim, ch. 9; Maim. Corbaii Pcsach. ch. 10,
sec. 15). But the command not to break a bone
of the offering was always observed (John xix:
36). F. R. L.
PASTORS or SHEPHERDS (pas'ters or shep'-
erds), (Heb. '"'?"', ro-eh' , shepherd), were men who
watched over flocks of sheep or cattle, directing
them to their right pasture, affording them water,
gathering them, when proper, to their fold, and
protecting them from hurt.
Tt seems that their flocks often followed them
(John x:l-27). As of old great men's wealth
consisted chiefly in their flocks and herds, the
office of feeding them was accounted very honor-
able. Abel, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses. David,
nay, the young ladies, as the daughters of Laban
and Jethro, employed themselves in feeding flocks.
(See Shepherd.)
Figurative, (i) God is compared to a Shcl>-
herd; with what tender care did he lead, pro-
vide for, protect, and govern the Hebrews in
the desert, and in Canaan ! With what tender
care he gathers, governs, protects, heals, and pro-
vides for the welfare of his church and people!
(Gen. xlix:24; Ps. xxiii:i; lxxx:i; Is. xl:il).
(2) Christ is God's Shepherd, because his Fa-
ther hath given him his flock of chosen men, and
appointed him to die for, call, and feed them
(Zech. xiii:7). (3) He is called the One Shep-
herd; because he alone owns the sheep, and can
in every respect answer and supply all their wants
(Ezek. xxxiv :23 ; John .x:i6). (4) He is called
the great and chief Shepherd ; he is infinitely great
in himself; he is hi.ijhly exalted as our Mediator;
he has the supreme management of the church in
his hand ; and ministers and magistrates are but
instruments subject to him (Heb. xiii:2o; I Pet.
v:4. (5) He is the Good Shepherd; in infinite
kindness he redeemed his sheep from ruin, by the
price of his blood; kindly he sympathizes with
them, and gives them his own flesh and blood for
their provision ; and nothing good will he with-
hold from them (John x:i4). (6) He is the
Shepherd and Bishop of souls; it is men's souls
he leads, restores, and satisfies ; and their spirit-
ual and eternal interests are the great objects of
his care (i Pet. ii :2S ; Ps. xxiii ;2. 3; Jer. xxxi :
10). (7) The "sheplierd and stone of Israel"
signifies God, the source of all blessings (Gen.
xlix:24(. (8) Political rulers in the state, and
captains in the army, are called "pastors and shep-
herds:" their office requires them to gather, lead,
protect, and provide for the welfare of their sub-
jects and armies, which are their flocks ; although
they often act the contrary (Is. xliv:28; lxiii:li;
Jer. xii:io; xxiii; xxv:34; Ezek. xxxiv; Kah.
iii:i8). (9) The Chaldean princes and their ar-
mies were the "shepherds and flocks" that ruined
Judah (Jer. vi :3 ; xii:io).
PASTORS, CHRISTIAN (pas'ters, kris'chan).
Ministers are "shepherds;" it is their work to
gather, lead, watch over, feed with sound doc-
trine, and in every way endeavor to promote the
spiritual life, safety, growth, health, and comfort
of their people (Jer. .xvii:l6; Eph. iv:ii; i Pet.
v:i-4). "The pastoral or ministerial office and
work is described in Scripture as inexpressibly
important and solemn (John xiv:l6, 17, 26; xv:
26, 27; xvi: 13, 14, 15; xx:22; I Cor. ii:io-i6;
2 Cor. iv:i4; v:l7; Gal. i:is, 16; Phil. iii:3, 7-14;
I John i:3). They must have a real call and mis-
sion from Jesus Christ to their work, otherwise
they cannot expect to have any true success
therein (Is. vi :8, 9; xlix:i, 2; Jer. i; xxiii :2l,
22, 32; Ezek. ii, iii, xxxiii ; Matt, x; Luke x;
John x; Acts i; xxvi:i7, 18; Rom. x:i5; Heb.
v:4). Their ends ought to be single and disin-
terested, not seeking great things for themselves,
coveting no man's silver, gold, or apparel, but
seeking to gain men to Christ, and salvation
through him ; not looking or aiming at their own
ease, profit, or honor, but at the things of Christ
and his people; not seeking glory of men, but the
honor of Christ, and his Father, in the eternal
salvation of souls (i Sam. xii:3; Jer. xlv:S; John
vii:i8; Acts xx:33; i Cor. ix:T2. 16; 2 Cor. vi:
4-10; vii:2; xi:g; xii:i3, 14; Phil. ii:2l; I Thess.
ii:4-9).
PASTURAGE (pas'tar-aj), (Heb. ">?. Jtar. fat
pasture).
In the first period of their history the Hebrc\ys
led an unsettled pastoral life, such as we still
find among many Oriental tribes. One great ob-
ject of the Mosaical polity was to turn them from
this condition into that of fixed cultivators of the
soil. Pasturage was. however, only discouraged
as a condition of life unfriendly to settled habits
and institutions, and not as a pursuit connected
with agriculture. Hence, although in later times
the principal attention of the Hebrews was given
to agriculture, the tending of sheep and cattle was
not at any time neglected.
(1) Nomads. The shepherds who move about
with their flocks from one pasture-ground to an-
other, according to the demands of the season,
the state of the herbage, and the supply of water,
are called nomads — that is, not merely shepherds,
but wandering shepherds. They feed their flocks
on the 'commons.' or the deserts and wildernesses,
which no settled or cultivating people have ap-
propriated. At first, no pastoral tribe can have
any particular property in such tracts of ground
in preference to another tribe; but, in the end, a
particular tract becomes appropriated to some one
tribe, or section of a tribe, either from long occu-
pation, or from digging wells therein.
(2) Rights Acquired. .'Vccording to the ideas
of the East, the digging of a well is so meritorious
an act. that he who performs it acquires a prop-
erty in the waste-lands aroimd. In the time of
the patriarchs, Palestine was but thinly peopled
PASTURE
1292
PATHROS
by the Canaanites, and offered many such tracts
of unappropriated grounds fit for pasturage. In
these they fed their flocks, without establishing
any exclusive claims to the soil, until they pro-
ceeded to dig wells, which, being considered as an
act of appropriation, was opposed by some of the
inhabitants (.Gen. xxi ;25, 26). After the con-
quest of Canaan, those Israelites who possessed
large fiocks and herds sent them out, under the
care of shepherds, into the 'wildernesses,' or com-
mons, of the east and south, where there are rich
and juicy pasturages during the moist seasons of
the year (i Sam. xvii:28; xxv:4-i5; I Chron.
xxvii :29-3i ; Is. Ixviio; Jer. 1 139).
(3) Succession of Occupancy. The nomads
occupy, successively, the same stations in the des-
erts every year. In summer, when the plains are
parched with drought, and every green herb is
dried up, they proceed northwards, or into the
mountains, or to the banks of rivers ; and in win-
ter and spring, when the rains have re-clothed
the plains with verdure, and filled the water-
courses, they return. When these pastors remove,
they strike their tents, pack them up, and convey
them on camels to the next station. Nearly all
the pastoral usages were the same, anciently, as
now. The sheep were constantly kept in the
open air, and guarded by hired servants, and by
the sons and daughters of the owners. Even the
daughters of emirs, or chiefs, did not disdain to
tend the sheep (Gen. xxiv:i7-2o; xxixig; Exod.
ii:i6).
(4) Duty of Shepherds. The principal shep-
herd was responsible for the sheep intrusted to
his care, and if any were lost he had to make
them good, except in certain cases (Gen. xxxi :
39; Exod. xxii:i2; Amos iii:i2). Their serv-
ices were often paid by a certain proportion of
the young of the flock (Gen. xxx:3o). On the
more dangerous stations, towers were erected,
from which the approach of enemies might be
discovered. These were called the Towers of the
Flock (Gen. xxxv:2i; 2 Chron. xxvi:io; Micah
iv:8). (See Pastors or Shepherds.)
PASTURE (pas'tnr). See Pastors or Shep-
herds.
PATARA (pat'a-ra), (Gr. THrapa, pat'ar-ah).
A port of Lycia in Asia Minor, where Paul,
on his voyage to Jerusalem, changed his ship for
one bound to Phrenicia (Acts xxi:i, 2). Patara
was about sixty stadia southeast from the mouth
of the river Xanthos, at the modern village Gele-
mish.
The name of Patara in ancient times was closely
connected with the cultus and the oracle of
Apollo; and its later coins show Apolline types,
though on its earlier coinage Athena and Hermes
(Greek ideals of art and trade) are the promi-
nent figures. The Roman poets, and the later
Greeks like Lykophron, associate the epithet Pat-
arean with Apollo, just as they call the god Del-
phian. The oracle spoke only during part of the
year, viz., the six winter months. (.Strabo, xiv,
66s; Plin. Hist. Nat. v, 28; Mela, i, 15; Herod,
i, 182.)
Patara is now in ruins, but retains its ancient
name. The remains prove it to have been a city
of considerable importance. Among them are a
theater, some massive walls and arches, a gate
of the city with three arches nearly perfect, and
numerous sarcophagi. Near the theater is a deep
circular pit, and a square pillar rising above it,
which Lewin thinks was the seat of the oracle
of Patareus Apollo. The port is completely filled
with sand, and is a malarious swamp; all com-
munication with the sea is cut off by a sand-
beach, and the sand is also gradually encroaching
upon the ruins. (Schaff, Bib. Diet.)
In the history of Christianity Patara was of
small consequence. Lycia, like Pamphylia. seems
to have been slow in adopting the new religion.
Patara was a bishopric, and is mentioned as such
in all the Notiticr. There are still considerable
ruins of the city, on which see Beaufort, Texier,
Fellows, Spratt, and Forbes, and, above all, the
splendid work of Benndorf-Niemann on Lykia.
(W. M. Ramsay, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
PATE (pat), (Heb. TIB, kod-kode' , crown of
the head), formed by loss of / from " plate," which
came to be applied to the crown of the head, espe-
cially the bald crown, from its appearance : comp.
Germ. Platte, 'a plate,' 'bald head,' and vulgarly
'the head' occurs once in the A. V. (Ps. vii:i6,
'His mischief shall return upon his own head, and
his violent dealing .shall come down upon his own
pate"). (Hastings' Bi'fi. Diet)
PATH (path), (Heb. n^** , o'rakh).
Figurative, (i) God's "/aM.?" are his works
of creation (Job xl:i9), the dispensations
of his providence, wherein he walks towards
his creatures (Ps. xxv:io; Is. lv:8, 9), or the
clouds which distil his rain (Ps. lxv:ii) ; or his
truths and precepts, in which he requires men to
walk (Ps. xvii:4). (2) The paths of the right-
eous are "paths of judgment," of uprightness, and
of life; his religious course is judiciously chosen,
he is candid and upright in following it out ; in
his present walk he has life spiritual here, and
shall attain life eternal hereafter (Is. xl:i4; Prov.
ii:i3; v:6). (3) God makes a "straight ivay" or
"path," when he removes every thing tending to
the hindrance of his glory and gospel_ (Is. xlii:
16 ; xl :3, 4) ; and of his people's happiness (Jer.
xxxirg). (4) Chrisl's "paths" are made straight,
when things are prepared for his public appear-
ances on earth (Matt. iii:3). (S) Men make
"straight paths" for their feet, lest that which is
lame be turned out of the way, when they take
care of adding to, or taking from, the rules of
God's word, and study to walk exactly according
to it, lest some should stumble at religion on
their account (Heb. xii:i3). (6) Men do not
"find their paths" when they cannot get their pur-
poses fulfilled (Hos. ii:6).
PATHROS (path'ros), (Heb. D'1P5, path'roce.
region of the south).
A district of Egypt near Thebes ; named, as
some suppose, from a town called Ha-hathor, or
"the abode of Hathor," the Egyptian Venus.
Originally it was ruled by its own kings, inde-
pendent of Egypt. It was probably the Thebaid
of the Greeks and the Said of the Arabs. The
country is mentioned in the Prophets, and nearly
always in connection with Egypt (Is. xi :ii ; Ezek.
xxx:i4; Jer. x!iv:i-i5). Its inhabitants were
known as the Pathrusim, the descfndants of Ham
through Mizraim (Gen. x:i4; i Chron. i:i2).
After Egypt had been desolate for forty
years and its inhabitants exiled, Ezekiel said
(chap. xxix:i4), 'I will bring back the captivity
of Egypt, and will cause them to return into
(LXX, 'will cause them to dwell in,' perhaps bet-
ter) the land of Pathros, into the land of their
birth, and they shall be there a base kingdom.'
It is very remarkable to find in Ezekiel a knowl-
edge of the correct Egyptian tradition concern-
ing the priority of the southern country over the
north. The earliest known dynasties of kings re-
PATHRUSIM
1293
PATMOS
sided in Memphis on the border of Upper and
Lower Egypt, but the first historical king, Menes,
came from This (Thinis) near Abydos in Upper
Egjpt. Therefore the inscriptions always place
the south as the aboriginal country before the
north. The issue of that prophecy is not quite
clear. (\V. Ma.x Miiller, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
PATHRUSIM (path-ru'sim), (Heb. D"5"i?5.
pat/i-roo-seem').
The fifth in order of the tribes descended from
Mizraim, who settled Egypt (Gen. x:i4; I Chron.
i:i2).
PATIENCE (pa'sh^ns), (Gr. tiaKpoev/ila. mak-
roth-oo-tnee ah), constancy, endurance, forbear-
ance, long-suffering, resignation.
1. Patience and resignation are thus discrim-
inated: Patience applies to any troubles or pains
whatever, small or great ; resignation is employed
are opposed and which we are called to main-
tain and suffer for (Rev. iii :io).
PATIENCE OF GOD (pa'slifns 6v g6d). God's
"patience" is liis bc.iring long with offenders
without punisliing them (Matt. xviii:26-29; Rom.
ii:4). The "Ciod of [)atience" (uitoaioi't), /lu-pom-on-
ay') means that God is the author of patience in
his servants (Rom. xv:;).
■ PATMOS (pit'raos), (Gr. Uiriioi, pat'mos).
A rocky and bare island of the .l^'gean Sea,
about fifteen miles in circumference, and reckoned
as one of the Sporadcs (Flin. Hist. Nat. iv, 23;
Strabo, .x, 480). On account of its stern and cUso-
late character, the island was used, under the
Roman empire, as a place of banishment, which
accounts for the exile of John thither 'for the
testimony of Jesus' (Rev. 1:9). (See John. 3.)
He was here favored with those visions which
are contained in the .\pocalypse, and to which
the place owes its Scriptural interest.
Patmos, Harbor, etc
only for those of great moment, in which our
dearest interests are concerned : patience, when
compared with resignation, is somewhat nega-
tive ; it consists in the abstaining from all
complaiiit or indication of what one suffers: but
resi.snation consists in a positive sentiment of con-
formity to the existing circumstances, be they
what they may. There are perpetual occurrences
which are apt to liarass the temper, unless one
regards them with patience;, the misfortunes of
some men are of so calamitous a nature, that if
they have not acquired the resignation of Chris-
tians, they must inevitably sink under them.
Patience applies only to the evils that actually
hang over us ; but there is a resignation connected
with a firm trust in Providence which extends
its views to futurity, and prepares us for the
worst that may happen. (Crabbe's Synonyms.)
2. The "patience" of the saints is that grace
whereby they meekly endure injuries and with a
continued calmness of temper, and submission
of spirit to the will of God. bear afflictions, and
humbly wait for the accomplishment of his prom-
ises (Rom.v:3; viii:2S). It is called \\\t"patience"
of Jesus Christ, as he exemplifies it and bestows
it : it is exercised in the way of waiting, and
honoring him, and in a patient waiting for his
coming in the power of his Spirit, and to judge
file world (2 Tlie^^s. i :4 ; Rev. i :g) ; and the-
"word of his patience," are those truths which
On approaching the island the coast is found
to be high, and to consist of a succession of capes,
which form so many ports, some of which are
excellent. The only one in use is, however, a deep
bay, sheltered by high mountains on every side
but one, where it is protected by a projectmg
cape. The town attached to this port is situated
upon a high rocky mountain, rising immediately
from the sea ; and this, with the Scala below
upon the shore, consisting of some shops and
houses, forms the only inhabited site of the is-
land.
Patmos is deficient in trees, but abounds
in flowering plants and shrubs. Walnuts and
other fruit trees are grown in the orchards ; and
the wine of Patmos is the strongest and best
flavored of any in the Greek islands. Maize and
barley are cultivated, but not in a quantity suffi-
cient for the use of the inhabitants, and for the
supply of their own vessels and others which
often put in at the great harbor for provisions.
The island now bears the names of Patino and
Palmosa. and the inhabitants do not exceed 4,0C0
or 5.000, many of whom are emigrants from the
neighboring continent. Kitto.
The monastery of St. John's contains a poor
remnant of the valuable library which was once
there. Mai. in his Nova Bihliotheca, VI, ii,
537, has published from a Vatican MS. a list of
the books preserved there in the 13th century. It
PATRIARCH
1294
PAUL
was here that the English traveler, E. D. Clark,
purchased of the monks, in October, 1814, the
great 9th century codex of Plato now in the Bod-
leian. It remains to add that, according to an un-
certain tradition preserved in Irenseus, v, 30,
Eusebius, HE iii. 18, Hieronymus, de Scr. 111.
ch. 9, and others, St. John was exiled to Patmos
in the 14th year of the emperor Domitian, and
returned thence to Ephesus A. D. 96 under Nerva.
A modern traveler, Mr. Theodore Bent, has sug-
gested that the natural scenery of the island de-
termined some features of the imagery of the
Apocalypse : a suggestion which Dean Stanley in
his Sermons in IheEast had already made. (Hast-
ings' Bib. Diet.)
FATBIABCH (pa'tri-ark), (Gr. varpidpxv, P<^l-
ree-arkh' ace), a progenitor, the founder of a tribe
(Acts ii:29).
1- In the early history of the Jews we find the
ancestor or father of a family retaining authority
over his children and his children's children so
long as he lived, whatever new connections they
might form. When the father died the branch-
families did not break off and form new com-
munities, but usually united under another com-
mon head. The eldest son was generally invested
with this dignity. His authority was paternal.
He was honored as the central point of connec-
tion, and as the representative of the whole
kindred. Thus each great family had its patriarch
or head, and each tribe its prince selected from
theseveral headsofthe families it embraced. These
princes were called "elders of Israel." (See
Elders.)
2. The word "patriarch" is also applied to the
founder of a family or to any illustrious ancestor
(Acts ii :29).
3. In later ages of the Church the same title
is found, but is applied to ecclesiastical dignitaries,
and denotes the supposed paternal character of
their authority.
4. The sons of Jacob, as the progenitors of the
Jewish nation, are called, by way of distinction,
"the twelve patriarchs" (Acts vii:8). (Schaff, Bih.
Diet.)
PATRIMONY (p.^t'ri-m5-ny), (Heb. ■"''^Nr! ^r,
a/, of or from; haw-aisj-both' , the fathers), the pro-
duce of the property which a Levite possessed
according to his family descent (Deut. xviii:8).
PATROBAS (pat'ro-bas), (Gr. noTp6;3as, pat-
rob' as, life of his father).
A Christian in Rome to whom St. Paul sent
greetings (Rom. xvi;i4). (A. D. 55.) Accord-
ing to an uncertain tradition he was one of the
seventy disciples.
PATTERN (pat'tern).
1. Tab-neeth' (Heb. •'^'''.5'?, figure, form), literally
a structure, then a figure of anything, a copy or
representation (Exod. xxvip, 40; Josh. xxii:28; I
Chron. xxviii:ll, 12, 18, 19).
2. Tok-neeth' (Heb. -1"^??, Ezek. xliii:io, only),
an arrangement.
3. Mar-eh' (Heb. "^^l^, an appearance, Num.
viii:4, only), a pattern, a view.
4. Hoop-od' iguemah{QtX . vTrdSuyiw., Heb. ix:23),
signifies proi)erly a sketch, a model, as of the tab-
ernacle, an cxcmflar.
5. Hoop-ot-oop' o-sis (Gr. uiroTi5ir<j<rts, outline,
sketch), an exarnple or pattern (i Tim. i:l6).
6. Too'pos (Gr. riJiros, the mark of a stroke,
print). In Tit. ii :7 it means c.rample to be copied;
while it has the meaning (Heb. viii :s) of type,
pattern.
PATT (pa'u), (Heb. Vf, paw-ee' , bleating), the
capital city of Hadar, king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi:
39); called Pai (i Chron. 1:50). Site is not known.
PATTIi (paul), (Gr. IlaOXos, I'aiilus, originally
Saul, (Heb. ''**'?, shaw-ool', asked, SaOXos, Saulos,
asked for).
1. J^ame and Personal Histort). He
was a native of Tarsus, a city of Cilicia (Acts
.x.\ii:3, etc.), and was of Jewish descent, of the
tribe of Benjamin (Phil. iii:s). From his father
he inherited the rights of Roman citizenship,
which had probably been earned by some of his
ancestry through services rendered to the Roman
state (Lardner, Works, i, 228, ed. 1788, 8vo;
Grotius, ad Act. xxii:28). The supposition that
he enjoyed them in virtue of being a native of
Tarsus is not well founded.
At that time Tarsus was the rival of Athens
and Alexandria as a place of learning and philo-
sophical research (Strabo, xiv, 5) ; but to what e.x-
tent the future 'Apostle of the Gentiles' enjoyed
the advantage of its schools we have no means
of accurately determining. It must be allowed,
however, that the mere circumstance of having
spent his early years in such a city as Tarsus
could not but exert a very powerful influence on
the mind of such a man as Paul, in the way of
sharpening his faculties, refining his tastes, and
enlarging the circle of his sympathies arid atifec-
tions. (See T.-^Rsus.)
(1) Early Life. But whatever uncertainty may
hang over the early studies of the Apostle in the
department of Greek learning, there can be no
doubt that, being the son of a Pharisee, and
destined, in all probability, from his infancy to
the pursuits of a doctor of Jewish law, he would
be carefully instructed from his earliest years in
the elements of Rabbinical lore. It is probable
also that at this time he acquired his skill in that
handicraft trade by which in later years he fre-
quently supported himself (Acts xviiiij; i Cor.
iv:i2, etc.) ; for it was a maxim among the Jews,
that 'he who does not teach his son a trade, teaches
him to steal.'
At the proper age (supposed to be after he was
fourteen years old), the Apostle proceeded to
Jerusalem, to prosecute his studies in the learn-
ing of the Jews. Here he became a student under
Gamaliel, a distinguished teacher of the law, and
who is supposed to be the person of that name
who is celebrated in the writings of the Talmud-
ists as one of the seven teachers to whom the title
'Rabban' was given (Lightfoot. Hors Hebr. in
.let. V. 34; Neander, Apostol. Zcitaltcr. u. s. w. s.
62: Otho. Le.r. Rabbinico-Phil. title 'Rabbi'). Be-
sides acquaintance with the Jewish law, and a
sincere conviction of the supreme e.xcellence of
Judaism, Gamaliel appears to have possessed a
singularly calm and judicious mind, and to have
exercised a freedom of thought as well as pur-
sued a range of study very unlike what was com-
mon among the party to which he belonged (Acts
v:34-39; comp. Neander, loc. cit.). How much
the instructions and the example of such a teacher
may have influenced the mind of Paul in a di-
rection favorable to the course he was subse-
quently called to pursue, it is easy for us to
imagine.
We now approach the period in Paul's history
when he becomes a prominent figure on the page
of the sacred historian, and when, consequently,
the facts of his life can be more confidently nar-
rated. He is introduced to our notice by the
sacred historian for the first time in connection
with the martyrdom of Stephen, in which transac-
PAUL
1295
PAUL
tion he was, if not an assistant, something more
ilian a mere spectator.
He is described as at this time 'a young man'
(veavla!); but this term was employed witli
so much latitude by the Greeks that it is im-
possible, from the mere use of it, to determine
whether the person to whom it was applied was
under thirty or between that and forty. The
probability is that Paul must have reached the
age of thirty at least; for otherwise it is not
likely that he would have shared the counsels of
the chief priests, or been intrusted bj^ them with
the entire responsibility of executing their designs
against the followers of Jesus, as we know was
ihe case (Acts xxviiio, 12). For such a task
he showed a painful aptitude, and discharged it
with a zeal which spared neither agenor sex (Acts
viii:i-3; xxvi:io, 11). Bu> while thus, in ins
ignorance and unbelief, he was seeking to be 'in-
jurious' to the cause of Christ, the great Author
of Christianity was about to make him a distin-
guished trophy of its power, and one of the most
devoted and successful of its advocates.
(2) Conversion. While journeying to Damas-
cus (see Damascus), with a commission from
the high-priest, to arrest and bring back as pris-
oners to Jerusalem the Christians who had es-
caped thither from the fury of their persecutors,
and when he had almost completed his journey,
he was suddenly arrested by a miraculous vision
of Christ, who addressing him from heaven, de-
manded the reason of his furious zeal, in the re-
markable words, 'Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou
me?' Struck to the ground by the suddenness
and overwhelming splendor of the vision, and
r.ble only to ask by whom it was he was thus ad-
dressed, he received for answer, 'I am Jesus of
Nazareth whom thou persecutest ; but arise, and
go into the city, and it shall be told thee what
to do.' This command the confounded and now
humble zealot immediately rose to obey, but as
the brilliancy of the light which had shone around
him had dazzled him to blindness, he had to be
led into the city by his attendants. Here he re-
mained for three days and nights in a state of
deep mental conflict and dejection, tasting neither
meat nor drink, until a person of the name of
Ananias appeared at the command of Christ to
relieve his distress, and to admit him into the
Christian fraternity by baptizing him into the
name of the Lord (Acts ix:i-i8; comp. i Cor.
XV :8; ix:i; Gal. i:i; Neander, A postal. Zeitaller.
section in, sq.; Olshausen. on Acts ix:i-i9;
Lyttleton's Observations on the Conversion and
Apostlcsliip of St. Paul).
Immediately on his conversion to Christianity
Saul seems to have gone intoArabia (see Arabia),
where he remained three years (Gal. i:ii-i7);
and where he, in all probability, was chiefly occu-
pied, by meditation and study, in preparing him-
self for the great work to which he had been
called. Here also we may venture to suppose he
received that gospel which afterwards hepreached
'by revelation' from Christ (Gal. i:i2).
Returning from Arabia to Damascus theApostle
commenced his public efforts in the service of
Christ, by boldly advocating in the synagogues
of the Jews the claims of Jesus to be venerated
as the Son of God. At first astonished, the Jews
were afterwards furiously incensed at this change
in the opinions and conduct of Saul, and in con-
.sequence of their attempts upon his liberty and
life, he was obliged to make his escape from
Damascus. This he effected with difficulty by
the aid of the Christians, some of whom let him
down in a basket from the window of a dwell-
ing erected upon the outer wall of the city (Acts
ix:2l, etc.; 2 Cor. xi:.?2).
(3) First Visit to Jerusalem. After his con-
version, where, on the testimony of Barnabas,
he was acknowledged as a Christian brother, and
admitted by the Apostles to that place in their
fraternity which had been assigned to him by
Christ. From Jerusalem he was soon driven by
the hostility of the Jews; when, after visiting
Caesarea, he went to his native town Tarsus,
where he abode several years (Acts ix:26-30).
From this retreat he was summoned by Barnabas,
who, having been appointed by the Apostles at
Jerusalem to visit the church at Antioch, where
accessions had been made to the number of the
followers of Jesus from among the Gentiles as
well as the Jews, and finding the need of counsel
and co-operation in his work, went to Tarsus
to procure the assistance of Saul (Acts xi:22-25).
(4) Second Visit to Jerusalem. After resid-
ing and laboring for a year in Antioch, these
two distinguished servants of Christ were sent
up to Jerusalem with certain contributions which
had been made among the Christians at Antioch
(see Antioch), on behalf of their brethren in
Judaea, who were suffering from the effects of a
dearth (Acts xi:27-3o). This, as commonly re-
ceived, was the Apostle's second visit to Jeru-
salem after his conversion.
(5) First Missionary Journey. Having dis-
charged this commission they returned toAntioch,
accompanied by John Mark, the nephew of Bar-
nabas, and were shortly afterwards despatched by
that church, in obedience to an injunction from
heaven, on a general missionary tour. In the
course of this tour, during the earlier part only
of which they were accompanied by Mark, in
consequence of his shrinking from the toils and
dangers of the journey and returning to Jeru-
salem, they visited Scleucia, Cyprus, Perga in
Pamphylia, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra
and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia (in the former of
which the fickle populace, though at first they had
with difficulty been prevented from offering them
divine honors, were almost immediately after-
wards, at the instigation of the Jews, led to stone
the Apostle until he was left for dead) ; and then
they returned by way of Attalia, a city of
Pamphylia, by sea to Antioch. where they re-
hearsed to the church all that God had done by
them (Acts xiii-xiv). This formed the Apostle's
first great missionary tour.
In the narrative of this journey, given by Luke,
the historian, without assigning any reason for so
doing, drops the name Saul, and adopts that of
Paul, in designating the .Apostle. It is proba-
ble from this, that it was during this journey that
the Apostle's change of name actually took place.
What led to that change we can only conjecture;
and of conjectures on this point there has been
no lack. The most probable opinion is that of
Beza. Grotius. Doddridge, Kuinoel, etc., that as
the Romans and Greeks were in the habit of
softening the Hebrew names in pronunciation,
and accommodating their form to that of the
Latin or Greek (comp. Jason for Jesus, Silvanus
for Silas, Pollio for Hillel, etc.), they substituted
Paulus for y,xr. and the Apostle henceforward
adopted the substituted name as his usual desig-
nation.
(6) The Council at Jerusalem. Not long
after Paul and Barnabas had returned to Antioch,
they were deputed by the church there again to
visit Jerusalem, to consult the Apostles and elders
upon the question, which certain members of the
church at Jerusalem had raised in that at Antioch,
PAUL
129G
PAUL
whether converts from heathenism required to be
circumcised, and so become Jews before they
could be saved? (See Barnabas.) The Apostle
on this occasion visited Jerusalem for the third
time after his conversion ; and after the question
had been settled by the parties in that city with
whom the power to do so lay, he and his com-
panion returned to Antioch.
(7) Second Missionary Journey. After re-
storing peace to the church there Paul proposed
to Barnabas to undertake another missionary tour,
to which the latter cordially assented; but, un-
happily, on the very eve of their departure, a con-
tention arose between them, in consequence of
Barnabas being determined to take with them his
nephew John Mark, and Paul being equally de-
termined that one, who had on a former occasion
ingloriously deserted them, should not again be
employed in the work. Unable to come to an
agreement on this point they separated, and Paul,
accompanied by Silas, commenced his second mis-
sionary journey, in the course of which, after
passing through Syria and Cilicia, he revisited
Lystra and Derbe. At the former of these places
he found Timothy, whom he associated with Silas,
as the companion of his further travels, after
he had been ordained by the Apostle and the
presbytery of the church of which he was a
member (l Tim. iv:l4). Paul then passed through
the regions of Phrygia and Galatia, and, avoiding
Asia strictly so-called, and Bithynia, he came
with his companions by way of Mysia to Troas,
on the borders of the Hellespont. Hence they
crossed to Samothracia, and thence to Neapolis,
and so to Philippi, whither he had been sum-
moned in a vision by a man of Macedonia saying,
'Come over and help us.' After some time spent
in this city they passed through Amphipolis and
Apollonia, cities of Macedonia (see Macedonia).
and came to Thessalonica, where, though they
abode only a short time, they preached the gospel
with no small success. Driven from that city
by the malice of the Jews, they came by night to
Berea, another city of Macedonia, where at first
they were favorably received by the Jews, until
a party from Thessalonica, which had followed
them, incited the Bereans against them. Paul,
as especially obnoxious to the Jews, deemed it
prudent to leave the place, and accordingly re-
tired to Athens, where he determined to await
the arrival of Silas and Timothy. Whilst resid-
ing in this city, and observing the manners and
religious customs of its inhabitants, his spirit was
stirred within him, when he saw how entirely
they were immersed in idolatry; and unable to
refrain, he commenced in the synagogues of the
Jews, and in the market-place, to hold discussions
with all whom he encountered. This led to his
being taken to the Areopagus, where, surrounded
by perhaps the shrewdest, most polished, most
acute, most witty, and most scornful assemblage
that ever surrounded a preacher of Christianity,
he. with exquisite tact and ability, exposed the
folly of their superstitions, and unfolded the char-
acter and claims of the living and true God. For
the purpose of more effectually arresting the at-
tention of his audience, he commenced by refer-
ring to an altar in their city, on which he had
read the inscri])tion i^vwa-Tip $e(f, to an nii-
knozi'n God; and, applying this to Jehovah, he
proposed to declare to them that Deity, whom
thus, withotit knowing him (dXeooDi/res), they
were worshiping.
On being rejoined by Timothy (i Thess. iii :
l), and perhaps also by Silas (comp. Greswell's
Dissertations, ii, pp. 31, 32), the Apostle sent
them both back to Macedonia, and went alone to
visit Corinth, whither they soon after followed
him (Acts xviii:5). Here he abode for a year
and a half preaching the gospel, and supporting
himself by his trade as a tent-maker, in which
he was joined by a converted Jew of the name
of Aquila, who, with his wife Priscilla, had been
expelled from Rome by an edict of the emperor,
forbidding Jews to remain in that city. Driven
from Corinth by the enmity of the Jews,_he, along
with Aquila and Priscilla, betook himself to
Ephesus, whence, after a residence of only a few
days, he went up to Jerusalem, being commanded
by Cjod to visit that city, at the time of the ap-
proaching passover. His visit on this occasion —
the iourth since his conversion — was very brief;
and at the close of it he went down to Antioch,
thereby completing his second great apostolic
tour.
(8) Third Missionary Journey. At Antioch
he abode for some time, and then, accompanied,
as is supposed, by Titus, he commenced another
extensive tour, in the course of which, after pass-
ing through Phrygia and Galatia, he visited
Ephesus. The importance of this city, in relation
to the region of Hither Asia, determined him to
remain in it for a considerable time ; and he ac-
cordingly continued preaching the gospel there
for three years, with occasional brief periods of
absence, for the purpose of visiting places in the
vicinity. With such success were his efforts
crowned, that the gains of those who were in-
terested in supporting the worship of Diana, the
tutelar goddess of the city, began to be seriously
affected; and at the instigation of one of these,
by name Demetrius, a silversmith, who had en-
joyed a lucrative traffic by the manufacture of
what appear to have been miniature representa-
tions of the famous temple of Diana (vaois apyv-
povs 'Apr^/iiSot, comp. Kuinoel, in Act. xix,24;
Neander, A post. Zeit. § 350), a popular tumult
was excited against the Apostle, from the fury of
which he was with difficulty rescued by the
sagacity and tact of the town-clerk, aided by oth-
ers of the chief men of the place, who appear
to have been friendly towards Paul. By this
occurrence the Apostle's removal from Ephesus,
on which, however, he had already determined
(Acts xix:2l). was in all probability expedited;
and, accordingly, he very soon after the tumult
went by way of Troas to Philippi, where he
appears to have resided some time, and from
which, as his headquarters, he made extensive
excursions into the surrounding districts, pene-
trating even to Illyricum, on the eastern shore of
the Adriatic (Rom. xv:i9). From Philippi he
went to Corinth, where he resided three months,
and then returned to Philippi, having been frus-
trated in his design of proceeding through Syria
to Jerusalem by the malice of the Jews. Sailing
from Philippi. he came to Troas, where he abode
seven days; thence he journeyed on foot toAssos;
thence he proceeded by sea to Miletus, where he
had an affecting interview with the elders of the
church at Ephesus (Acts .xx:i7, sq.) ; thence he
sailed for Syria, and, after visiting several inter-
mediate ports, landed at Tyre; and thence, after
a residence of seven days, he traveled by way of
Ptolemais and Coesarea to Jerusalem. This con-
stituted his fifth visit to that city after his con-
version.
(9) Arrest at Jerusalem. On his arrival at
Jerusalem he had the mortification to find that,
whilst the malice of his enemies the Jews was
unabated, the minds of many of his brother Chris-
tians were alienated from him on account of what
PAUL
1297
PAUL
they deemed his too lax and liberal notions of
the obligations of the Mosaic ritnal. To obviate
these feelings on their part, he, at the suggestion
of the Apostle James, joined himself to four
persons who had taken on them the vows of a
Nazarite, and engaged to pay the cost of the sacri-
fices by wliich the Mosaic ritual required that
such should be absolved from their vows. With
what success this somewhat questionable act of
the Apostle was attended, as respects the minds of
his brethren, we are not informed, but it had no
effect whatever in securing for him any mitiga-
tion of the hatred with which he was regarded by
the unconverted Jews; on the contrary, his ap-
pearance in the temple so much exasperated them,
that, before his vow was accomplished, they seized
him, and would have put him to death had not
Lysias, the commander of the Roman cohort in
the adjoining citadel brought soldiers to his res-
cue. Under the protection of Lysias, the Apostle
addressed the angry mob, setting forth the main
circumstances of his life, and especially his con-
version to Christianity, and his appointment to
preach the gospel to the Gentiles. Up to this
point they heard him patiently ; but no sooner
had he insinuated that the Gentiles were viewed
by him as placed on a par with the Jews, than
all their feelings of national bigotry burst forth
in a tempest of execration and fury against the
Apostle. Lysias, ignorant of what Paul had been
saying, from his having addressed the people in
Hebrew, and suspecting from these vehement
demonstrations of the detestation in which he was
held by the Jews that something flagrantly vicious
must have been committed by him, gave orders
that he should be examined, and forced by scourg-
ing to confess his crime. From this indignity
Paul delivered himself by asserting his privileges
as a Roman citizen, whom it was not lawful to
bind or scourge.
Next day, in the presence of the Sanhedrim, he
entered into a defense of his conduct, in the
course of which, having avowed himself a be-
liever in the doctrine of a bodily resurrection, he
awakened so fierce a controversy on this point be-
tween the Pharisees and the Sadducees in the coun-
cil that Lysias, fearing he might be torn to pieces
among them, gave orders to remove him into the
fort. From a conspiracy into which above forty
of the Jews had entered to assassinate him he
was delivered by the timely interposition of his
nephew, who, having acquired intelligence of the
plot, intimated it first to Paul, and then to Lysias.
Alarmed at the serious appearance which the mat-
ter was assuming, Lysias determined to send
Paul to Cassarea. where Felix the procurator was
residing, and to leave the affair to his decision.
At Caesarea Paul and his accusers were heard by
Felix ; but though the Apostle's defense was un-
answerable, the procurator, fearful of giving the
Jews offense, declined pronounciiig any decision,
and still retained Paul in bonds. Some time after
he was again summoned to appear before Felix,
who, along with his wife Dnisilla, expressed a
desire to hear him'concerning the faith in Christ;'
and on this occasion the faithful and fearless
Apostle discoursed so pointedly on certain
branches of good morals, in which the parties he
was addressing were notoriously deficient, that
Felix trembled, and hastily sent him from his
presence.
Shortly after this Felix was succeeded in his
government by Porcius Festus. before whom the
Jews again brought their charges against Paul ;
and who, when the cause came to be heard,
showed so much of a dispositipn to favor the
63
Jews that the Apostle felt himself constrained
to appeal to Csesar. To gratify King Agrippa
and his wife Bernice, who had come to Cxsarea
to visit Festus, and whose curiosity was excited
by what they had heard of Paul, he was again
called before the governor and "permitted to speak
ior himself.' On this occasion he recapitulated
the leading points of his history, and gave such
an account of his views and designs that a deep
impression was made on the mind of Agrippa
favorable to Christianity and to the Apostle ; so
much so that, but for his having appealed to
Cssar, it is probable he would have been set at
liberty.
(10) Voyage to Kome. His cause, however,
having by that appeal been placed in the liands of
the emperor, it was necessary that he should go to
Rome, and thither accordingly Festus sent him.
His voyage was long and disastrous. Leaving
Caesarea when the season was already consider-
ably advanced, they coasted along Syria as far
as Sidon, and then crossed to Myra, a port of
Lycia ; tlience they sailed slowly to Cnidus ; and
thence, in consequence of unfavorable winds, they
struck across to Crete, and with difficulty reached
a port on the southern part of that island called
'The Fair Haven,' near the town of Lasea.
There Paul urged the centurion, under whose
charge he and his fellow-prisoners had been
placed, to winter ; but the place not being very
suitable for this purpose, and the weather prom-
ising favorably, this advice was not followed, and
they again set sail, intending to reach Phoenice, u
port in the same island, and there to winter.
Scarcely had they set sail, however, when a
tempest arose, at the mercy of which they were
driven for fourteen days in a westerly direction,
until they were cast upon the coast of Malta,
where they suffered shipwreck, but without any
loss of life. Hospitably received by the natives,
they abode there three months, during which
time Paul had a favorable opportunity of preach-
ing the gospel, and of showing the power with
which he was endued for the authentication of
his message by performing many miracles for the
advantage of the people.
On the approach of spring they availed them-
selves of a ship of Alexandria which had win-
tered in the island, and set sail for Syracuse,
v^here they remained three days ; thence they
crossed to Rhegium, in Italy ; and thence to
Puteoli, from which place Paul and his com-
panions journeyed to Rome.
(11) At Kome. Here he was delivered by the
centurion to the captain of the guard, who per-
mitted him to dwell in his own hired house un-
der the surveillance of a soldier. And thus he
continued for two years, 'receiving all that came
to him, preaching the kingdom of God, and teach-
ing those things which concern the Lord Jesus
Christ, with all confidence, no man forbidding
him' (.'\cts xxi:i7; xxviiir.^l).
(12) Martyrdom. At this point the evangelist
abruptly closes his narrative, leaving us to glean
our information regarding the subsequent history
of the Apostle from less certain sources. Tradi-
tion steadfastly affirms that he suffered martyrdom
at Rome, and that the manner of his death was
by beheading (Tillemont, Mciiuyircs, i, p. 32^) ;'
but whether this took place at the close of the
imprisonment mentioned by Luke, or after a sec-
ond imprisonment incurred subsequent to an in-
tervening period of freedom and active exertion
in the cause of Christianity, has been much dis-
cussed by modern writers. If, on the evidence fur-
nished by the allusions in the Second Epistle to
PAUL
1298
PAUL
Timothy, we adopt the supposition above stated,
it will follow that Paul, during the interval be-
tween his first and second imprisonments, under-
took an extensive apostolic tour, in the course of
which he visited his former scenes of labor in
Asia and Greece, and perhaps also fulfilled his
purpose of going into Spain (Rom. xv:24-28).
He probably also visited Crete and Dalmatia
(comp. Greswell, vol. ii, pp. 78-100).
(13) Literature Concerning Paul. On the
writings of the apostle Paul, see the articles in
this work under the titles of his different epistles ;
Pearson, Annates Paulini, 4to Lond. 1688,
translated by J. M. Williams, l2mo. Cambridge.
1826; J. Lange, Comment. Hist. Hermcneut. de
Vita et El>istolis Ap. Pauli, 4to Halae, 1718; Mac-
knight, Translation of the Afostolical Epistles,
vol. vi, 8vo, vol. iv, 4to ; Lardner, Works, vol.
vi, 8vo, vol. iii, 410; More, Essay on St. Paul,
2 vols.; Tate, Continuous History of St. Paul
(prefixed to a new edition of Paley's Horcc Paul-
ina), 8vo, Lond., 1840; Schrader, Dcr Ap.
Paulas, 3 th. 8vo. Leip. 1830; Hemsen, Der Ap.
(laulus, Svo. Gott. 1830; Tholuck, Vermischte
Schriften, bd. ii. (translated in the Edinburgli
hiblical Cabinet, vol. xxviii. ; Binney, Lectures on
St. Paul, 1866; Howson, Metaphors of St. Paul,
1868; Companions of St. Paul, 1871 ; Smith, Voy-
age of St. Paul; Lewin, Life and Letters of St.
Paul, 1874; Conybeare and Howson. Life of St.
Paul. W. L. A.
St. Paul (from a Roman Tablet of about the Fonrth Century).
2. Credibilitif of His Writings. In some direc-
tions there has arisen a tendency to discredit
the testimony of Paul as well as that of many
other Biblical writers. It has been claimed
that in order to learn precisely what were the
teachings of the apostles in reference to the
Christ we must confine ourselves to the first three
gospels; that the book of the Acts docs not give
an account of tjiings as they actually occurred ;
and that no doctrine of the NewTestament should
be emphasized unless it is clearly taught in the
books of Matthew. Mark, or Luke. We are asked
to reject, or consider of doubtful authority, those
special themes which seem to have appealed very
strongly to the minds of Peter, Paul and John.
(V> A Badical Change. Whether or not men
reject the account of his conversion, there is no
avoiding the conclusion that during his early
manhood he met with a radical change, not only
of opinion but also of character. Certain it is that
his whole mental attitude toward the Christ was
changed. It appears that he himself abandone
the title of Saul and chose the name of Paul,
which means "the little one;" whether or not
this name was taken on account of his bodily
size, which is said to have been small, it was cer-
tainly illustrative of the change which had passed
over the man, who now called himself "the least
of the apostles."
Here was a man of education and ability, whose
convictions became so strong that he willingly
— nay gladly — forfeited the good will of all his
old friends, forfeited his social position and all
of his worldly prospects, by espousing the cause
and the name of the Christ. This converted Jew
Hung the banner of the cross in the faces of the
very men with whom he had been associated in
the work of persecution. No wonder he could
assert that "/ have been crucified zvith Christ yet
I live; and yet no longer I, but Christ liveth in
mc ; and the life which I noiv live in the flesh, 1
live in faith, the faith which is in the Son of
God who loved me and gave himself up for me"
(Gal. ii :20, R. V.) Having perceived the full
power of the cross as a means of redemption from
the power of the hiw, he testified that: "Christ re-
deemed us from the curse of the laiv, having be-
come a curse for us" (Gal. iii:ii-i3). There is
much similar testimony in this single Epistle, and
the Galatians accepted the doctrine. They knew
it must be true, for the man who preached ii
wrote to them out of his own experience, and they
knew that he had given up a life of ease for one
of hardship, loss, and suffering, for the sake of
the truth which he advocated.
His Epistle to the Romans is no less emphatic.
In the very first chapter he affirms that Jesus is
the Son of God ; "Promised afore by his prophets
in the Holy Scriptures concerning his Son who
was born of the seed of David according to the
flesh, who was declared to be the Son of God
with pozver, according to the spirit of holiness by
the resurrection from the dead" (Rom. i:2-4).
Paul's message pertains to life and death, and
the resurrection from the dead, and this is the
gospel which he advocates, not as his own but as
"the gospel of his Son." This gospel "is the
power of God unto salvation to every one that
bilieveth; to the Jew first and also to the Greek.
This gospel is for all : "For all have sinned and
come short of the glory of God; being justified
freely by his grace through the redemption that
is in Christ Jesus: whom God set forth to be a
propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare
his righteousness for the remission of sins that
are past through the forbearance of God" (Rom.
y.\ -.22-24) . The same thought is repeatedly ex-
piessed, for he preached the justification by faith,
as a means of "peace with God through our Lord
'esus Christ." "While we were yet sinners, Christ
died for us." "IVhile we ivere enemies ive were
reconciled to God through the death of his Son
and not only so, but we rejoice in
God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through
zvhom we have received the reconciliation (Rom.
v:8-ii, R. V.)
(2) Apostle to the Gentiles. Although "a
Hebrew of the Hebrews" Paul became in a pe-
culiar sense "the Apostle to the Gentiles." He
taught both Jews and Gentiles that men are justi-
fied by faith and not by obedience to the law, and
that the circumcision which God required under
PAUL
12!)fl
pi: ACE
the new covenant was the circumcision of the
heart and not of the flesh.
He freely taught that all men are sinners ; that
they cannot be justified before God by an obedi-
ence rendered in their own strength, or by obedi-
ence to the Jewish law. Freedom from con-
demnation must come through faith in the Christ,
who as the descendant of David, and as the Son
of God, came into the world as an offering for
sin, that as many as believe in him may have
eternal life.
His assertions are in perfect harmony with
Matthew, who says : "This is the blood of my
covenant which is shed for many unto remission
of sins" (Matt. x.xvi:28). In the letters to the
Corinthians references to the death of Christ are
not so frequent, but they are no less emphatic.
His theme was still "Christ crucified."
In the fifteenth chapter, in which the resurrec-
tion of believers is taught so forcibly, it is con-
nected always with the resurrection of him who
hath broken the tomb, and illumined the sepulcher
by passing through its portals.
Paul's testimony concerning the death, burial,
resurrection and ascension of our Lord is as em-
phatic as that of Matthew, Mark and Luke. He
believed it with all his heart and taught it un-
flinchingly in the face of imprisonment and pri-
vation. In heat and cold, under the repeated
stripes of cruel scourging, he never shrinks in the
proclamation of that gospel whose truth was so
convincing that for it he had renounced every-
thing that the world could offer him.
(3) Requisites of a Witness. The credibil-
ity of a witness requires that he should be con-
scientious, and all of Paul's history shows him to
have been so; whether he was persecuting the
saints or flinging the banner of the cross in the
face of the polished Athenians he was always
sternly uncompromising, (a) The credibility of
a witness also requires that he shall know whereof
he affirms ; that he shall be personally acquainted
with the facts in regard to which he testifies; and
this was eminently true of the great Apostle to
the Gentiles, (b) Also that he shall have moral
courage enough to tell the truth even in face
of opposition, and if need be of persecution also.
The apostle Paul at last sealed his testimony with
his blood, (c) Such credibility is greatly in-
creased in value if he has been convinced against
his will and in the face of preconceived opinions.
Not only is this true of Paul, but the truth to
which he testifies is one to which his former atti-
tude was of uncompromising hostility. After be-
ing the persecutor he accepted of persecution.
"Are they ministers of Christ? I am more; in
labors more abundant, in stripes above measure,
in prisons frequent, in deaths oft. ... In
perils by waters, in perils by mine owncountry-
men, in perils lay the heathen . . -in weari-
ness and painfulness, in vvatchings often, in hun-
ger and thirst, in fastings often" (2 Cor. xi :23-27).
When a man will lead a life like this for the sake
of the truth which he loves shall we not accept his
testimony? (See Art. in Bib. Sacra, by Rev. Ed-
ward F. Williams, 1899, pp. 657, sq.)
3. Epistles of Paul. The Epistles of Paul
are thirteen, or, if we count the Hebrews (as the
product of Paul's mind, though probably not of
his pen), fourteen, in number. They are the
most remarkable body of correspondence in the
history of literature. They are tracts for the
times, and yet tracts for all times. They will be
found separately considered under their titles.
Here some general remarks only are given. They
may be arranged differently.
(a) Chronolo^cally.
I and 2 Thessalonians, written A. 3. 52, 53, froni
Corinth.
Galatians, written \. D. 56-57. from Ephesus.
1 Corinthians, written A. D. 57, from Ephesus.
2 Corinthians, written A. D. 57, from Macedonia.
Romans, written A. D. 58, from Corinth.
Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon,
written A. D. 61-63, from Rome.
Hebrews, written A. D. 64 (?), from Italy,
i Timothy and Titus, written A. D. 65 or 57 (?),
from Macedonia.
2 Timothy, written A. D. 67 or 64 (?), from
Rome.
The time of the composition of the Pastoral
Epistles depends upon the question of the second
Roman captivity. The Second Epistle to Timothy
was at all events the last, whether written in the
first or second captivity.
(b) Topically.
Romans and Galatians ; doctrines of sin andgrace.
I and 2 Corinthians : moral and practical ques-
tions.
Colossians and Philippians: person of Christ.
Ephesians: the Church of Christ.
I and 2 Thessalonians: the second advent.
I and 2 Timothy and Titus : church government
and pastoral care.
Philemon : slavery.
Hebrews : the eternal priesthood and sacrifice of
Christ.
(c) As to Importance, the order in our Bible is
pretty correct. The epistles are all important,
but were not equally well understood in all ages
of the church. Thus the Galatians and Romans
were more appreciated in the time of the Refor-
mation than in any preceding century ; they are
the stronghold of the evangelical doctrines of to-
tal depravity and salvation by free grace. Paul's
epistles give us the most complete exhibition of
the various doctrines of Christianity and of the
spiritual life of the apostolic church, and are ap-
plicable to all ages and congregations. vSchaff,
Bih. Diet.) (See Acts of the Apostles; Epis-
tles; and the various Epistles specifically treated.)
PAUIiTJS (pau'liis). See Sergius Paulus.
PAVEMENT (pav'm,?nt), (Heb. ^^'^'), riis-paw' ,
hot stone; once, 2 Kings xvi:i7, '"^^Vl^, tnar-tseh'-
feth). Originally a stone he;Ued for baking pur-
poses, hence a tesselated pa^iemeni (2 Chron. vii;3;
Esth. i:6; Ezek. xhi;, 18).
PAVILION (pa-vH'yun), (Heb. 7)0, soke,. See
Tent.
PAW (pa), (Heb. '^\,yawd, hand).
1. Paw of a lion, or of a bear (i Sam. xvii:37).
2. The palm or hollow hand, as the Hebrew is
elsewhere rendered (Lev. xi:27). (Comp. Job
xxxi.x :2I.)
PEACE (pes), (Heb. 2"?, shaw-lome, safety,
familiar; Or. dp'hvn, i-ray'nay, unity, concord).
Peace is that state of mind in which persons are
exposed to no open violence to interrupt their tran-
quillity, (l) Social ficace is mutual agreement
one with another, whereby we forbear injuring one
another (Ps. xxxiv:i4; cxxii:6). (2) Ecclesiasti-
cal peace '\} freedom from contentions and rest
from persecutions (Is. xi:l3; xxxii:l7; Rev. xii :
14). (3) Spiritual peace is deliverance from sin,
by which we were at enmity with God (Rom. v:
i) ; the result of which is peace in the conscience
(Heb. x:22). This peace is the gift of God
through Jesus Christ (2 Thess. iii:i6). It is a
blessing of great importance (Ps. cxix;l6s). It is
PEACEMAKERS
1300
PEDAIAH
denominated perfect (Is. xxvi:3), inexpressible
(Phil. \\:7), permanent (Job xxxiv:22; John xvi :
22). eternal (Is. lvii:2; Heb. iv:9; Ps.lv :20; John
xiv:27).
PEACEMAKERS (pes'mak'ers), (Gr. etprivo-rroiis,
i-ray-nop-oy-os' , worker of peace).
The term includes the peace lovers and the
founders of peace. They who heal up breaches
and restore harmony and good fellowship (comp.
Matt. v:9; Col. 1:20; Rom. xvi:20; 2 Cor. xiii:
11; also Luke ii:i4; John xvi :33 ; Eph. ii:i4).
PEACE OFFERING (pes offering). See Of-
fering.
PEACOCK (pe'kok), (Heb. '?•/', took-kee').
It is a question perhaps more of geographical
and historical than of Biblical interest to decide
whether tlulkyim (l Kings x:22), and thakyim
(2 Chron. ix:2i) denote peacocks strictly _ so
called, or some other species of animal or bird.
There are only two species of true peacocks, viz.,
that under consideration, which is the Pavo cris-
tatus of Linn. ; and another, Pavo Muticus, more
recently discovered, which differs in some par-
ticulars, and originally belongs to Japan and
China. Peacocks bear the cold of the Himalayas:
they run with great swiftness, and where they
are, serpents do not abound, as they devour the
young with great avidity, and, it is said, attack
with spirit even the Cobra di Capello when grown
to considerable size, arresting its progress and
confusing it by the rapidity and variety of their
evolutions around it, till exhausted with fatigue
it is struck on the head and dispatched.
This singular and beautiful bird is mentioned
among the articles imported by Solomon from
Tharshish, the modern Ceylon or Malabar coast
of India, where the peacock is indigenous. In
Job xxxix:i3 another Hebrew word is found,
better rendered "ostriches," and the word "os-
trich" should be translated (as it is elsewhere)
"stork." The wings of the ostrich cannot raise
it from the ground; yet in running it catches (or,
as the word rendered "goodly" imports, "drinks
in") the wind. The construction of the ostrich
and that of the stork are thus contrasted, as are
also their habits ; for the stork is as proverbial
for her tenderness to her young as is the ostrich
for her seeming indifference (Job xxxix:l4-i6).
(See Ostrich; Stork.)
PEARLS (perls), (Heb. ^"T^, g-aw-becsh'). It is
doubtful that pearls are mentioned in the Old
Testament. The word gabish, rendered 'pearl' in
Job xxviii:i8 appears to mean crystal ; and the
word ^"•T't^, pen-ee-necm, which our version trans-
lates by 'rubies' is now supposed to mean coral
(See Coral). But in the New Testament the
pearl is repeatedly mentioned.
In Matt, xiii ;4S, 46, a merchant (traveling jew-
eler) seeking goodly pearls, finds one pearl of
great price, and to be able to purchase it sells
all that he has — all the jewels he had previously
secured. In i Tim.ii :g, and Rev. xvii :4. pearls are
mentioned as the ornaments of females ; in Rev.
xviii:i2-l6, among costly merchandise; and Rev.
xxi :2i, the twelve gates of the heavenly Jerusa-
lem are 'twelve pearls.'
These intimations seem to indicate that pearls
were in more common use among the Jews after
than before the captivity, while they evince the
estimation in which they were in later times held
(Plin. Hist. Nat. ix, 54; xii, 41; /Elian, Anim. x,
13; comp. Ritter Urdkundc, ii, 164). The island
of Tylos (Bahrein) was especially renowned for
its fishery of pearls (Plin. vi. 32; comp. Strabo,
xvi. p. 767; Athen. iii. 93) ; the Indian ocean was
also known to produce pearls (Arrian, Indica, p.
194; Plin. ix. 54; xxxiv. 48; Strabo, xv. p. 7i7)-
Heeren feels assured that this indication must be
understood to r;fer to the strait between Tapro-
bana, or Ceylon, and the southernmost point of
the mainland of India, Cape Comorin, whence
Europeans, even at present, derive their principal
supplies of these costly natural productions. This
writer adds, 'Pearls have at all times been es-
teemed one of the most valuable commodities of
the East. Their modest splendor and simple
beauty appear to have captivated the Orientals,
even more than the dazzling brilliancy of the dia-
mond, and have made them at all times the favor-
ite ornament of despotic princes. In the West,
the passion for this elegant luxury was at its
height about the period of the extinction of Ro-
man freedom, and they were valued in Rome and
Alexandria as highly as precious stones. In Asia
this taste was of more ancient date, and may be
traced to a period anterior to the Persian dy-
nasty; nor has it ever declined. A string of pearls
of the largest size is an indispensable part of the
decorations of an Eastern monarch. It was thus
that Tippoo was adorned when he fell before the
gates of his capital ; and it is thus that the present
ruler of the Persians is usually decorated' (Ideen,
i. 2. 224).
Figurative. Pearl is used to signify a thing
of great value and as a symbol of the kingdom of
God (Matt, xiii :4s, 46). To "cast pearls before
swine," is to preach the gospel to malicious per-
secutors; apply the promises and privileges proper
to saints, to men really wicked; to dispense sac-
raments to persons notoriously profane ; or to ad-
minister reproof to obstinate scoffers (Matt, vii:
6). (Brown, Bib. Diet.)
PECTTLIAR (pg-kul'y5r), (Heb. ^\}^, seg-ooc-
law, wealth), (Gr. Trfpuro/ijo-is, per-ee-poy' ay-sis),
that which is separated to one's special use.
God's people are called "peculiar;" they are sep-
arated from the rest of the world to his honor
and service ; they share in special privileges, and
are carefully preserved and highly regarded by
him (Exod. xix :5 ; i Pet. ii:9).
PEDAHEL (ped'a-hel), (Heb. ''W^^, ped-ah-
ale' , God delivers).
Son of Ammihud. and chief of the tribe of
Naphtali in the wilderness. Moses designated
him as the representative of his tribe to divide
western Palestine (Num. xxxiv :28). (B. C.
1618.)
PEDAHZUR (pe-dah'zur), (Heb. '>"'^^'?f, ped-
aw-tsoor' , the rock delivers).
The head of a family in the tribe of Manas-
sch, and father of Gamaliel, who assisted Moses
in numbering the people (Num. i:i0; ii:20; vii:
54, 59; x:23). (B. C. about 1657.)
PEDAIAH (pe-da'iah, ya), (Heb. ^TR, ped-
aw-yah' , Jah has ransomed).
1. The father of Joel, who was prince of the
half tribe of Manasseh in the time of David (l
Chron. xxvii:20). (B. C. before 1013.)
2. Father of Josiah's wife, Zebudah, and a citi-
zen of Rumah (2 Kings xxiii:36). (B. C. before
648.)
3. Father of Zerubbabel (i Chron. iii: 18), by
the widow of Salathiel, his brother. (B. C. be-
fore 536.)
4. A descendant of Parosh, who aided in re-
building the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii:25). (B.
C. 446.)
PEDIGREE
1301
PELICAN
5. A son of Kolaiah, a Benjamite, of the family
of Jeshaiah (Neh. xi:7).
6. A Levite who was treasurer, or disburser
under Nehemiah (Neh. xiii:i3), and no doubt
the same who stood at the left of Ezra when he
expounded the law to the people (Neh. viii:4).
(B.C. 445)
PEDIGREE (ped-I-gre), (Hcb. "li', yaw-lad, to
show lineage).
Early in the second year after leaving Egypt
Moses mustered all the tribes except Levi, and
had the people enrolled in genealogical registers
by the heads of the tribes. According to these
genealogical divisions they marched, pitched their
tents, and made their offerings. (See Gene.\l-
00 V.)
PEELED (peld), (Heb. ^'T^.tnaiL'-raf , Is. xviii:
2,7; Ezek. xxlx:i8), stripped or bereft of hair.
PEEP (pep), (Heb. ""l??, tsaw-faf, to coo or chirp
as a bird). Noises made by necromancers who
pretended to communicate with the dead (Is.
viii:i9).
PEGANON (pfig'a-non), (Or. irriyavov, f>ay-gah'-
»on). The word rue occurs only in Luke .\i 142.
'But woe unto you. Pharisees! for ye tithe mint
and rue and all manner of herbs, and pass over
judgment,' etc. In the parallel passage (Matt.
xxiii:23). dill (an'ay-thon), translated anise in
the English Version, is mentioned instead of rue.
Both dill and rue were cultivated in the gardens
of Eastern countries in ancient times as they are
at the present day. That rue was employed as
an ingredient in diet, and as a condiment, is abun-
dantly evident from Apicius, as noticed by Cel-
sius, and is not more extraordinary than was the
fondness of some Eastern nations for assafoe-
tida as a seasoning to food. That one kind was
cultivated by the Israelites is evident from its
being mentioned as one of the articles of which
the Pharisees paid their tithes, though they neg-
lected the weightier matters of the law. Rosen-
muller states that in the Talmud {Tract Shebiith
ih. ix, sec. l) the rue is indeed mentioned
imongst kitchen herbs; but at the same time it
is there expressly stated that it is tithe free, it
being one of those herbs which are not cultivated
in gardens, according to the general rule estab-
lished in the Talmud. (See Rue.) J.. F. R.
PEKAH (pe'kah), (Heb. "p-?.. peh'kakh, open-
eyed; Sept. 'J'oKc^e, phay-kee"),^\e^ officer who slew
I'ekahiah and mounted the throne in his stead (B.
C. 724), becoming the eighteenth king of Israel.
He reigned twenty years.
Towards the close of his life (but not before
the seventeenth year of his reign) he entered
into a league with Rezin. king of Damascene-
Syria, against Judah ; and the success which at-
tended their operations induced Ahaz to tender
to Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, his homage
and tribute, as the price of his aid and protection.
The result was that the kings of Syria and Israel
were soon obliged to abandon their designs against
Judah in order to attend to their own domin-
ions, of which considerable parts were seized
and retained by the Assyrians. Israel lost all
the territory east of the Jordan, and the two and
a half tribes which inhabited it were sent into
exile. These disasters seem to have created such
popular discontent as to give the sanction of pub-
lic opinion to the conspiracy headed by Hoshea,
in which the king lost his life (2 Kings xv:25,
sq.; xvi:5, sq.; Is. vii).
PEKAHIAH (p«k'a-hl'ah), (Heb. '""^HW, pek-
akh-yaw' , Jehovah has opened his eyes), son and
successor of Menahem, king of Israel, who began
to reign B. C. 760.
He patronized and supported the idolatry of the
golden calves; and after an undistinguished reign
of two years, Pekah,one of his generals, conspired
against him, and with the aid of Argob and Arish,
and fifty Gileadites, slew him in the harem of his
own palace (2 Kings xv:22-2S).
PEKOD (pS'kod), (Heb. "T?, fiek'ode, visitation
or punishment), a locality of Babylonia (Jer. 1:21 ;
Ezek. xxiii:23).
PELALAH (pel'a-i'ah), (Heb.'i;'<,"'T-A-/<ia/->aa/'.
distinguished by Jehovah).
1. A Levite who assisted Ezra in instructing
the people in the law, and who joined in the cove-
nant with Nehemiah (Neh. viii7; x:io). (B. C.
445)
2. Son of Eleoenai, of Judah (i Chron. iii:24),
(B. C. after 400).
PELALIAH (pel'a-li'ah). (Heb. ^;?if, pelal-
yaw' , jah judges).
A priest, descendant of Malchijah, and father
of Jeroham (Neh. xi:i2). (B. C. before 445.)
PELATIAH (p6l'a-ti'ah), (Heb. 'T-'^F, pel-at-
yaw
in"j
T, pel-at-yaw' Iwo, Jah delivers),
1. A captain of the Simeonites in their suc-
cessful war with the Amalckites of Mt. Seir in
the time of Hezekiah (i Chron. iv:42). (B. C.
about 700.)
2. Son of Benaiah and a prince of Israel.
Ezekiel prophesied against him, and the prophecy
was realized in Pelatiah's sudden death (Ezek.
xi:i-i3). (B. C. about 592.)
3. The first named son of Hananiah, and a de-
scendant of David (i Chron. iii:2i). (B. C.
after 536.)
4. One of those who joined in the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x:22). (B. C. 440.)
PELEG (pe'leg),(Heb.^.;?,/f/;7<^, division), son
of Eber, and fourth in descent from Shem.
His name feh'-leg, means division or sefiaralion,
and is said to have been given him 'because in his
days the earth was divided' (Gen. x:25; xi:i6);
concerning which see Nations, Dispersion of.
PELET (pe'let),(Hcb."^2. A-//7<V, escape).
1. Fourth son of Jahdai, of the tribe of Judah
(l Chron. ii:47). (B. C. after 1612.)
2. A descendant of Azmaveth, a Benjamite. and
one of those who came to David at Ziklag (i
Chron. xii:3). (B. C. about 1015.)
PELETH (pe'leth), (Heb. '7^f, pehleth, flight.
haste).
1. Father of On. of the tribe of Reuben (Num.
xvi:i). (B. C. before 1657.)
2. Son of Jonathan, of Judah, of the family of
Hezron (i Chron. ii :33). He was a descendant
of Jerahmeel through Onam. (B. C. about 1618.)
PELETHITES (pe'leth-ites), (Heb. T?f, pel-
ay-thee' , niiiiier).
The Pelethites and the Cherethites were fa-
mous under the reign of David, as the most
valiant men of his army, and the guards of his
person (2 Sam. xv:i8-22; xx:7). Their name is
supposed to indicate their duties, or it is per-
haps a Gentile name. (See Cherethites and
Pelethites.)
PELICAN (p«rr-kan). (Heb. f^*?!?, kaw-ath').
Arabic and Talmuds, jt»i and kik.
PELONITE
1302
PENTATEUCH
The name kaw-ath is supposed to be derived
from the action of throwing up food, which the
bird really effects when discharging the contents
of the bag beneath its bill. But it may be sug-
gested, as not unlikely, that all the above names
arc imitative of the voice of the pelican, which,
although seldom heard in captivity, is uttered
frequently at the periods of migration, and is
compared to the braying of an ass. It may be
likewise that this characteristic has influenced
several translators of the Hebrew text in substi-
tuting on some, or on all, occasions where kaatli
occurs, bittern for pelican, but we think without
sufficient reason. (See Kephod ; Bittern). Kaath
is found in Lev. xi :i8; Deut. xiv :I7; Ps. cii :6 ; Is.
xxxiv:ii; Zeph. ii:i4.
Pelicans are chiefly tropical birds, equal or su-
perior in bulk to the common swan : they have
powerful wings ; fly at a great elevation ; are par-
tially gregarious ; and though some always re-
main in their favorite subsolar regions, most of
them migrate in our hemisphere with the north-
ern spring, occupy Syria, the lakes and rivers of
temperate Asia, and extend westward into Europe
up the Danube into Hungary, and northward to
some rivers of southern Russia. They likewise
frequent salt-water marshes, and the shallows of
harbors, but seldom alight on the open sea, though
they are said to dart down upon fish from a con-
siderable height. C. H. S.
PELONITE (pgl'o-nite), (Heb. V'^l, pel-o-nee' ,
separate).
Phe appellation of Helez and Ahijah, two of
David's mighty men (i Chron. xi 127, 36; xxvii:
10). No place or person is mentioned from
which this adjective could be derived, and it is
possibly a corruption.
PEN (pen), (Heb. '^?, ate, pen).
The instruments with which the characters
were formed in the writing of the ancients varied
with the materials upon which the letters were
to be traced. Upon hard substances, such as
stone or metallic plates, a graver of steel was
used, the same which Job calls "an iron pen" (Job
xix:24).
Upon tablets of wax a metallic pen or stylus
was employed, having one end pointed to trace
the letters, the other broad and flat to erase any
erroneous marks by smoothing the wax.
Upon paper, linen, cotton, skins, and parch-
ments it was in very early times common to paint
the letters with a hair-pencil brought to a fine
point. The reed pen was introduced afterward,
and at first used without being split at the point.
The reed pen is used by the modern Turks, Sy-
rians, Persians, Abyssinians, Arabs, and other
Orientals, as their languages could not be writ-
ten without difficulty with pens made from quills.
\ particular kind of knife is used to split the
reed (Jer. xxxvi:23). (See Writing.)
Figurative. (l) It is possible that an instru-
ment pointed with diamond, such as glaziers now
use, was not unknown, as "the sin of Judah is
written with a pen of iron, and with the point
of a diamond ; it is graven upon the table of their
heart, and upon the horns of your altars" (Jer.
xviiil). (2) Isaiah wrote "with a man's pen,"
in characters easy to be read, not like those writ-
ten by the angel on Belshazzar's wall (Is. viii:i).
(3) The saints' tongues are like "the pen of a
ready writer," when their hearts promptly con-
ceive and their mouths in an agreeable manner
proclaim the praises of God (Ps. xlv:i).
PENCE (pens), (Gr. STjmpi.oi>, day-nar'ee-on,
Matt. xviii:28; xx:2, 9, 13; xxiiiiQ; Mark vi:37;
xii:i5; xiv:;; Luke vii:4i; x:35; xx:24; John vi:;;
xii:5; Rev. vi:6), a Roman silver coin, in the time
of our Savior and the apostles.
PENIEL (pe-ni'el), (Heb. ^^''^, pen-i-ale' , face
of God), Peniel or Penuel, a place beyond the
Jordan, where Jacob wrestled with the angel, and
'called the name of the place Peniel; for I have
seen God face to face, and ray life is preserved '
(Gen. xxxii:3i).
There was in after times a fortified town in this
place, the inhabitants of which exposed them-
selves to the resentment of Gideon, for refusing
succor to his troops when pursuing the Midian-
ites (Judg. viii:8). The site is not known; but
it must have been at some point on or not far
from the north bank of the Jabbok. Men of this
name occur in i Chron. iv:4; viii :2s. (See Pe-
nuel.)
PENINNAH (pe-nin'nah), (Heb. '^^^f, pen-in-
naw, coral), one of the two wives of Elkanah, the
father of Samuel (l Sam. i;2), B. C. about 1125.
PENKNIFE (pen'nif), (Heb. IJ???, tah' ar, Jer.
xxxvi:23), a scrivener's knife for sharpening the
point of the writing-reed.
PENNY (pen'ny). See Drachma; Denarius;
Money; Pence; Weights and Measures.
PENTATEUCH (pen'ta-tuk), (Gr. TrecrdTfuxos,
pen-tat' yoo-khos, fivefold book, in the first five
books). The title given to the five books of Moses.
The Jews usually call the Pentateuch '^'^'^'^, hat-
to-raw' , the law; or, more fully, the law qf/ehovah
(Heb. ^'-p", '"^T^, Ps. xix:8; xxxvii;3i; Is. v:24;
xxx:9).
(1) Authorship. In considering the Penta-
teuch, the first question which arises is — Who
was its Author ? It is of great importance to hear
first what the book itself says on this subject.
The Pentateuch does not present itself as an
anonymous production. It is manifestly intended
and destined to be a public muniment for the
whole people, and it does not veil its origin in a
mysterious obscurity ; on the contrary the book
speaks most clearly on this subject.
(2) Moses Commanded by God. According
to Exod. xvii:i4, Moses was commanded by God
to write the victory over the Amalekites in the
book. This passage shows that the account to be
inserted was intended to form a portion of a
more extensive work, with which the reader is
supposed to be acquainted. It also proves that
Moses, at an early period of his public career, was
filled with the idea of leaving to his people a
written memorial of the divine guidance, and
that he fully understood the close and necessary
connection of an authoritative law with a written
code, or ITII. It is, therefore, by no means
surprising that the observation repeatedly occurs
that Moses wrote down the account of certain
events (Exod. xxiv:4, 7; xxxiv:27, 28; Num.
xxxiii:2). Especially important are the state-
ments in Deut. i :5 ; xxviii:58. In Deut. xxxi 19,
24 (30) the whole work is expressly ascribed to
Moses as the author, including the poem in Deut.
xxxii. It may be made a question whether the
hand of a later writer, who finished the Penta-
teuch, is perceptible from ch. xxxi .'24 (comp.
xxxiii:i, and xxxiv.), or whether the words in
xxxi:24-30 are still the words of Moses. In the
former case we have two witnesses, viz. Moses
himself and the continuator of the Pentateuch;
PENTATEUCH
1303
PENTATEUCH
in the latter case, which seems to us the more
likely, we have the testimony of Moses alone.
(3) Objections. Modern criticism has raised
many objections against these statements of the
Pentateuch relative to its own origin. Many crit-
ics suppose that they can discover in the Penta-
teuch indications that the author intended to
make himself known as a person different from
Moses. The most important objection is the fol-
lowing: that the Pentateuch, speaking of Moses,
always uses the third person, bestows praise upon
him, and uses concerning him expressions of re-
spect. The Pentateuch even exhibits Moses quite
objectively in the blessing recorded in Deut.
xxxiii :4, 5.
To this objection we reply that the use of the
third person proves nothing. The later Hebrew
writers also speak of themselves in the third per-
son. We might adduce similar instances from
the classical authors, as Csesar, Xenophon, and
others. The use of the third person, instead of
the first, prevails also among Oriental authors. In
addition to this we should observe that the na-
ture of the book itself demands the use of the
third person, in reference to Moses, throughout
the Pentateuch. This usage entirely corresponds
with the character both of the history and of the
law contained in the Pentateuch. By the use of
the word I, the objective character of this history
would have been destroyed, and the law of Je-
hovah would have been brought down to the
sphere of human subjectivity and option. If we
consider that the Pentateuch was destined to be
a book of divine revelation, in which God ex-
hibited to his people the exemplification of his
providential guidance, we cannot expect that
Moses, by whom the lx)rd had communicated his
latest revelations, should be spoken of otherwise
than in the third person. In the poetry contained
in Deut. xxxiii :4, Moses speaks in the name of
the people, which he personifies and introduces
as speaking. The expressions in Exod. xi .3, and
Num. xii :3 and 7, belong entirely to the context
of history, and to its faithful and complete rela-
tion; consequently it is by no means vain boasting
that is there expressed, but admiration of the
divine mercy glorified in the people of God. In
considering these passages we must also bear in
mind the far greater number of other passages
which speak of the feebleness and the sins of
Moses.
(4) Author Claims to be Moses. It is cer-
tain that the author of the Pentateuch asserts
himself to be Moses. The question then arises
whether it is possible to consider this assertion
to be true — whether Moses can be admitted to be
the author. In this questioti is contained an-
other, viz. whether the Pentateuch forms such a
continuous whole that it is possible to ascribe it
to one author? This question has been princi-
pally discussed in modern criticism. Various
means have been employed to destroy the unity of
the Pentateuch, and to resolve its constituent
parts into a number of documents and fragments
(comp. here especially the article Genesis). Eich-
horn and his followers assert that Genesis is com-
posed of several ancient documents only. This
assertion is still reconcilable with the Mosaical
origin of the Pentateuch. But Vater and others
allege that the whole Pentateuch is composed of
fragments; from which it necessarily follows that
Moses was not the author of the whole. Modern
critics are by no means unanimous in their opin-
ions. A representative writer on this subject,
Ewald, in his history of the people of Israel
{Geschichte des Volkes Israel, vol. i. Gottingen,
1843), asserts that there were seven different au-
thors concerned in the Pentateuch. On the other
hand, the internal unity of the Pentateuch has
been demonstrated in many able essays. The at-
tempts at division are especially supported by an
appeal to the prevailing use of the different names
of God in various portions of the work; but the
arguments derived from this circumstance have
been found insufficient to prove that the Penta-
teuch was written by different authors (comp.
again the articles Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy.)
(5) Unity of the Work. The inquiry con-
cerning the unity of the Pentateuch is intimately
connected with its historical character. If there
are in the Pentateuch decided contradictions, or
different contradictory statements of one and the
same fact, not only its unity but also its historical
truth would be negatived. On the other hand, if
the work is to be considered as written by Moses,
the whole style and internal veracity of the Pen-
tateuch must correspond with the character of
Moses. Considerate critics, who are not under
the sway of dogmatic prejudices, find that the
passages which are produced in order to prove
that the Pentateuch was written after the time of
Moses by no means support such a conclusion,
and that a more accurate examination of the con-
tents of the separate portions discovers many
vestiges demonstrating that the work originated
in the age of Moses (compare here again the
articles on the separate books).
(6) Quoted by Prophets, Apostles, and Christ.
It is certain that Joshua, who was the contempo-
rary of Moses, believed him to be the author of
"the book of the law" (Josh. 17, 8; viii:3i, 34;
xxiii:6). (See also 2 Chron. xxxiv:i5, 21.)
In the book of Ezra the authorship was ascribed
to Moses (Ezra iii:2; vi:i8; vii:6). Nehemiah
says that Ezra used "the book of the law of
Moses" as a text book in preaching to the people
(Neh. viii :i, 5, 14; xiii :l).
During the captivity Daniel ascribed "the book
of the lam" to Moses (Dan. ix:ii, 13).
These books are also quoted and ascribed to
Moses by Christ and the apostles (Matt. xix:8;
Mark x 13, xii:26; Luke xvi :29, xxiv:44; John
vii:i9. viii:5; Acts xxviii:23; i Cor. ix:9; 2 Cor.
iii:i5)-
(7) Later Testimony. In the remote times
of Jewish and Christian antiquity, we find no
vestiges of doubt as to the genumeness of the Mo-
saical books, even the enemies of the Jews ad-
mitting their authenticity. (See Josephus against
Apion, Whiston's Josephus, p. 581.) The Cinos-
tics, indeed, opposed the Pentateuch, but attacked
it merely on account of their dogmatical opinions
concerning the Law, and Judaism in general ;
consequently they did not impugn the authentic-
ity, but merely the divine authority, of the Law.
Heathen authors alone, as Celsus and Julian, rep-
resented the contents of the Pentateuch as being
mythological, and paralleled them with Pagan
mythology.
(8) First Doubts Belong to the Middle Ages.
In the middle ages, but not earlier, we find some
very concealed critical doubts in the works of
some Jews — as Isaac Ben Jasos, who lived in the
eleventh century, and Aben Ezra. After the ref-
ormation, it was sometimes attempted to demon-
strate the later origin of the Pentateuch. Such
attempts were niade by Spinoza, Richard Simon,
Le Clerc, and Van Dale; but these critics were not
unanimous in their results. .Against them wrote
Heidegger {Exercitationes Biblica, i, 246, sq.).
PENTATEUCH
1304
PENTATEUCHAL OBJECTIONS
Witsius (Miscellanea Sacra, i, 103, sq.) and Carp-
zov (Iniroductio, i, 38, sq.).
In the period of English, French, and German
deism, the Pentateuch was attacked rather by
jests than by arguments. Attacks of a more sci-
entific nature were made about the end of the
eighteenth century. But these were met by such
critics as John David Michaelis and Eichhorn,
who energetically and effectually defended the
genuineness of the Pentateuch. These critics,
however, on account of their own false position,
did as much harm as good to the cause of the
Pentateuch.
A new epoch of criticism commences aboiit
the year 1805. This was produced by Vater's
Commentary and De Wette's Beitrage sur Ein-
leituHg in das alte Testament. Vater embodied
all the arguments which had been adduced against
the authenticity of the Pentateuch, and applied to
the criticism of the sacred books the principles
which Wolf had employed with reference to the
Homeric poems. He divided the Pentateiich into
fragments, to each of which he assigned its own
period, but referred the whole generally to the age
of the Assyrian or Babylonian exile. Since the
days of Vater, a series of the most different hy-
pothesis has been produced by German and other
critics about the age of the Pentateuch, and that
of its constituent sections. No one critic seems
fully to agree with any other; and frequently it
is quite evident that the opinions advanced are
destitute of any sure foundation. (See Moses.)
H. A. C. H.
(9) Literature. The critical doubts respecting
the authenticity of the Pentateuch have produced
in modern times several works in defense of its
genuineness ; such as Kanne's Biblischer Unter-
suchungen. 2 vols., 1820; the observations byjahn,
Rosenmiiller, and Bleek ; Ranke's Untersuch-
ttngen titer den Pentateuch, 2 vols.; Hengsten-
berg's Bcitrage zur Einleitung, vols. 2 and 3 ;
Havernick's Int. to Old Testament; Kerl, Int. to
Old Testament; Drechs\er, Ueber die Einheit und
Authentic der Genesis; Konig's Alt-testamentliche
Studien, 2d number; Sack's Apolegetik, etc.;
Ainsworth, Annotations on the Five Books of
Moses, 1699; Kidder, Commentary on the five
Books of Moses, 1713; Parker, Bibliothcca Bib-
lica, 1720, 1735; Jamieson, Critical and Practical
Exposition of the Pentateuch, 1748; Robertson,
Clavis Pentateuchi, 1770; Graves, Lectures on the
Pentateuch, 1815; Macdonald, Introd. to the
Penta., 1861 ; Bartlett, Character and Authorship
of the Penta. (Bibliotheca Sacra., Apr., July,
1863, July, Oct. 1864) ; Smith, Authorship of the
Penta., 1868; Norton, The Penta., etc., 1870; J.
W. Colenso, The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua
critically examined, 7 parts, London, 1862-1879;
B. W. Bacon, The Genesis of Genesis, Hartford,
1892; Bissell, Genesis Printed in Colors, Hart-
ford; The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure,
an Examination of Recent Theories, New York;
Fripp, The Composition of the Book of Gene-
sis, with English Text and Analyses, London,
1892; Kuenen, An Historico-critical Inquiry
into the Origin of the Hexateucli, translated from
the Dutch by P. H. Wicksteed. London, 1886;
Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, pt. i.
London, 1892, pt. ii. 1898; Wellhausen, Die Comp.
d. Hexateuchs und der Historischen Biicher des
A. T., Berlin, i88g; Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch,
Halle, 1892; Cornill, Einleituns; in das A. T., Frei-
burg in B. 1892; Kautz.sch and Socin, Die Gene-
sis 7nit htissercr Unlersclieidung der Qiiellen-
schriftcn iibersciztl. Freiburg in B. 1891; Kautzsch
and others. Die H. Schrift des A. T., uber-
setzt, Freiburg in B. 1894; Aug. Dillmann, Kurses
Exegetisches Handbuch, Gen. vi, 1892, Ex., Lev.,
1897, Nu. Dt.Jos. i886. A systematic statement of
Dillmann's views is given in the Schlussabhand-
lung at the end of the last [Eng. tr. of Genesis,
T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1897] I Budde, Die Bib-
lische Urgeschichte, Giessen, 1883 ; Holzinger,
Einleitung in den Hex. mit Tabellen uber die
Quellenscheidung, Freiburg in B. 1893. (See
Pentateuchal Objections.)
PENTATEUCHAL OBJECTIONS (pen'ta-
tuk-al ob-jek'shiins).
It has been claimed that all the Pentateuchal
laws could not have been given through Moses
because the same legislator would not give three
different codes to the same people during forty
years and under nearly related conditions.
But in order to make out three codes the ob-
jector is obliged to include those scattered groups
of laws which are chiefly found in Lev. xvi, xxv,
and are found also occasionally in Numbers and
sometimes called "The Law of Holiness," although
this is not a Biblical term.
It may be shown, however, that the teaching
{Torah) of the wilderness forms one progressive
whole, and modern critics are not always qualified
to fix the limits within which its progress was
possible.
(1) Early. Even before the covenant at Ho-
reb, there was an early stratum of "Judgments"
or precedents which Moses was commanded to
"set before" the people in connection with the
code which was given on Sinai or Horeb. These
"judgments" are found in Exod. xxi., and this
older and pre-Mosaic section is incorporated into
the Sinaitic laws proper at or about Exodus xxii:
20. Beginning with the twenty-first chapter of
Exodus we have a very ancient corpus juris which
is written with a few exceptions in the third per-
son, whereas from verse 20 of chap, xxii the style
changes and "thou" or "ye" is the uniform mode
of address. The older method has a spirit of its
own, besides a strong local color.
The "judgments" here given are evidently legal
decisions, and they give us a series of pictures
which illustrate a very primitive mode of life.
Sir Henry Maine says: "Parities of circum-
stances were probably commoner in the simple
mechanism of ancient society than they are now,
and in the succession of similar cases, awards are
likely to follow and resemble each other. Here
we have the germ or rudiment of a custom, a con-
ception posterior to that of eftiiarei (themistes)
or judgments. However strongly we, with our
modern associations, may be inclined to lay down
a priori that the notion of a custom must precede
that of a judicial sentence, and that a judgment
must affirm a custom or punish its breach, it
seems quite certain that the historical order of
ideas is that in which I have placed them . . .
Law has scarcely reached the footing of custom,
it is rather a habit . . . The only authorita-
tive statement of right and wrong is a judicial
sentence after the facts, not one supposing a law
which has been violated, but one which is breathed
for the first time by a higher power into the
judge's mind at the moment of adjudication."
(Ancient Lazv, p. 8.)
This last idea is forcibly illustrated by the use
of the term Elohim for Judges as in Exodus xxi:
6, also xxii :8.
Each of these early judgments represents a
scene in pastoral life, while agriculture is also
shown in the vineyard and harvest field.
Master and slave are alike Hebrews: "If thou
buy a Hebrew servant, six years he shall serve:
I'ENTATEUCHAL OBJECTIONS
1305
PENTATEUCHAL OBJECTIONS
and in the seventh he shall go out free for noth-
ing" (Exod. xxi:2).
These old judgments contain also constant re-
minders of patriarchal life ; for instance in Exod.
xxii:io-l3 \vc read: "If a man deliver unto his
neighbor" any animal "to keep, and it die or be
hurt . . . If it be stolen from him, he shall
make restitution to the owner . . . . If it be
torn in pieces let him bring it for a witness,"
etc.
This reminds one forcibly of Jacob's reproach
to Laban, "That which was torn of beasts I
brought not unto thee ; I bare the loss. Of my
hand didst thou require it ... . stolen by
day or by night" (Gen. xxxi:39).
There is a glimpse of the future cities of refuge
where it is said of the man who accidentally kills
another: "Then will 1 appoint thee a place
whither he shall flee" (E.xod. xxi:i3).
There is nowhere here any retrospect to a state
of earlier bondage, but a little later we find : "Ye
were strangers in the land of Egypt," and then fol-
lows the angel guide and the promise of "the
place which I have prepared."
All of these conditions exactly suit only one
stage of Israel's history. Nearly all of them are
inconsistent with the life in Canaan, and still less
are they appropriate to the conditions which ob-
tained in the wilderness. The one stage to which
they do apply is the life in Goshen, when the peo-
ple were "increasing abundantly and multiplying"
in that region until "the land was filled with
them" (Gen. xlvii:27; Exod. 1:7).
In this section there is a disparity in social con-
ditions as compared with those which we find in
Deuteronomy, but the laws of the earlier section
are largely incorporated into those of Deuter-
onomy. (Compare Exod. xxii :20 and xxiii:i9
with Deut. xiv:2i.) Therefore the difficulty of
codes so widely differing from each other that
forty years cannot cover them ceases to exist.
These early Goshen "judgments" precede Moses
probably a hundred years, and they were appar-
ently included in tlie "Sinaitic covenant laws in
order to preserve the continuity which had been
stamped upon institutions, but the more especial
motive seems to be that pertaining to the judica-
ture."
When Moses appoints the subordinate judges,
he is to "teach them ordinances and laws, and
show them the work they must do." And with
these old laws many of them would be familiar ;
not only this, but until the promulgation from
Sinai these "judgments" were the only legal ma-
terial available for this purpose. Hence their
preservation among the traditions of the race; for
it is possible that some of them may have been
the decisions of Joseph, who would naturally act
as the chief of his own community, and by con-
trolling their customs prevent amalgamation with
an alien race.
(2) The Middle Pentateuchal Laws. The
legislation concerning the sanctuary and its fur-
niture, together with the priestly duties and
privileges, deals witli a limited class, therefore its
arrangement is more orderly than that of much
which follows ; but even here there is more or
less mingling of moral and religious with civil
ordinances. According to Sir Henry Maine 
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